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Process Gas Chromatographs

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Process Gas ChromatographsFundamentals, Design and Implementation

TONY WATERS

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This edition first published 2020© 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reusematerial from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.

The right of Tony Waters to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with law.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Waters, Tony, author.Title: Process gas chromatographs : fundamentals, design and implementation

/ by Tony Waters.Description: Hoboken, NJ, USA : Wiley, 2020. | Includes index.Identifiers: LCCN 2020001270 (print) | LCCN 2020001271 (ebook) | ISBN

9781119633044 (cloth) | ISBN 9781119633006 (adobe pdf) | ISBN9781119633013 (epub)

Subjects: LCSH: Gas chromatography–Equipment and supplies.Classification: LCC QD79.C45 W38 2020 (print) | LCC QD79.C45 (ebook) |

DDC 543/.850284–dc23LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020001270LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020001271

Cover Design: WileyCover Image: Process Gas Chromatographs at the INEOS Olefin Plant in Cologne, Germany. Photo © INEOS in Cologne, 2019.

Set in 11/13pt STIXTwoText by SPi Global, Chennai, India

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http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions

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https://lccn.loc.gov/2020001271

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To Marilyn

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Contents

Preface xix

Contributors xxi

Acknowledgments xxvii

Part One PGC fundamentals 1

1 An introduction 3Chromatographic separation 3The gas chromatograph 4

The basic instrument 4The process instrument 5

The oven 7Temperature control 7Temperature programming 7

The sample injection valve 8Laboratory and online practice 8Plug injection 8Gas sample injection 9Liquid sample injection 9

The column 10The separating device 10It takes time 10Multiple columns 11

SCI-FILE: On Column Types 12Introduction to SCI-FILEs 12Two kinds of column 12Packed columns 12Open-tubular columns 12

The detector 13Making the measurements 13The chromatogram 14

Knowledge Gained 18Did you get it? 19

Self-assessment quiz: SAQ 01 19Student evaluation test: SET 01 20

References 21Cited 21Figures 22New technical terms 22

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2 Peak shape 25How columns work 25

What happens inside the column 26How gas and liquid interact 26Troubleshooting tips 28

How peaks form 28Forming an equilibrium 28The effect of movement 30A peak appears 31Effect of more equilibria 33

Some conclusions 34Identical molecules – different behavior 34All peaks are symmetrical 35More equilibria – narrower peaks 35More equilibria – taller peaks 35Retention at the apex 36More equilibria – same retention time 36

SCI-FILE: On Solubility 36Solubility 36Partition 36Distribution 37Limitations 37



References 40Figures 40Equation 41Symbols 41New technical terms 41

3 Separation 43How peaks get separated 43

A more realistic explanation 43A challenge question 46Significance of the air peak 47The answer 48

Measurements from chromatograms 50A practical task 50Typical calculations 51



References 55Figures 55

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Equations 55Symbols 55New technical terms 55

4 Peak patterns 57Migration rate 57

Predictable patterns in peak position 57Space or time 57Spatial or temporal separation 58

Predictable patterns in peak width 59Distance or duration 59

SCI-FILE: On Chemical Names 60Hydrocarbons 60Shorthand notation 61

Predictable patterns in retention 61The doubling rule 61Challenge question 62A process of elimination 62Temperature programming 64Relative retention 66Separation and resolution 67Resolution 67Predictable patterns in resolution 69



References 74Figures 74Equations 74Symbols 74New technical terms 74

Part Two PGC analytics 77

5 Industrial gas chromatographs 79Process analyzers 79

Introduction to process analysis 79The measurement of quality 80

Process gas chromatographs 81Versatile and reliable 81PGC development 82The value of analysis 83

Competing technologies 84Gas chromatograph or spectrophotometer? 84Speed of response 86

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The outlook 87The PGC analytics unit 87

Introduction 87Carrier gas supply system 88Sample injection system 89Chromatographic valves 89Column system 89Detectors 89Temperature-controlled ovens 90



References 93Cited 93Table 93Figures 93Symbol 94New technical terms 94

6 Carrier gas system 95Choice of carrier gas 95

Carrier gas purpose 95Choice of carrier gas 95Mixed carrier gases 97

Carrier gas purity 97Analytical effect of impurities 98Damaging effect of impurities 100Maintenance of gas cleaners 101

