DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 371 316 CS 011 745
AUTHOR Lewandowski, SusanTITLE Integration of Reading and Writing Strategies To
Improve Reading.PUB DATE Apr 94NOTE 92p.: M.A. Project. Saint Xavier University.PUB TYPE Dissertations/Theses Hastens Theses (042)
EDRS PRICE MF01/PC04 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS' Action Research; *Grade 2; Primary Education; Reading
Achievement; *Reading Improvement:. *ReadingInstruction; Reading Research; *Reading WritingRelationship; Thinking Skills; *WritingInstruction
IDENTIFIERS Illinois (Chicago Suburbs)
ABSTRACTA program was developed for improving the reading of
second-grade students in a progressive suburban community in northernIllinois. The problem was originally noted by an increase in the needfor support services and iow standardized test scores. Analysis ofprobable cause data'revealed that students lacked knowledge or therelationship between reading and writing processes. In addition, areview of the district's general curriculum and textbooks revealedthat academic concepts were taught in isolation. Solution strategiessuggested by knowledgeable others, combined with an analysis of theproblem setting, resulted in the selection'of three major categoriesof intervention: development of activities for students to integratethe reading and writing process, communication of student originatedideas in reading and writing, and demonstration of higher-orderthinking through reading and writing. All strategic solutionsoccurred through curricular modifications and changes in teachingpractices. All symptoms of the original problem were reduced asprojected: students' integration of reading and writing improved;students' ability to communicate original ideas increased: andstudents demonstrated higher-order thinking skills through readingand writing. (Contains 38 references and 6 tables of data. A total of25 appendixes presenting data, student writing samples, checklists,and lesson plans are attached.) (Author/RS)
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INTEGRATION OF READING AND
WRITING STRATEGIES TO IMPROVE READING
. by
'Susan Lewandowski
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements forthe degree of Master's of Arts in Education
Saint Xavier University IRIField-Based Master's Program
Action Research Final Report 'TeacherSite: Rockford, IL Rock Cut ElementarySubmitted: April, 1994 Loves Park,IL
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This Action Research was approved by
, SXU Facilitator
, IRI/Skylight Facilitator
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Table of Contents
Page
Abstract iv
Chapter
1. Problem Statement and Context 1
General Statement of Problem 1
Description of Immediate Problem Setting 1
Description of Surrounding Community 3
State and National Context of Problem 5
2. Problem Evidence and Probable Cause 8
Problem Background 8
Problem Evidence 10
Probable Causes of Problem 12
3. The Solution Strategy 16
Review of the Literature 16
Project Outcomes 27
Proposal Solution Components 28
4. Action Plan for Implementing the Solution Strategy 30
Description of Problem Resolution Activities 30
Methods of Assessment 32
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5. Evaluation of Results and Process 34
Implementation History 34
Presentation and Analysis of Project Results 38
Reflections and Conclusions 44
6. Decisions on the Future 46
The Solution Strategy 46
Additional Applications 47
Dissemination of Data and Recommendation 47
References Cited 49
Appendices 52
Appendix A 52Comparison of Holt Reading Level and Iowa Tests ofBasic Skills, March, 1993 Grade Equivalent Scores
Appendix 8 Curriculum Ranking 53
Appendix C Reading Interview 54
Appendix D Lesson Plan 55
Appendix E Prediction 56
Appendix F - Recall 57
Appendix G - Round and Round 58
Appendix H - Freedom 59
Appendix I PMI 60
Appendix J Analogies 61
Appendix K Stem Starter 62
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Appendix L The Apple War 63
Appendix M Quilt Pattern 64
Appendix N - My Feelings 65
Appendix 0 Student Reading and Writing Inventory 66
Appendix P - 67Comparison of Holt Reading Level and Iowa Tests ofBasic Skills, March, 1994 Grade Equivalent Scores
Appendix Q - Reading/Comprehension Student Inventory Checklist 68
Appendix R - Holt Reading Mastery Test 69
Appendix S Comprehension/Literary Skills Test Summary 70
Appendix T Reading Interview 71
Appendix U - Journal Sample 72
Appendix V Cinquain Sample 73
Appendix W Say No To Drugs 74
Appendix X Portfolio Evaluation 77
Appendix Y - Writing Checklist 78
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Abstract
AUTHOR: Susan Lewandowsk: SITE: Rockford I
DATE: April 19, 1994
TITLE: Integration of Reading and Writing Strategies to Improve Reading
ABSTRACT: This report describes a program for improving the reading ofprimary grade students in a progressive suburban community in NorthernIllinois. The problem was originally noted by an increase in the need forsupport services and low standardized test scores.
Analysis of probable cause data revealed that students lacked knowledge of therelationship between reading and writing processes. In addition, a review ofthe district's general curriculum and textbooks revealed academic conceptswere taught in isolation.
Solution strategies suggested by knowledgeable others, combined with ananalysis of the problem setting, resulted in the selection of three majorcategories of intervention: development of activities for students to integratethe reading and writing process, communication of student originated ideas inreading and writing, and demonstration of higher order thinking through readingand writing. All strategic solutions occurred through curricular modificationsand changes in teaching practices.
All symptoms of the original problem were reduced as projected; students'integration of reading and writing improved, students' ability to communicateoriginal ideas increased, and students demonstrated higher order thinking skillsthrough reading and writing,
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Chapter 1
INTEGRATION OF READING AND WRITING
STRATEGIES TO IMPROVE READING
Problem Statement
Second grade students' abilities in reading and written language were
inadequately developed to meet the 2nd grade curriculum requirements, as
evidenced by 20 percent of students' involvement in supplemental reading
programs and by standardized test scores.
Description of Immediate Problem Setting
There were 511 primary level students at an elementary school in a mid-
west suburban community. There were seven elementary public schools
serving the community. The school population consisted of 93.0 percent
Caucasian, two and five-tenths percent Black, two and seven-tenths percent
Mexican-American, one and four-tenths percent Asian, and four-tenths of one
percent Native American children. Data concerning socio-economic status
indicated 20.7 percent were in the low income bracket with 15.46 percent of
the children on the free or reduced lunch program. The student mobility rate
for students entering or leaving the building during the school year was 13.3
percent. A large percent of the attendance area was rental property. A
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substantial portion of the parents had not finished high school. Absenteeism
and tardiness occurred in five and nine-tenths percent of the school population
(School Report Card, 1992).
The academic school team consisted of one principal, two kindergarten
teachers, three first grade teachers, three second grade teachers, three third
grade teachers, 'three fourth grade teachers, two fifth grade teachers, one
fifth/sixth grade teacher, and two sixth grade teachers. Support staff in the
building included one Chapter 1 Reading teacher, one full-time and one half-
time Special Education Resource teacher, one half-time Speech Clinician, one
part-time nurse, one part-time social worker, one part-time psychologist, and
one part-time reading tutor. The office staff consisted of one secretary and one
secretarial aide. Two part-time resource aides assisted in teacher material
preparation. Additional support staff consisted of one half-time physical
education teacher, one half-time art teacher, one half-time music teacher, and
one half-time learning center teacher. The years of teaching experience of the
academic staff ranged from three years to 33 years: Twelve of the teachers
of the academic team had Master's degrees.
This kindergarten through sixth grade elementary school was located in
a residential area. Each classroom was a self-contained room. Time devoted
to the teaching of core subjects for a five day week was as follows:
reading ten hours, math five hours, written languagethree hours. The
district used the Holt Reading Series and McMillan Math Series from
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kindergarten through sixth grade. Students were grouped according to.reading
ability. The kindergarten, first, and second grade teachers used a whole
language approach to enhance student's reading and writing skills. The
Houghton Mifflin English series was used in grades three through sixth. The
primary grade classrooms also used a Modern Curriculum Press phonics book.
Surrounding Community
The school district served a progressive suburban community of 33,000
residents. The district was located adjacent to a metropolitan area. Two cities,
one with a population of 15,000 and another with a population of 18,000,
made up the district's 20 square miles.
The median household income was 531,147 and S33,791 for the two
cities. Seven and eight-tenths percent were retired. The unemployment rate
was four and five-tenths percent. Females made up 13 percent of heads of
household. The average age was between 30 and 44. The work force
consisted of 41.2 percent blue collar workers, 40.2 percent grey collar
workers, and 18.5 percent white collar workers.
The community was experiencing gradual residential and commercial
growth. This was primarily due to the development of open land throughout
the northern part of the school district. As the community was growing, the
school population was also gradually increasing. The district's small minority
population, five and seven-tenths percent, was integrated through the district's
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curriculum, which had been carefully.developed to provide students with an
understanding of ethnic groups, their cultures and the important contributions
of all groups of Americans.
The district's flat topography and concentrated population allowed the
district to provide education in neighborhood schools. Students who lived more
than one and one-half miles from school were elicible for transportation on
district owned buses. The community was vocationally oriented. Fifteen
percent of graduated seniors attended a local junior college. Eight percent went
on to a four year university.
