![Page 1: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 2: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 3: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 4: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 5: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 6: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 7: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 8: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 9: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 10: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/10.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 11: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/11.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 12: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 13: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/13.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 14: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/14.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 15: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/15.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 16: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/16.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 17: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/17.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 18: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/18.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 19: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/19.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 20: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/20.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 21: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/21.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 22: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/22.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 23: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/23.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 24: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/24.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 25: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/25.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 26: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/26.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 27: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/27.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 28: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/28.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 29: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/29.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 30: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/30.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 31: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/31.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 32: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/32.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 33: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/33.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 34: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/34.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 35: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/35.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 36: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/36.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 37: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/37.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 38: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/38.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 39: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/39.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 40: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/40.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 41: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/41.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 42: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/42.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 43: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/43.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 44: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/44.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 45: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/45.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 46: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/46.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 47: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/47.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 48: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/48.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 49: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/49.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 50: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/50.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 51: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/51.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 52: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/52.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 53: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/53.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 54: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/54.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 55: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/55.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 56: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/56.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 57: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/57.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 58: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/58.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 59: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/59.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 60: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/60.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 61: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/61.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 62: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/62.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 63: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/63.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 64: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/64.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 65: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/65.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 66: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/66.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 67: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/67.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 68: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/68.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 69: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/69.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 70: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/70.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 71: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/71.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 72: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/72.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 73: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/73.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 74: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/74.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 75: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/75.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 76: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/76.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 77: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/77.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 78: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/78.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 79: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/79.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 80: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/80.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 81: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/81.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 82: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/82.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 83: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/83.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 84: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/84.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 85: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/85.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 86: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/86.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 87: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/87.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 88: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/88.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 89: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/89.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 90: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/90.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 91: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/91.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 92: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/92.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 93: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/93.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 94: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/94.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 95: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/95.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 96: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/96.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 97: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/97.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 98: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/98.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 99: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/99.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 100: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/100.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 101: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/101.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 102: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/102.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 103: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/103.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 104: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/104.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 105: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/105.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 106: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/106.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 107: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/107.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 108: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/108.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 109: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/109.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 110: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/110.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 111: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/111.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 112: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/112.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 113: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/113.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 114: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/114.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 115: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/115.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 116: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/116.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 117: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/117.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 118: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/118.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 119: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/119.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 120: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/120.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 121: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/121.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 122: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/122.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 123: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/123.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 124: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/124.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 125: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/125.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 126: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/126.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 127: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/127.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 128: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/128.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 129: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/129.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 130: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/130.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 131: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/131.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 132: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/132.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 133: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/133.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 134: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/134.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 135: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/135.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 136: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/136.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 137: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/137.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 138: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/138.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 139: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/139.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 140: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/140.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 141: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/141.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 142: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/142.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 143: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/143.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 144: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/144.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 145: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/145.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 146: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/146.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 147: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/147.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 148: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/148.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 149: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/149.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 150: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/150.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 151: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/151.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 152: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/152.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 153: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/153.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 154: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/154.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 155: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/155.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 156: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/156.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 157: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/157.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 158: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/158.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 159: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/159.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 160: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/160.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 161: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/161.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 162: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/162.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 163: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/163.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 164: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/164.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 165: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/165.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 166: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/166.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 167: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/167.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 168: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/168.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 169: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/169.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 170: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/170.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 171: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/171.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 172: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/172.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 173: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/173.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 174: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/174.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 175: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/175.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 176: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/176.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 177: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/177.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 178: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/178.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 179: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/179.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 180: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/180.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 181: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/181.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 182: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/182.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 183: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/183.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 184: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/184.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 185: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/185.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 186: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/186.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 187: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/187.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 188: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/188.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 189: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/189.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 190: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/190.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 191: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/191.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 192: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/192.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 193: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/193.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 194: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/194.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 195: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/195.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 196: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/196.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 197: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/197.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 198: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/198.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 199: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/199.