When the Going Gets Tough: Parental Depression as When the Going Gets Tough: Parental Depression as
Both Response and Predictor of Adolescent Both Response and Predictor of Adolescent
Externalizing Behavior Over 3 YearsExternalizing Behavior Over 3 Years
Joseph P. AllenJoseph P. Allen
Jill AntonishakJill Antonishak
Nell Manning Nell Manning
University of VirginiaUniversity of Virginia Collaborators:Maryfrances Porter, Ph.D.Penny MarshKathleen McElhaney, Ph.D.F. Christy McFarlandJessica Meyer
Farah WilliamsDebbie Land, Ph.D.Katie LittleJennifer Haynes
Martin HoMindy Schmidt, Ph.D.Glenda Insabella, Ph.D.Wrenn ThompsonJoanna Chango
Copies of this and related papers are available at:WWW.TEENRESEARCH.ORG
Maternal Depression and Offspring Antisocial Maternal Depression and Offspring Antisocial Behavior (ASB) Behavior (ASB)
Depressed Mothers Often Have Antisocial ChildrenDepressed Mothers Often Have Antisocial Children
Maternal Depression as a Risk Factor for ASBMaternal Depression as a Risk Factor for ASB
Even when maternal depression is assessed prenatallyEven when maternal depression is assessed prenatally
A form of parental “backing down”?A form of parental “backing down”?
Less Clear How Process Plays Out In AdolescenceLess Clear How Process Plays Out In Adolescence
Questions About Maternal Depression and Questions About Maternal Depression and Antisocial BehaviorAntisocial Behavior in Adolescence in Adolescence
A Simple Effect of Maternal Reporting Bias? A Simple Effect of Maternal Reporting Bias?
Do Depressed Mothers (mis) perceive their children as less Do Depressed Mothers (mis) perceive their children as less well-behaved?well-behaved?
Does maternal depression predict Does maternal depression predict future increases future increases in teen in teen misbehavior?misbehavior?
Could maternal depression be a Could maternal depression be a reactionreaction to teen to teen misbehavior?misbehavior?
SampleSample
184 Adolescents, their Parents, Best Friends, and Other 184 Adolescents, their Parents, Best Friends, and Other FriendsFriends
Equal numbers of Males and FemalesEqual numbers of Males and Females
Assessed Annually, Beginning at Age 13Assessed Annually, Beginning at Age 13
Highly Socio-economically Diverse (Median Family Income= Highly Socio-economically Diverse (Median Family Income= $40- $60K)$40- $60K)
31% African American; 69% European American31% African American; 69% European American
Intensive Interviews and Observations with all parties (Parents, Intensive Interviews and Observations with all parties (Parents, teens, best friends, other friends) (Total N over first 6 years ~ teens, best friends, other friends) (Total N over first 6 years ~ 1200).1200).
Measures: Maternal DepressionMeasures: Maternal Depression
Beck Depression Inventory Beck Depression Inventory (Beck et al., 1993)(Beck et al., 1993)
Maternal self-reportMaternal self-report
21-items assessing symptoms such as:21-items assessing symptoms such as:
guiltguilt
depressed mooddepressed mood
suicidal thoughtssuicidal thoughts
insomniainsomnia
Continuum/severity approach Continuum/severity approach
Measures: Externalizing BehaviorMeasures: Externalizing Behavior
Obtained from Multiple reporters via multiple measures:Obtained from Multiple reporters via multiple measures:
Child Behavior Checklist Child Behavior Checklist (Achenbach & Edelbrock, 1981)(Achenbach & Edelbrock, 1981)
Short-form of CBCL for teens Short-form of CBCL for teens (Lizotte, Chard-Wierschem, Loeber, & Stern, 1992) (Lizotte, Chard-Wierschem, Loeber, & Stern, 1992)
Youth Self Report Youth Self Report (Achenbach, 1991)(Achenbach, 1991)
Assessing symptoms of externalizing behavior including: aggression, Assessing symptoms of externalizing behavior including: aggression, hostility, delinquency, hyperactivity and immaturityhostility, delinquency, hyperactivity and immaturity
Reporters include:Reporters include: MothersMothers FathersFathers YouthsYouths Close and Other FriendsClose and Other Friends
Questions About Maternal Depression and Questions About Maternal Depression and Antisocial BehaviorAntisocial Behavior in Adolescencein Adolescence
Does the link just reflect maternal bias?Does the link just reflect maternal bias?