The student population of the district was 5,937. The ages of the
students ranged from three to 21. Special education services were available
to mentally impairea, hearing impaired, physically impaired, speech and
language impaired and learning disabled. Due to the district's growing
population, the school board recommended a redistricting of attendance
boundaries and reopening buildings.
The central office administration consisted of a superintendent, an
assistant superintendent, a business manager, a director of human resources
and labor relations, and a director of special education. An elected school
board met twice monthly. Its responsibilities were to deal with situations
pertaining to budget, curriculum, staffing, facilities, and discipline.
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State and National Context of Problem
Nationally, longitudinal studies (Pinnell, 1989) showed that children who
made poor beginnings in reading and writing tended to stay behind year after
year, not changing their rank in the school group. In spite of a considerable
investment of money, time and commitment to compensatory education, mahy
children remained at risk of failure, especially in reading, an area where large
numbers of low-achieving children received extra help year after year.
Although many questions and issues surrounded efforts to help at-risk
children, most educators, as well as the general public, were acutely aware that
the number of people at risk was increasing. According to Cynthia Smith
(1 993), executive director of the Rockford Area Literacy Council, fifty percent
of adults nationwide were illiterate. The state of Illinois fell within the 34th
percentile in state literacy rating (Secretary of State Literacy Office, 1992).
Functionally illiterate adults were unable to fill out an application, read a
medicine bottle or newspaper, locate a telephone number in a directory, use a
bus schedule, or do quality comparison shopping. When confronted with
printed material such people could not function effectively (Rockford Register
Star, 19931. There was general agreement that efforts to help children become
literate was of national concern.
Teachers may have contributed to poor reading performance by providing
inadequate instructions. It had been found that the type of instruction delivered
to poor readers differed from the instruction given to good readers. Allington
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suggested that increased reading instructional time produced higher
achievement levels. Observations within the regular classroom setting
indicated poor readers were more off-task and less engaged in reading than
good readers (Allington, 1983).
Studies have shown that poor readers spent less time reading silently
than good readers (Allington, 1983). The instructional activities provided to
poor readers tended to rely on decoding strategies rather than actively engaging
the student in the text. Poor readers over-attended to visual information and
sounded out every word (Lyons, 1989). This approach to reading made it more
difficult for poor readers to enjoy reading and they found the reading process
tedious and boring.
Observations of classroom instruction found higher level comprehension
questions were directed to students with better reading skills. Prior theories
had suggested students learned to read through a sequential process. New
evidence suggested more advanced reading skills, which relied on higher or hr
thinking, should be part of the instructional program for poor readers (Means
and Knapp, 1991).
The problem with the lack of reading progress was evidenced by an
increased number of students and adults with poor reading performance and an
increase in the number of programs that had been developed to meet these
needs. The type of instructional practices used to assist poor readers was also
in question. According to a statewide study (Illinois Reading Recovery Project,
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1 991), a depressingly large percentage of the children who did not learn to read
by the end of the first grade went on to fail in later grades. They suffered from
poor self-esteem. They were candidates for retention and special education.
They were likely to become apathetic, troublemakers, or dropouts. Most
existing remedies for failing readers were expensive and, on the whole, not very
effective.
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Chapter 2
PROBLEM EVIDENCE AND PROBABLE CAUSE
Problem Background
As pointed out in Chapter 1, primary age students' reading abilities were
inadequately developed to meet the curriculum requirements on a district level.
Academic concerns were evidenced by the implementation of a variety of
supplemental reading programs. The district implethented the Rising Stars
program for preschoo children at risk of academic failure. The school age
programs included Chapter 1 services for kindergarten and first grade, Reading
Recovery services at the first grade level, and certified and non-certified tutorial
services at the elementary level.
The goal of the Rising Stars program was to assist developmentally
disadvantaged students. The program included both children and their parents
in a wide variety of activities, field trips, and technology. The staff included a
full time early childhood teacher, a one-half time social worker, and a classroom
paraprofessional. Identified children throughout the district were provided
transportation to one elementary school. The program was fully implemented
during the second semester of the 1992-93 school year.
Chapter 1 reading services had been provided to students in grades two
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through eight until a pilot program for services to first grade students was
implemented during the 1989-90 school year. Chapter 1 services were
supplied district wide to first grade during the 1990-91 school year. During the
second semester of the 1992-93 school year, services were expanded to
include kindergarten. In order for the district to include kindergarten and first
grade students additional teachers were not needed because services to upper
grades were reduced. The focus of the program was changed to intervention
in the early primary grades.
During the 1992-93 school year Reading, Recovery was implemented as
a pilot program in one elementary building. Reading Recovery is a program to
reduce the number of students exhibiting difficulties with reading and writing.
The benefits of Reading Recovery were not only the improvement of reading
skills in students who showed early signs of difficulty but also showed
improvement in students' writing skills (Dotard 1991). Funded by a state grant
during the 1993-94 school year, the Reading Recovery program employed eight
half time reading teachers, all of whom had extensive in-service training before
implementing the program. A Reading Recovery coordinator assisted in the
implementation of the program.
Tutorial programs were provided on two levels. On one level, certified
teachers worked collaboratively with the classroom teacher to serve students
who displayed delays in reading. Each group of five or fewer students met
daily with the reading tutor for 30 minutes. On the second level, high school
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tutors were provided to help within the regular classroom setting. The tutors
were part of a group of students enrolled in a child development class.
Problem Evidence
The school district increased its efforts and funding to meet the needs
of reading-delayed students in the primary grades. This effort was evidenced
by an increase in the number of support services to primary students who had
reading delays. These needs were addressed through referrals based on
teacher evaluations, test scores, and reading levels of students.
The Iowa Tests of Basic Skills were administered to all second grade
students each school year. Particular attention was given to grade equivalence
in order for at-risk students to be identified. Parents were to be notified and
areas of remediation selected for the following school year.
TABLE 1
Percent of Second Grade StudentsIn Grade Equivalent Rangeslows Tests of Basic Skills
March, 1993
Grade Equiv. Range Percent of Students
K.2 K 9 0%1.0- 1.7 19%1.8 - 2.5 33%2.6 -3.3 30%3.4 - 4.1 11%4.2 4.9 0%5.0 5.7 7%5.8 6.5 0%
Table 1 presented data on the percent of second grade students whose
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grade equivalent scores fell within the ranges listed. This table was chosen to
represent the deficiencies in student reading as shown by the grade equivalent
scores in their reading composite section of the Iowa Tests of Basic Skills
(Appendix A:52). Data from the table would indicate that 52 percent of the
students scored below the 2.6 grade equivalency level for the month of the
school year the test was given. Forty-eight percent of the students scored at
grade level or above. Using the grade equivalent results as revealed in this
table, 19 percent of the students were found to be at risk and in critical need
of remediation in the area of reading.
Second graders' reading levels were determined by previous year student
placement, Iowa Tests of Basic Skills reading grade equivalent levels, and
teacher observation of reading competency. Every effort was made to move
students to a higher level when they showed readiness. The reading
proficiency level was indicated in Table 2.
TABLE 2
Grads Level Equivalence andPercent of Second Grade Students
at Each Reading LevelMay, 1993
Holt Reading Level Grade Equiv. Percent of Students
7 1.5 - 1.6 0%8 1.7- 1.9 0%9 2.0 - 2.4 48%
10 2.5 - 2.9 52%11 3.0 3.4 0%
The end of the year Individual Cumulative Reading Record noted that all
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second grade students had completed second grade level reading textbooks.
Forty-eight percent of the student population had finished a first semester
second grade book. Fifty-two percent completed a second semester level book
and were ready to begin a third grade reading book. Table 2 reading levels
indicated that almost half the students were at least four months or more
behind in reading level at the end of second grade.
Probable Causes of Problem
Data to indicate probable cause were gathered from two sources,
interviews and analysis of curriculum. The purpose of the interview was to
determine students' attitudes and perceptions about reading and writing.
Hillerich (1990) reported a significant relationship between reading success and
early knowledge of the purpose of reading. An evaluation of the district's
general curriculum and textbooks was completed to evaluate the integration of
reading and writing instruction at the primary level (Appendix 8:53).
An analysis of the reading interview designated by Hillerich (1990)
indicated the majority of students surveyed enjoyed reading (Appendix C:54).
They also knew a good reader who was, in most cases, a member of their
family. A majority of the students could not internalize when they were doing
good reading, but needed external reinforcement. When they came to a word
they didn't know, they usually would ask rather than rely on reading strategies.
The majority of students liked to write stories and also knew a person who
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could write. Sixty-one percent could pick a topic for a good story. Most had
books at home and could name a favorite. The majority of students were read
to at home by a family member, although only one-half of them had access to
a library card.
