Download - Winter 2015-16 Newsletter

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DemonstrationTestCatchments

Newsletter-Winter2015/16

WelcometotheWinter2015/16editionoftheDTCNewsletterhighlightingsomeaspectsofthe

research,recentkeyactivities,eventsandinformationonrelatedprojectswithlinksforyouto

followuponmoredetailedinformationaboutindividualitemsandtopicsofinterest.

If we knew what we were doing it would not be called research, would it?

– Albert Einstein

StormDesmondCausesDevastatingFloodsinRiverEdenCatchment

• StormDesmondbroughtrecord-breakingrainfallandassociatedrun-offtothenorth-westofEnglandingeneralandtheEdencatchmentinparticular,duringtheweekendof5/6December.TheslowmovingfrontalrainfellontosaturatedgroundwithagaugeatHonisterPassrecording341.4mmofrainfallin24hrson5December,settinganewUKrecord(beatingthepreviousoneof316.4mmsetinNovember2009atSeathwaite,inCumbria).Anew48-hourrecordwasalsoset,when405mmwasrecordedatThirlmerealsoinCumbriaandtherehasbeenrecordrainfall

recordedinDecemberforanumberofplacesinCumbriaandLancashire(aswellasinYorkshireandNWales).(http://blog.metoffice.gov.uk/2015/12/)

Anestimated5200homeswerefloodedwithCarlisleatthebottomoftheEdenbeingparticularlybadlyaffected.Bridgesandroadshavebeenwashedaway,railwaysblocked,farmerslostlivestockand,tragically,twopeoplediedinfloodwaters.Therainandfloodwaterhaspotentiallymovedalargeamountofnutrientfromagriculturallandintotheriversystem.AttimeofwritingtheEdenDTCteamwerestillassessingthehealthoftheirmonitoringkitandstudyingdatabuttheimpactofDesmondshouldgivefurtherinsightsintotheroleofextremeweatherevents(severestorms)inmobilisingnutrientfluxfromlandtoriver,butitisclearthatalargeloadofnutrientsandtopsoilweremovedintothecatchment.SimonJohnson(DirectoroftheEdenRiversTrust(ERT))said…“therecouldbearealopportunity…tore-engagethepublictodriveabetterunderstandingofcatchments,bustafewmythsanddevelopresilientcommunitygroupsthatcanalsostillenjoyandvaluerivers.”

StormDesmondoverCumbria

Unequalrainfalldistributioninthefirst3weeksofDecember

Eden

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AddressingaquestionfromtheEnvironmentAgencyastowhethersoilmanagementhadaroletoplayintheseverityoftheflooding,ProfessorPhilHaygarthsummarisedhisthoughtsin4categories:

1. Thereisevidenceattheplotandfieldscalethatsoilmanagement,whichpromotesstructureandwaterretention,canslowwaterrun-off.

2. Theextenttowhichthisknowledgecanbeconfidentlytranslatedtothemitigationoffloodingeventsatthecatchmentscaleismuchlessclear,catchmentsarecomplex.

3. Soilstructuralmanagementintheuplandscancontributetoreducedrun-offbutmustbepartofabiggerandintegratedsolution.

4. ItappearsthattheeventsinCumbriaduringStormDesmondweresoseverethatsoilissuesprobablywouldhavebeenofmarginalimportanceinthiscase.

Isthereevidenceof‘biogeochemicalstationarity’intheRiverWensum

catchment?TheWensumDTCteamhasbeenexaminingtherelationshipsbetweenrainfall-runoff,catchmentconnectivity,antecedentmoistureconditionsandfertiliserapplicationwithnitrate-Nandtotalphosphorus(TP)fluxesintheBlackwaterstudyareaoverthreehydrologicalyears(2012–2014).Usinghigh-resolutiondata(30min)generatedfrombanksidemonitoringkiosks,investigationshaveuncoveredarangeofimportantmeteorologicalandhydrogeochemicalphenomenawhichhaveenhancedourunderstandingofthisintensivearablesystem.Theseareasfollows:

• annualprecipitationtotalsdidnotvarysubstantiallybetweenyears,yetthetimingofrainfalldidstronglyinfluencerunoffgenerationandsubsequentnitrate-NandTPfluxes;

Figure1:CroptypesandfertiliserapplicationintheBlackwatercatchmentduringthethreeyearmonitoringperiod.(a–c)croptypes;(d-f)inorganicandorganicnitrogenfertiliserapplicationrate;(g-i)inorganicandorganicphosphorusfertiliserapplicationrate.Seepaperforfurtherdetails.

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• thegreatestnitrate-NandTPfluxesoccurredonlywhentheshallowgroundwaterlevelwaswithin0.6mofthegroundsurfaceandrunoffcoefficientsweregreaterthan0.1;

• thewetwinter2013resultedinelevatedshallowgroundwaterlevelswhichledtomorefrequentactivationofsub-surfacepathwaysandtiledrainflows;

• acrossthethreeyears,dryantecedentconditionshadatemporaryeffectinelevatingTPloads;

• evidenceofTPsourceexhaustionafterconsecutivestormeventswasdetectedandcanbeattributedtotherepeateddepletionoftemporarilyconnectedcriticalsourceareastotherivernetworkviaimpermeableroadsurfaces;

• finally,andmostimportantly,fertiliserapplicationvariedconsiderably(upto41%)acrossthethreeyearsduetodifferencesincroprotationbetweenfarms.However,proportionalreductionsinannualriverinenitrate-NandTPloadingswerenotobservedatthesub-catchmentoutlet.Nitrateloadingswereslightlyhigherduringfertiliserapplication,buttherewaslittlerelationshipbetweenPfertiliserapplicationandriverineTPload.Theseresultsindicatethatthisintensivearablecatchmentmaybeinastateof‘biogeochemicalstationarity’,wherebylegacystoresofnutrientsarebufferingthestreamagainstannualchangesinfertilisernutrientinputs.

