Write Like a Chemist: Drawing on Applied Linguistics Research
Fredricka L. StollerNorthern Arizona [email protected]
Overview of Presentation
Overview of Write Like a Chemist project
Discussion of the contributions of applied linguistics research and methodologies to the project
Write Like a Chemist Project
Write Like a Chemist Project Goals
Design a discipline-specific writing course
Improve chemistry students’ discipline-specific writing skills
Write Like a Chemist Project Goals
Analyze the language of chemistry in four genres
Translate findings into a pedagogical approach and instructional materials
Drawing Upon Applied Linguistics
Drawing Upon Applied Linguistics
Discourse analysis Corpus linguistics Curriculum and course design Language teaching pedagogy Writing pedagogy Assessment Language knowledge base
Discourse Analysis
Discourse Analysis
Genre analysis Journal article Conference abstract Poster presentation Research proposal
Discourse Analysis Genre analysis
Moves Hedging Lexical-grammatical patterns Collocations Pronoun use Active-passive voice Nominalizations
Moves
1. Introduce the Research Area1.1 Identify the research area1.2 Establish the importance of the research area1.3 Provide essential background information about the research area
2. Identify a Gap (or Gaps)
3. Fill the Gap3.1 Introduce the current work3.2 Preview key findings of the current work (optional)
Cite relevant literature
General
Specific
Figure 6.1. The move structure for a typical Introduction.
Move 1 Establishing a territory (citations required) via Topic generalizations of increasing specificity Move 2 Establishing a niche (citations possible)
viaStep 1A Indicating a gap
orStep 1B Adding to what is known
Step 2 (optional) Presenting positive justification (Adapted from Swales, 2004)
1. Introduce the Research Area
Identify the research area
Establish the importanceof the research area
Provide background information about the
research area
2. Identify a Gap(where a gap identifies a question that needs to be answered, an area that needs to be better understood, a step that needs to be taken, a procedure that needs to be improved, an idea that needs to be tested, etc.)
3. Fill the Gap
Present goals of current work
Preview principal findings
Cite relevant works to support each move/submove
More General
More Specific
1. Introduce the Research Area1.1 Identify the research area1.2 Establish the importance of the research area1.3 Provide essential background information about the research area
2. Identify a Gap (or Gaps)
3. Fill the Gap3.1 Introduce the current work3.2 Preview key findings of the current work (optional)
Cite relevant literature
General
Specific
Figure 6.1. The move structure for a typical Introduction.
Discourse Analysis
To facilitate discourse analyses, we made use of corpus linguistics tools Project-specific corpus
American Chemical Society (ACS) Journals Search data base
Write Like a Chemist Corpus
200 full-length refereed journal articles (991,606 words)
240 sections of refereed journal articles (297,407 words)
132 full-length popular chemistry articles (157,344 words)
Total word count: 1,466,357 words
ACS Journals Search
Legacy data base (1879-1995) 23 journals, 464,233 articles
Current issue to 1996 data base 33 journals, 316,131+ articles
ASAP articles data base 2,745 articles (as of 9/30/08)
Collocations
first-principles calculations first-principles kinetics first-principles methods first-principles molecular dynamics
study first-principles simulations first-principles study
Active and Passive Voice
0
5
10
15
20
Abstract Introduction Methods Results & Discussion
Section
Freq
uenc
y/50
0 w
ords
Table 2. Common Transitional Phrases (typically followed by we)
In the present study,In the present work,In this context,In this investigation,In this paper,In this study,In this work,Herein,
Use of “we”
In this work, we ___(present tense)
In this work, we ___(past tense)
carry outdemonstratedescribedevelopemploypresentproposeprovidereportshowuse
analyzed solvedcalculated studied chose synthesizeddeterminedemployedexaminedfocused onfoundinvestigatedmeasured
Table 3. Common verbs that follow we in the fill-the-gap statement of the Introduction
