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WEPOWER:
Leveragingchoiceforanewenergyfuture
DanielEtra&DawnDanby
MGT556 RenewableEnergy
BainbridgeGraduateInstitute
15June2007
Please Note: this paper is a synthesis of research, which has been aggregated online at
http://consumptionfeedback.wordpress.com. Thewebsiteprovidesessentiallinks,blogposts,and
afullannotatedbibliographytoenabletoreadertobetteraccessoursources.
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CONTENTSTheFieldofView
Efficiency+Conservation
I.Demand:
Human
Behavior
and
Energy
Awareness
BehaviorChangeTheory
ToolstoIncreaseEnergyAwareness
DirectFeedback IndirectFeedback Inadvertentfeedback
Utility
controlled
feedback
SummaryofToolsOpportunitiesforGreaterLeverage
II.Supply: DecentralizationandMicrogeneration
TheCaseforDecentralization
Motivations
ToolsandMethods
HackingtheBuildEnvironment Services FortheCommunityandCollective
GoingForward
References
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TheFieldofViewWhenwe thinkaboutrenewableenergy, imagesofgrandwind turbinesand fieldsof
solar panels come first to mind. Next to mind come biofuels made from algae,
hydrogen generators and hybrid cars, livingbuildings and all variety of new, sexytechnologies and toys. Inourprogressoriented cultures,we tend tobe increasingly
enthralledwithsolutionsthatallowustodomoreandmorewithlessandlessimpact.
Andyetwhilethesestrategiesandtechnologiesareappealingandareinfactacrucial
componentoftheenergymixforthefuturethrivabilityofoureconomies,societies,and
ecosystems they sometimes seem akin to developing a better sump pump for a
basementatsealevelastheoceansbegintorise.
Whetherforreasonsofclimatechange,pollution,securityrisksorhouseholdexpenses,
there isa litanyofreasons for fundamentallychangingourrelationship tohousehold
energy. Electricitygenerationissuchacomplexissuethatitcanoftenbeachallengefor
citizenstoengageinchange,particularlygivenhowpoliticized,andregionspecific,the
energysystemis.Outsideofworkbeingdoneinthepoliticalandcorporaterealms,the
individualcitizenhashistoricallyhadlimitedaccesstoenergygenerationalternatives,
aswellasalimitedabilitytounderstandwhereourimpactsare. Itmayappearthatthe
mostpowerfulleveragepointsformakingchangeintheenergysectortakeplaceinside
governmentsandcompanies,andyetcitizensbehaviordrivesdemand. Understanding
customerpsychologyis,inmanyways,justasimportantasinventingnewtechnologies,
sincetechnologieshavenovalueunlesstheycanbeeasilydeployedandunderstoodby
thepeopletheyserve.
Mostenergystrategiesfocusonutilityscale technologiessupplysidetechnologies
that provide ever more capacity to meet everincreasing demand. Our current
infrastructure is the result of complex sociohistorical developments over the last
centuries. But large, centralpowerplants and incentives forutilities to sell asmuch
productaspossiblearenot theonlywaysoforganizingourenergy infrastructureor
economy. There areother viable options. And they aremore thanviable; they are
profitableandempoweringforthecommunitiesandindividualsthatdependonthem.
Inorder
to
actualize
these
options,
however,
we
need
to
change
both
as
individuals
and
associeties.
Thispaperlooksatthewaysthatcitizenscantakecontroloftheuseandgenerationof
householdenergy,aswebelievethatboththesupplyanddemandofelectricityneeds
tobeevaluatedandunderstood. Weaddresstwoprinciplecomponentsoftherobust
energymosaicneeded toturnthetide:conservation (i.e.behaviorchange)andmicro
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generation(distributedpowersystems).Wehopetoprovideaglimpseintosomenew
waysofthinkingaboutenergysolutionsthatputpower,literallyandfiguratively,into
the hands of the people who consume it. We ground our discussions in practical
businessapplicationsandexamplesofthemanysuccessescommunitiesandcountries
havehaddevelopingthesepracticesoverthelastseveraldecades.
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Efficiency+ConservationWe track our energy use by the balance on our energy meters. Meters can run
forwards,aswedrawpowerdown from thegrid;and (for someofus) theycan run
backward,aswe replenish it. Conservation slows thedraw,efficienciesdecrease theneed,andenergygenerationrefillsthecup. Firstthingsfirst:beforeinvestinginthose
PVpanels,everythingshouldbedone to improveabuildingsefficiency, itselectrical
load,andthebehaviorofitsinhabitants. Anytransitiontoanimprovedenergyfuture
hastofirstoptimizetheexistingload,sincethisisalwaysthemosteffective,andleast
expensivewaytolowernetenergyuse. Aroofcoveredinphotovoltaicsisafarmore
significant capital investment than a home energy audit, a replacement of key
appliances,andchangesinbehavior. Assuch,thesearenonnegotiablefirststeps.
For decades, energy conservation and energy efficiency have been the focus of
governments,energygroups,andevenenergycompanies. Despitehundredsofpapers
from a range of disciplines economics, engineering, environmental protection, and
academiatonameafewcontinuousconservationimprovementsateverylevelofour
societies remain elusive. Certainly, there have been vast increases in the energy
efficiencyofappliancesthroughgovernmentprogramssuchasEnergyStar. Therehave
alsobeenlargesuccessesinthereductionofenergyleakagesandmoreefficientenergy
useinthebuiltenvironmentwiththeburgeoninggreenbuildingmovement,bolstered
by LEED certification frameworks. But energy efficiency and conservation are two
differentalbeitcloselyrelatedissues.
Energyefficiencytypicallydoesnotrequireanindividualtochangehisorherbehavior
in any lasting ormeaningfulway. It often requires the decisionby a consumer to
purchaseanewtechnologyatamarginallyhighershorttermpricetag. Forexample,
buyingamoreefficienthomerefrigeratoror installingdoubleglazedwindowsallows
forthedeliveryofthesameserviceswithlessresourceuse. Otherthaninvestingina
newpurchase,nolongtermbehaviorchange isrequired. Theeconomic,engineering,
andpoliticalcase forenergyefficiencyhasbeenexploredextensively,and isperhaps
mostcomprehensivelyarguedanddemonstratedbyAmoryLovinsinaseriesofpapers
overthe
last
decade
from
the
Rocky
Mountain
Institute
(Lovins,
1990,
1995,
2005).