Probable cause data from the literature indicated a need to integrate the
reading and writing processes throughout the curriculum and to further create
purposeful reading and writing to demonStrate higher order thinking skills. If
reading and writing were taught together, the integration of those skills would
show improvement in both areas. Combining the best reading and writing
strategies would obtain the goal of fostering critical understanding and thinking
activities in the curriculum. Purposeful reading and writing activities included
those that use students' prior knowledge, personal involvement through making
choices, and assessing and using their feelings about topics (Shanahan 1990).
A review of the school district's MacMillan/McGraw/Hill (1991)
Mathematics in Action textbook, revealed some interesting strategies of reading
and writing within the math series. Manipulatives in the back of the pupils'
edition stimulated hands-on activities, working together, sharing ideas, and
cooperative learning opportunities. Critical thinking skills involving problem
solving and reasoning skills were available in various forms within each lesson,
such as "mental math" at the end of each exercise.
There were multiple curriculum connections which linked math with
science, art, music, social science, and language arts. For example, story tapes
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,
for listening to music and literature were introductions for each new unit.
There were opportunities for students to write about sequential math steps and
apply their math skills to everyday situations through written language.
The Houghton Mifflin English hardbound edition lev-.1 2 11990) stressed
"process writing" through direct instruction and modeling. The students'
writing was applied to different areas of the curriculum. A language skill was
applied to each writing activity. This was a new English book for the primary
2nd grade during the 1993-94 school year. It appeared there were multiple
writing opportunities; however, the grammar-writing connections were not
stressed enough in the beginning units. It appeared that units wouldn't be able
to be followed in sequence. Teacher evaluation determined the best sequential
order to proceed through the textbook. As the school year proceeded, this
textbook proved to be an added resource for encouraging student expression
in written form.
A review of levels 9 and 10 of the Holt, Rinehart and Winston (1986)
reading textbook revealed a three step implementation plan for each chapter
story: preparing to read, reading and comprehension, and developing and
applying skills. Questions for teacher guided reading consisted of the inferential
thinking and literal understanding type. Critical thinking skills were revealed in
making judgments through context and picture clues. Critical thinking micro-
skills were lacking in the areas of attributing, comparing/contrasting,
classifying, sequencing, prioritizing, inferring, solving for analogies, or
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inventing. There were very limited follow-up writing activities suggested. If
story writing was recommended as an enrichment activity, no elements of
brainstorming in the form of webbing or Venn diagrams, to name two, were
suggested as a pre-writing activity. Upon a search of writing activities in the
textbook index, the cross reference was found to be composition.
Compositional writing referred to cartoons, fiction, get-well letters, newspaper
articles, non-fiction color words and limited oral activities. In summary, higher
order thinking skills, student originated writing opportunities, and integration of
reading and writing skills were neglected in this reading curriculum.
A review of the primary second grade Holt, Rinehart and Winston Social
Studies (1986) and Charles E. Merrill Science (1985) textbooks revealed
worksheets and test dittos of the multiple choice, fill-in-the-blank type. There
was no opportunity for children to demonstrate higher order thinking skills in
either content area. in both texts, enrichment and extension activities involved
listing, labeling, drawing, and charting. Cognitive tasks were concentrated in
the gathering information stage. The tasks directed students to name, locate,
and describe. Higher order questioning techniques were left to the discretion
and creativity of the teacher.
Curriculum analysis indicated newer textbooks such as Math and English,
addressed a more integrated curriculum with more higher order thinking skills.
The reading series, science and social studies textbooks did not address these
issues thoroughly.
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Chapter 4/
THE SOLUTION STRATEGY
Review of the Literature
Analysis of probable cause data suggested poor reading performance at
the second grade level was attributed to students' attitudes and perceptions of
the reading process, the curriculum's lack of integration of the reading and
writing processes, and the students' lack of development of higher order
thinking skills. The literature search for solution strategies found that reading
deficits were most easily remediated in the early grades. The literature also
indicated that pull-out programs were ineffective in bringing students up to
adequate levels of performance. Educators showed an increased interest in
developing reading and writing strategies which could be implemented within
the regular classroom setting.
Research regarding the benefits of full-day versus half-day kindergarten
programs in teaching basic skills and reducing grade retentions and special
education referrals was inconclusive. It was observed that full-day kindergarten
programs were designed to prevent or remediate academic delays in
disadvantaged children IPeskin, 1987) and to meet the needs of working
women (Selzer, 19E121. The full-day programs implemented a more structured
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academic curriculum with an increased use of support staff. Some research
shoWed that short term gains were achieved in full-day kindergarten programs
for educationally disadvantaged children when the extended time in the
classroom was not just "babysitting" time (Puleo, 1988; Karweit, 1992).
There was conflicting evidence regarding the number of special education
referrals of children completing a full-day kindergarten program. Three studies
of the number of special education referrals were cited. Evans and Marken
found a higher number of referrals, the Madison Metropolitan report found no
difference in the number of referrals, and Niermln and Gastright found fewer
referrals (Puleo, 1988). Nieman and Gastright found fewer referrals of children
who had attended a full year of preschool prior to kindergarten.
Less conflicting evidence existed regarding retention of children who
completed a full-day versus a half-day kindergarten program. According to
Nieman and Gastright, for those students who completed full-day kindergarten
it was determined that the number of students retained at the end of third
grade was ten percent lower than for those who completed half-day programs
(Puleo, 1988). A ten percent reduction in the number of retentions could
greatly affect a school district's financial situation.
Researchers not only looked at the issue of whether a full-day
kindergarten experience promoted success in the later grades but also how
children came to kindergarten at different levels of readiness for reading.
Attention focused on the use of phonics or whole language to teach reading at
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the kindergarten level. Stahl and Miller (cited in Karweit, 1992) reviewed
studies that compared whole language/language experience which integrated
the use of written language to the use of basals for the teaching of reading.
Seventeen studies favored the use of a whole language/language experience
approach. Fourteen studies found no difference in the approach used to teach
reading, and two studies favored the use of basals. This suggested that the
use of a reading approach that integrated reading and writing could be found
effective.
In America the experimentation with ungraded schools in the 1960's was
unsuccessful. In the reform movement of the 1960's, ungraded was hampered
by the "back to basics" movement of the 1970's. Emphasis on testing and
"push downward" of formal academics to earlier ages discouraged the
ungraded approach (Cohen, 1990).
There is promise in multi-age grouping now because "Egertson argues,
it brings together practices at the forefront of current reform thinking, including
team teaching, cooperative learning, literature-based reading, and reductions in
"pull-out" programs for remedial and special education students." (Cohen,
1990, p. 23).
A lack of effective curriculum materials for the ungraded class has foiled
efforts for regrouping children. "Good lad and Anderson (The Non-Graded
Elementary School) have argued, for example, that texts keyed to grade levels
nurture conformity and tempt teachers to cover material whether or not it is
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appropriate to the wide range of individual differences among pupils." (Cohen,
1990, p. 22). "Harriet Egertson, administrator of the Nebraska Department of
Education, Office of Child Development, adds some materials for whole-
language reading, manipulative math, and technology-based writing are suitable
for a mixed-age approach." (Cohen, 1990, p. 22).
The key to an ungraded primary was to let pupils develop at their own
pace. Individual grade levels were too restrictive. A flexible grouping
encompassed a two to four year span allowing movement between levels.
Today's New Zealand mode, riermits children to enter school any time during
the school year on their fifth birthday. The children move through the first year
at their own pace; thereby curbing ability tracking, competition, overly
academic instruction, and grade retention (Connell, 1987).
"Donna Reid Connell, Ed.D., ungraded primary consultant, notes by third
grade most classroom rosters will reveal a spread of three years, not twelve
months. Along the way some children have been retained, and some
accelerated." (Connell, 1987, p. 37). It is hard to teach a span of this range.
Groupings in ungraded K, 1, 2 spans are no different, except the differences are
considered natural and normal. There are no "dumb groups" and an
atmosphere of cooperation prevails. A developmental curriculum was designed
around the specific needs of the individually enrolled students. (Connell,
1987).
Many schools experimented with "dropping down" curriculum to make
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learning more palatable in the early grades. The love of learning was often
hampered in kindergarten, first and second grades due to this overly academic
instruction before children are developmentally ready for it. For example, a
comparison study (Stanford Achievement Test Primary 1 Grade Equivalents.
1964, 1973, 1982) revealed that students didn't do as well on SAT tests when
the content expected at a first grade level in reading was dropped into
kindergarten (Connell, 1987).
In summary, "The National Association for the Education of Young
Children has stopped short of promoting ungraded units, for example, depicting
them as merely 'one strategy to implement developmentally appropriate primary
grades curricula.'" Susan Bredekamp, director of professional development for
NAAEYC states, "You can still achieve an individualized curriculum in graded
classes if there is good communication between teachers...and you don't have
rigid expectations or promotions standards." (Cohen, 1990, p. 22). Research
on the non-graded primary indicated the importance of a developmental
curriculum sensitive to the students' needs. Integration of reading and writing
across the curriculum would suggest a viable alternative to the non-graded
concept.
Transitional programs have existed in America for the past fifty years.