Does maternal depression predict Does maternal depression predict increasing increasing teen teen misbehavior over a 3-year span?misbehavior over a 3-year span?
Could maternal depression be a Could maternal depression be a reactionreaction to teen to teen misbehavior?misbehavior?
Do Depressed Mothers See Externalizing Behavior Do Depressed Mothers See Externalizing Behavior That Others Don’t See?That Others Don’t See?
Teen Externalizing Teen Externalizing
(Maternal Report)(Maternal Report)
EntryEntry
FinalFinal RR22
Total Total RR22
Externalizing (Teen Report)Externalizing (Teen Report) .31**.31** .31**.31** .09**.09** .09**.09**
Modest correlation between maternal and teen report of teen externalizing behavior
Do Depressed Mothers See Externalizing Behavior Do Depressed Mothers See Externalizing Behavior That Others Don’t See?That Others Don’t See?
Teen Externalizing Teen Externalizing
(Maternal Report)(Maternal Report)
EntryEntry
FinalFinal RR22
Total Total RR22
Externalizing (Teen Report)Externalizing (Teen Report) .31**.31** .26**.26** .09**.09** .09**.09**
Maternal Depression (BDI)Maternal Depression (BDI) .47***.47*** .47***.47*** .22***.22*** .31***.31***
Maternal Depression Accounts for a great deal of the misbehavior that mothers see but teens do not.
Do Depressed Mothers See Externalizing Behavior Do Depressed Mothers See Externalizing Behavior That Others Don’t See?That Others Don’t See?
Teen Externalizing Teen Externalizing
(Maternal Report)(Maternal Report)
EntryEntry
FinalFinal RR22
Total Total RR22
Externalizing (Teen Report)Externalizing (Teen Report) .31**.31** .16*.16* .09**.09** .09**.09**
Maternal Depression (BDI)Maternal Depression (BDI) .47***.47*** .41***.41*** .22***.22*** .31***.31***
Externalizing (Paternal Report)Externalizing (Paternal Report) .54***.54*** .54***.54*** .28***.28*** .59***.59***
Some of the misbehavior seen by depressed mothers turns out to be seen by fathers as well
Do Depressed Mothers See Externalizing Behavior Do Depressed Mothers See Externalizing Behavior That Others Don’t See?That Others Don’t See?
Teen Externalizing Teen Externalizing
(Maternal Report)(Maternal Report)
EntryEntry
FinalFinal RR22
Total Total RR22
Externalizing (Teen Report)Externalizing (Teen Report) .31**.31** .13+.13+ .09**.09** .09**.09**
Maternal Depression (BDI)Maternal Depression (BDI) .47***.47*** .31***.31*** .22***.22*** .31***.31***
Externalizing (Paternal Report)Externalizing (Paternal Report) .54***.54*** .51***.51*** .28***.28*** .59***.59***Externalizing (Close Frnd Report)Externalizing (Close Frnd Report) .04.04 .04.04 .00.00 .59***.59***
Externalizing (Other Frnd Report)Externalizing (Other Frnd Report) .27***.27*** .27***.27*** .06***.06*** .65***.65***
The role of maternal depression in explaining what mothers see decreases still further when we also consider what peers see.
Depressed Mothers May Not Be Biased,Depressed Mothers May Not Be Biased,They May Be RealistsThey May Be Realists
If we compare mothers to any other If we compare mothers to any other single single reporter, reporter,
they appear to see misbehavior that others don’t see.they appear to see misbehavior that others don’t see.
But…But…
as we consider as we consider multiplemultiple vantage points on teen misbehavior, vantage points on teen misbehavior, maternal perceptions appear to reflect what others collectively maternal perceptions appear to reflect what others collectively do see do see
Questions About Maternal Depression and Questions About Maternal Depression and Antisocial BehaviorAntisocial Behavior in Adolescencein Adolescence
Does the link just reflect maternal bias?Does the link just reflect maternal bias?