Carrier gas supply system 101Carrier gas supply line 102

Pressure regulation 103Mechanical pressure regulators 103Electronic pressure controllers 104

Flow regulation 104Measuring the carrier gas flow rates 104Setting the flow rates 105Optimum flow rate 106



References 109Cited 109Table 110Figures 110

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Contents xi

Symbols 110New technical terms 111

7 Sample injection 113Introduction 113Injecting gas samples 114

Gas sample volume 114Gas sample temperature 115Gas sample pressure 116

Injecting liquid samples 118Less preferred 118Vaporizing a liquid sample 118Liquid sample volume 119Liquid sample temperature 120Liquid sample pressure 121

Other techniques 122Sample splitting 122Remote sample injection 122Normalization 122

SCI-FILE: On Analytic Units 123A fable 123Constant sample size 123Different ratio units 124Injected quantity 124Conversion of units 125



References 130Cited 130Tables 130Figures 130Symbols 130New technical terms 131

8 Chromatographic valves 133Valve technology 133

Evolution 133The strange effect of competition 134Valve types 135

Solenoid instrument valves 135Spool or piston valves 135Slide valves 136Rotary valves 139Diaphragm valves 141Plunger valves for liquid injection 143

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Other switching techniques 145Valve leaks 146

About leaks 146Valve leak mitigation 148Knowledge Gained 149Did you get it? 151


References 153Cited 153Table 154Figures 154New technical terms 155

9 Column systems 157Two fundamental issues 157

The general elution problem 157The temperature ramp solution 158The multiple column solution 159The choice 160Delayed injection 161Four types of column system 161

Recognizing the functions performed 161Type A: A single column 162Type B: Multiple columns, single detector 163Type C: Multiple detectors, single injector 164Type D: Multiple sample injectors 166Elemental column systems 168

Useful techniques 168Backflush column system 168Distribution column system 170Heartcut column system 171

Trap-and-hold column system 173The real power 174Endnote 175Knowledge Gained 176Did you get it? 177



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Contents xiii

10 Detectors 183Introduction 183Types of detector 183

Two measured variables 183Concentration detectors 184Rate-of-arrival detectors 185Multiple detectors 186Signal capture 186

SCI-FILE: On Detectors 187Signal noise 187Speed of response 187Sensitivity 188

Thermal conductivity detector 189TCD application 189TCD basic function 190TCD detection principle 191TCD thermal elements 192TCD electrical arrangement 194TCD electrical improvements 194TCD performance enhancement 195

Flame ionization detector 197FID application 197FID detection principle 198FID makeup gases 199FID sensitivity 199FID vent arrangements 200FID methanator 200

Flame photometric detector 202FPD application 202FPD detection principle 202FPD concerns 203

Other detectors 205Electron capture detector 205Helium ionization detector 206Photoionization detector 207Pulsed discharge detector 207



References 216Cited 216Tables 217Figures 217Equations 217

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Symbols 218New technical terms 218

11 Temperature control 221Need for stability 221

Sample volume 221Retention times 221

The air-bath oven 223Heating with air purging 223

The airless oven 225Heating without air 225The 2008 ABB PGC1000 227The 2014 Rosemount Danalyzer 370XA PGC 227The 2009 Rosemount 700XA PGC 227The 2002 Maxum Edition II 228

Direct column heating 228Resistive heating 228The ABB approach 229The Teledyne Falcon approach 230A few cautions 231Summary of heating methods 231

PGC standardization 231Realities of the market 231The applications engineering conundrum 232MEMS technology 233The 2002 siemens MicroSAM 234

A closing thought 234Knowledge Gained 235Did you get it? 236



Part Three PGC control 241

12 Event scheduling 243A sequence of actions 243

Program timing 243Autozero 245Atmospheric referencing 245Sample injection 245Step stream 246

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Contents xv

Column switching 247Peak gating 247Initiate a calculation 248Data transmission 248Alarm notifications 248End-of-cycle 248Event markers 248Calendar events 248

Timing mechanisms 249Mechanical programmers 249Electronic timers 249Microprocessor control 250The program or method 250

Control of analyzer operation 250Temperature control 251Pressure control 251

Peak identification 251Fixed-time gating 252Retention time tracking 253




13 Data display techniques 261The chromatogram display 261

Detector signal 261Digitized chromatograms 262Chromatogram autozero 263Peak height calibration 263Peak area calibration 264