"The purpose of such programs is to protect "unready" students from entering
school too soon (Gesell Institute of Human Development, 1987:Grant 1986).
Transition (junior first grade) extra-year programs were seen as a "growth year"
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for immature, at-risk or delayed children to help develop their readiness skills
for successful school achievement when they are a year older." (Ferguson,
1991, p. 139). Scott and Ames, as cited by Ferguson (1991) stated "repeating
should be the solution for children who are too immature for the work of a
grade in question and thus need to be older to succeed..." (p. 139).
"A review of the controlled studies investigating extra-year transition
school readiness programs (SRP) and their academic outcomes (Banerji at al.,
1990) does not find a single controlled study reporting a superior academic
performance past the first grade for the SRP-placed, year-older retained
students over those eligible, equally unready, and often recommended for SRP
placement but not placed." (Ferguson, 1991, p. 139).
"Assessments used to measure the achievement of young children have
changed. The first-grade-level context expected in the 1964 edition of the
Stanford Achievement Test was dropped to the kindergarten level in the 1973
edition and even lower in the 1982 edition. As a result, more and more
children are failing to master the content of kindergarten and are being
identified as unready for the first grade; these children are often either retained
in kindergarten or placed in a pre-first transition class." (May and Kindert,
1993, p. 161).
School districts gave different reasons for determining transitional
placement; one common information source was teacher recommendation.
Surveys of educators indicate they view retention or extra-year programs as a
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c Ur
helpful intervention, with virtually no ill effects. Contrary to most literature
research, teachers approached decisions with an inaccurate knowledge base.
In addition, different teachers had different standards for arriving at placement
decisions. Often different tests and combinations of standardized tests were
administered to students. This raised the question of the validity and reliability
of measurement used (May and Kindert, 19931.
The feedback from the community used in this research on the success
of transitional one and transitional two classes at an elementary magnet school
have been ninety-nine percent positive. In the three years of the program, only
one percent or one parent was not sure the program had benefitted the child
substantially. Children were placed in the program based on the judgment of
their classroom teacher and parental approval. One of the major provisions of
the program was that the students in the transitional classes were returned to
regular classes for instruction if skill levels were appropriate. In several cases,
teachers believed students could move to a regular class mid year and complete
the year with their age mates. In each case, the parent wanted their child left
in the transitional program rather than making a placement change mid year
(Laughlin, T.K., telephone interview, 7 Sept. 19931.
The debate over the effectiveness of the ransitional classroom lingers
on. "Advocates for and against transition grades do agree on a final major
point: the debate over the efficacy of transition grades misdirects energies that
can better be used to advocate for fundamental curriculum change."
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(Bredekamp, 1990, p. 21).
Evidence showed that programs which pulled students out of the regular
education setting and provided additional reading services had little effect on
students' long-term remediation (Slaven, Karweit, Wasik, 1993). The Chapter
1 remediation program serviced students in low income areas. The services
provided students of similar reading delays with small group reading instruction.
Research indicated that Chapter 1 services had little effect past the third grade
level (Slavin, et al.). Analysis of the failings of the Chapter 1 program
suggested that remedial instruction set low expectations for the students and
depended on a slow, plodding instructional pace for basic sequential skill
instructions. These shortcomings were evidenced by an annual gain in reading
of one/twenty-first of a standard deviation per year (LeTendre, 1991). This
small reading gain made it difficult to change the long term reading level of the
students.
Chapter 1 recognized its shortcomings and revised its teaching strategies
and program goals. Chapter 1 was a pull-out program where students were
removed from the regular classroom setting and given special reading
instruction. The program's goal was to coordinate its efforts with the regular
classroom teacher and use instructional strategies and materials which
complemented the regular program. The coordination of teaching strategies
was done to aid in the transfer of skills from the pull-out program to the
classroom.
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Chapter 1 looked beyond basic skills and set higher expectations for
students. The Hawkins-Stafford School :.11provement Amendment of 1988
made dramatic changes in Chapter 1 services (LeTendre, 1991). The
amendment provided opportunities for flexibility and creativity and stressed
higher-order thinking skills. The amendment called for an accountability of
student performance by the school and the parents.
The special education resource program was another pull-out program
which demonstrated little overall success in remediating students with mild
reading delays. A large percentage of students with learning disabilities
remained in special education programming throughout their school career
(Halgran and Clarizio, 1993). Studies indicated students within the resource
room were actively engaged in learning most of the time, but when the
students went back to the regular classroom they became passive learners
(Reid, Baker, Lasell, and Eastin, 1993).
Special education resource programs separated the students from the
mainstream and substituted a more repetitive, task-oriented curriculum.. This
curriculum served to intensify the disparity between real life and textbook-
based reality (Reid, et al., 1993). Special education failed to give meaningful
alternatives to students who, without support, could not succeed within the
regular classroom.
Studies showed an interrelationship between academic skills and social
skills. Social interaction determined how thought, interaction, communication,
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and transmissions in what was known (Hoover and Collier, 1992). Within
group settings, special education students were able to make connections
easier between reading and the real world, through social interaction. Resource
programs began to see socialization as an important element to learning
(Hoover and Collier, 1992).
Special education resource classrooms revised the techniques of student
instruction to use a more integrated curriculum. This was done through
instruction that revolved around reading comprehension and writing.
Integration of the curriculum served as a means of connecting students to the
social and physical world through school experiences. It created opportunities
for students to develop decision-making skills and to become aware of how
they viewed the world. When learning was relevant and personal, it led to
internal motivation to learn (Reid, et al., 1993; Keefe and Keefe, 1993).
The focus of pull-out programs radically changed. Fvidence was
presented that suggested learning was based on an holistic approach, risk
taking, and prior knowledge, rather than discrete skills. Both Chapter 1 and
special education resource focused efforts on developing curriculum interrelated
on a student's personal and social experiences. Reading and writing
curriculums appeared to be an integral part of this change.
Reading Recovery was an early intervention program for first grade
students experiencing difficulties learning to read. The program was directed
at the bottom 20 percent of first graders. It is a onetime intervention that
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came at the earliest stage of the child's schooling. The goal of Reading
Recovery was to accelerate students and to help them develop into
independent readers so they could read with the average students in their class
without further remediation.
Reading Recovery required one-to-one individualized instruction, but only
for an average of 12 to 16 weeks. It was a supplemental pull-out intervention
that did not replace the regular classroom reading and writing instruction but
worked to enhance the reading program. Each Reading Recovery lesson
included reading many "little" books and composing and writing a message or
brief story. During these holistic reading and writing tasks, teachers used
special techniques to help children become effective readers and writers. The
intent of Reading Recovery was to make a student aware that reading and
writing are interconnected (Clay, 1985).
The effective intervention of Reading Recovery required an initial
investment of materials and extensive teacher training. It was a long term cost
benefit intervention. The savings due to the implementation of Reading
Recovery were achieved through the reductions in retentions, Chapter 1
services, and special education placements. Reading Recovery offered a short-
term intensive program that was educationally sound and a cost effective
alternative to more commonly used approaches.
In 1984, Reading Recovery was introduced to the United States by Dr.
Marie Clay. The Ohio State University, the Ohio Department of Education, and
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the Columbus Public Schools joined forces to implement Reading Recovery in
Ohio. Results from this pilot study were very positive (Huck and Pinned,
1985). A longitudinal study conducted in the Columbus Public Schools found
that a high proportion of children serviced by Reading Recovery demonstrated
sustained progress through the third grade without further intervention (Pinnell,
De Ford, and Lyons, 1988). The MacArthur Foundation awarded the Reading
Recovery faculty at Ohio State University a grant to compare four other reading
interventions, each. of which contained some elements similar to those in
Reading Recovery. This study, known as the Early Literacy Research Project,
found that Reading Recovery, with the emphasis on integrating reading and
writing, was significantly more effective than the other approaches (Pinnell, et
at, 1988).
Project Outcomes
The terminal objective of this problem intervention was related to the
discrepancy data presented in Chapter 2. The Iowa Tests of Basic Scores
indicated that 52 percent of the students scored below the 2.6 grade
expectancy level, while 19 percent of this group indicated a critical need of
remediation in the area of reading. Probable cause data from the literature
indicated a need to integrate the reading and writing processes throughout the
curriculum and to further create purposeful reading and writing to demonstrate
higher order thinking skills. Therefore:
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As a result of curricular modifications and changes in teachingpractices during the first semester of the 1993-94 school year,primary students will develop a meaningful purpose for readingand writing as measured by student interviews; and the numberof students reading below grade level will decrease as measuredby teacher evaluation of students' performance.
In order to accomplish the terminal objectives, the following intermediate
objectives defined the major strategic procedures proposed for problem
resolution.
1) As a result of curricular modifications and changes inteaching practices, the teacher will develop activities forstudents to integrate the reading and writing processes.
2) As a result of curricular modifications and changes inteaching practices, the students will apply reading andwriting to communicate their own ideas.
3) As a result of curricular modifications and changes inteaching practices, the students will use reading andwriting to demonstrate higher order thinking skills.