Does maternal depression predict Does maternal depression predict increasing increasing teen teen misbehavior over a 4-year span?misbehavior over a 4-year span?
Could maternal depression be a Could maternal depression be a reactionreaction to teen to teen misbehavior?misbehavior?
Does Maternal Depression Predict Future Increases Does Maternal Depression Predict Future Increases in Teen Externalizing Behavior?in Teen Externalizing Behavior?
Teen Externalizing (Age 16)Teen Externalizing (Age 16)
((PaternalPaternal Report) Report)
RR22
Total Total RR22
Step I.Step I. Teen Externalizing Teen Externalizing (Paternal report) Age 13(Paternal report) Age 13
.52**.52** .27***.27*** .27***.27***
Teen Externalizing Behavior Displays Moderate Stability
Does Maternal Depression Predict Future Increases Does Maternal Depression Predict Future Increases in Teen Externalizing Behavior?in Teen Externalizing Behavior?
Teen Externalizing (Age 16)Teen Externalizing (Age 16)
((PaternalPaternal Report) Report)
RR22
Total Total RR22
Step I.Step I. Teen Externalizing Teen Externalizing (Paternal report) Age 13(Paternal report) Age 13
.52**.52** .27***.27*** .27***.27***
Step II.Step II.
Maternal Depression (BDI)Maternal Depression (BDI)
(Teen Age 13)(Teen Age 13)
.35***.35*** .13***.13*** .40***.40***
Maternal Depression Predicts Increasing Teen Externalizing Behavior
Does Maternal Depression Predict Future Increases Does Maternal Depression Predict Future Increases in Teen Externalizing Behavior?in Teen Externalizing Behavior?
Teen Externalizing (Age 16)Teen Externalizing (Age 16)
((MaternalMaternal Report) Report)
RR22
Total Total RR22
Step I.Step I. Teen Externalizing Teen Externalizing (Maternal report) Age 13(Maternal report) Age 13
.66***.66*** .43***.43*** .43***.43***
Step II.Step II.
Maternal Depression (BDI)Maternal Depression (BDI)
(Teen Age 13)(Teen Age 13)
.16*.16* .03*.03* .46***.46***
Increases are Predicted Whether We Examine Paternal or Maternal Reports of Teen Problem Behavior
Maternal Depression as a Mediator of Change in Maternal Depression as a Mediator of Change in Teen Externalizing BehaviorTeen Externalizing Behavior
Teen Externalizing
Maternal Depression
Teen Externalizing
Age 13 Age 16
.51***
.31**
Maternal Depression as a Mediator of Change in Maternal Depression as a Mediator of Change in Teen Externalizing BehaviorTeen Externalizing Behavior
Teen Externalizing
Maternal Depression
Teen Externalizing
??
Age 13 Age 16
.51***
.31**
?
?
Maternal Depression as a Mediator of Change in Maternal Depression as a Mediator of Change in Teen Externalizing BehaviorTeen Externalizing Behavior
Teen Externalizing
Maternal Depression
Teen Externalizing
MaternalDepression
Age 13 Age 16
.51***
.12
.66***
.28*
Maternal Depression and Maternal Depression and Teen Externalizing BehaviorTeen Externalizing Behavior
Teen Externalizing
Maternal Depression
Teen Externalizing
MaternalDepression
Age 13 Age 16
.51***
.66***
.28*
??
Questions About Maternal Depression and Questions About Maternal Depression and Antisocial BehaviorAntisocial Behavior in Adolescencein Adolescence
Does the link just reflect maternal bias?Does the link just reflect maternal bias?
Does maternal depression predict Does maternal depression predict increasing increasing teen teen misbehavior over a 4-year span?misbehavior over a 4-year span?
Could maternal depression be a Could maternal depression be a reactionreaction to teen to teen misbehavior?misbehavior?