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 200: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/200.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 201: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/201.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 202: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/202.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 203: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/203.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 204: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/204.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 205: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/205.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 206: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/206.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 207: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/207.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 208: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/208.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 209: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/209.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 210: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/210.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 211: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/211.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 212: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/212.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 213: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/213.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 214: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/214.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 215: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/215.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 216: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/216.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 217: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/217.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 218: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/218.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 219: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/219.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 220: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/220.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 221: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/221.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 222: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/222.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 223: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/223.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 224: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/224.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 225: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/225.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 226: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/226.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 227: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/227.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 228: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/228.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 229: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/229.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 230: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/230.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 231: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/231.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 232: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/232.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 233: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/233.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 234: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/234.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 235: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/235.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 236: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/236.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 237: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/237.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 238: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/238.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 239: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/239.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 240: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/240.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 241: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/241.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 242: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/242.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 243: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/243.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 244: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/244.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 245: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/245.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 246: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/246.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 247: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/247.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 248: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/248.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 249: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/249.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 250: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/250.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 251: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/251.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 252: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/252.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 253: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/253.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 254: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/254.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 255: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/255.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 256: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/256.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 257: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/257.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 258: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/258.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 259: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/259.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 260: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/260.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 261: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/261.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 262: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/262.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 263: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/263.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 264: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/264.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 265: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/265.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 266: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/266.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 267: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/267.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 268: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/268.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 269: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/269.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 270: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/270.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 271: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/271.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 272: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/272.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 273: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/273.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 274: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/274.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 275: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/275.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 276: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/276.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 277: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/277.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 278: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/278.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 279: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/279.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 280: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/280.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 281: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/281.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 282: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/282.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 283: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/283.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 284: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/284.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 285: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/285.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 286: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/286.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 287: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/287.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 288: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/288.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 289: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/289.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 290: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/290.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 291: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/291.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 292: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/292.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 293: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/293.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 294: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/294.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 295: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/295.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 296: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/296.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 297: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/297.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 298: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/298.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 299: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/299.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 300: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/300.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 301: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/301.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 302: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/302.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 303: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/303.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 304: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/304.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 305: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/305.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 306: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/306.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 307: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/307.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 308: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/308.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 309: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/309.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 310: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/310.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 311: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/311.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 312: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/312.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 313: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/313.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 314: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/314.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 315: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/315.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 316: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/316.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 317: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/317.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 318: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/318.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 319: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/319.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 320: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/320.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 321: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/321.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 322: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/322.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 323: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/323.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 324: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/324.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 325: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/325.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 326: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/326.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 327: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/327.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 328: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/328.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 329: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/329.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 330: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/330.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 331: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/331.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 332: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/332.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 333: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/333.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 334: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/334.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 335: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/335.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 336: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/336.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 337: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/337.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 338: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/338.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 339: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/339.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 340: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/340.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 341: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/341.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 342: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/342.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 343: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/343.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 344: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/344.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 345: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/345.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 346: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/346.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 347: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/347.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 348: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/348.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 349: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/349.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 350: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/350.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 351: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/351.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 352: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/352.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 353: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/353.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 354: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/354.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 355: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/355.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 356: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/356.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 357: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/357.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 358: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/358.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 359: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/359.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 360: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/360.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 361: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/361.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 362: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/362.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 363: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/363.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 364: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/364.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of
![Page 365: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/365.jpg)
WLHS / AP Bio / Monson Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Basic Chemistry Review
Element: into other substances by chemical reactions Compound: pure substance combined in a fixed ratio
• example:
• have unique properties beyond those of the combined elements
Atom: that retains the physical and chemical properties of its element • three subatomic particles: Particle Charge Location Mass
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic number: in an atom of an element
-all atoms of an element have the same atomic #
-written as a subscript next to the element’s symbol
-in a neutral atom,
Mass number:
-written as a superscript next to element’s symbol
-# of neutrons can vary in an element, but proton # is constant
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have
-in nature, elements occur as mixtures of isotopes
-some are RADIOACTIVE: where nucleus decays emitting sub-atomic
particles and/or energy as radioactivity causing one element to transform into another element
Half-life: the time it takes for in a sample to decay Energy Levels of Electrons • ELECTRONS are the only subatomic particle because they occupy energy levels surrounding the nucleus Potential energy: energy that matter stores because of its
-matter will move to the lowest state of potential energy
-fixed potential energy states for electrons:
-electrons with lowest PE are closest to nucleus
-electrons may move from one level to another and in the process they gain or lose energy
![Page 366: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/366.jpg)
Potential Energy (continued)
-an atom’s electron configuration determines it’s chemical behavior
-chemical properties of an atom depend upon the
Chemical Bonding
• Octet Rule: atoms will share, gain, or lose electrons in order to achieve a
(like a noble gas)
Covalent bond: strong chemical bond between atoms formed by Electronegativity: atom’s ability to attract and hold ELECTRONS
-the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons
-examples:
Nonpolar covalent bond: covalent bond formed by an between atoms -occurs when electronegativity of both atoms is about the same -molecules made of one element contain nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bond: -occurs between 2 atoms with different electronegativities -shared electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atoms Ionic bond: bond formed by the electrostatic attraction after the
from a donor atom to an acceptor
-anion: negatively charged ion; has gained 1 or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion; has lost 1 or more electrons Hydrogen bond: weak bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom, and an unshared pair of electrons on an adjacent molecule -a charge attraction between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules -short-lived -numerous (make up in # what they lack in strength and duration)
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water…
• Life on earth probably evolved in water
• Living cells are 70%-90% water
• Water covers approx. ¾ of earth.