Proposal Solution Components
The major elements used to reduce the reading discrepancy between
students' achievement and grade level expectancy involved incorporating
writing within the reading program. The first element involved providing
students with activities which integrated the reading with the writing process.
The second element involved writing activities which provided students the
opportunity to communicate their own ideas from what they read. The final
element involved activities which required students to use higher order thinking
to demonstrate how they could incorporate new information they read into
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existing schoma. These elements related to the terminal objective in that they
attempted to change the perceptions of reading from isolated word units to
meaningful information. Discrepancy data indicated a large percentage of
students were behind the reading expectations of the classroom. Probable
cause data indicated students' inaccurate perceptions of the reading and
writing process and inappropriate curriculum design were factors which
contributed to the delays in reading.
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Chapter 4
ACTION PLAN FOR IMPLEMENTING THE SOLUTION STRATEGY
Description of Problem Resolution Activities
The action plan was designed to address three major solution
components: integration of the reading and writing processes throughout the
curriculum, increased communication of student ideas in oral and written form
about what they have read, and improved student usage of higher order
thinking skills through reading and writing activities.
The curriculum development phase of the plan began in the Fall of 1993
with bi-weekly meetings of four primary grade teachers in an elementary
building. Using needs assessment data collected at the end of the previous
school year, the group will design lesson plans which integrate reading and
writing strategies for reading improvement.
The implementation plan began with an after school team meeting in
September and continuing one afternoon bi- weekly throughout the year, The
purpose of these meetings was to organize and s -tare effective lesson models
that were implemented in the classroom and assess reading improvement.
The improvements sought in the implementation plan included: increased
frequency of student writing and reading, improved student attitudes about
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writing and reading, and established gains in reading levels. The
implementation plan is presented below in outline form, allowing for the
overlapping of strategies.
1. Develop activities for students to integrate the reading and writingprocesses through the curriculum.
A. Who: A committee of four teachers will design curricularmodifications and changes in teaching practices.
B. What: They will create lessons integrating reading and writingprocesses throughout the curriculum.
C. When: This will occur during the first semester of the 1993school year.
D. Where: Committees will meet at an elementary building alterschool for an hour bi-weekly.
E. How: They will use resource materials collected over the pastyear, as well as individual staff expertise.
F. Why: The lessons will be used as a resource for the committeemembers during the first semester, thus insuring integration of thereading and writing curriculum.
2. Increase students' ability to communicate ideas in reading and writing.
A. Who/What: The teacher will implement lessons to encouragestudents to express ideas in the written form and read the finishedproduct to an audience.
B. When: These selected lessons will be given throughout theinstructional day during the first semester of the 1993 schoolyear.
C. Where: The setting will be a primary elementary schoolclassroom.
D. How: Decisions will be reached at committee meetings.
E. Why: Increasing students' use of communication skills.
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,
3. Improve students' usage of higher order thinking skills through readingand writing activities.
A. Who/What: The teacher will implement lessons to encouragestudent demonstration of higher order thinking skills.
1) Sequencing2) Compare-Contrast3) Prediction4) Medicognition
B. When/Where: The selected lessons will be given throughout theinstructional day in a primary elementary classroom during the firstsemester of the 1993-94 school 'rear.
C. How: Through the use of higher order thinking resource materials.
D. Why: Research indicates the development of higher order thinkingskills is related to improvement in reading and writing (Costa,1991).
Methods of Assessment
A variety of data collection methods will be used in order to assess the
effects of the intervention. Reading inventory tests will be administered at the
end of each completed reading unit. Comparisons of scores in the
Comprehension/Literacy skills section of the tests will be recorded.
Formal classroom observations will assess student's ability to engage in
higher order thinking skills. Participation levels will be observed in cooperative
group settings. Records will be kept in the form of checklists on each student.
A collection of each student's work will be kept in a portfolio. The
portfolio will include: personal portfolio checklists, record of books read, goals
set by students, list of original writing samples, and a record of student/teacher
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conferences. Students will write in daily response journals and their growth in
writing skills noted. A collection of each student's written stories will be
accumulated in a folder. Process writing strategies will be utilized in the form
of pre-writing, drafting/revising and editing, and post-writing in the form of
publication and reader response. A teacher checklist will record each child's
iting performance and demonstration of higher order thinking skills.
The March, 1994 Iowa Tests of Basic Skills scores will be recorded and
compared with those of the previous year for growth in reading. An end of the
semester student interview will be given to assess how students' opinions of
reading have changed from the previous Fall.
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Chapter 5
EVALUATION OF RESULTS AND PROCESS
Implementation History
The terminal objective addressed the inadequate development of reading
and writing skills in the second grade curriculum. Test scores and observations
indicated 20 percent of the students were in critical need of remediation.
Therefore, the terminal objective stated:
As a result of curricular modifications and changes in teachingpractices during the first semester of the 1993-1994 school year,primary students will develop a meaningful purpose for readingand writing as measured by student interviews; and the numberof students reading below grade level will decrease as measuredby teacher evaluation of students' performance.
The development of a curricular component to address the delays in
reading in a second grade elementary classroom began with a review of the
discrepancy data that indicated a large percentage of students were below the
reading expectations established for that grade. Probable cause data indicated
students' inaccurate perceptions of the reading and writing processes and
inappropriate curriculum design were factors that contributed to the delays in
reading. This activity took place at the beginning of the 1992-1993 school
year.
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The program had three components that attempted to change the
perceptions of reading from isolated word units to meaningful information. The
first element involved providing students with activities which integrated the
reading and the writing processes. The second element involved writing
activities which provided students the opportunity to communicate their own
ideas from what they read.
The final element involved activities which required students to use
higher order thinking to demonstrate how they could incorporate new
information they read into existing schema.
The three curricular components are, by design, unable to be explained
separately. They frequently overlap and are non-existent without the support
of the other. Therefore, this report will not propose to isolate each component,
but rather exemplify a unity of the three components in the represented lesson
plans.
Higher order thinking occurred in learning situations where students
communicated their own ideas (Appendix D:55). There were evidences of
speculation, predictions and imagination when students expressed their own
thoughts and asked "what if" questions about a particular topic or theme.
Teacher observation supported the use of prediction and recall with basal
stories. Students shared story predictions in cooperative groups prior to reading
(Appendix E:56). Metacognitive processing of what could happen in the future
occurred in the form of collaborative thinking. After basal reading, recall papers
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sequenced story events which either supported or disproved students' initial
predictions (Appendix F:57).
A review of lesson plans revealed the utilization of the multiple
intelligences in conjunction with the higher order thinking skills. TWo lessons
exemplify this integration. In the Music of Mozart Lesson the students'
musical/rhythmic intelligence was supported by the use of verbal/linguistic,
visual/spatial , interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligences. Students wrote their
own words to the "round" song and shared their creativity in cooperative
groups (Appendix G:58).
A second lesson, which integrated the intelligences of verbal/linguistic,
visual /spatial, and intrapersonal was the Freedom Bell (Appendix H:59).
Students expanded on "I'm proud to be an American because...." Students
were able to evaluate and make personal judgments on this topic in written
form. Metacognitive thinking and evaluating occurred with individual processing
of this activity with student PMIs (Appendix 1:60).
Lessons to include higher order thinking also stressed students' ability
to compare-contrast. A representative lesson which utilized this skill was the
Frog and Toad Lesson. Various classroom books were provided for student
inspired comparison reading on these two amphibians. Cooperative groups
listed how each was alike and different in the form of venn diagrams. Each
cooperative group expressed ideas to be included in a classroom story. Analogy
writing also contributed to the demonstration of student compare/contrast
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skill (Appendix J:61).
Stem starters set the stage for developing sequential skills (Appendix
K:62). Students completed sentence starters with their own words and
illustrated their sentences. The Kim and Rosa story was easy to sequence as
a group activity on chartpaper. The students enjoyed illustrating and numbering
sequentially each story event.
In Lessons such as The Apple War students read a story in their basal
reader and wrote about their reading (Appendix L:63). Their written product
included title, story characters, setting, and what happened. This was a helpful
lesson idea to use as a follow-up for many stories in the basal reader.
Graphic organizers were especially beneficial in helping students organize
their thoughts prior to writing. The Quilt Pattern demonstrated an especially
nice graphic organizer format to stimulate future descriptive writing
(Appendix M:64). An example of follow-up writing was noted in the My
Feelings Lesson (Appendix N:65). In this lesson students wrote about how they
felt when a cooperative buddy used a word to describe them on the Quilt
Pattern. These lessons were all recorded as to their usage of program
components (Appendix D:55).
Teacher observations of student writing and at-home reading inventory
classroom chart revealed that students who read more also did more individual
and group writing. Students wanted to do more writing on their own and knew
why they chose a topic. Although only ten percent of the student population
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wrote, either individually or with a partner during free time, by the end of the
school year this figure was significant as there was no interest in freetime
writing at this time last year. The Student Reading and Writing Inventory for
each student assessed student progress in the reading and writing integration
(Appendix 0:66). This inventory proved most helpful in explaining student
progress at conference time.
