Download - Water resources engineering
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INRODUCTION:
HYDROLOGY:
Hydrology means science of water.
It is the science that deals with the occurance, circulation and distribution of water on the earth.
Hydrology is a broad subject of an inter-disciplinary nature drawing support from allied sciences.
HYDROLOGY DEALS WITH:
Estimation of water resources
The study of processes such as precipitation, runoff, evapotranspiration and their interaction.
The study of problems such as floods, droughts and strategies to combat them
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ENGINEERING HYDROLOGY(APPLIED HYDROLOGY):
A study concerned with engineering applications
ENGINEERING HYDROLOGY APPLICATOINS:
In design
Operations of projects dealing with water supply
Irrigation and drainage
Water power
Flood control
Navigation
Costal works
Salinity control
Recreational uses of water etc.
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WATER FROM
OCEANS
ATMOSPHEREGROUND
SUN
THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
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THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE:
The hydrologic cycle is the general continuous circulation
of water from the oceans to the atmosphere, to the
ground and back to the oceas again.
Sun is the main source of energy for hydrologic cycle.
Let us consider the cycle begins with oceans
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The various stages of hydrologic cycle are
Evaporation
Precipitation
Infiltration
Traspitation
It is a continuous process
Each path of hydrologic cycle may have one or more of the following
Trasportation of water
Temporary storage
Change of state
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TYPES OF PRECIPITATION
PRECIPITATION
CONVECTIVE OROGRAPHIC CYCLONIC
NON-FRONTALFRONTAL
WARM FRONT COLD FRONT
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FORMS OF PRECIPITATION:
Rain
Snow
Drizzle
Glaze
Sleet
Hail
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RAINFALL MEASURMENT:
Rainfall is expressed interms of the depth to which
rain water would stand on an area if allthe rain
were collected in it.
Rainfall is measured by rainguage
Rainguage is a cylindrical vessel assembly kept in
open to collect rain
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TYPES OF RAINGUAGE
TYPES OF RAINGUAGE
NON-RECORDING RAINGUAGE SELF RECORDING(AUTOMATIC)
SYMON’S GUAGE
STANDARD NON RECORDING
TYPE RAINGUAGE
•TIPPING BUCKET
•WEIGHING TYPE
•FLOAT TYPE
•TELEMETERING
•RADAR MEASURMENT
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NON RECORDING TYPE RAINGUAGES:
It does not record the rainfall directly but only
collect the rain water, which when measured gives
the total amount of rainfall at the given point of
time.
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Precipitation gauge1 - pole2 - collector3 - support-galvanized
metal sheet 4 – funnel5 - steel ring
1. Non recording gauge
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The graphic rain gauge1-receiver2-floater
3-siphon 4-recording needle5-drum with diagram6-clock mechanism
The rainguages that automatically record the intensity of
rainfall over a period of time in the form of pen trace or a
clock driven chart.
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COMPUTATION OF AVERAGE RAINFALL OVER A BASIN:
Inorder to compute the average Rainfall over a
basin or catchment area, the rainfall is measured at
a number of stations located in that area.
If the basement area contains more than one
rainguage station then following methods are used
for computation of average rainfall.
Arithmetic mean method
Thiessen polygon method
Isohytel method
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Arithmetic mean method:
Average rainfall is calculated by arithmetic average of recorded rainfall at various stations of selected area
This is the simplest method of computing the average rainfall over a basin. As the name suggests, the result is obtained by the division of the sum of rain depths recorded at different rain gauge stations of the basin by the number of the stations.
N
i
i
ni PNN
PPPPP
1
21 1..........
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Thiessen Polygon Method:This is the weighted mean method. The rainfall is
never uniform over the entire area of the basin or catchment, but varies in intensity and duration from place to place. Thus the rainfall recorded by each rain gauge station should be weighted according to the area, it represents. This method is more suitable under the following conditions:
- For areas of moderate size.
- When rainfall stations are few compared to the size of the basin.
- In moderate rugged areas.
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m
mm
AAA
APAPAPP
.....
.....