The bargraph display 265The paper saver 265

The trend record 266Analog peak processing 266

Digital signal processing 267The minicomputer story 267The ubiquitous microprocessor 268A regression perhaps? 269Central maintenance station 271Continuous analyzer controllers 271

PGC function alarms 272Indicators 272

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Alarm notifications 272Knowledge Gained 273Did you get it? 274

Self-assessment quiz: SAQ13 274Student evaluation questions: SET-13 275


14 Peak area integration 279Digital chromatogram processing 279

Pulse frequency digitization 279Signal noise measurement 281Signal noise reduction 281

Quantifying the analyte peaks 283Forced integration 284Slope detection 285Errors from baseline disturbances 286Troubleshooting aids 287

Measuring overlapping peaks 287Avoiding the problem 287Tackling the problem 288Perpendicular drop method 289Don’t integrate to a valley point 290Angular drop or allocated area 292Tangent skim method 292Effect of setup mistakes 293




15 Calibration 301Measurement principles 301

Terminology 301Random error 302Systematic error 302Uncertainty 302Accurate calibration 304Calibration and validation 304

Calibration methods 307

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Contents xvii

External standard method 307Normalization 308Calibrating a composite peak 309Grab sample calibration 310Internal standard method 310Area percentage method 311

SCI-FILE: On Response Factors 312External standard 312Normalization 312Internal standard 312Area percentage 313



References 317Cited 317Figure 317Equations 317Symbols 318New technical terms 318

Answers to self-assessment questions 319

Bibliography 329

Glossary 331

Index 367

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Process Gas Chromatographs installed in a prefabricated air-conditioned analyzer shelter for an ethyleneplant in Texas. Image © Yokogawa Corporation of America, 2018. Reproduced with permission.

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Preface

Welcome to the world of Process Gas Chromatography!This book focuses on the Process Gas Chromatograph (PGC). There are dozens of fine books on

the science of gas chromatography but few on the technology of the process instrument. I found only twoprevious books dedicated to online gas chromatographs (Huskins 1977; Annino and Villalobos 1992).

Process gas chromatographs are complex instruments, and the people that design and operate themneed special knowledge and unique skills. With that in mind, I designed the book to serve the needs of thejourneyman analyzer technician, the process instrument engineer, and the process analyzer specialist.

PGC is a practical technology, and this is a practical book. It’s an effective classroom training manualfor those currently learning the art and a handy reference manual for those already practicing it.

Chapters are deliberately compact, suitable for a weekly reading program or as focused lessons in aneducational course. Each chapter ends with a summary of knowledge gained and a self-assessment quizwith answers provided. In addition, there are nine optional test questions for students; three easy, threemoderate, and three challenging.

Why is such a book necessary?Anyone working in the fluid processing industries knows that their knowledge base is in full flight.

Due to staffing reductions and mass retirements our industry is losing decades of hard-won experience.Walter Jennings and Colin Poole recently expressed this situation rather well (Jennings and Poole

2012, 72):

This [automation of gas chromatographs] has led to a continuing decline in the expertise of theaverage practicing chromatographer from the mid-1980s to the present time. This can be perilous,because everything from column selection to trouble-shooting skills is based on a fundamentalknowledge of chromatographic principles, the absence of which degrades the quality and use-fulness of the information acquired by these instruments. To address these problems requires amassive educational effort before the knowledge is lost and the usefulness of gas chromatographyto decision makers is called into question.

There can be no clearer call to justify this book. While the authors were writing to laboratory chemists,those working on process gas chromatographs also need a fundamental knowledge of chromatographicprinciples presented in a way that facilitates a massive educational effort. This textbook sets out to satisfythose needs. It’s primarily written for process analyzer engineers and technicians but should be helpfulto anyone using or maintaining a process gas chromatograph.

To succeed in its mission, a book needs to so excite readers that they want to read more. It should beso useful that they immediately return to it when they need information. Yet the average book on gaschromatography is abysmally boring and poses an intellectual challenge even to post-doctoral scientists,let alone the lonely guy faced with fixing a broken process chromatograph at midnight.

This text teaches the fundamental knowledge of process gas chromatography by encouraging thereader to think critically about what is happening in the instrument, mostly without recourse to analogyor math. It also describes some practical procedures for design or troubleshooting.