FurtherdetailsonthisresearchcanbefoundinarecentlypublishedarticleinScienceoftheTotalEnvironment:OutramFN,CooperRJ,SünnenbergG,HiscockKM,LovettAA.2015.Antecedentconditions,hydrologicalconnectivityandanthropogenicinputs:Factorsaffectingnitrateandphosphorustransferstoagriculturalheadwaterstreams.ScienceoftheTotalEnvironment.DOI:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.12.025.Contact:RichardCooper([email protected])

DTCDataandtheDataArchive

TheDemonstrationTestCatchmentArchiveProjectfinishedattheendofJanuary2015.TheoutcomeoftheprojectwastheAgriculturalandEnvironmentalDataArchive(AEDA),whichhasbeenonlinefornearlyayearandcanbeaccessedatwww.environmentdata.org.Varioususershavebeenaddingdatasincethattime,notonlyfromtheDTCconsortiaandtheDefraAgriculturalGreenhouseGasPlatform,butalsofromtheFreshwaterBiologicalAssociationwhobuiltandhousethearchive,andothercontributorssuchasSyngenta,theEnvironmentAgencyandTheAtlanticSalmonTrust.TherearealsosomenewcontributorsfromtheDefraSustainableIntensificationPlatformandsomehistoricalGreenhouseGasdata.Addingdatatothearchiveisonlythefirststepinmakingitavailabletothepublic.Oncethedatahasbeenaddedintheproperformatitcanbepublished.Publicationinvolvessubmittingthedataforaseriesofautomatedchecksbythearchivesoftwareandalsohumanreviewbythearchivestaff.Ifalliswellitwillbepublishedandmadeavailabletothepublic,aDigitalObjectIdentifier(DOI)iscreatedforthedatasetanditbecomesascholarlyworkwhichcanbecitedinscientificpublications.YoucanseeexamplesofsomepublishedDTCdataat:http://www.environmentdata.org/clist/dtcwensum.Intheelevenmonthssincethearchivewasmadeavailableseveralimprovementshavebeenmadethatshouldmakeiteasierforpeopletoadddatatothearchive.TheDOIcreationfunctionalityhasbeenaddedandthequalityofthepublisheddatainthearchivehasbeenenhancedbymakingitpossibletoachievecertificationfromtheOpenDataInstitute(ODI).More

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andmoredatawillbeaddedtothearchiveastimegoesonandthetechnicalcapabilitiesofthesystemwillbeimprovedonacontinuousbasis.Contact:MikeHaft([email protected]).

TheUseofRemoteSensingTechniquesinUnderstandingDiffusePollution

TheDTCteams,intheEdencatchmentparticularly,havebeentriallingavarietyofremotesensingtechniquestoseeiftheycanaddvalueinunderstandingthecatchmentsystem.Inthefollowingfewarticlessomeofthisworkissummarised.

RealTimeCameraWorkAsetofcustom-maderealtimewebcameraswereinstalledateachoftheEdenDTCcatchmentoutletsaspartofthefirstphaseoftheDTCproject.ThesecamerascapturedVideoGraphicsArray(VGA)low-resolutionimages(640x680pixels)at10minuteintervals,whichweretransmittedtotheweb-serverviathemobilephonedatanetwork.TheimagesweredisplayedontheEdenDTCwebsiteandarchivedforfutureanalysis.Theobjectivesforthisinstallationwere:

• Toallowthefieldteamtoseethecurrentconditionsatthesitestoassistwithmaintenance;and

• Toallowstakeholderstoseethesitesandcomparethemonitoringresultstotheoutvisualrecord.

Theliveimagesfromtheweb-camswerepopularonthewebsite.Forexample,thecameraattheMorlandoutletwasviewed245timesin2013,whilethewaterchemistrydatawasviewed320times,indicatingthattheusersofthewebsitewerefindingvalueintheseimages.Thecamerasalsocapturedsomeexemplarstormeventsandstreamresponses(Fig2).

Therewereproblemswiththereliabilityofthecameras,requiringfrequentattentiontokeepthemrunning.Therewerealsoissueswithalackof3GmobiledatasignalattheThackthwaiteBecksite.Ultimately,theperformanceofthecameraswasnotsufficienttojustifythecontinuedtimecostofmaintainingthesystem;(thecamerasupplierhassincebeenboughtoutbyMeteorCommunications,whohaveupdatedandrefinedthecamerasintoanewproduct).