Drawingfrommanyempiricalcases,Lovinsdemonstrateshowtunnelingthroughthe
efficiency cost barrier to overcome diminishing marginal returns on efficiency
measuresisachievedbyoptimizingsystemwideperformanceinadditiontoindividual
componentperformance(Lovins,2005).
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Whilethepotentialgainsthroughwidespreadefficiencyareimpressive,itdoesbegthe
question aboutwhether thesemeasures, even if adopted throughout our economies,
have thepotential tooffset theprojected increases inconsumption. Or,asstated ina
2002dissertationonhowtopresentinformationtoconsumerstoreduceconsumption,
Inaffluent
countries,
efficiency
gains
in
one
area
often
stimulate
demand
for
the
product
orserviceitselfbyrendering itlessexpensive,ortheyleadtothedevelopmentofnew
productsandareasofconsumerdemand.(Goldblatt,2002.p.31)
This isknownas thereboundeffect. Inaddition to thismacrolevel trend, there is
also evidence that relatively few individual consumers think in terms of systems.
Behavior in one area often counteractsbehaviors in another, albeit unintentionally.
Consider,forexample,theindividualwhopurchasesanew,superefficientrefrigerator
andputstheoldoneinthegaragetokeepbeercold. Overall,trendstendtopointto
ever increasingenergyconsumption. Take, forexample,aggregatedata from theUS
Energy
Information
Administration
showing
energy
consumption
by
end
use
for
the
period19502005asshownhere:
We
believe
that,
ultimately,
only
a
change
in
behavior,
values
and
culture
will
help
us
get to the root of our current social and ecological dilemmas. This changewillbe
facilitatedbytechnologiesforefficiencyandproduction,policies,andeconomics. But
tofocusonlyontechnologywillperpetuatetheclassicsystemsarchetypeoffixesthat
fail,whichisexactlywherewefindourselvestoday.
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Conservationiscloselyrelatedtoefficiency,andthetwocomplementoneanother. For
example, installing more energy efficient lightbulbs or a low flow showerhead are
forms of conservation. For the purposes of this discussion, however, the term
conservation is used to imply a change in individual or collective patterns of behavior
associatedwithareductioninresourceconsumption.
Weproposethatbehaviorchangecanbesexyandprofitable. Conservationmakesgood
economicsense. Successfullyimplementingitonalargescalewillrequiresophisticated
new technologies that help develop positive feedback loops. By empowering
individuals tomake informedmarket andvaluesbaseddecisionsabout resourceuse
andallocation,conservationhasthepotentialtobeasteppingastonetoanentirelynew
energyparadigm.
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I.Demand:HumanBehaviorandEnergyAwareness
BehaviorChangeTheory
Thepsychologyofbehaviorchangehasalonghistoryanditiswellbeyondthescopeofthispapertocoverindepthhowwecanfacilitatelargescalesocialchangebytapping
into individualbehavior. However, therearebitsandpiecesof thisknowledgebase
thatprovideinsightintoleveragepointsforchangeregardingenergyuse.
Specifically,wefindthattheenergybehaviorchangemodelpresentedina2005paper
toUKs SustainableConsumptionRoundtable is ausefulway of thinking about the
relationshipsbetweentheseissues:
Changing energyrelatedbehavior and energy awareness is particularly challenging
becauseofthenatureofenergyasaresource. Itishardtoconceptualizeenergyandsee
itasaproductaroundwhichbehavior can change. Afterall,onedoesnot consume
energybutinsteadconsumestheservicesprovidedbyenergyhotwater,light,emailandrefrigeration,tonameafew.
Stimulating electricity conservation is a difficult task, because electricity differs in
significantwaysfromotherconsumergoods.Itisabstract,invisibleanduntouchable.It
is not consumed directly but indirectly via various energy services. Electricity
consumptionisthereforenotperceivedasacoherentfieldofaction.Rather,itinvolves
activitiesasdiverseaslisteningtomusic,cookingmeals,workingwiththecomputer,or
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makingaphonecall.Moreover,electricityconservationisnotlimitedtotheactofusing
electricitybut startswith choosingandpurchasing energyusingappliances likeaTV
set,washingmachine,computerequipmentorelectricheater.Ineachoftheseactivities,
conservation means a different set ofbehavioralmodifications. It is difficult for the
consumertolinkallthesevariousactivitiesanddevelopacoherent,comprehensibleand
concisecognitiveframeofwhatelectricityconservationcouldmeanineverydaylife.()Also,electricitysqualitiesincludingitsecologicalfeaturescannotbedirectlyperceived,
makingithardfortheconsumertodevelopanemotionalinvolvement.Itishardlyaproducttobe
proudof,toshowaround,ortoworryabout.(Fischer,2007.p.1.emphasisadded)
Changingbehavior toward energy requires changingbehavior toward an array of
productsusedincompletelydifferentwaysfordifferentpurposes.
Oneof the first steps for changingenergy relatedbehavior is therefore tohelpmake
individualsawareofenergyinthefirstplace. Asitturnsout,thistooiseasiersaidthan
done.Those
who
best
understand
energy
are
frequently
at
aloss
as
to
how
to
explain
it
inwaysthatmakesensetothosewhouseit. InherpaperEnergyKnowledges,Elizabeth
Shovesetsouttoexploresomeofthesecomplicationswithhowpeopleexperienceand
understand energy, with implications for labeling, metering, billing and education
aimed at fostering energy reduction (1997). After presenting several instances of
differentways that even energy experts think about energy, sheoffers the following
insight:
In developing a subtlybut significantly different perspective Ive suggested thatwe
shouldat leastconsider the idea thatpeoplesactionsdonot reflectdifferent typesof
knowledgeaboutenergybutinsteadreflectalternativeconceptualizationsofwhatenergy
is. Accepting this notion, we then have to see languages of measurement not as
alternativewaysofmirroringwhatsreallygoingonbutasdevicesforconstructingand
creatingknowledgewithintheboundsofaspecificparadigm.Cast in these terms, the
experiences of solar energy researchers and insulation installers relate to two quite
different energyworlds. It is not that each sees different aspects of the same thing.
Instead, eachdeals in adifferentwaywithwhat are, for allpracticalpurposes,quite
differentissues.(p.8)
Understanding the fact that simply presenting energy informationmay not lead to
behavior changeoreven comprehension is critical forany successfulprogramor
technologydesigned
to
catalyze
different
consumption
patterns.
