Dr. Danica ŠkaraDr. Danica ŠkaraUNIVERSITY OF ZADARUNIVERSITY OF ZADARe-mail: e-mail: dskara@unizd.hrdskara@unizd.hr

Lecture 3: THE BODY IN MIND: THE HUMAN SHAPE OF MODERN SOCIETY

AimsAims

Issues to be consideredIssues to be consideredinclude: include: What is a human body? What is a human body? TThe historical review of he historical review of

the most prominent the most prominent representations of the representations of the human bodyhuman body

What are the dominant What are the dominant body metaphors body metaphors ??

What is a human bodyWhat is a human body? ? FUZZY CONCEPTFUZZY CONCEPT From From EgyptianEgyptian and and Sumerian Sumerian

depictionsdepictions of the ideal human of the ideal human form, form,

Greek and RomanGreek and Roman balanced and balanced and symmetrical human body, symmetrical human body,

medievalist’s imagesmedievalist’s images of the of the body functioning as a body functioning as a confinement to the soulconfinement to the soul

renaissance bodyrenaissance body 'modern body''modern body'

TThe historical review of the most he historical review of the most prominent representations of the prominent representations of the

human bodyhuman body

In pre-modern societies, the In pre-modern societies, the body, both male and female, body, both male and female, was an important site on which was an important site on which cultural and social values were cultural and social values were inscribed through inscribed through painting, painting, scarification, piercing and scarification, piercing and tattooing.tattooing.

These bodily markings carried a These bodily markings carried a wide range of different wide range of different meanings referring to meanings referring to social social status, gender, identitystatus, gender, identity, etc. , etc.

male male oror female female As soon as we are born, we are designated as As soon as we are born, we are designated as

male male oror female. female. This dualism has been This dualism has been reflected in different treatment of men and reflected in different treatment of men and women, in cultural practices and in women, in cultural practices and in metaphorical projections. metaphorical projections.

wwomen’somen’s identity= identity= sinful, mortal, irrational sinful, mortal, irrational bodybody; ;

men’s men’s identity = identity = mind, immortality and reason. mind, immortality and reason.

Concepts that were considered masculine, Concepts that were considered masculine, such as such as light, straight, good, reason, light, straight, good, reason, mind, spirit, power, and the public mind, spirit, power, and the public spheresphere, ,

Concepts associated with femmininity: Concepts associated with femmininity: darkness, left, bad, irrationality, body, darkness, left, bad, irrationality, body, emotion, passivity, inferiority, and the emotion, passivity, inferiority, and the private sphereprivate sphere. .

Deeds are man, words are woman. Deeds are man, words are woman. Long hair, short wit.Long hair, short wit.

The mind /body dualismThe mind /body dualism The human body is universally perceived as a composite of The human body is universally perceived as a composite of

thethe physical body physical body and theand the mind/soul. mind/soul.

The body was conceived as a ‘The body was conceived as a ‘prison of the soulprison of the soul’ and ’ and mind. This concept can be traced back in Plato, Aristotle and mind. This concept can be traced back in Plato, Aristotle and in the Christian tradition. in the Christian tradition.

Plato: Plato: The body is the tomb of the soulThe body is the tomb of the soul. (Cratylus, XVII.). . (Cratylus, XVII.). W. Shakespeare: W. Shakespeare: My heart, all mad with misery, Beats in My heart, all mad with misery, Beats in

this hollow prison of my fleshthis hollow prison of my flesh. (Titus Andronicus, Act 3.).. (Titus Andronicus, Act 3.).

On the contrary, the Eastern On the contrary, the Eastern perception of the body, as expressed perception of the body, as expressed in Taoism and Zen Buddhism, in Taoism and Zen Buddhism, advocates the advocates the non-dualisticnon-dualistic nature of nature of the human body. the human body.

This concept makes human being a This concept makes human being a union of body union of body andand mind mind working working together. together.