Teen Externalizing Behavior Predicting Change inTeen Externalizing Behavior Predicting Change inMaternal Depression (Ages 13 to 16)Maternal Depression (Ages 13 to 16)
Maternal DepressionMaternal Depression
(Teen Age 16)(Teen Age 16)
EntryEntry
FinalFinal RR22
Total Total RR22
Step I.Step I. Maternal DepressionMaternal Depression (Teen Age 13)(Teen Age 13)
.73***.73*** .52***.52*** .44***.44*** .44***.44***
Maternal Depressive Symptoms are Highly Stable
Teen Externalizing Behavior Predicting Change inTeen Externalizing Behavior Predicting Change inMaternal Depression (Ages 13 to 16)Maternal Depression (Ages 13 to 16)
Maternal DepressionMaternal Depression
(Teen Age 16)(Teen Age 16)
EntryEntry
FinalFinal RR22
Total Total RR22
Step I.Step I. Maternal DepressionMaternal Depression (Teen Age 13)(Teen Age 13)
.73***.73*** .52***.52*** .44***.44*** .44***.44***
Step II. Step II.
Teen Externalizing (13)Teen Externalizing (13) .16*.16* .18**.18** .02*.02* .46***.46***
Teen Externalizing Behavior Adds to Maternal Depression Over Time
Teen Externalizing Behavior Predicting Change inTeen Externalizing Behavior Predicting Change inMaternal Depression (Ages 13 to 16)Maternal Depression (Ages 13 to 16)
Maternal DepressionMaternal Depression
(Teen Age 16)(Teen Age 16)
EntryEntry
FinalFinal RR22
Total Total RR22
Step I.Step I. Maternal DepressionMaternal Depression (Teen Age 13)(Teen Age 13)
.73***.73*** .52***.52*** .44***.44*** .44***.44***
Step II. Step II.
Teen Externalizing (13)Teen Externalizing (13) .16*.16* .18**.18** .02*.02* .46***.46***
Step III. Step III.
Depression X ExternalizingDepression X Externalizing .23***.23*** .23***.23*** .05***.05*** .51***.51***
Externalizing Behavior Interacts with Baseline Maternal Depression to Predict Future Maternal Depression.
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
Mat
erna
l Dep
ress
ion
(Age
16)
Low TeenExternalizing
High TeenExternalizing
Low Maternal Depression at Baseline
Interaction of Baseline Maternal Depression & Teen Interaction of Baseline Maternal Depression & Teen Externalizing Predicting Future Maternal DepressionExternalizing Predicting Future Maternal Depression
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
Mat
erna
l Dep
ress
ion
(Age
16)
Low TeenExternalizing
High TeenExternalizing
High Maternal Depressionat Baseline
Low Maternal Depression at Baseline
Interaction of Baseline Maternal Depression & Teen Interaction of Baseline Maternal Depression & Teen Externalizing Predicting Future Maternal DepressionExternalizing Predicting Future Maternal Depression
Initially Depressed Mothers Appear
Particularly Vulnerable to Teen Externalizing
Behavior
SummarySummary
A self-sustaining negative feedback loop?A self-sustaining negative feedback loop?
Maternal Depression Maternal Depression Increasing Teen Problem BehaviorIncreasing Teen Problem Behavior
Teen Problem Behavior Teen Problem Behavior Increasing Maternal DepressionIncreasing Maternal Depression
Especially for the most depressed/vulnerable mothersEspecially for the most depressed/vulnerable mothers
Dominance/Submissiveness Processes in Depression Dominance/Submissiveness Processes in Depression
Becoming embedded within family interaction patterns over Becoming embedded within family interaction patterns over timetime
LimitationsLimitations
Non-experimental Nature of DataNon-experimental Nature of Data
Normal sample may not generalize to highly disturbed Normal sample may not generalize to highly disturbed samplessamples
Role of fathers still to be examinedRole of fathers still to be examined
ConclusionsConclusions
Evidence of an Unfortunate Feedback LoopEvidence of an Unfortunate Feedback Loop
Its About Not Just Its About Not Just How How Parents Behave, But Parents Behave, But WhyWhy
Need for Intervention to Alter Family Need for Intervention to Alter Family SystemsSystems, Not Just , Not Just IndividualsIndividuals
This study was made possible by grants from the National Institute of Mental Health. Copies of this and related papers are available at:
WWW.TEENRESEARCH.ORG