Given
this,
what
might be effective strategies or tools for helping individual consumers understand
energyuseandmakemeaningfulbehaviorchangestoreducetheirenergyfootprint? In
thefollowingsection,wesummarizesomeoftheresearchandcasestudiestodateand
provide an overview of the ways different utilities and companies have begun to
answerthisquestion.
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ToolstoIncreaseEnergyAwareness
Over the last several years, at least three literature reviews and papers havebeen
written that summarize the successes and failures of numerous studies aimed at
providingfeedbacktoconsumersforthepurposesofenergyconservation(Darby,2006;
Fisher, 2007; Roberts, 2003). Rather than repeat the valuable work doneby theseauthors,wewill simply present some of the findings forwhat appears tomake an
effectivefeedbacksystem. Inaddition,wewillusethegeneralcategoriesoffeedback
types topoint tosomemorerecentproductson themarketweare familiarwith that
posittoenabletheseideastobecomewidespreadreality.
Drawingononeofherearlierarticles,Darby(2006)presentsausefulsetofcategories
forthinkingaboutfeedbackandspecifictechnologies. Theseareusedastheorganizing
principleforthefollowingsections.
DirectFeedback
Direct feedback systems involve a slew of activities that are aimed at teaching
customersbyhavingthemunderstandtheirownconsumptionatpointofuse,mostly
bylookingandlearning.
For example, teaching a homeowner how to read the existingmeter to see current
consumption isonesuchdirect feedbacktechnique. Overall,this isnotveryeffective
because meters are not generally designed for consumer use or understanding (as
anyonewhohastriedcanwellattest).
There are several products on
the market that translate
information from the existing
meter intomore relevantdata.
One suchdevice,calledPower
Cost Monitor, consists of two
primaryparts:anopticalsensor
that is installed on the actual
powermeter
and
awireless
display thatshowsauserreal
time data. This allows a
consumer to carry the device
through the building to
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monitorchanges inenergyusewhen specificdevicesareonoroff. Thisdevice,and
othersinthesamevein,consistofadirectdisplayofenergyandcostinformationona
portableunit.
Among the other features that several products and systems offer is the capacity to
connect to a personal computer to storedata and ambient display. Direct feedback
ranges fromsinglemeasurementdevicesaffixed to individualappliances tobuilding
wide monitoring systems including security, water, and heating systems. The
effectivenessofthesesystemsforreducingenergyconsumptionisintherangeof515%.
IndirectFeedback
Indirect feedback typically consists of information sent to customersby a utility to
provide information about past energy use. Usually includedwith amonthlybill,
customers are meant to engage with this informationby learning via reading and
reflecting.
Notsurprisingly,theeffectivenessofindirectfeedbackforstimulatingbehaviorchange
variesquiteabitdependingonthewaytheinformationispresented. Inalignmentwith
theinsightsdiscussedearlierbyShove,peopleunderstandenergydifferentlyandhave
differentlevelsofcomprehensionforevenbasicchartsandgraphics. Inanevaluation
ofdifferentbillingpresentations,Egan(1999)concludes,
Insummary,consumersmayindicateahighlevelofawarenessofaninformationtool,
andmayeven state that theyplaceahighvalueon that tool.However, thisdoesnot
necessarilytranslate
to
consumer
comprehension
or
alikelihood
of
using
the
information provided. Simply stated, awareness and enthusiasm are not adequate
indicatorsofaninformationprogramsefficacyorsuccess.(p.11)
Forexample,whenpresentedwithabellversusabarchart,customershadonlyslightly
lowercomprehensionof the information in thebellchartbutsignificantdistaste fora
bellchart. Theauthorofferssomeinsightsintothisfinding:
Whyisthereagapbetweenpeoplesreasonablygoodcomprehensionofthebellcurve,
and peoples lower selfrating of ease in understanding it or wanting to receive it?
Qualitative data from our semistructured interviews support that bell curves are
perceived
as
difficult.
Some
interviewees
indicated
that
while
they
understood
the
bell
curve,theydidntthinkthattheaveragepersonwould.Thesemistructuredinterviews
also indicated thatwhilepeoplemayunderstandbell curves, theydo not like them.
Severalintervieweesexpressedthisdirectly.(p.7)
InEgansadditionalreviewofa specific labelingprogram fora testcase for theEPA
EnergyStarBilling(ESB)programwithTraerMunicipalUtilities(TMU),heidentifiesa
labelthatfailsonalmostallcounts:
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AsFischer(2007)notesinherreviewofexistingcasestudies,veryfewstudieshave
considered the relevanceofgraphicdesignor formulationof text at all (p. 9). It is
almostasifutilitiesarecompletelyunawareofthelast30yearsofresearchinthefields
of education and learning that reveal much about learning styles and information
presentation. Theassumptionwithmostindirectfeedbacksystemstodateseemstobe
thatpresentingtheinformationisenoughtocausebehaviorchange.
Thankfully, interest seems to be
emerging from the design communityabouthow toapply informationdesign
approaches to environmental issues,
andenergyisnoexception. Arecentset
ofproposalshavecomeoutoftheUKs
DesignCouncilsRED FutureCurrents
project, including aggregated billing
statements.
Research
generally
indicates
that
well
designedbilling canbejust as effective as advancedmeters anddirect feedback for
spurring conservation.However, the increase in directdebit customers canmake it
increasinglydifficult to reach consumers and engage them about energy information
and use (Roberts, 2003). This poses additional challenges for utilities wishing to
implementsophisticatednewtechnologies,andisfurtherreasonforasystemthinking
mindsetwhenitcomestothefutureofenergy.
Ifconnectionscouldbemadebetweeneducators,designers,energyexpertsandutilities,
indirect feedback systemswould likelymemuchmore effective at inspiring energy
behaviorchange. Bymaking thecontentrelevantandapproachable to theconsumer,indirect feedbackhashighpotentialasoneof the tools in the consumption feedback
toolkit.
Inadvertentfeedback
Darby indicates that in advertent feedback, or learningby association, can alsobe
effective. For example, consumerswho are involvedwithmicrogeneration aremore
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activelyinvolvedwithenergyproductionandthereforehaveabetterunderstandingof
therelationshipbetweenconsumptionactivitiesandthesystemsperformance.