Figure2:StormflowresponsecapturedatThackthwaiteBeckwiththerealtimewebcameras

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Conclusions• Thereal-timecamerasprovidedusefulcontextualinformationtoboththefieldteamand

towebsiteusers;• Theeventscapturedbythecamerashavesupportedpresentationsontheproject;• Thequalityandlevelofmaintenancerequiredforthecamerasmeantthattheywereon

trialforpartoftheproject;• Futureprojectscouldconsiderinstallingnewversionsofthistechnologyifthequalitycan

beimprovedandmaintenancerequiredcanbereduced. MonitoringCattlewithCameras–Exploringthetemporaldynamicsbetweencattlein-stream

presenceandsuspendedsolidsinaheadwatercatchmentCattlein-streamactivityispotentiallyanimportantcontributortowaterpollutionfromagriculture.Inordertoaddresstheuncertaintyabouttheextenttowhichcattleimpactonsedimenttransferprocesseswithinthefluvialchannel,acomparisonofhigh-resolutionmonitoringdataofcattleactivitywithinthestreambedagainsthigh-resolutionwaterqualitydatacollectedoveraperiodofseveralmonthswasconducted.BushnellTrophyXLT119455motionsensorcameras,withinfrarednight-visionLEDs,wereusedtocapturein-streamactivityofcattle,withatime-delayof10secondsbetweeneachshutterresponsetriggeredbythemotionsensors.inanunfencedreachoverafour-monthperiod.Resultswerecomparedagainsthigh-resolutionSSCdata.Overthedaysthatcattlegrazedthefield,58%oftheinstanceswhensuspendedsolidsconcentrations(SSC)crossedthe25mgl-1FreshwaterFishDirectiveguidelinethresholdcanbeattributedtocattlepresenceinthestream.Flowwasthemaindriveroftotalsedimentstransportedoverthestudyperiod,andnorelationshipwasfoundbetweenSSCandtheabsolutenumberofcattlefeetinthewater.Hysteresisanalysisindicateda‘first-flush’oflocalsedimentsrapidlymobilisedduringthenon-cattlerelatedSSCevents,aresultofcattleproximitytochannelmargins.Resultsdemonstrateatemporallagbetweencattlein-streampresenceandacriticalamountoftheircontributiontosedimentload,andthatmonitoringonlyinstantaneouslywithcattleactivitymayleadtounderestimationoftheirpollutionimpact.Theworkhighlightsthatcattlehaveanobservableimpactonwaterpollution,althoughatemporallagbetweencattlein-streampresenceandacriticalamountoftheircontributiontosedimentloadwasdemonstrated.Thisstudyhelpsdemonstratethelossofenvironmentalinformationthatcanresultfromlowresolutionmonitoringprogrammes,andisavailableinfullathttp://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlepdf/2014/em/c3em00686g?page=search.Monitoringchangesindiffusepollutionsourceriskwithtime-lapsephotographyTherearemanyfactorswithinthelandscapethatcanaffectdiffusepollutionsourcerisks,whichvaryovertheyear.Examplesincludesnowcoverdynamicsdrivingoverlandflownotdirectlyconnectedtoprecipitationonthatday,andchangesinsolarreceiptresultingfromcloudcoverandlandcoverchangesensuingfromagriculturalpractices.AnapproachthatwastrialledwithinthefirstphaseofDTCwastheuseofatime-lapsecameratocreateavisualrecordonthelandscape,whichcouldthenbeprocessedtogiveacontinuousrecordofsuchfactors.Itishopedthatthisextrainformationmayprovideusefulcontextandbackgroundinformationfortheinterpretationofthein-streammonitoringdata.

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AsinglecamerawasinstalledintheDacresub-catchmentoftheEdenDTC.Thelocationwasselectedduetothesuitabilityofthetopographyfortheapproach,andlocalissueswithsnowmeltthataremostrelevantatthissite.ThecameralocationandatypicalimageareshowninFig3.ThecamerainstalledwasaCanon5DmkIDSLRwitha24mmf2.8lenssettof5.0,withafixedISOof200inapertureprioritymode.Thissetupgaveahorizontalangleofviewof73.7°.Thecamerawastriggeredtotakeanimageevery10minutesandhasbeeninstalledsinceJan2014.ConvertingImagestoInformationImageswereprocessedwiththePythonImageLibraryandSciPytoextractinformationonthechangingcharacteristicsofthelandscape.Theapproachtakenforcloudcoverandsnowcoverfollowedthesamesteps:

1. Definetheareaofinterestwithintheimageforanalysis.Fortheclearskies,thisisanareaextractedfromthesky,whileforthesnowcoverthisareawasdefinedasthelocalforegroundfield.

2. AGaussianblurfilterwasappliedtotheimagewithahighradius(200)togiveaconsistentcolourvaluewithintheextractedareaofinterestimage.

3. Thered,greenandbluecomponentsofthecolourwereextractedforanalysis.a. For‘clearskies’,theindexwasdefinedasblue/((green+red)/2)andhencethe

lowervaluesrepresentcloudydaysandhighervaluesrepresentblueskydaysb. Forthe‘snowiness’,theindexwasdefinedasblue/greenwithvaluestowards

onerepresentingsnowcoverThechangesintheoverallscenewereassessedbycomparingthestatisticaldifferencesbetweenpairsofimages.Twoapproachesweretested,thefirstcomparedthecurrentdaytothepreviousdayandthesecondapproachcomparedeachdaytotheaveragedscenefromthewholeyear.Thedifferencesbetweentheimagesweredefinedasthe‘Manhattan’difference,wherebythemeanmovementinbrightnesslevelsperpixeliscalculatedaftertheimageshavebeenconvertedtogreyscaleandnormalised.

Figure3:Thelocationofthetime-lapsecameraandatypicalimageacquiredfromthesite(24/06/14).Theredtriangleinthemapshowsthecameradirectionandangleofviewoftheimages

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InitialResultsFig4showstheinitialresultsforthe2014calendaryearfortheclearskiesandsnowinessindices,withexampleimages(Fig5).Theseinitialresultsarebasedonthemiddayimagesfromeachday.