• In nature, water naturally exists in all 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Water is a molecule
• The polarity of water molecules results in
• Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules Properties of Water (as a result of polarity and H-bonding):
1) COHESION: molecules are • contributes to upward movement of water in plants from roots to leaves
![Page 367: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/367.jpg)
2) ADHESION: (by polarity or H bonds); can counteract gravity in plant vessels
3) SURFACE TENSION: measure of how difficult it is to stretch the surface of a liquid
-water has greater surface tension than most liquids because at the air/water interface the surface water molecules
are H-bonded to each other and to the water molecules below
-causes water to “bead”
-creates a “skin” on the surface
4) HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT (resists changes in temp) -Specific Heat: amt. of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temp by 1°C -Water’s high specific heat means that it resists temp. changes when it absorbs or releases heat
*Heat is absorbed to break H-bonds; and given off when they form
5) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION • Heat of vaporization = amt. of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas state • for water molecules to evaporate, H bonds must be broken, which requires heat energy
• EVAPORATIVE COOLING: after high temp. molecules have evaporated,
(ex: sweating)
-stabilizes temp. in aquatic ecosystems
- (as 1 g of water evaporates from our skin, 539 g of body
cools by 1°C)
6) WATER EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES
• because of H-bonding, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid...ice floats!
• since ice is less dense, it forms on the surface at first
• as water freezes, !
• Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid!!
7) WATER IS THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
• due to its polarity, water is a versatile solvent Compounds that are HYDROPHILIC (“water loving”), are :
• ionic compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules have an electrical attraction to charged ions
• polar compounds: charged regions of polar water molecules are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules Compounds that are HYDROPHOBIC (“water fearing”) are :
• Nonpolar compounds: symmetric distribution in charge, or composed of nonpolar bonds Solutions and concentration:
• mole
• molecular weight (molar mass, g/mol)
• molarity:
![Page 368: WLHS / AP Bio / Monson · 2018. 8. 30. · Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water… • Life on earth probably evolved in water • Living cells are 70%-90% water](https://reader034.vdocument.in/reader034/viewer/2022052009/601ece6fbaccc06f1f6b3859/html5/thumbnails/368.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
• in neutral water: [H+] = [OH
-] = 10
-7M
• acids increase [H+]; bases decrease [H
+]
• in any solution, [H+] • [OH
-] = 1 x 10
-14
• pH = -log [H+]
pH scale: Acid precipitation:
• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water to form acid
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Overview: Carbon—The Backbone of Biological Molecules
● Although cells are 70–95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
● Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
● , and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon ● With four valence electrons, carbon can form with a variety of atoms ● This tetravalence makes large, complex molecules possible Hydrocarbons: ● Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only (ex. fats) ● Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy Isomers: ● Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties: -Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms -Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements -Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life:
● Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly
● The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
● The six functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: -Hydroxyl group -Amino group -Carbonyl group -Sulfhydryl group -Carboxyl group -Phosphate group **check your chart!!!
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
● One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
● ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of