Renaissance bodyRenaissance body By the late fifteenth and By the late fifteenth and

early sixteenth century, early sixteenth century, more naturalistic images of more naturalistic images of the human body resulted the human body resulted from the growing interest in from the growing interest in the the human formhuman form > > Leonardo Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo da Vinci and Michelangelo Buonarroti.Buonarroti. ( (perfection through perfection through harmonious proportion).harmonious proportion).

Sound body, sound mind.Sound body, sound mind. Men is the measure of all thingsMen is the measure of all things

universal/generic bodyuniversal/generic body Until the end of the eighteenth century, the human body was Until the end of the eighteenth century, the human body was

mainly perceived as an mainly perceived as an ungendered,ungendered, universal, generic universal, generic bodybody. .

The The male body/manmale body/man was considered the was considered the normnorm,, and and femalefemale characteristics have been conceptualized on the basis of characteristics have been conceptualized on the basis of masculine parameters. masculine parameters. e.g. e.g. All All men men are equal in the eyes of law.are equal in the eyes of law. (man=all people, (man=all people, both male and female); theboth male and female); the evolution of evolution of manman, etc. , etc.

D. Spander (1980, p. 20) believes that in some areas D. Spander (1980, p. 20) believes that in some areas ‘‘semantic space does not exist for women because it is semantic space does not exist for women because it is occupied by the male sex’.occupied by the male sex’.

sexual differenecssexual differenecs

During the nineteenth century, a revolutionary During the nineteenth century, a revolutionary reconceptualization of reconceptualization of sexual differencesexual difference emerged. The discourse on the body shifts emerged. The discourse on the body shifts from the from the man-mademan-made language to the language to the neutral neutral naming. naming.

In the same time the linguistic landscape of the In the same time the linguistic landscape of the female body is changed, e.g. female body is changed, e.g. postal postal worker>post officer>postwoman. worker>post officer>postwoman.

The body in modern The body in modern societysociety

In modern society, the In modern society, the form of the human body form of the human body changes through practices such as changes through practices such as bodybuilding, bodybuilding, cross-dressing, cosmetic surgery, etc.cross-dressing, cosmetic surgery, etc.

There is also an emerging vocabulary referring to There is also an emerging vocabulary referring to new identities: new identities: gay, lesbian, bisexual, heterosexualgay, lesbian, bisexual, heterosexual , , etc.etc.

Virtual realityVirtual reality and its vocabulary disseminate the and its vocabulary disseminate the image of a new body: image of a new body: robots, android, cyborgs, robots, android, cyborgs, cyber terroristscyber terrorists, , computer nerdscomputer nerds,, netizens,netizens, etc. etc.

D. Haraway (1991) claims that the D. Haraway (1991) claims that the cyborgcyborg serves as serves as a metaphorical projection of the disintegration of a metaphorical projection of the disintegration of traditional boundaries. traditional boundaries.

New technologies have changed New technologies have changed categories: categories: birth mother, sperm birth mother, sperm donor, egg donor,donor, egg donor, etc. etc.

With the appearance of each With the appearance of each new word, a new threshold is new word, a new threshold is crossed in the perception and crossed in the perception and social construction of the social construction of the human body.human body.

TThe conceptualization of the he conceptualization of the human body changes in visible human body changes in visible ways with changes in societyways with changes in society and in sexual awareness. and in sexual awareness.

There is quite an extensive expansion of the There is quite an extensive expansion of the human-body domain which is used to describe human-body domain which is used to describe new tecnical devices. Computers have new tecnical devices. Computers have memory,memory, brains, intelligence, languages, brains, intelligence, languages, viruses, keys, windows, architecture, viruses, keys, windows, architecture, etc. They etc. They are are intelligent, smartintelligent, smart; they can be ; they can be infected infected by by virus. virus.

ComputersComputers become become human beingshuman beings and and human human beingsbeings act like act like computerscomputers. . This attitude sets the stage for an exceptionally This attitude sets the stage for an exceptionally powerful process of remapping and powerful process of remapping and reimagining the boundaries of human bodies. reimagining the boundaries of human bodies.