21
2211
M
i
ii
total
i
M
i
i
A
AP
A
AP
P1
1
The ratio Ai/A is called the weightage factor of station i
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isohyetal Method:
An isohyetal is a line joining places where the rainfall amounts are equal on a rainfall map of a basin. An isohyetal map showing contours of equal rainfall is more accurate picture of the rainfall over the basin. This method is more suited under the following conditions:
- For hilly and rugged areas.
- For large areas over 5000 km2.
- For areas where the network of rainfall stations within the storm area is sufficiently dense, isohyetal method gives more accurate distribution of rainfall.
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• P1, P2, P3, …. , Pn – the values of the isohytes
• a1, a2, a3, …., a4 – are the inter isohytes arearespectively
• A – the total catchment area
• - the mean precipitation over the catchment
Isohyetal Method
P
A
PPa
PPa
PPa
P
nnn
2
...22
1
1
32
221
1
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F
B
EA
CD
129.2
4.0
7.0
7.2
9.110.0
12
8
6
a1a1
a2
a3
a4
a5
The isohyet method is superior to the other two methods especially when the stations are large in number.
• An isohyet is a line joining points of equalrainfall magnitude.
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• Given annual precipitation values – P1, P2, P3,… Pm
at neighboring M stations of station X 1, 2, 3 & m
respectively
• The normal annual precipitation given by N1, N2,
N3,…, Nm, Ni… (including station X)
• To find the missing precipitation, Px , of station X
m
mxx
N
P
N
P
N
P
M
NP ...
2
2
1
1
Before using rainfall data, it is necessary to check the data for continuing and consistency
◦ Missing data
◦ Record errors
Estimation of Missing Data
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Test for consistency record
• Let a group of 5 to 10 base stations in the neighbourhood of the problem station X is selected
• Arrange the data of X stn rainfall and the average of the neighbouring stations in reverse chronological order (from recent to old record)
• Accumulate the precipitation of station X and the average values of the group base stations starting from the latest record.
• Plot the against as shown on the next figure
• A decided break in the slope of the resulting plot is observed that indicates a change in precipitation regime of station X, i.e inconsistency.
• Therefore, is should be corrected by the factor shon on the next slide
xP
avgP xP
avgP
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(Double mass curve techniques)
Double Mass Curve Analysis
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Accumulated annual rainfall of neigbouring stns in 10^3 cm
accum
ula
ted a
nnual ra
infa
ll o
f X
stn
in 1
0^
3 c
m
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a
c
M
M
a
c
a
c
xcxM
MPP
Pcx – corrected precipitation at any time period t1 at stationX
Px – Original recorded precp. at time period t1 at station X
Mc – corrected slope of the double mass curve
Ma – original slope of the mass curve
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A few commonly used methods are
Mass curve of rainfall
Hytograph
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Hyetograph of a storm
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0 – 8 8 – 16 16 – 24 24 – 32 32 – 40 40 – 48
Time, hours
Intensit
y,
cm
/hr
Hyetograph
- is a plot of the accumulated precipitation against time, plotted in chronological order
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Mass curve of rainfall
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time, hour
accum
ula
ted p
recip
itation,
mm
Mass Curve of Rainfall:
The total accumulated percipitation is plotted against time
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RUNOFF:
It is a part of precipitation which is transmitted through natural surface channels, streams etc.
Runoff is overlandflow and interflow which enters
stream immediately after precipitation
Runoff includes
surface flow
interflow
groundwater flow
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RUNOFF
DIRECT RUNOFFBASE FLOW
RUNOFF
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Rainfall characteristics
Metrological factors
Water shed factor
Storage characteristics
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The Rational Method properly understood and applied can
produce satisfactory results for urban storm sewer and small on-
site detention design.
Rational Formula:
The Rational Method is based on the Rational Formula:
RATIONAL METHOD
Q =CIA
Q = the maximum rate of runoff (cfs)C = a runoff coefficient that is the ratio between the runoff volume from an area and the average rate of rainfall depth over a given duration for that areaI = average intensity of rainfall in inches per hour for a duration equal to the time of concentration, tcA = area (acres)
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Sevaral empherical formulae, tables, curves relating to runoff and rainfall have been developed to estimate runoff over catchment area.
Binnie’s percentage
Barlow’s tables
Strange’s tables and curves
Inglis and Desouza formula
Lacy formula
Khosla’s formula etc