TheSustainableConsumptionRoundtables (SCR)UKfocused report,Seeing the light:
theimpactofmicrogenerationonthewayweuseenergy,demonstratedthattheinstallation
ofmicrogeneration technologies fundamentally transformed citizens attitude toward
energy use: Instead of being invisible and unengaging, they could now see the
creativeprocessofenergybeingmadeandpowering theirbuildings (p.72). Asan
elderlycouple inSouthwesternLancashire(UK)describedtheirexperience inawind
poweredresidence,
Whenthatredlightisonweknowweareexportingtothegridsoitstimetoputthe
washingmachineonoritsOKtoboilthekettle. Whenthatlightisnotonwemakesure
that everything is off nothing is on standby coswe know that its probably really
costingus.(p.52)
Utilitycontrolledfeedback
These feedback systems, frequently referred to as smart metering systems, are
increasinglyviewedasanopportunityforsystemwideoptimization. Inthesecases,the
utilityreplaces the traditionalenergymeteraffixed to thebuildingwithanewdevice
that provides two way flows of information about energy use. These systems
frequently obviate the need for physicalmeter readings one of the primary cases
made for theeconomicsof investing insuchasystem. Severalcompaniesoffer these
technicalsolutions,anddiffusionofsmartmeteringsystemsappearsmorewidespread
inEurope
than
in
the
United
States.
Smartmeteringshouldallow forutilities tobettermanage theentiregrid. Theyalso
provide a large potential for assisting consumers in reducing energy usage by
providingdataaboutrealtimeandhistoricalenergyuse(Venables,2007). Giventhat
oneof themajorbarriers toproviding this information is thecurrentmeter,replacing
the meter opens up new opportunities for engagement between utilities and their
customers. Infact,newmeteringtechnologyhasthecapacitytocompletelytransform
this relationship, leading to different environmental outcomes and increased
profitabilityforutilities(Guy&Marvin,1995).
SummaryofTools
Thisbrief reviewjust scratches the surfaceof thenumberof toolsandprojectsbeing
implementedintheareaofconsumptionfeedbacksystems. Ingeneral,however,here
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are some highlevel findings for what makes a successful feedback system that
encouragesenergyconservationbehavior.
Oneresult,atleast,seemsclear:Feedbackstimulatesenergy(andspecifically,electricity)
savings. Not all studies discuss actual savings, some concentrate on customer
preferencesor
on
satisfaction
with
feedback
schemes.
But
those
who
do
generally
find
savingsrangingfrom1.1%toover20%,dependingonthetreatment.Usualsavingsare
between 5 and 12%. () I found that,with regard to the design features discussed
above,atleasttwo(andusuallyatleastthree)ofthefollowingfeatureswerepresentin
thebestcases:
multipleoptions for feedbackavailableat theusers choice through computerizedfeedback (e.g. consumption over various time periods, comparisons, additional
informationlikeenvironmentalimpactorenergysavingtips)
aninteractiveelementthatengageshouseholdsthroughcomputerizedfeedbackorrequiredactivitieslikemeterreading
feedback given more often than monthly (continuously, daily load curves, orimmediatelyaftertheaction)
adetailed,appliancespecificbreakdown comparisonswithpreviousperiods.(Fischer,2007.pp.6,9)
Themyriad of technologies emerging to help facilitate adeeper interactionbetween
individualsandtheirconsumptionpattersisencouraging. Manyofthesetechnologies
aresuretocapturetheimaginationsandpocketbooksofindividualsandutilities. And
yet it is importantnot to fall symptom tobelieving that there isone silverbullet for
feedback systems. If anything, the research points to the need for a diversity ofapproachesand technologiesatboth the individualandutility level for inspiring
changeinbehavior.
OpportunitiesforGreaterLeverage
Despitethenumberofsolutionsthatareemergingtohelppeoplesaveenergy,itishard
to imagine that many of themwill reach acceptance levels needed to have a large
aggregate impact. Utilityside effortshave thegreatestpotential to reach the largest
numberofpeople,bututilitiesareslowtorespondtomarketchanges,slowtoinnovate,
andeven
slower
to
respond
to
customer
demand.
One
hope
is
that
awell
designed
homeenergymonitorbecomesasintegratedintobuildingbestpracticesasthemodern
thermostat. But even if thiswas the case, and everyhousewere equippedwith an
energymonitor,behaviorremainshardtochange.
One opportunity to overcome some of the inertia around behavior change is well
documented insocialandpsychological literature:peerpressure. Associalcreatures,
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theopinionsofotherstendtobestrongmotivatorsforindividualbehavior. Despitethis
commonsenseknowledge,fewenergyfeedbackprogramstrulytapthesecomparative
andnormativepressuresasleveragepointsforbehaviorchange. Comparativefeedback
hasbeen found tobe important forcustomers tounderstand theirownenergyusage
(Darby,2006;Egan,1999;Fisher,2007;Roberts,2003),butithasyettobeusedinaway
thatistrulymeaningfulforthepersonreceivingtheinformation.
For example, almost every study that evaluated comparative feedback looked at
individualenergyuseascomparedtoanationalaverageorhomesofsimilarsize. Yet
these comparisons are technical and not social. Might it be more motivating, for
example,foraconsumertomakeacomparisontoanactualsocialgroup,andtohave
thisinformationbeavailabletoallmembersofthatgroup? Thisseemslikeanemergent
andpowerfulopportunityforthefeedbacknetworksnotjustisolatedfeedbacknotesof
thefuture.
Using as apotentialmodel the emergence of socialnetworking tools in the internet
spacethatcarrytheirinfluenceintorealworldbehavior,itseemspossibletoimaginea
situationwhereaconsumerdefineshisorherowncomparisongroup. Socialwebsites
suchasChangeEverything.ca,Change.org,andPledgebank.comleveragethepowerof
socialpressure tomotivate individualbehaviorchange. Catchingon to thepowerof
thisconcept,atleasttwoleadingedgefeedbacksystemsareleaninginthisdirection.
The creators of the Wattson home energy
monitor,adirect
feedback
device
combined
with
ambient display that is not yet in production,
appears to include thecapacity foruserdefined
comparison groups andnetworked owners. In
additional to fostering positive peer pressure,
this has the capacity for providing more
meaningful impact information, thereby
increasingpositive reinforcement for additional
change.