Additional observable data, obtained from a teacher specialist who
taught a 30 minute period each week in the classroom, indicated that these
students always went a step further than those of her other classes. She
concluded that either the mix of students or the learning climate was
responsible for this creative harmony and goal of students to strive always to
do their best.
Presentation and Analysis of Project Results
In order to assess the effects of the planned intervention, comparison
data was gathered on the percentage of students whose grade equivalent
scores fell within the ranges listed on the Iowa Test of Basic Skills for the
March, 1993 and March, 1994 school years. Table 3 represents the degree of
deficiency in student reading as shown by the grade equivalent scores in the
reading composite section of the Iowa Tests of Basic Skills (ITBS).
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TABLE 3
Percent of Second Grade Studentsin Grade Equivalent RangesIowa Tests of Basic Skills
March, 1993 March, 1994
Grade Equiv. RangePercent of Students Percent of Students
March. 1993 March, 1994
K.2 K.9 0% 4%1.0 - 1.7 19% 0%1.8 - 2.5 33% 33%2.6 3.3 30% 29%3.4 4.1 11% 25%4.2 4.9 0% 8%5.0 - 5.7 7% 0%5.8 - 6.5 0% 0%
Significant data was obtained from this section of the test administered
to a new group at the same time this year (Appendix P:67). The information
revealed that 62 percent of the students scored above the 2.6 grade
equivalency level for the month of the school year the test was given. Last
year's scores indicated only 48 percent of those students scoring at grade level
or above. Using the grade equivalent results revealed in this table, 19 percent
of the students were found to be at risk in last year's study. Observable data
for this year's ITBS indicated only four percent, or one student, at risk. It
should be noted that in this case the child is learning disabled and already
engaged in one-fifth of a day remediation outside the classroom. These results
indicate that the need for remediation in reading for at risk students is no longer
of critical concern this year.
The success of the intervention can be seen by comparing student
reading levels for the 1993 school year with those of this year. The data in
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Table 4 indicates 79 percent of this year's students were found to be reading
a second semester book, while only 52 percent of the previous year's class
was at this level. The data further show that 21 percent of the students were
at least four months or more behind in reading level as compared to 48 percent
the previous year.
TABLE 4
Grade Level Equivalence and Percentof Second Grade Students at Each Reading Level
. May, 1993 May 1994
Holt Reading Level Grade EquivalentPercent of Students
May, 1993Percent of Students
May, 1994
7 1.5 - 1.6 0% 0%8 1.7-1.9 0% 0%9 2.0 2.4 48% 21%
10 2.5 . 2.9 52% 79%11 3.0 - 3.4 0% 0%
In addition to observable data in the table, three students or 13 percent
of the classroom population made an upward shift from Level 9 to Level 10
reading level at the end of the first school quarter of the present school year.
Teacher observation and checklists indicated a favorable climate and student
readiness for this advancement (Appendix 0:66). No movement or change in
reading level occurred with last year's students.
Table 5 presents reading/comprehension level and percentage of
students at each level. Each student in this study began reading at a #1 level
of difficulty The speed of reading on this computer program was adjusted each
week so students could read faster at a given level. Upon completion of one
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level of reading, the child progressed to the next level of difficulty.
TABLE 5
Percent of Students at Each Reading /Comprehension Levelof the Stickybear Reading Comprehension Computer Program (Micrograms)
March, 1994
Level Percent of Students
1 17%2 17%3 29%4 37%
This table is representative of four levels of achievement. Levels 1 and
2 are based on Grade 2 comprehension exercise's. Levels 3 and 4 are based on
Grade 3 comprehension exercises. Students were not able to progress to the
next level of difficulty unless a satisfactory score of 80 percent or better was
obtained in reading comprehension. This percentage of accuracy for students
in this computer program was mutually agreed to by the reading/comprehension
administrator and teacher facilitator. Final data gathered from the
reading/comprehension student inventory checklist revealed that 34 percent of
the students were reading at Levels 1 and 2, second grade reading
comprehension level (Appendix Q:68). The remaining 66 percent of the student
population scored at Levels 3 and 4, third grade. This information suggests
lesson plan emphasis on integrating more reading and writing, communicating
of ideas, and higher order thinking may have contributed to the magnitude of
success in student reading comprehension levels.
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Students completed the end-of-unit Holt reading mastery tests
(Appendix R:69). The results of the Holt Basal end of unit reading tests are
presented in Table 6. The percentage of skill areas correct are recorded for the
whole year on the comprehension/literary skills section of the tests for each
student (Appendix S:70).
TABLE 6
Number of Secrnd Grade StudentsPercentage of Skill Areas Correct on theComprehension /Literary Skills Checklist
Halt Reading Unit Tests (September, 1993 March. 1994)
Percent of Skill Areas Correct Number of Students
92 - 100 1083 91 974 82 265 73 1
N/A 2
Summary data from Table 6 indicate that 19 students, or 86 percent, of
the student population got between 83 percent and 100 percent of the
questions correct. Based on a grade distribution of between 92-100 percent
being an "A" and 83-91 percent being a "B", the data indicate that 79 percent
of the students scored in the A or B range. Only three students, or 14 percent,
scored "C" or below. It should be noted from the table summary that two
students were recorded as N/A. These were students receiving half-time and
one-fifth time learning disability services in separate classes. They were never
included in the testing due to class absenteeism. This data suggests that the
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integration of reading and writing, along with the introduction of higher order
thinking skills may have contributed to these test results.
Data to indicate probable cause were gathered from two sources,
interviews and analysis of curriculum. The terminal objective determined the
need to change instructional techniques through integrating the reading and
writing, stressing communication of student ideas, and utilizing higher order
thinking skills.
A reading interview was done in the fall to determine students' opinions
about reading and writing. A follow-up interview with the same students was
done in the Spring to see in what areas their opinions had changed (Appendix
T:71). The results of the Fall interview are recorded in Chapter 2.
Following the intervention plan, the second interview revealed notable
changes. The second interview determined that the majority of students could
now internalize when they were doing a good job reading. They knew they
could read well by the number of words they knew and by how far they could
read in books. The need for external reinforcement from others, like their
parents, wasn't as prevalent as before. They would now rather sound out
words on their own and apply their own reading strategies rather than ask for
help. Eighty-one percent could pick a topic for a good story, as opposed to 55
percent in the Fall interview. Eighty-five percent had a library card, compared
to 50 percent in the Fall study. The students were still able to identify a good
reader and writer as before and liked to read and write stories.
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Teacher observation and second interview analysis also determined that
many students found a new interest in reading chapter books. They could now
more freely name titles of books they like to read at home.
Reflections and Conclusions
The integration of the reading and writing processes was nicely reflected
in student daily journal writing (Appendix U:72). Students found graphic
organizers useful with followed-up writing. It was apparent that students often
found poetry in the form of Cinquains, a writing choice, over script writing
(Appendix V:73). Journal writing expanded on other curricular subjects. One
example was the creative journal writing in a Say No to Drugs Health Unit
(Appendix W:74, 75, 76).
Portfolios were useful for assembling student selected work. Students
found group ranking helpful in portfolio selection. It appeared that students
developed ownership and pride in evaluating their portfolio choices
(Appendix X:77).
The majority of student-originated writing only completed the first draft
stage. It was useful for students to collect these writings in separate writing
folders. Their stage of writing and topic comments were recorded on checklists
(Appendix Y:781. This helped students organize their writing work for future
revision. Highly motivated students worked in pairs during free time to help
with individual editing and revision of their writing work. It was useful to
provide students with special lined paper when they were ready to rewrite
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some of their work.
The Lesson Plan Checklist was an excellent tool for the teacher to
evaluate what worked and what didn't (Appendix D:55). Several, lessons that
appeared to represent higher order thinking were, in reality, only of the
information gathering type with limited processing. This makes it apparent that,
in some cases, old lessons can be reworked or replaced with new designs to
implement more sophisticated learning experiences for students.
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Chapter 6
DECISIONS ON THE FUTURE
The Solution Strategy
The data indicate that the integration of reading and writing to improve
reading should be continued. However, modifications of the original design are
suggested. More modeling of good writing shot/Id occur in order for students
to expand their writing capabilities.
Children will need more opportunities to develop skills in writing more
interesting stories. Innovating text, involving making up a new sentence or
story based on the structure of an existing story would prove beneficial in
improving the implementation plan. An added extension of this plan would be
innovating on sentences. Big Book stories would also prove beneficial for use
in re-reading and re-writing into new text. These shared book experiences
would lead more easily into creating class "big books." Eventually more
independent story writing would occur for individual students.
Teacher observation noted that, in most cases, students weren't ready
for process writing in the form of pre-writing, first draft, revising, editing and
publishing. Children can create their own stories more easily by innovating on
existing stories. This will need to be stressed more in future lessons.