Body metaphorsBody metaphorsMan is the measure of all thingsMan is the measure of all things (proverb)(proverb)

WhenWhen the body is mentioned in literature, the body is mentioned in literature, philosophy or philosophy or similarsimilar disciplines, it is often disciplines, it is often conceptualized as a conceptualized as a plant, an animal, a cage or plant, an animal, a cage or confinement of the soul, a machine, a container confinement of the soul, a machine, a container of emotionsof emotions, , a computera computer, , a communication a communication networknetwork, etc. , etc.

Plato describes humankind as a ‘heavenly Plato describes humankind as a ‘heavenly planplant.’ t.’ (family tree, the root of the tooth...). (family tree, the root of the tooth...). Women are often perceived as fragile Women are often perceived as fragile flowers.flowers.

TThe he human body is often human body is often addressed as a addressed as a metaphor for societymetaphor for society (e.g. (e.g. the head of the the head of the state, the face of the law,state, the face of the law, a legislative bodya legislative body, , etc.) etc.)

the the body partsbody parts have individual functions. have individual functions. They can become symbolic models of They can become symbolic models of stable meanings in different parts of stable meanings in different parts of one’s experience, e.gone’s experience, e.g..

head>head> the seat of the intellect; director, the seat of the intellect; director, leaderleader; ; a container of thoughts, ideas, a container of thoughts, ideas, memories. memories.

heartheart >the seat of emotion (sadness, >the seat of emotion (sadness, fear, and love) and the center of braveryfear, and love) and the center of bravery

handhand > power/control, e.g. > power/control, e.g. to have to have someone in one’s handssomeone in one’s hands

heartheart

Metaphorically, it refers to a person’s character, Metaphorically, it refers to a person’s character, or the place within aor the place within a p personerson where their where their feelings or emotions (feelings or emotions (sadness, surprise, fear,sadness, surprise, fear, love…)love…) are are considered to come. It is also the considered to come. It is also the center ofcenter of bravery/courage:bravery/courage:

You are doing really well-don’t You are doing really well-don’t lose heartlose heart nownow. (=courage), . (=courage),

to breakto break someone’s someone’s heartheart (=to cause (=to cause emotional pain) emotional pain)

In some languages heart is considered as the In some languages heart is considered as the centre of the soul (heart=soul), e.g.centre of the soul (heart=soul), e.g. Croatian: Croatian: On je prava On je prava dusa (= soul).dusa (= soul). > She is all > She is all heart.heart.

Body parts have been widely used to conceptualize inanimate world. Accordingly, Body parts have been widely used to conceptualize inanimate world. Accordingly, many languages use body parts terms to describe non-corporeal entities, e.g. many languages use body parts terms to describe non-corporeal entities, e.g.

leg of a table, leg of a table, arm of a chairarm of a chair foot of the bedfoot of the bed-------------------------------------------- head of the salad, head of the salad, heart of the lettuceheart of the lettuce ear (grain part of corn)ear (grain part of corn) ---------------------------------------------------- shoulder of a hillshoulder of a hill foot of the mountainfoot of the mountain Finger LakesFinger Lakes mouth of a rivermouth of a river Some physical units are derived from dimensions of the body:Some physical units are derived from dimensions of the body: a foot (= the length of an adult foot)a foot (= the length of an adult foot) a yard (= a single stride)a yard (= a single stride) Digital system is based on the Latin word DIGITUS=finger. Digital system is based on the Latin word DIGITUS=finger. plants and animals are named after body parts: prstaciplants and animals are named after body parts: prstaci body parts: eye teethbody parts: eye teeth

Basic image schemata of Basic image schemata of the bodythe body

The view of the body as a physical object The view of the body as a physical object presupposes its 3-dimensional form presupposes its 3-dimensional form (container, box) in space and time. A (container, box) in space and time. A container schema has its structure: container schema has its structure: an an inside, a boundary, and an outside. inside, a boundary, and an outside.