Inamockfuturenewsflash,theREDFutureCurrentsteamhasimaginedaprogramthatallowsutilitycustomerstoreleasetheirenergyusedatatothepublicinreturnfor
learninghowtheystackuptoothersthroughoutthecity.
Asmoreandmorework isdone tobetterhone the tools for informationsharingand
socialcapacitybuildingonline,onecouldimagineafuturewhereconsumersareableto
benchmark theirprogressagainst theirownusepatterns,but inaway thatcompares
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theiractivity toasocialgroup that ismoremeaningful than thosedefinedbyelectric
utilities.
Ifenergyconservationcanbecomeasocialactivityandifthebenefitsandimpactsof
conservationcanbepresented ineffectiveandmeaningfulcontexts there isa larger
likelihoodof itswidespread acceptance. Returning to the theoryof energybehavior
changethathasguidedthisessaysofar,thisactivitywouldhelptocompletethefinal,
criticalstep inthechangeprocess loopwherean individualseesthebenefitsofhisor
heractivity.
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II.Supply: DecentralizationandMicrogeneration
As in the previous section, what follows here is meant not as an overview of the
technicalsolutionsforhouseholdmicrogeneration,butisinsteadalookatthesystems
andservicesthatenablepeople togainaccessto thesesolutionsandthereforechangetheirrelationshiptoenergy. Wehavealsonotemphasizedpolicyrecommendationson
accountof thecomplexityofstateandprovincial systems thatheavily influence their
success. Whilebroad, universal governmental actions and incentives would move
North Americans much more swiftly towards a more resilient energy system, the
current context demands innovative approaches in the spacesbetweenmajor policy
actions; in the actions taken by individuals, businesses and increasingly
communities.
TheCase
for
Decentralization
NorthAmerica isdependentuponanenormous,brittle setofelectricalgrids. In the
summerof2003,50Millionpeopleon theeastcoastofNorthAmericawerehitbya
blackout. Theelectrical failure flowedacross thenetworks fromasinglepoint in the
Midwest. Throughout the region, thepopulation soondiscovered that the effectsof
such grid failure are systemwide: effects cascade rapidly through all fundamental
services. Whengaspumpsabruptlycease to function,carsandpublic transportation
bothstopmoving,aregionstransportationcapacityslowsandthengrindstoahalt.
ATM
machines
blink
out
along
with
cash
registers
and
internet
connections;
the
money
systemreverts tocash. Foodbegins tospoil,and smallgrocersscramble to liquidate
theirinventory. Thecityswatersupplydwindles. Peopletakeofftheirdressshoesand
beginalongmarchtothesuburbs.
While there is a lot of accidentalbeauty tobe found in a summertime citywithout
power, the 2003 blackout provided a perfect illustration of the grids brittleness,
rigidity,andfailuretorecover. Italsodemonstratedhowfewcitizensorcommunities
havecontroloverthepowertheygenerate. Centralpowerplantsarelargelypowered
bycoal,hydroelectricandnuclearenergy,andarethedomainofthelargecorporation
andthegovernment. Tobesure,largeplantsbenefittremendouslyfromeconomiesofscale,yet citizens canneither controlemissions,nor cost. AsGreenpeace found (see
figurebelow), centralized technologies are often frighteningly inefficient, with two
thirdsofallenergylostbeforereachingahomeowner. Thegreatestenergylosseswere
not,asonemightbelieve,inthetransmissionacrosswires,butratherinthewastedheat
andinefficientgenerationoffossilfuelenergyatthesource.
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Bycontrast,microgenerationsystemsdonothavethescaleoroverflowtoaffordsuch
losses. Takenasawhole,microgenerationreferstoelectricalandheatenergygenerated
onsite, and comprises a range of electrical technologies including smallscalewind
turbines,solarphotovoltaics,andheatingalternativessuchasgeoexchangeheatpumps
and solarhotwater. While feedbackmechanismsenableus to superviseourenergy
demand,microgenerationempowersustomanageoursupply,whilstembeddingmore
sustainablepracticesintoourdailylives.
Adecentralizedsystemofmicrorenewableswilldecreasecollectivecarbonemissions,
overcomefuelpoverty,andmaintainthesecurityofsupply. Adecentralizedgrid,with
moreonsitemicrogeneration,isalsoclean;loseslessenergytotransmission;andhasan
immediateeffectonenergyuse. Ensuringthatmicrogenerationgrowsasasignificant
percentageofourtotalenergyuserequiresasystemsview:movingfromheretothere
meanscombiningawholerangeofappropriatetechnologieswiththeservices,policies,
andbusinessesneededtodeploythem.
In
perhaps
one
of
the
most
complete
resources
on
the
economic
and
technical
case
for
decentralized power systems,Amory Lovins Small is Profitable concludeswith the
following:
Themostperfectwaytoproduceelectricityisjustaneedlessexpenseiftheelectricityis
then wasted. The intimate challenge, and opportunity, isnt merely to displace
centralizedwithrightsizedelectricgenerators; its first touseelectricity inaway that
savesmoneyandimprovesourlives.(2002.p.381)
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Motivation
Microgenerationempowers
citizens
to
take
control
of
their
ecological
impacts,
their
energy security, and, increasingly, the cost of living. Moving our cities towards a
greater use of microrenewables means asking ourselves: What compels people to
changetheirrelationshiptotheirenergysupply? Howcanweeducateandempower
thosewholacktheknowledgeandcapitaltomakethistransition?
Aswithmonitoringsystemsthatprovideconsumptionfeedback,microgenerationis
directlylinkedtohumanpsychology:understandingconsumersmotivationsiscritical
totheeducationandmarketingrequiredtodeploysuchsystemsonalargescale.
If decentralized power is so much more reasonable, then why dont utilities and
governmentsmakeitapriority? Theenergysystemwasnotdesignedtoallowcitizenstooptout. Afterall,theNorthAmericangridasweknowitwasnotconceivedforits
currentscaleitemergedfromabasicsetofprinciples,focusedoncentralizationand
servicedeliveryandenergycompanieshavehistoricallyfailedtosupporthousehold
microgeneration.
Yetthecombinationofincreasingenergyprices,alongwithanemergingawarenessof
the ecological and human impacts of energy production, has recently amplified the
demand for alternatives. The pioneering work and experience in the world of
householdrenewables
has
been
done
by
people
who
are
fed
up.