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Additional Applications
As noted in Chapter 2, analysis of district programs and curriculum
indicated a need to integrate more reading and writing throughout the content
areas. This implementation plan can easily be applied to other subject areas
such as math, spelling, social studies, and science. Portfolios should be
created for each subject area. Student work should be gathered each week and
a selection made from one content area. Students can be encouraged to
complete a caption slip about their piece of work. Efforts should be made for
students to share their writing with a peer in a cooperative group setting.
Dissemination of Data and Recommendation
In addition to inclusion of a more comprehensive reading and writing
program in the classroom, the writing efforts of students should be shared with
other classes. Students could select three to six items from their working
portfolios to be distributed to the next grade as a showcase portfolio.
Agreement on the type of sampling to be collected should be established
among teachers of each grade level. A common system of portfolio assessment
must be implemented. Frequency of evaluation and form of record keeping
should be initiated into the schema.
Computer technology would enhance the recording process of student
reading and writing progress and assessment. A printer purchase will greatly
help in analyzing reading data on individual students. Parent volunteers will
need time to demonstrate competence in computer usage prior to working with
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students.
Student pride in ownership and responsibility for their reading and writing
can be encouraged through frequent field trips to the library. Classroom fund
raising efforts in the form of bake sales and silent auctions would provide
money for classroom books and writing center materials.
Collaborative efforts involving writing professionals within and outside
the school structure should be undertaken. A plan should be implemented to
create release time to attend teacher workshops on student writing across the
curriculum. "Flow to Write" community authors should be encouraged to share
their expertise with students and teachers.
Student progress in reading and writing about their reading can only be
continued through colleagues, parents and district commitment. Professional
development and planning between grades will create the necessary climate for
effective reading and writing integration.
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REFERENCES CITED
Allington, R.L. (1983). The reading instruction provided readers of differingreading abilities. Elementary School Journal. 83, 348-352.
Bredekamp, S. 11990). Extra-year programs: A response to Brewer andUphoff.. Young Children, 20-21.
Cangemi, J. (Ed.)(1986). Holt social studies. New York: Holt, Rinehart andWinston.
Clay, M.M. (1 985). The early detection of reading difficulties. Portsmouth, NewHampshire: Heinemann.
Cohen. D.L.(1990). A look at multi-age classrooms. The Education Digest, 20-23.
Connell, D.R. (1987). The first 30 years were the fairest: Notes from thekindergarten and ungraded primary (K-1-2). Young Children, 30-39.
Costa, A.L. (1991). Teaching a thinking skill or strategy directly. In A. Costa(Ed.). The school as a home for the mind, (pp. 77-86). Palatine, IL:Skylight.
DeFord, Diane E. 11991). Using reading and writing to support the reader. In D.E. DeFord, C. A. Lyons & Gay S. Pinnell (Eds.). Bridge to literacy learningfrom reading recovery, (pp. 77-93). Portsmouth, New Hampshire:Heinemann.
Ferguson, P.C. (1991). Longitudinal outcome differences among promoted andtransitional at-risk kindergarten students. Psychology in the Schools, 28,139-146.
Functional illiteracy effects vast. (1993, September 8). Rock ford Register Star,P. 3.
Halgren, D.W. & Clarizio, H.F. (1993). Categorical and programming changesin special education services. Exceptional Child, V), 52, 547-555.
Hillerich, R.L. (1990). First graders' perceptions of reading and writing. IllinoisReading Council Journal, 18, 12-18.
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Hoffer, A.R., Leinwand, S.J., Musser, G.L., Johnson, M.L., Lodholz, R.D., &Thoburn, T. (1991). Mathematics in action. New York: MacMillan/McGraw-Hill.
Hoover, J.J. & Collier, C. (1992). Sociocultural considerations in teachingstudy strategies. intervention, 27, 228-232.
Huck, D. & Pinnell, G. (1985). The reading recovery project in Columbus Ohio:Pilot year 1984-85. (Technical Report). Columbus: The Ohio StateUniversity.
Illinois reading recovery project, appendix A. (1989-1990). University of Illinoisand the Illinois State Board of Education.
James-Haley, S., Stewig, J.W., Bellenger, M.T., Chaparro, J.L., Milieu, N.C.,Terry, C.A., Shane, J.G.. (1990). Houghton Mifflin English. Boston:Houghton Mifflin.
Karweit, N. (March 1992). The kindergarten experience. EducationalLeadership, 49, 82-86.
Keefe, C.H. & Keefe, D.R. (1993), Instruction for students with LD: A wholelanguage model. Intervention, 28, 172-177.
Laughlin, T.K. Telephone interview. 7 Sept. 1993.
LeTendre, M.J. 11991). Improving chapter 1 programs: We can do better. PhiDelta Kappan, 576-581.
Lyons, C.A. (1989). Reading recovery a preventative for mislabeling young "at-risk" learners. Urban Education, 24, 125-139.
May, D.C. & Kundert, D.K. (1993). Pre-first placements: How common andhow informed? Psychology in the Schools, 30, 161-167.
Means, B. & Knapp, M. (1991). Cognitive approaches to teaching advancedskills to educationally disadvantaged students. Phi Delta Kappan, 12,282-289.
Peskin, M.E. (March 1987). Kindergarten all day? The Education Digest, 1T19.
Pinnell, G.S. (1989) A systemic approach to reducing the risk of readingfailure. In J.B. Allen & J.M. Mason (Eds.). Risk makers, risk takers, riskbreakers (pp. 178'197). Portsmouth, New Hampshire: Heinemann.
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Pinnell, G,S., DeFord, D.E., & Lyons, C.A. (1988). Reading recovery: earlyintervention for nat-risk" first graders. Arlington, VA: EducationalResearch Service.
Puleo, V.T. (1988). A review and critique of research on full-day kindergarten.The Elementary School Journal, 88, 427-439.
Reid, D.K., Baker, G., Lasell, C. & Eastin, S. (1993). Teaching readingcomprehension to special need learners: What matters? Intervention,28, 198-215.
Salzer, R.T. (1982). Middle-class parents' attitudes toward all-day kindergarten.(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 227 945).
School Report Card. (1992).
Secretary 'Of State Literacy Office. (1992). Agenda for the '90's. (FY '92Literacy Fact Sheet). Springfield, IL.
Shanahan, T. (1990). Reading and writing together: What does it really mean?In T. Shanahan (Ed.), Reading and writing together: New perspectivesfor the classroom (pp. 3-4). MA: Christopher/ Gordon.
, Slavin, R.E., Karweit, N.L., & Wasik, B.A. (1993). Preventing early schoolfailure: What works? Educational Leadership, 10-18.
Smith, C. (1993). (Adult Literacy). Unpublished raw data.
Sund, R.B., Adams, O.K., Hackett, J.K. & Moyer, R.H. (1985). Accent onscience. Columbus, Ohio: C.E. Merrill.
Weiss, 13.J., Evertts, E.L., Cruikshank, S.B., Steuer, L.O., & Hurt, L.C. (1986).Holt basic reading. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
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APPENDICES
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APPENDIX A
Comparison of Holt Reading Leveland
Iowa Tests of Basic Skills March, 1993 Grade Equivalent Scores
Student # Reading Grade Equivalent Holt Reading Level
1 2.0 10
2 3.2 103 3.7 10
4 2.2 9
5 2.2 9
6 1.3 9
7 1.5 9
8 2.0 9
9 3.2 1010 2.3 1011 2.4 9
12 2.8 9
13 3.0 10
14 2.2 10
15 5.5 1016 3.9 1017 3.3 1018 2.5 9
19 5.1 1020 3.9 1021 3.1 1022 1.5 9
23 3.0 1024 1.4 9
25 1.1 9
26 2.2 9
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Sheri on? s'
OriginalWriting
APPENDIX BCurriculum Ranking
_ _.. . .
Holt. McMillan' Hoff.Rinehart. Houghton- Mc Grace- Rinehart,
and Winston Mifflin 1-liA and Winston Mend)
Reading English Math Social Studies Sciix e
Integrationof Reading 3
and WritingProcesses 1 o
Higher OrderThinking Skillsin WrittenForm
Code c - Very Fyident
3 = On Occasion
1 = Non Existent
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APPENDIX C
Reading Interview
1 Do you hke lu read/No OF TIVJI XV.%
24 5 2
. .
Yes No2 Do you know a good reader? 29 2
Family !Aerobes. OtherWho? 20 9
How do you know they are a good reader?
Teas Me Don't Know Other3 How de you know when you do a good job rending? 15 5 1
Ask Other4 What clo you do when you come to a word you don't know? 20 11
r Do you hie II) Wit! stories?Why?
II Do ynu knew snnvsnne who writes good stories?Who?
7 What nvikes ikitwisti iof?
Yes No Otcasionalhf28 2 1
Yes No26 5
Topic Responses Other17 14
.
Yes NoDo you have becks M home? 29 2Which ones are your favorite?