Fromtheresults,itcanbeseenthatthesnowinessindexcorrectlyidentifydayswithsnowcoverwhentheindexvalueexceeds0.87.Thereisastrongseasonaltrendinthesnowinessindex

12/02/14ClearSkies:0.67Snowiness:0.96




valueswiththelowestvaluesinthesummer.The‘blueskies’indexshowsthehighlevelofcloudcoverthroughtheyear,withrelativelyfewdaysbeingcloudfree(8.5%ofdayshaveanindexvaluegreaterthan0.75).TheexampleimageinFig5from12/05/14showsissueswithcondensationwithinthewaterproofhousingofthecamerainstall.Thiscondensationreducestheimagequalityforfinedetail,butitisstillpossibletoextractinformationontheskystatus.Fig6showsthechangesovertimeforthedailydifferenceswhencomparedtothepreviousdayandtothemeanimage.TheresultsinFig6showthatthedifferencebasedindicesarecapableofidentifyingthedaysoftheyearwerethelandscapeorclimatedifferfromthe‘normal’conditions.TheapproachsuccessfullyidentifiedtheincreasedsnowcoverinFebruary2014,theoccurrenceofachangeintheweatherconditionsfromcloudtoclearskiesinApril2014andthereverseinAugust,andfinallytheoccurrenceofsnowfallinDecember2014.

Figure4:Changesintheclearskiesandsnowinessindexoverthe2014calendaryear

Figure5:Changesintheclearskiesandsnowinessindexoverthe2014calendaryear

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11/02/14

14/04/14

09/08/14

11/12/14

12/02/14FromPrevious:35.3FromAverage:59.3




Figure6:Changesovertimefordailydifferenceswhencomparedtothepreviousdayandtothemeanimage

Conclusions• Time-lapsephotographyofacatchmentandlandscapehasthecapabilitytoadd

significantcontextualinformationtocomplementandsupportthein-streamwaterchemistrydatasets;

• Theapproachgeneratessignificantamountsofdata,andhencetoolsareneededtoidentifytheimportanttimesandassociatedimages;

• Thepresentedindicesarecapableofidentifyingpropertiesoftheenvironmentsuchascloudcoverorsnowaccumulation/melt;

• Itispossibletoidentifythetimingoflargechangesinthelandscape,eithercomparedtothepreviousdayortotheannualaverageconditions.

UseofUnmannedAerialVehicles(UAVs)forDiffusePollutionUnderstandingPartoftheoriginalconceptualmodelofthegenerationofdiffusepollutionwithinthelandscapewasthatakeypartoftheprocesswasdrivenbyinteractionoftherainfallintensityandthe

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statusofthelandsurface.Landsurfacecharacteristicschangesignificantlyonintra-andinter-annualtimescalesandhence,tounderstandthecatchmentresponsetoastormevent,knowledgeofthecurrentstatusofthelandscapeisneeded.Tomonitorthesechanges,variousremotesensingapproacheswereassessed.Bothsatellitebasedremotesensingandaerialphotographywerediscountedduetoprohibitivecostsandpotentialissueswithcloudcover.Therefore,aspatiallytargetedplanusingaUAVwasdevelopedasawaytogetsomeinformationonthelandscapestate.

Exampletruecolourimage Landcoverclassifiedimage.Redare

bareareasandbluearevegetatedareas.Imageshows6.4%bare,erodiblesoil.

Changesinthegroundvegetationcover

TheequipmentsourcedwasaMicrodronesMD4-200quadcopterUAV1,whichofferedprogrammableflightroutesusingGPSandagroundstationshowingtelemetryfromthecraft,includingbatteryvoltage,positionandavideofeed.ThisisthesameUAVthatwasusedbytheEnvironmentAgencyandotherUKpublicsectororganisationsatthetime.TheMD4-200iscapableofcarrying200gpayloadofasmallRGBdigitalcamera.

Proofofconceptresults-ThefirstimageinFig7isatruecolourimageofaspringsownbarleyfieldatSewborwensFarmnearPenrith;thesecondisaclassifiedimagewhichshowsvegetationversussoilcover;andthefinalimageshowthechangeinvegetationcoverovertimeforthissite.

Lessonslearnt• Withinphase1ofEdenDTC,therewasinsufficientpersontimetoimplementtheplanned

monitoringschemewithoutimpactingonothermeasurements;• Dedicatedtimeandresourceisrequiredtoacquirehighqualityimagesandtoprocess

themintousefulinformation;• WiththeMD4-200,thereisanarrowwindspeedwindowforeffectiveandsafeoperation.

Thecraftissensitivetowindspeedgusts,whicharenotalwaysrecordedinweatherdata;• Repairtimescanbelongandcancreateissueswithapplication;• People(stakeholdersandpublic)areinterestedinthetechnologyanditprovidesan

effectiveengagementtool.