Lacking
services,
financing, or products, thosewho have created thebaseline formicrogeneration in
NorthAmerica recognized that takingcontrolof theirsourceofenergymeantopting
out of the system altogether. Thosewho take their homes off themain grid have
traditionally been motivated by ecological concerns, or a desire to achieve self
sufficiency. Doingso isoftenasignificanttask,sinceretrofittingahomesystemwith
microrenewablesoftenrequirestwoessentialelements:knowledgeandcapital.
The Sustainable Consumption Roundtables report provides a comprehensive set of
research on the motivations of consumers to manage or transition to a household
powered by microrenewables. While a whole range of households in the study
benefited tremendously from the incorporationofmicrogeneration into theirhomes,
those few familieswho had taken a real interest in their energy consumptionwere
referredtoasactivehouseholds.Affluentandknowledgeable,thesehouseholdshad
afargreaterunderstandingaboutecologicalissues,usedtheinternetforresearch,and
were more technologically savvy than others: all of these attributes gave them the
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meansandthewillto,forexample,installsolarpanelsorwindturbines.
Thechallenge that facesus is that thisprofileonlydescribesenthusiasts:afractionof
the population. A widespread paradigm shift would require a far larger uptake
throughout less informed, and less affluent, communities. While household
microgenerationmaysavemoneyinthelongterm,fewpeoplehavetheavailablecash
to invest innewtechnologies. Particularly intheabsenceofgovernmental incentives,
greenmortgages,andtaxbreaks,itisimperativetocreatemethodsofmakingmicro
renewables more accessible to the greater population, and this means addressing
economicdisparity.
ToolsandMethods
ThetoolsavailableforNorthAmericanenergyconsumersrangefromdevelopingfully
autonomous, offgrid systems, to participation in communitybased programs for
helpinglowincomeconsumersbettermanagetheircosts.
Thereisanenormousamountofinformationavailabletotheindividualenthusiast. For
instance, Home Power magazine was established in 1987, and has long served the
community of microgeneration enthusiasts, both on and off the central grid. The
publicationhasmaintainedaclear,pragmaticapproach,andprovidessomeofthemost
comprehensive informationon implementingmicrogeneration technologies including
smallscalewindturbines,solarphotovoltaics,andmicrohydro.
HackingtheBuiltEnvironment
Livinginhomesthatconsumemorepowerthantheyuseiscertainlyonekeyapproach
to seizing controlofonesenergy footprint. The rapidgrowthof thegreenbuilding
sector has pushed renewables into wider use, though primarily within new
construction. A Net Zero Energy, or Zero Energy Home, such as those being
prototypedby theUSDepartment of Energys Building Technologies Program, and
CanadasNetZeroEnergyHomeCoalition,address this challenge. NetZerohomes
typicallytakeonthebuildingasanenergysystem, incorporatingdaylighting,passive
solar,properbuilding siting, air flow and insulation inorder to reduce theupfront
need for heating, cooling, or electrical energy. To get real uptake of conservation
approaches and microgeneration technologies in society, however, much more
retrofittingneedstobedone.
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Thereareexcellentexamplesofretrofits thatsucceedboth technicallyand financially.
In 2004, BrianMcConnell, a selfdescribed engineer and tinkerer, reduced his San
Francisco homes energy footprintby 90%by deftly combining conservation efforts,
solarelectrical,solarwaterheating,andsolarairheatingtechnologies,withCalifornia
staterebates. Hewasalsoabletoincorporatethecostsintoarefinancedmortgage. In
anarticleforOReillyMedia,McConnellcitesthefollowingadditionalfinancialbenefits
tohisretrofit:
Increaseinhomevalue:each$1inutilitybillreductionisestimatedtoincreasehomevalueby$20.Therefore,theenergyproductionsystemsincreasethevalueofmyhome
byabout$34,000,yieldinganimmediate50%returnoninvestment.
Stable,longtermenergycosts:becauseitproducesmostofitspower,myhomeislargelyprotectedagainstincreasesinenergycosts.Asenergycostsincrease,themath
becomesevenmorefavorabletowardrenewableenergysystems.
Protectionagainstpropertyincursions:localzoningrulesoftenprohibitneighboringpropertyownersfrombuildinganythingthatwillcastashadowonrooftopsolar
installations.Thisisahelpfulprotectioninurbanenvironments,asitpreventssomeone
frombuildinga McMansion nextdoortoyourhome,whichhelpstoprotectyour
homesappearanceandvalue.
However, the economics of retrofits and remodels vary enormously in response to
locale. Formost citizens, the capital cost of smallscale renewable powermakes it
inaccessible;thecostofphotovoltaics,inparticular,pushthemoutsidethebudgetofthe
vastmajorityofhouseholds. NetMetering lawsareanotherstrongdeterminantas to
whethercitizens
can
install
grid
tied
systems
in
their
homes,
and
there
are
still
regions
inNorthAmerica,suchasAlbertaandAlabama,inwhichnetmeteringisunsupported
bygovernmentandutilities.Thelevelofgovernmentalorutilitysupportforindividual
renewablesprogramsvariestremendouslydependingonthestateorprovince. TheUS
basedDatabaseofStateIncentivesforRenewables&Efficiency,andCanadasPollution
Probe Consumer Guide to Green Power in Canada provide the best listing and
aggregationof lawsand incentives. McConnellsexample, therefore, illustrateswhat
canbe possible in the rare cases where all the pieces fall into place: a committed,
educatedhomeowner and obsessiveproblemsolver, living in a region that supports
andcreatesincentivesforrenewables,whosehomeiswellsitedandautonomous,can
bewildlysuccessfulindramaticallyreducinghisenergyfootprint. Onesmallquestion
remains:whatabouteveryoneelse?
Services
Karl Schwingel sells and installs solar PV and microwind systems on residences
throughout theUpperMidwest. Hiscustomers typically fit theclassic selfsufficient,
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offthegrid personality, and Karl often sees his work as being that of an energy
educator. Igetpeopletotalktooneanother,andturnthemintoenergygeeks. Itsas
muchaboutenergyeducationas it isjustslappingsomepanelsontheroof. (Author
conversationwithKarlSchwingel,May2007)
Still, the work that Karls company does is highly skilled. While independently
workingwithpeopletodotheirowninstallationswouldsuitKarlsdoityourselfethic,
he recognizes that the kind of work he does means having a certain degree of
mechanical aptitude, which applies to home efficiency as well as to technology
installation.