So, here you have it. A clear yet detailed book that is ideal for classroom instruction, private study, ordistance learning. Focused chapters unfold the technology of a process gas chromatograph to an engineer

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xx Preface

or technician who may have no previous experience of the technique. The content is basic, yet thorough,so it should meet the needs of many readers.

I’m glad that you’re here. I hope you enjoy the book!

Tony WatersAtascadero, California

January 2020

References

Cited

Annino, R. and Villalobos, R. (1992). Process Gas Chromatography. Research Triangle Park, NC: Instrument Societyof America.

Huskins, D.J. (1977). Gas Chromatographs as Industrial Process Analyzers. New York, NY: Pergamon Press.Jennings, W.G. and Poole, C.F. (2012). Milestones in the development of gas chromatography. In: Gas Chromatog-

raphy (ed. C.F. Poole), 1–18. Oxford, UK: Elsevier.

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Contributors

An international team of expert chromatographers has peer-reviewed the technical content of this text.This Editorial Advisory Board comprised the experienced analyzer engineers listed below. We grate-fully acknowledge their contributions. Culpability for remaining errors or omissions rests entirely on theauthor.

Jerry Clemons, PhDProcess Gas Chromatograph Consultant

Formerly, General ManagerABB Process AnalyticsRonceverte, West Virginia, USA

• Jerry has worked with gas chromatographs during his entire career startingat Virginia Polytechnic University where he earned his PhD with Dr. HaroldMcNair.

• He has held many engineering and management positions at ABB Pro-cess Analytics and its predecessors, always focused on their process gaschromatographs. Now retired from active duty, he continues to provide histechnical expertise as a consultant to that company.

• Jerry has 50 years of experience working with process gas chromatographs.

R. Aaron Eidt, BScProcess Analyzer ConsultantPEAK PERFORMANCE Analytical Consulting Ltd.Delta, British Columbia, Canada

Formerly, Analyzer and PGC ManagerDow Chemical CanadaFort Saskatchewan, AB, Canada

• Aaron is a chemist with 25 years of experience developing new GC methodsfor research and industrial chromatographs at Dow Chemical Canada. Aaronspecialized in process analyzer validation, troubleshooting and performanceimprovement. For several years, he led the Dow Global Process Chromatogra-phy Technology Network.

• Since retiring from Dow, Aaron has had process analyzer consulting engage-ments with the Sadara Chemical Company in Jubail, Saudi Arabia, and withMEGlobal.

• Aaron has developed and instructs both introductory and advanced trou-bleshooting training courses in process gas chromatography for analyzermaintenance technicians.

• Aaron has 30 years of experience practicing industrial gas chromatography.

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xxii Contributors

Zoltán Hajdú, RNDrMarketing ManagerAnalyzer System IntegrationYokogawa Europe

Formerly, Analyzer Systems Consultant for YokogawaCentral and East Europe

• Responsible for analyzer system design and analyzer selection, including onsite start up, and trouble-shooting of Yokogawa process chromatographs andanalyzer systems throughout Central and East Europe.

• Previously, Supervisor of Process Analyzers at Slovnaft Refinery in Bratislava.Now responsible for analyzer system sales for Yokogawa in Europe.

• Zoli has 12 years’ experience working with various process gas chro-matographs.

Phil Harris, BSc MScProcess Analyzer ConsultantPresidentInsight Analytical Ltd.Calgary, Alberta, Canada

Formerly, Engineering Manager AMETEK Western ResearchCalgary, Alberta, Canada

• Phil has a BSc in Physics and a Master’s in Chemistry. His career began in theResearch Chemistry branch of Atomic Energy of Canada, where he designedspectroscopic analyzers and built algorithms for numerical analysis of spectraland chemical data.

• Phil has been an independent consultant since 1998, primarily on the develop-ment of process analytical solutions in the oil, gas, and petrochemical industry.He provided services to AMETEK for a number of years and developed mostof the numerical analysis algorithms used on the 900 series of Analyzers.

• He has published over 25 papers and has given training courses on spec-troscopy and process analyzer sample systems all over the world.

• Phil has 35 years of experience with industrial process analyzers, mainly withprocess spectrometers.