NextStepsWithinDTCphase1theoperationalisationofthespatialmonitoringwasnotpossiblewiththeUAVduetolackofsufficientpersontimeandtechnologicallimitations.WithinDTCphase2weareplanningtouseUAVequipmentfromDurhamUniversitytomonitorasetofkeyfieldswith1http://www.microdrones.com/en/products/md4-200/at-a-glance/

Figure7:ExampleimageprocessingforaspringsownbarleyfieldwithintheEdenDTCmonitoredarea

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higherosionriskandeffectivepathways(strongconnectivity)totheriverchannels.Thenewequipment(DJIS1000withZenmusegimbal,carryinga24mpAPS-CRGBcamera)iscapableofflyinginfarhigherwindspeedsandcancapturehigherresolutionandhigherprecisionimages.Theseimprovedimageswillenabledetailedterrainmodelsandcovermapsforthehotspotfieldstobecreated.Exampleswillbeshowninfutureprojectupdates.

Farmer-LedMonitoringintheWensumDTC

AspartoftheknowledgeexchangeactivitiesoftheWensumDTC,severalsmalltrialswithhand-heldmonitoringequipmentwereconducted.SeveralHannaHI9829probeswereinitiallypurchased,whichcanmeasurenitrate,turbidity,dissolvedoxygenandwatertemperature,butthesewerenotsufficientlyreliableinvalidationtestsusingsamplesthatwerealsoprocessedbytheanalyticallaboratoryatUEA.SeveralfarmersattendingtheWensumDTC/NFUmeetinginNovember2011offeredtoparticipateinundertakingmonitoringoffielddrainsontheirownfarms.SincetheHannaprobesdidnotproveeffectiveinspring2012wesuppliedthreefarmerswithnitrateteststripssothattheycouldassessvariationsinwaterqualityfromfielddrainsunderdifferentcrops.Thesestripstypicallycostabout£10foratubeof50strips,buthavelimitedsensitivitywithcolourchangesthatcanbematchedtoindicatorlevelsof(forexample)0,5,10,25,50,100,250and500mgl-1NO3.Threefarmersusedthestripstotakemeasurementsonthreeorfourfieldseveryfortnightorsoforthreemonths(MarchtoMay2012).Betweenthem,theycollected65datapointson14datesfrom11locations.Table1showstherangeofreadingsrecordedfromdrainsonfieldswithavarietyofdifferentcrops.

Minimum

(mgl-1NO3)

Maximum

(mgl-1NO3)

Oilseedrape 0 5Winterwheat 2 20Sugarbeet 20 80Fieldbeans 20 50Linseed 5 20Herbs 10 20Pasture 5 5Theresultsweresufficientlyreliabletohighlightdifferencesbetweencrops(e.g.concentrations<10mgl-1NO3fromfieldsofoilseedrapewherethecropwasactivelytakingupnitrogenfertiliser,andvaluesintherange20-80mgl-1NO3wheresugarbeethadbeenplanted).However,itwasnotpossibletoidentifyanyconsistentchangesfollowingrainfalleventsandallthreefarmersnotedthattherewasadegreeofsubjectivityinmatchingthecolourchangestotheshadescaleonthesideofthetubes.Basedonthisexperienceitwasdecidedthatweneededequipmentwithgreatersensitivityandthatcouldprovideareadableconcentration(ratherthanrequiringcomparisonwithcolourshades).Ittooksometimetoidentifyapossiblesolution,butinlate2012theDTCpurchasedfiveLovibondMD600Photometers(costing£815each,includingVAT)fromTintometerLtd(http://www.lovibond.com/)andhavebeenpleasedwiththeirsubsequentperformance.

Table1:NitrateteststripmeasurementsfromthreefarmsintheWensum(Apr–May2012)

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Thephotometerscanbesetuptoanalysequiteawiderangeofwaterqualityparameters,althoughsofaronlyphosphate(PO4)andnitrate(mgl-1N)concentrationshavebeenanalysed.Thephosphatetestinvolvescrushingtwotabletsinawatersampleandleavingthemtodissolvefor10minutesbeforetakingareading.Asetof250phosphatetabletscostsabout£50.Thenitratetestismoreexpensive(£150for25tests)andinvolvestubesofreagentswithahighconcentrationofsulphuricacid.Completedriskassessmentformsarerequiredforbothanalysesandithasbeenusefultopurchaseadditionalplasticsboxes,trays,testtubestandsetc.tostoreandmanagetheequipmentandreagents(seeFig8).Todatetherehavenotbeenanyproblemswithsafetyissues.

Thenitratetesthasanadvertisedrangeof1-30mgl-1N.Repeatedanalysesofthesamewatersamplefromafielddrainhavetypicallygeneratedvariationsof1-2mgl-1Naroundthemeanvalue.Forphosphatethereisanadvertisedrangeof0.05-4mgl-1PO4andexperienceshowsthatitisquitepossibletogetresultsvaryingby0.10or0.15mgl-1fromrepeatanalysesonthesamewatersample.Theissuewiththephosphatetestsistoensurethatthetabletsarecompletelycrushedanddissolvedbeforeputtingthesampleinthe

photometer.Beyondthesecaveatsregardingprecision,theequipmentprovedtobereliableandstraightforwardtoexplaintopotentialusers.Overwinter2013-14severalofthephotometerswereloanedtotheCatchmentSensitiveFarmingteamintheWisseycatchmentwhoarecollaboratingwithfarmersrecruitedthroughFrontierAgriculturetotesttheiruse.AnothersetofequipmentwasusedbyaprojectofficerfromtheNorfolkRiversTrust.Experiencesreportedbacktodatearethattheequipmentiscertainlycapableofidentifyingdifferencesinfielddrainnutrientlevelsbetweencrops(e.g.oilseedrapeandwheat)andreductionsinconcentrationsbetweenlateNovemberandFebruary.Onapracticalleveltherehavebeencommentsthatthephotometersarecertainlyanimprovementonteststripsorequipmentfromothersuppliers,butissueshavebeenencounteredingettingallthephosphatetabletstodissolveandtheviewhasbeenexpressedthatmanyfarmerswouldrequireatrainingsessionandon-farmsupporttogetconsistentlyreliableresults.WorkingwithlocalCatchmentSensitiveFarmingofficers,theWensumDTChopestodevelopsuchtrainingandgatherfurtherinsightsonexperienceduringthenexttwoyears.