Historical Changes: We
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
J. Ag. FoodChem.
Anal. Chem. JOC J. Phys. Chem JACS
"w
e"/"
the"
1953-1963
1993-2003
Word and phrase frequencies
Further (97,663 documents) Farther (1,554 documents)
Proceed (30,381 documents) Precede (18,693 documents)
Principle (57,475 documents) Principal (20,267 documents)
Curriculum & Course Design
Needs analysis Situation analysis Determination of primary goals
and objectives Syllabus design
Syllabus Design
Course content Four genres Five features of writing Audience and purpose
Organization Writing conventions Grammar and mechanics Science content (in prose and
graphics)
Syllabus Design
Scope and sequence
Instructional activities Instructional materials
X of Y by Z pattern found in journal article titlesX (optional) Y (required) Z (optional)
A nominalization (e.g., Determination, Investigation, Analysis, Measurement)
A phrase that refers to, describes, or modifies Y
ofinforto. . .
What was studied o
nin
via
byat
. . .
Target of Y or what was impacted by Y
Method used (or detail of method used) to study Y
Preparation of 5-Substitute1H-Tetrazoles
from Nitriles in Water
Common functions of verb tense-voice combinations in Results sections
Function Tense-Voice Combination
Example
To describe specific results in your work
To describe specific steps in your work
To state scientific “truths” or knowledge
To refer to a figure or table
Past-Active
Past-Passive
Present-Active
Present-ActivePresent-Passive
Other combinations of alcoholic solvents failed to lead to a higher yield.
Initial HSSPME experiments were performed using spiked skimmed and full-fat milk samples.
Language Teaching Pedagogy
Modeling Scaffolding Use of authentic texts and tasks
2-(p-Toluenesulfonyl)-4'-methoxyacetophenone (2a). A mixture of 2-bromo-4'-methoxyacetophenone (45.8 g, 200 mmol) and p-toluenesulfinic acid sodium hydrate (35.6 g, 200 mmol) in ethanol (1 L) was heated at reflux for 1.5 h. The mixture was stirred and cooled to room temperature, and the resulting solid was collected, washed with ethanol (2 × 50 mL), dried to give 54.6 g (90%) of pure 2a: mp 126.0-127.0 °C; IR 2951, 2906, 1676, 1599, 1572 cm-1; 1H NMR (CDCl3) 2.45 (s, 3H), 3.90 (s, 3H), 4.67 (s, 2H), 6.95 (d, J = 8.8 Hz, 2H), 7.34 (d, J = 8.2 Hz, 2H), 7.76 (d, J = 8.2 Hz, 2H), 7.95 (d, J = 8.8 Hz, 2H); 13C NMR 20.9, 55.1, 62.5, 113.4 (2C), 127.7 (2C), 128.3, 129.1 (2C), 131.1 (2C), 135.8, 144.3, 163.7, 186.0. Anal. Calcd for C16H16O4S: C, 63.14; H 5.30; S, 10.54. Found: C, 63.49; H, 5.35; S, 10.33.
(from Swenson et al., 2002)
Authentic models of text
Language Teaching Pedagogy
Feedback (self, teacher, and peer) Reflection tasks Learning-by-doing tasks Teacher guidelines
Teacher Guidelines How to acknowledge students’
apprehensions about writing How to build students’ confidence
(with, e.g., actionable feedback) How to build upon students’
attraction to objectivity How to deal with mixed-ability
classes
Teacher Guidelines
Reminders that good writing doesn’t develop over night!
Reminders that students learn to write by writing!
Reminders that conciseness is not a matter of simply eliminating words.
Writing Pedagogy Adoption of a process orientation
to writing Attention to multiple factors that
contribute to effective writing Recognition that students need to
have something to say in order to write
Incorporation of different forms of feedback
Assessment
Development of pre and post tests/ tasks to evaluate student progress Identification of benchmarks Development of holistic and
analytic grading criteria and rubrics (for faculty and student use)
Language Knowledge Base
Functions of, e.g., hedging, tense-voice combinations, modals
Terminology (participles vs. particles) Distinctions between tense and
aspect Complexity of article system Nominalizations Two-word modifiers
Write Like a Chemist: Drawing on Applied Linguistics Research
Fredricka L. StollerNorthern Arizona [email protected]