Michael HoffmanBusiness Development ManagerSiemens Industry, Inc.Analytical Products & SolutionsHouston, Texas USA

• Michael started in industry at Phillips 66, and continued the journey withStandard Oil Chemicals, BP, Innovene, and INEOS.

• His initial work was with laboratory chromatographs. After transition-ing to process chromatographs, he focused on online analyzer reliability,advanced control support, materials handling, and analyzer data managementtechnologies.

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Contributors xxiii

• Michael joined Siemens in 2007. He now provides marketing and technicalsupport for analytical solutions, communications, PGC applications, and sam-ple handling system designs.

• Michael has 37 years of experience working with laboratory and process gaschromatographs.

Dirk HorstProcess Analyzer ConsultantHeerhugowaard, Netherlands

Formerly Global QMI ConsultantShell Global Solutions TeamAmsterdam, Netherlands

• Dirk has long experience with process analyzers, including startup assign-ments at Shell jobsites in Germany, India, Nigeria, and Russia. He is also wellknown for his many classroom and practical training programs for analyzermaintenance technicians.

• Dirk has 34 years of experience working with process gas chromatographs.

Dr. Daniel KuehneProcess Gas Chromatograph ConsultantSiemens AGAnalytical Products and SolutionsManufacturing Karlsruhe, Germany

• Daniel studied Chemistry at the University of Bremen and did his diploma anddoctorate thesis in Analytical Chemistry.

• He joined Siemens in 2005 as method developer for process GCs. He stayed inmethod development for 11 years, whereof the last five years being the headof the PGC method developer team.

• Since 2016 he has been making technical evaluations of PGC inquiries andworking as a technical consultant for sales and customers and additionally astechnical advisor for the GC method development team.

• Daniel has 14 years of experience working with process gas chromatographs.

James Leonard, PhDProcess Analyzer SpecialistEastman Chemical CompanyKingsport, Tennessee, USA

• James received his PhD in Analytical Chemistry from The Ohio State Uni-versity. He has 20 years of experience working in the field of Process Ana-lytics at Eastman Chemical. During this time, James has designed, installed,and commissioned analyzer systems incorporating modern on-line techniquesthroughout the world.

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xxiv Contributors

• He has presented lectures on process analytics at universities and other organi-zations to promote the use of on-line technologies to improve process controland reduce waste.

• James has 17 years of experience working with process gas chromatographs.

Harald MahlerProcess Analyzer EngineerSiemens AGAnalytical Products and SolutionsKarlsruhe, Germany

• Harald studied chemistry at the University of Applied Science in Reutlingen.Since 1989 he has gained experience in process analytics in various engineer-ing and management positions within Siemens AG. He has authored and pre-sented many technical papers within the process analytical community.

• Harald has held engineering and management roles in application andmethod development, project management, industry marketing, and productmanagement. Currently he is Global Sales and Business Development Man-ager for process analytics within the Process Automation Division, servingmainly the petrochemical, oil and gas, and renewable energy markets.

• Harald has 29 years of experience working with process gas chromatographs.

Gen Matsuno, MEProduct ManagerQuality Analyzer Systems

General ManagerIA-PS Analyzer CenterYokogawa Electric CorporationMitaka, Tokyo, Japan

• Matsuno-san was leader of the Yokogawa GC8000 PGC development team. Inaddition to his experience of designing process gas chromatographs, he hasfive years of experience as a laboratory GC user.

• Gen-san has 12 years of experience working with process gas chromatographs.

Takashi Matsuura, BESenior Field EngineerNippon Swagelok FST, Inc.Yokohama, Japan

Formerly, Manager of Process GC DevelopmentYokogawa Electric Corporation

• Taka designed the Yokogawa GC1000 PGC oven and was leader of the engi-neering team that developed the Yokogawa GC1000 Mk2 PGC. He also wrotethe specifications for the GC8000 PGC.

• Taka has over 25 years of experience working with process gas chro-matographs.

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Contributors xxv

Suru Patel, PhDProcess Analyzer ConsultantPatex Controls Ltd.Calgary, Alberta, Canada

Formerly, Distinguished Engineering Associate for Process AnalyzersExxon Chemical Company, Sarnia, Canada, and Singapore

• In addition to his process analyzer engineering work, Suru developed PGCtraining courses for process analyzer technicians and PGC data users.