DefraWorkshop30thNovember:“Experiencesofengagingwithfarmers”

SimonWest(HeadofWaterQualityandAgricultureatDefra)organisedaworkshopinLondoninNovember,invitingseveralDTCresearcherstopresenttheirfindingsandexperienceonchangingfarmers’behaviour.TheworkshopwasattendedbystafffromdifferentpolicyareaswhodealwithagriculturalissuessuchasGMpolicy,animalidentificationandmovements,agriculturaleconomics,animalhealthandwelfare,soils,biosecurity,foodandfarmingevidence,agri-environmentalschemesandhealthandsafety.

Figure8:

LovibondMD600Photometer

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AtthebeginningoftheworkshopProf.AndrewLovettfromtheUniversityofEastAngliaintroducedthedesignandconceptoftheDTCplatform.WillCleasbyfromtheEdenDTCthendescribednumerousexamplesofstakeholderengagementachievedthroughhisworkwiththeEdenRiversTrust.PhDresearcherEmilieVrainledthemainsession,presentingherPhDresultsonfactorsinfluencingfarmeruptakeofwaterpollutionmitigationmeasuresandtheroleoffarmadvice.Theresearchfromherthesiswaspresentedto:1)provideanexemplarofexperienceandbenefitsofengagingfarmersandfarmadvisorsaboutwaterpollution,and2)highlightqualitativemethodswhichcouldbetranslatedtoaidunderstandingofhowbesttoinfluencefarmerbehaviourinothertopicareas,especiallythosewhicharehighlycontested.AlexInman,acatchmentadvisorworkingontheHampshireDTCprovidedsomereflectionsattheendofthefirstsessiontoleavetheaudiencewithfoodforthought.Informativetwo-waydialoguewasachievedthroughoutthepresentationswithallworkshopattendees.TwobreakoutgroupsconsideredhowtheDTCs’experiencemightbetransferrabletotheirpolicyanddeliveryareas.Theywerealsoaskedtocontemplatehowtheirexperiencemightbebuiltintothewaterqualityandagriculturalpolicyanddeliveryarea.Nextstepswerethendiscussedastohowdifferentpolicyareascouldworkmorecloselytogether.Oneattendeestated‘it[theworkshop]wasveryusefulforbringingtogetherpolicyareasandthereforemessages,identifying

whowecanlinkeffortswith.’Itwasagreedmoreeventsshouldbeheldinthefuturetoallowcommonsharingofknowledgebetweendepartmentswithafocusoninfluencingfarmerbehaviour.

NewUpstreamThinkingprogrammetoprotectrivers

ApartnershipofSouthWestWater(SWW),theDevonWildlifeTrust,theCornwallWildlifeTrust,theWestcountryRiversTrustandtheExmoorNationalParkAuthorityisbuildingonworkbegunin2008tochangelandmanagementpracticestoprotectriverswithanewfive-yearprogramme.SupportedbytheNationalFarmersUnion,theEnvironmentAgency,NaturalEnglandandtheFarmingandWildlifeAdvisoryGroup,theprogrammeispartofSWW'slong-termbusinessplantoreduceitsenvironmentalfootprintandmanagetheimpactof

diffusepollutiononcustomers'bills.Theprogrammehastwomainelements:adviceandgrantsforfarmersandtherestorationofpeatlandinpartnershipwithlandowners.

Thelatest£11.8millionprogrammefocuseson11catchmentsacrossDevonandCornwallin2015-20.Thetargetfortheprogrammeis750farmsand1,300haofmoorlandandothersemi-naturallandunderrevisedmanagement.UpstreamThinkingadviserswillbeworkingontheExe,theDart,theOtterandtheYeoinDevonplusgroundwatersourcesinEastDevonandthecatchmentaroundFernworthyReservoir,whileinCornwalltheywillbefocusingontheCober,theTamar,theFalmouthreservoirsandDriftreservoir.

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Grantsaretargetedatfarmswithlandconnectedtoriversabovewaterabstractionpoints.Theaimistoreducetheamountofunwantedsubstancesinriverwater,whichinturnhelpstocontrolthecostofchemicalsandenergyneededtoturnrawwaterintohighqualitytapwater.

Grantscanhelptofundimprovementstoslurrystorage,fencingtokeeplivestockoutofrivers,providingalternativewatersourcesforlivestock,betterpesticidemanagementincludinginvestmentinnewequipment,suchasweedwiperswhichdelivertargeteddosesofherbicide.Farmersmatchthefundingandofteninvestmorebesides,aswellasbeingabletoaccessfurthersourcesoffunding.Farmerswhotookpartintheprogrammein2010-2015savedanaverageof£20,000onthingslikereducedfertilisercosts.Since2008,UpstreamThinkingadvisorshavemade1,700visitstofarmsandallocated180capitalgrantstotalling£2.2million.