Having a centralized power supply means that citizens arent required to manage
systemsthattheydonthavetheknowledgebasetomaintainorinstall. Unlessonehas
theskill to retrofitahomewithouthelp,awhole rangeofconsultationneeds to take
place. Home audits may be done by one consultant, while solar heating will beinstalledbyanother. Governmentsmayormaynotbewillingtohelpout;banksmay
ormaynothavecriticalfinancingavailable.
FutureCurrents proposesasystemsapproach:
Awholenewmodelisneeded,notsomuchofenergyservicescompaniesESCOsas
wholehouse environmental services companies () HOUSECOs could follow the
exampleof thenewconcierge servicesdevelopedbygroups like10UK.Thekey to
suchservicesistrust,andtheknowledgethattheserviceproviderisonthesideofthe
householderin
navigating
the
complexities
of
the
market.
In
this
new
support
economy
economiesoftrustbecomemoreimportantthaneconomiesofscale. HOUSECOswould
offerapremiumservice,involvingfullhandholdingfromassessment,design,project
management,servicingfollowupandleasingofequipment.
This ismore thanjust a vague concept. EnWise Power Solutions,based in Toronto
Ontario, also recognizes that decreasing ones whole energy footprint requires a
differentstrategyforeachhousehold. Oneofthemostcompellingopportunitiesinthe
renewableenergysector is in this turnkeyapproach,wherecomplicateddecisionsare
managedbyasingleserviceprovider. Ratherthanbeinginthebusinessofsellingan
individualproduct, theyarrange thewholeworks:energyaudits, consultations,help
with installation, and, most interestingly, financing through EnWise Capital
Corporation:
Whetheryouareconsideringanenergyefficientretrofit,thereplacementofyourmajor
appliancesor anew roof,ECC canprovide simple, affordableEndtoEndFinancing.
()By financingyour solutionwithECC at competitivemarket rates,you canbegin
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savingmoneyinstantly(actualsavingswilldependonyourenergyusage,thevalueof
yourretrofitandthefinancingterm).
Real estate developers can establish other financing arrangements. Montralbased
urbaninfill
developers
EcoCit
created
Canada
sfirst
green
condos,
while
figuring
out
howtomakeecologicalarchitecturetotallyaffordableintheQubecclimate.Itwasfar
easiertoincorporategeoexchangesystemsintothedesignthantoarrangefinancingfor
solarphotovoltaics. SinceEcoCit sought tokeep theunitsaffordable, they chose to
avoidthecapitalcostsofbuyingPVs insteaddesigninglocationsforPVinstallationfor
when the unit owners could afford to buy them. In the meantime, they sold the
geothermalunits likeitsaunitonthebooks,sothatitdoesntincreasethecostofeach
oftheunits.Itsnotasale, saidGladu, itsmoreofafinancingarrangement.1Inother
words, thebuilding ownerswould eventuallypay for the financing of theirheating
system,andcollectivelyownitoutright.
FortheCommunityandCollective
Any significant reduction in our collective energyusehas to recognize the essential
positiverole thatboth lowincome,anddenseurbancommunitiescanplay. Itsclear
thattherearelimitationstocreatingautonomous,offgridenergysystems. Andasever,
whilethereremainsignificantbarrierstoaccessingrenewableenergy,microrenewables
shouldneverbe the firstorderofbusiness. This isparticularly true for lessaffluent
communities.Energy
costs
frequently
impact
low
income
communities
far
more
severely than others, since the percentage of ones income that goes into powering,
heating and cooling isoftenmuchhigher, and rentershavevirtuallyno incentive to
retrofit housing for improved efficiency. FlexYourPower, Californias initiative for
conservationandefficiency,findsthat
Lowincome familiesareparticularly susceptible tohighand fluctuatingenergycosts,
basedontheearningstoexpenditureratio.EstimatesindicatethatwhiletheaverageUS
householdsenergycostsareequalto7%ofhouseholdincome,lowincomehouseholds
spend 17% of their household earnings. The immediate result is that less money is
available forsatisfyingotherbasicneeds.Also, the frequentlypoorqualityof lowcost
housing creates an increasedburden, sincemore energy is needed to keep residents
healthyandcomfortable.
1 Cheryl Gladu Presentation at EnvironDesign 10, May 2006, Toronto Ontario.
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Communitybased organizations, such as Chicagos Center for Neighborhood
Technology, have found energy prices tobe amore universally applicable point of
contactformakingchange. TheirnonprofitCommunityEnergyCooperativeprovides
citizenswiththeresourcestounderstandhowtocontroltheirenergycosts.ThePower
Smart Pricing initiativemoves households off of fixed energy prices, instead giving
themaccesstonewmetersandwholesalepricingthatvarieshourtohour.Byproviding
userswithinformationabouthourlypricing,andgettingintouchwithpeoplepriorto
price spikes,participants canchange theirbehavior inorder toaccess lessexpensive,
offpeakelectricity,resultinginanaverage10%dropinenergyuseoverall.
After all, renewable energy incentives programs couldbe considered discriminatory
when itcomes to thediversityofhousingcircumstances. Evenamonghomeowners,
noteveryonehasaccess torooftopswiththeappropriatesitingorarchitecture. How,
then,doweaccesscleanpowerifwelackthehomeorlandbestsuitedforinstallingit?
One successful model is the cooperatively owned, largescale renewable project.Insteadofwaiting forHydroOne,Ontarios electricalutility, to invest in renewables,
TorontosWindshare installedNorthAmericasonly largescaleurban turbineon the
shoreofLakeOntario,visibletothewholecity. Itwasfinancedby,andprovidespower
to,severalhundred localhouseholds. Asamodel forwhatcanbepossible,andasa
publicstatement,thesingleturbinewaswildlysuccessful,andhasenabledWindshare
tobegin thedevelopment of theLakewindPowerProject, a ruralurbanpartnership
plannedtopowermorethan3,400Ontariohomes.
VirtualNet
Metering
is
avery
similar
model
with
alot
of
potential.