• Previously, for several years, Suru was a PGC Applications Engineer at Ser-vomex Company in the UK and was the Lead Analyzer Engineer in Houstonfor Exxon’s Singapore Chemical Complex project. He was also the develop-ment engineer for a new flame ionization detector.

• Suru has 40 years of experience working with process gas chromatographs.

Ivan Rybár, PhDHead of Process Analyzer GroupSlovnaft MaO, a.s.Bratislava, Slovakia

Formerly Research and TeachingAssistant, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Comenius UniversityBratislava, Slovakia

• For 10 years now, Ivan has been responsible for the reliability of all processanalyzers at the refinery, including the maintenance of existing systems andthe design of new installations. As the supervisor of 26 analyzers, he createswork procedures and provides training and support for his team.

• In 2013 and 2015, he was twice awarded the accolade “Slovnaft Star.”• Previously he worked as an analyzer engineer for several companies providing

engineering services to industrial plants, including the selection of analyzersand the design of complete sampling systems.

• During his time at university, Ivan developed new methods and taught severalgraduate courses in liquid chromatography. He has recently published fourscientific papers on this work.

• Ivan has 15 years of experience working with process gas chromatographs.

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xxvi Contributors

Eric Schmidt, PhDPrincipal Research ScientistThe Dow Chemical CompanyAnalytical SciencesFreeport, Texas, USA

• Eric Schmidt received his PhD in Analytical Chemistry from The Universityof Texas at Austin. He has worked at the Dow Chemical Company in Freeport,Texas, for over 20 years as a Research Scientist where he spends his time devel-oping new on-line process measurements for R&D and manufacturing. He iscurrently leading the On-line Chromatography Strategic Capability Team atDow.

• Eric has 20 years of experience working with process gas chromatographs.

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Acknowledgments

Hearty thanks all friends and associates who contributed material to this text. Many of those listed belowaudited the beta-test of an online tutorial based on this textbook. Their contributions of time and knowl-edge are much appreciated.

Minh Anh VietnamBrian Aplin South CarolinaDale Arstein OhioMasafumi Awano JapanKen Backus TexasHesham El Banna Saudi ArabiaEddie Beezemer NetherlandsLinda Bonnette TexasMark Booth ScotlandDanny van den Burg NetherlandsBruno Chaurand FranceAlice Chin MalaysiaAlex Chu EnglandScott Cookson AustraliaMarcus Creaven IrelandDave Demsey Sr. PennsylvaniaMatt Dixon OhioAna Dominguez SwitzerlandKevin Fajri IndonesiaMikhail Fedorets RussiaMike Frost AustraliaVictor Alberto Fuentes SpainKeisuke Fukada JapanYves Gamache QuebecUdo Gellert GermanyRoger Glass EnglandUrich Gokeler TexasMatt Hasenohr OregonDarryl Hazlett TexasJack Holland EnglandTom Huddle EnglandDamian Huff West VirginiaHumberto Serrato Hurtado ColombiaJoe Iveljic Ohio

Nick Iverson MinnesotaSamson Jacob Abu DhabiJayson Zhang Ji SingaporeKyle Juist OhioEric Kayla CaliforniaEric Kvarda OhioBert Laan EnglandAndré Lamontagne QuebecWilco Landkroon NetherlandsRudi Lehnig GermanyTim Lenior NetherlandsHank Liu SingaporeAldemar Figueroa Loza ColombiaKarim Mahraz OhioRogério Matos BrazilBill Menz OhioJohn Meyer GermanyThomas Neuhauser OklahomaKentaro Nomura JapanDoug Nordstrom OhioTatsuya Ohkoshi JapanBob Perusek OhioStacey Phillips AlbertaWouter Pronk NetherlandsVenkat Rao Dubai, UAESyed Jawwad Raza QatarReino van Rensburg South AfricaJoe Rodriguez OhioZaffar Shariff SingaporeJoel Siallagan IndonesiaTrey Sinkfield TexasCharlie Smith LouisianaSharon Sng SingaporeMike Strobel Pennsylvania

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xxviii Acknowledgments

Max Sukuma AustraliaAsad Tahir TexasJorge Trillos ColombiaSteve Trimble OklahomaKunawat Wattanakij Thailand

Mark Welch EnglandHenk van Well GermanyMartin Wieser GermanyKenta Yamada JapanNorbert Zeug Germany

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