ThemoorsoftheSouthWestprovideover40percentoftheregion’sdrinkingwater,andpeatlandrestorationisacrucialelementoftheUpstreamThinkingprogramme.TheExmoorMiresPartnershiphasinvestigatedandrestoredover2,000hectaresofmoorlandonExmoorandDartmoor,andplanstorestoreafurther1,000hectaresby2020.ScientificresearchcarriedoutonthemoorbytheUniversityofExeterhasshownthatrestoredbogsreleaseathirdlesswaterduringstormsand30%lessdissolvedorganiccarbon,whichdiscoloursthewater.ResearchbytheEnvironmentAgencysuggeststheworkishelpingtomaintainriverlevelsduringdriersummermonths.Contact:DrDavidSmithSWWProgrammeManager([email protected])

DTCPhase1Reportavailableshortly-someConclusions

Phase1ofDTChasreachedanumberofconclusionsconcerningthedominantsourcesineachoftheresearchcatchments,thetimingofnutrientexportfromlandtowater,andtherangeofnutrientchemistriesmobilisedandtransportedtostreamsineachofthecatchments.However,universaltruthshavenotemergedfromthisanalysisanditisclearthatcaremustbetakentoensurethatthefindingsfromoneprogrammearenotassumedtoprovideaperfectsolutioninanothercircumstancewithoutpriortestingofthosesolutionsacrossmultiplelandmanagementandgeoclimaticconditions.TheDTCmonitoringhasshownthatstormeventsarehighlyimportantindrivingthefluxofdiffusepollutionincatchmentswherethereisahighproportionofrapidrunoffinpreferentialflowpathways(surfacerunoff,near-surfacequick-flowanddrainflowindrainedlandscapesliketheWensumcatchment).However,itisthemidfloweventsthatdominatenutrientand

sedimentdeliveryincatchmentsdrivenbysubsurfacehydrologicalfunction.Similarly,nitrateisthedominantformofnitrogendeliveredtowaterbodiesinpermeablecatchments,basedontheevidencecollectedhere,butitisaminoritycomponentoftheTNloadinginlivestockfarmingsystemswherethehighstockingdensitiesandabundanceofmanureproductionleadstoenrichmentofwaterswithbothparticulateanddissolvedorganicnutrientfractionswhichwillstimulatebothalgalproductivityandmicrobialmetabolismin-stream.Amonitoringprogramme

thatfocusedsolelyonnitrateinalivestockfarmingcatchmentwouldbeunlikelytobe

sensitivetocurrentmanagementortotargetedon-farmmitigationeffortsinthecatchment.Anotherpointwhichhasemergedisthattherearesignificantuncertaintiesassociatedwithanymonitoringstrategytodetectnutrientandsedimentfluxbehavioursincatchments.Sensorsprovideon-sitehighfrequencyobservations,buttherecanbetechnologicalproblemsto

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overcomewiththeiruse,ifrobustandreliablefindingsaretobegenerated.Simplyrelyingonthesensorswithouttestingtheaccuracyandprecisionoftheobservationswithinanuncertaintyframeworkwillconstraintheusertoimpreciseanduncertainobservations,datastreamswithsignificantgapsandalimitedrangeofdeterminandswhichmightnotbethosebestsuitedtoansweringthequestionposed.Laboratorybasedanalyseshavetheirplace,asqualitycontrolcanensurehigherqualitydata,forawiderrangeofdeterminands,albeitatalowertemporalresolution.Acombinationofmonitoringapproachesislikelytobeneededtogeneraterobust

evidencestreamsforcatchmentmitigationeffortsatanysite.InsynthesisingthesenutrientandsedimentfluxbehavioursfordifferentlandscapetypologiesacrosstheDTCplatform,carefulconsiderationalsoneedstobegiventotheappropriatestatisticaltechniquesthatareapplied(seeLloydetal.2014).Thisensurescorefindingsregardingtheefficacyofmitigationstrategiesallowforthequalityanduncertaintyofdifferentmeasurementstrategies(suchasidentifiedabove);thenaturalvariabilityintimeandspaceofcatchmentsystemsandrelatedclimaticfactors;thedurationoftheevidencebasepreandpostmitigationinlightofinherentnaturalvariabilities;andthedifferentQAproceduresandmonitoringstrategiesbetweenDTCcomponents.Finally,thecontrastbetweentheresponsesofdifferentcatchmentswithvaryingsoilsandgeologytodifferingdegreesofrainfallhasbeenshowntobecriticalindeterminingpollutantloads,andproperlyevidencingtheselectionofmitigationmeasuresinanycatchment,asistheproportionofgroundwaterthatcontributestoriverflow.Consequentlytheimportanceofidentifyingandmanagingrun-offpathwaysduringstormeventsandsubsurfacepathwaysyearroundisakeyfindingofDTC.Themannerinwhichthesebehavioursimpactontheecosystemfunctionandhealthofthereceivingwaterbodiesarediscussedfurtherinthefullreport.