In
late
2006,
the
townofEllensburg,Washington,installeda36kWsysteminanearbyfield,givingthe
participating communitymembers the ability to coown andmanage a photovoltaic
array. TheBonnevilleEnvironmentalFoundationalsoenablesonlinerealtimetracking
oftheEllensburgproject(seebelow),whichatthetimeofwritinghadavoided33,730
lbs ofCO2. Once again, thismodel is not a technicalbreakthrough: its a financial
structure that enables the use of a technologyby a group of peoplewho otherwise
wouldnthaveaccesstoit.
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Onecan imagine thesameapproachbeingcombinedwith thenewuseofbrownfield
sitesasbrightfields,suchasthe425kWsolararrayinBrockton,Massachusetts,which
reusescontaminatedlandforlargerscalegeneration.
TheUtility
Someofthemostcompellingnewinnovationshavetodowiththestructureofthegrid
itself, and the role that utilities can play in a decentralized system. SmartGrids are
computerenabled networks that provide a web of information and feedback
throughout the system to improve thegridsbrittleness. TheSmartGrid targetsand
manages information about the electrical system, and may prove to be a fantastic
enabler, connecting a latticework of urban renewables. AsJamais Cascio wrote in
February2005,
Distributedenergy iscurrentlymorecostly thancentralizedpower. Someof thatcostcomes frommanaging the complexity of variable power generation, changing usage
patterns, and amultiplicity of sources.Distributed energy resourceswill have tobe
managedmorelikeacomputernetwork,completewithabundantroutersandswitches.
The success of distributed energy is ultimately dependent upon the increasing
availabilityofcomputerenabledpowernetworks,or smartgrids. Andsmartgridsfor
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GoingForward
Giving citizens tools for controlling their energy footprint needntbe contrarian or
anarchistic. Whilesheshouldbecommendedforhertrailblazingattitude,theoffgridsolarenthusiastisnotarealisticmodelformostofsociety. Todecreaseourcollective
household energy use, we must humbly acknowledge the barriers that currently
preventus from living completelyoff thegrid, including economicdisparity, lackof
knowledge,andadearthofpowerfulincentives,effectivelyperpetuatingthestatusquo.
The most promising developments in decreasing household energy use are not
technical ones alone: the greatest innovations have yet to emerge in the realm of
appropriately incentivizing and enabling access to microrenewables in conjunction
witheducationalfeedbackmechanismstocontrolconsumption. Incentivesforgreater
efficiency and collaboration with powerful stakeholders such as utilities and
governmentsarealsocritical.
InGreenpeaces 2005 report, Decentralising Power:An Energy Revolution For The 21st
Century, theauthors imaginea convergenceof technologiesandapproacheswithina
singlecommunity:Existing technologies, applied in a decentralised way and combined with efficiency
measures and zero emission developments, can deliver low carbon communities as
illustrated here. Power is generated using efficient cogeneration or trigeneration
technologieswiththeheat(andsometimescooling)pluselectricitydistributedvialocal
networks.Thissupplementstheenergyproducedfrombuilding integratedgeneration.
Energysolutionscomefromlocalopportunitiesatboththesmallandcommunityscale
withthis townmakinguseofamongstotherswind,biomassandhydroresources.
Naturalgas,whereneeded,canbedeployed inahighlyefficientmanner.Privatewire
electricity networks deliver power in the town but are connected to neighbouring
networks and the national system to allow for export and import and to assist in
security. This towns decentralised system is flexible and able to adapt to future
circumstances. More importantly it can be constructed relatively swiftly using
technologiesavailabletoday.
Ifthereareanyhighlevelinsightsofferedinthispaperitisthattechnologyaloneisnot
thesolutiontoourmanyenergywoes,andneitherisenergyeducation. Thesolutionis
actuallyaportfolioofsolutionsnestedwithineachother. Strategiestoincreaseconsumer
awarenessaboutenergyusecandecreaseoveralldemand,slowingtherateofgrowthof
ourenergyinfrastructures. Increasedawarenessaboutenergyusecanbeastepping
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stonetoapreferredmicrogenerationsystem. Infact,moreefficientuseofenergyand
microgenerationpositivelyreinforceeachother.
Utilitieswhoinvestinsmartmeteringtechnologiestobettermanagetheirgridsareina
goodpositiontoprovidemoreaccurateinformationtocustomers,therebydecreasing
consumption. Theyarealsoinabetterpositiontoovercomethecomplexitiesof
microgenerationandarebetterpositionedtocapitalizeonemergingopportunitiesfor
energyserviceproviders.
Theprevalenceofwebbasedsocialnetworkingandtheincreasinginnovationand
availabilityofspecificsupplyanddemandsidetechnologieswillbetterenable
communitiestoaddresstheirownenergyneeds.
Ofallofthesesolutions,weofferseveralcriticalsuggestionsformovingforwardin
thesearenas:
ForUtilities:
Justprovidinginformationaboutenergyuseisnotenough;ithastobepresentedinwaysthatcustomersunderstand. Workcloselywithdesigners
andeducatorsbeforerevampingyourbillingsystems.
Decentralizedpowermakeseconomicandsocialsense Smartmeteringtechnologiescanprovidemultiplebenefits Customersdontwantkilowatthours;theywantservicessuchashot
showers,cold
beer,
lit
rooms,
and
spinning
shafts,
which
can
come
more
cheaplyfromusinglesselectricitymoreefficiently.Goodprogramstosave
commercialandindustrialelectricitycostonlyaboutahalfcentperkilowatt
hour,whichisseveralfoldcheaperthanjustoperatingacoalornuclearplant,
and10to20timescheaperthanbuildinganewone.(Lovins,1990)
ForConsumers
Dontgobuyingsolarpanelsuntilyouvepluggedtheholesinyourhouse. Ifyoucantpayforitalone,itslikelythatasacommunityyoucan,leadingto
costsavings,increasedreliability,andastrongereconomy.
Energyconservationcanbesexy. Yes,itcanmeanbuyingcoolnewtoysandtherearelotstochoosefrom. Tryitathome.
Thesystemcanchange. Youcanhelpmakeithappen.ForPolicymakers
Regulationsandincentivesmatter. Theymatteralot. Choosewisely.
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These solutions have the potential to increase economic independence and self
sufficiencyofallcommunities,notjustwealthyones. Theycan increasegridstability
and resilience, and theymay even connectus toourneighbors inunexpectedways,
leading to increased social capitalwhilewe actively decrease our energy footprints.
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