(Jo yrs' hive n lihnry roar,
Doeq /Pad to you at !Wane?
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Yes No15 16
Yes24
No7
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APPENDIX D
Lesson Plan
Liston Plan IntagtatingReading and Writing
CommunicatingOwn Ideas
Higher Ord.Thinking
Kim & Rosa X Sequence
Animal Stem Starter X Analyze
Frogs, toads XCompare/Contrast
Distinguish
Giant Who Didn't Win XSequence/Imagine
(map making)
Legend Sleepy Hollow X Detail
Peter Pan X Compare/Contrast i
Fred X Imagine
Apple War X Detail
Winter (Rebus Story) X Imagine/Judge
Little Wolf X Recall/Describe
Dandy X Recall/Describe
Seasons X Predict
King Oscar X Predict/Sequence
Wet Albert X Sequence .
Magic Princes X Describe
Lincoln X Predict
Freedom X Predict
Ground Hog X Predict
Poetry (Cinquains) X Sequence/Imagine
New Year X Predict
Analogies X Speculate
Quilt X Imagine
'Feelings" X Evaluate
Human Graph XCompare/SortEvaluate/Judge
Music of Mozart --1 X
AnalyzeCreate/Imagine
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9
a)
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t
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2)A \\SX-)r\ S,11) &AN,
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F
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41.\ \
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cir -zAPPENDIX G
Round and Round%lame. Skill MuSiCel terms
Round and Round 4..1 fk sr
Do you know how to sing "Row, Row, Row Your Boat''? Have you eversung it with two groups of people, each starting at a different time? Thenyou know how to sing a round! Singing a round is fun for everyone.
A round is a short song that is repeated. again and again by groups ofsingers starting at different tir ;es. The first group of singers starts thesong. When they finish singing the first line, the second group of singersstarts singing the song from the beginning. When two groups of voicessing different notes at the same time in a pleasing way, we call it harmony.Two, three, four or more groups can sing a round.
Ask your teacher if you may sing this round with a friend or friends. Thetune is "Row, Row, Row Your Boat" The second singer or singers startwhen the first group reaches the * .
Sing, sing,41P-* 411
sing with me, sing this round with me.S Ma Iafa a a SDASSMIBaS r-Snaall a aalaS Itat SS Sear SWAMPS aSapea-SaalSaaaalaltVOSS'S SaalligireSOISOPM smi=la Sal S asan an
*Mer-ri-ly,mer-ri-ly
1 What is a round?
A cowN4 vt
mer-n-ly mer-ri-ly, hap -py we will be
smq kr.-1-
2. What do we call two voices singing different notes at the same timewith a pleasing sound?
kAr1/4;,,S- iitvi
3. How many groups can sing a round?'
;NAT- Ou4.7 CMUCci
Brainwork, Write your own round to the tune of "Row, Row, Row YourBoat."
Vrtl 311. tt ..') ... ' Rt-.1% %TN) PM4 tx\\ ke.y tetr?irry,n!r-rIl re\ cat,- N1 mtn"\-1 likc. oe 't,c6A tac it '58
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rs)
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APPENDIX H
Freedom
59
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1..
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ts
1C 14)
71
APPENDIX J
Analogies
kJ ((N\ (15 yr "C\ kti (tA%k
is t_o_/itr;ofcca. CS to MIrkilliCIAS
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s'.\
7<
rn
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Quilt PatternAPPENDIX 14
Quilt Pattern
64
Creah.e Teaching Pre Aiter,etmeti to worksheets
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7
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Student
APPENDIX 0
Date
Student Reading and Writing Inventory
Legend Not Yet(11
OnOccasion
131
Very Evident(51
Reads with expression
Reads with fluency
Reads independently
Reads with a partner
Reads chapter books
Compares contrasts in written form
Sequences story events ;n written form
Makes predictions and recalls in writing
Demonstrates organized thought inwriting
Uses appropriate grammar punctuation!capitals in writing
Elects to write during free time
Shares writing with audience
---s
Writes appropriate and interesting text
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APPENDIX P
Comparison of Holt Reading Leveland
Iowa Tests of Basic Skills March, 1994 Grade Equivalent Scores
Student # Reading Grade Equivalent Holt Reading, vivel
1 2.3 10
2 2.4 10
3 3.3 10
4 3.9 10
5 3.0 10
6 3.6 10
7 4.8 10
8 2.8 10
9 3.3 10
10 4.8 10
11 2.4 10
12 3.6 10
13 3,1 10
14 3.2 10
15 3.6 10
16 3.7 10
17 3.3 10
18 3.7 10
19 2.3 10
20 2.2 9
21 1.9 9
22 2.7 9
23 K.7 (L.D.) 9
24 1.9 (L.D.)
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APPENDIX
Reading/Comprehension Student Inventory Checklist
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rirrepsuun nNAME YEAR
Holt Reading Mastery TestGRADE' 2
LEVEL 9
UNIT 11 UNIT 2 1 UNIT 3 UNIT 4
COMPREHENSION/LITERARY SKILLS
Meinreel
SeeuEvents
Su000fiGaud
Manion
SeouSAW.
Mainlees
CauseViet
SeloEvents
RealismFenian
Increase%ASCII'S.
EWA+Events
Ube,Effect
scribePretAem
IncreaseVocals.
IncreaseYeeso
InCreasVOCSO
I
DECODING/ENCODING SKILLS
InitialWU
Oarbee
CVCCVCs
'ar'( #11?
11/Si
temSyl
iclererslutVC
rensIts
rowir
nOillVerbs
I s tra^01
10Ill
(localayi
WON
Ill WOCLS)
SO?kW)
SWThor
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teeIhr
rne,IV
;SI
lido
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ny
LANGUAGE SKILLS
punoVeen
410.Comewri, 1
Wore IMeartrA4
CaeolliLANUS
SynI
State r
PrOnOr..1Were
'OnSeS
'
7AC I ionWarts
NogState Pkgs.!
Ant
STUDY SKILLS
me.ngnl1l
Alcoa 1
0,05,I IC ass
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LEVEL 10
UNIT 1 UNIT 2 UNIT 3
COMPREHENSION/LITERARY SK LLS
Recall Retail PointDemi Detail ar visePecan Gnat- ManDerail actor idol
SeasEvents PAN Veen:
SIOuEvents
Setting
Vac lb Man100
V000
DECODING/ENCODING SKILLS
SysICakel
Avyi IIII
11y1Moab Moyne* fe
Ilare r
Syr,Iyrol nwSu ter'
OW)
W PAWPM IrPth WW1
Ftrtlit
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SeteWs OS
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LANGUAGE SKILLS
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II
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STeia SKILLStuna
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APPENDIX S
Comprehension/Literary Skills Test Summary
Student if Holt Reading Level
Reading
Comprehension Level
Holt End of Unit
Comprehension,Literacy
Tests Summary
1 10 Level 4 86%
2 10 Level 1 81%
3 10 Level 3 95%
4 10 Level 4 100%
5 19 Level 4 88%
6 10 Level 4 90%
7 10 Level 4 100%
8 10 Level 2 90%
9 10 Level '3 86%
10 10 Level 4 95%
11 10 Level 3 72%
12 10 Level 2 100%
13 10 Level 4 100%
14 10 Level 3 94%
15 10 Level 4 100%
16 10 Level 3 86%
17 10 Level 3 90%
18 10 Level 4 90%
19 10 Level 3 95%
20 9 Level 2 92%
21 9 Level 2 100%
22 9 Level 1 78%
23 9 Level 1 N/A
24 9 Level 1 N/A
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APPENDIX T
Reading Interview
YesI Do you like to read? 23
Why?
2 Do you know a good readers?
WOO Family Member Other
How do you know they are a good reader?
Occasonaly2
Yes No26 0
Tells Me Don't Know Other3 How do you know when you do a good job reading? 3
. . .
Ask Other4 What do you do when you come to a word you don't know?
Yes No Occasionally5 Do you like to write stones? 22 1
Why?
6 Do you know someone who writes good stories?Who?
7 What rnakes a ortarl slonP
A On you have books at home?Which ones are yoUir tavorde7
9 Do you have a library caer
10 pups yarn r nu' nP.ul in yi vi at home?Who?
71
Yes No23 3
Topic Responses Other
84
Yes Nn26 0
Yes No22 4
22 4
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APPENDIX U
Journal Sample
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APPENDIX V
Cinquain Sample
I) ad. NeJ A ICC--fre.54\
c\tcm--
5ta,
73
SG
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AttENDIX W
Say No To 'Drugs
LvsteL
yobwet \I EveriliudiS((Ai K9 Iry
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APPENDIX W2
. 022 / 993
ar-f isou_ ant9fo-i.tt Woo ie 11k S
1-511.
15
SS
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APPENDIX W-3
Take tip,/
/Y\,>?:\ Jwl
2>
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I chose thisAPPENDIX X
Portfolio Evaluation
for my portfolio because
I chose this
for my portfolio because
I chose this
for my portfolio because
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