SoilmoisturemonitoringintheWensumDTC

TensetsofsoilmoistureprobeswerefirstinstalledinJanuary2013intheBlackwatersubcatchmentoftheR.Wensumforthepurposeofdeterminingsoilconditions,forexampleinfiltrationbehaviourandfieldcapacityconditions,intheninemitigationmeasuresfieldsatSalle.TheAdconGPRStelemetrysystemenablessoilmoistureatintervalsof10cmtoadepthof90cmtoberecordedat15-minuteintervalsusingAdconSM1capacitance-basedmeasurementprobes.Temperatureisalsomeasuredatthreedepths(15,45and75cm).Profilesofsoilmoisturedevelopmentovertimecanbeusedtocalculatewaterdrainageandevapotranspirationratesandalsodownwardfluxesofdissolvedsolutessuchasnitratewhereporouspotdataexist.AnexampleofthetypeofsoilmoisturedatacollectedisshowninFig9forprobe50413installedinDunkirkfieldatManorFarm,Salle,inmini-catchmentA.ThedataarefortheperiodFebruarytoearlyJuly2013.Thegreenlinerepresentssoilmoistureat30cmdepthandshowsanumberofpeaksinresponsetorainfallevents.ThepeaksinFebruaryandMarchreachmaximum,orfieldcapacity,valuesfortheclayloamsoilatthislocationofabout56%moisturecontent.Followingthewinter,thereisagradualdryingtrendat30cmdepththatbecomesmorepronouncedfrommid-April,andespeciallyfollowingthelateMaypeakinsoilmoisturecontent.Thesoilmoisturecontentatgreaterdepthremainssaturatedforlongerwiththerecordat60cmdepth(darkblueline)onlyrespondingtodryingatthestartofJune.Therecordat90cmdepthshowsnoresponsetodryingbythestartofJuly(lightblueline).Thedatarecordedon3Julygivesoilmoisturecontentsof31.9%,54.4%and59.0%atdepthsof30cm,60cmand90cm,

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respectively.Theredlineshowsthetemperaturerecordedat75cmdepthanddisplaysagradualwarmingfromabout4oCinFebruarytoavalueof13.0oCon3July2013.Soilmoistureconditionsmattertofarmerswhendecidingwhentoundertakefieldoperations.Wetweatherdelaysdrillingatthestartoftheautumnandinthespring.Afterawetspellthereis

alwaysthetemptationtogetonthelandanddrillbeforeitisreallysuitable,whichcanriskinferioryieldscomparedwithwaitingforbettersoilconditions.Asanexample,dataatManorFarm,Salle,demonstratetheimpactofleavingthesoiljustanotherday(Figure10)orpreferablytwodaysbeforewheeledortrackedvehiclesrunoverit.Thefigureshowsrapiddryingofthesoilat30-50cmdepthbetween5Februaryand6-7February2013,despitelittlechangeinthemoisturestatusoftheshallowerlayers.Asfarmequipmenthasbecomeheavier,thistypeofinformationhasaddedsignificanceinattemptingtoavoidcompactioninthedeepersoillayers.Contact:KevinHiscock([email protected])

Figure10:Soilmoisturestatus(expressedasascalefrequencyunitorpercentvolume)atManorFarm,Salle,3-8February2013.

Figure9:Recordofsoilmoisturecontentat30cm(greenline),60cm(darkblueline)and90cm(lightblueline)depthatManorFarm,Salle,fromFebruarytoearlyJuly2013.Theredlinerepresentssoiltemperatureat75cmdepth.Thesoilmoisturedatarangefrom32-59%andthetemperaturedatarangefrom4-13oC.

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LastPost–fromBobHarrisThisisthelastDTCnewsletterthatIshallbeputtingtogether,thetaskpassingtotheWensumDTCConsortiumfor2016(contact:AndrewLovett).I’vereallyenjoyedmy6+yearsworkingwithDefra,theDTCConsortiaandthewiderrelatedresearchandstakeholdergroups.Theearlydayswereexcitingwiththeemergenceofnewpoliticalwilltodevelop‘catchmentthinking’andaddressthechallengesofmoreintegratedorholisticapproachestoscientificresearchandenvironmentalmanagement.However,thesupportedconceptofalong-termresearchplatformtobuildknowledgeandtestpracticalmeasuresinarobustscientificwaywasalwaysgoingtobechallenging,andsoit’sturnedout,compoundednowbytheserecenttimesofeconomicconstraint.Unfortunatelyaswelearnmoreaboutthecomplexitiesofundertakingresearchatthecatchmentscale(especiallythechallengesofscalingupfromplot,fieldandfarmwheretheexperimentsinevitablyhavetobeundertaken,towholecatchmentsandlandscapes)themorewerealisethattheanswerstobothpolicyandoperationalquestionscannotbeansweredquickly.StormDesmondhasalsorecentlydemonstratedthatthelonger-andshorter-termclimaticchanges,betheyinduced(climatechangerelated)ornatural(ElNinoandNAtlanticOscillationrelated),maywellswamptherelativelysmallwaterqualitychangesinourriversandgroundwaterthatfarm-scalemeasurescanbring.So,manyuncertaintiesremainnottheleastthefeelingthatsmall-scaleon-farmmeasureswillbeinsufficienttoaddressthechallengesfacingwaterqualityandthesubsequentstressesonfreshwaterecosystems–wemaynotbeable‘tohaveourcakeandeatittoo’throughacontinuationofwithamodifiedbusiness-as-usualapproach.Largerlandusechangemaybenecessarytohaltthedeclineinourfreshwaterbiodiversity…Ifthisisapriorityofsociety.Whatevertheapproachandthesolutionsweneedtohavetheresearchcapabilitytoinvestigatethequestionsposedwhetherbypolicy-makers,catchment-managersorlandmanagers.Withoutknowledge,andtheabilitytouseitintelligentlyinmoreintegratedways,wewillcontinuetofumbleinthedark!

And a Happy New Year to all

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