This spatial conception of the body as This spatial conception of the body as physical object, generates many physical object, generates many metaphors based on the form of the metaphors based on the form of the following image schemata: LEFT-RIGHfollowing image schemata: LEFT-RIGHt, t, IN-OUT, FRONT-BACK, UP-DOWNIN-OUT, FRONT-BACK, UP-DOWN

Symmetry and balanceSymmetry and balance

The human body is perfectly symmetrical The human body is perfectly symmetrical and balanced. It can beand balanced. It can be f foldedolded over in over in the middle into left and right halves the middle into left and right halves

(vertical axis).(vertical axis). Vitruvian man Vitruvian man is is a symbol of the ideal a symbol of the ideal and symmetrical human and symmetrical human bodybody

The experienceThe experience of balanced posture gives of balanced posture gives rise to followingrise to following metaphors: metaphors: balanced balanced personalities,personalities, balanced views, the balance balanced views, the balance ofof power, justice, inner balance. balanced power, justice, inner balance. balanced news, etc. news, etc.

left-rightleft-right

Metaphors generated by LEFT-RIGHT experience of Metaphors generated by LEFT-RIGHT experience of the body posturethe body posture support the view that support the view that leftleft is is clumsy, awkward, insincere,clumsy, awkward, insincere, e.g. e.g. leftleft handed handed compliment.compliment.

Metaphorically, Metaphorically, rightright means means suitable, morallysuitable, morally aacceptable, correct, true, authentic, conservative, cceptable, correct, true, authentic, conservative, prominent side of anprominent side of an, , objectobject, , e.g.e.g. to get off on the to get off on the right footright foot , , right conduct(=being in accordance with right conduct(=being in accordance with what is just, good,what is just, good, correct)correct), , upright (= honest upright (= honest and just)and just)

Interior-exterior Interior-exterior In the majority of metaphorical In the majority of metaphorical

projections, the body functions as a projections, the body functions as a container box. It consists of many entities: container box. It consists of many entities: mind, soul, words, emotions, thoughts,mind, soul, words, emotions, thoughts, etc. etc. In proverbial speech, people reach their In proverbial speech, people reach their inner part through their eyes: inner part through their eyes: Eyes are the Eyes are the window of the soul.window of the soul.

The enterior of the body is percieved as The enterior of the body is percieved as physical environment and the exterior of physical environment and the exterior of the body as a field of cultural the body as a field of cultural representations.representations.

Up-downUp-down The posture we regard as typical of the The posture we regard as typical of the

human body is upright. Accordingly, human body is upright. Accordingly, activities viewed positively are expressed activities viewed positively are expressed as as upup (= a (= a higher value, an improvementhigher value, an improvement). ). Metaphorically, if someone is Metaphorically, if someone is downdown it it means a means a weak, desperateweak, desperate position, e.g. position, e.g. Tim has been feeling down.Tim has been feeling down.

Due to the Due to the backbone or spine,backbone or spine, we can we can achieve upright position. Such an achieve upright position. Such an experience generates the view that the experience generates the view that the backbone is conceptualized as backbone is conceptualized as strength, strength, braverybravery, e.g. , e.g. They have been They have been the the backbone backbone of the local golf club for years.of the local golf club for years.

Front-backFront-back The posture of the human body is such that its The posture of the human body is such that its

senses are dominantly directed forward (eyes, senses are dominantly directed forward (eyes, nose, and mouth). This experience generates the nose, and mouth). This experience generates the view that front part is equal to view that front part is equal to progress, dignity, progress, dignity, knowledgeknowledge, e.g. , e.g. Seeing is believingSeeing is believing..

IIn the back of one’s mindn the back of one’s mind means the remote part of means the remote part of one’s brain where thoughts are stored and forgotten. one’s brain where thoughts are stored and forgotten. - - to stab someone in the backto stab someone in the back. (= to betray). (= to betray)- - to have one’s back to the wallto have one’s back to the wall (= to be in (= to be in

defensive position)defensive position) - - behind one’s back behind one’s back (= without one’s knowledge, (= without one’s knowledge,

in secret)in secret)

European speakers project truths into the European speakers project truths into the future, progress. In the same time some future, progress. In the same time some non-Western languages put the non-Western languages put the past in past in front and the future behind.front and the future behind. So the past So the past time is defined as time is defined as eye yeareye year or or front yearfront year. .

Obviously, their metaphorical projections Obviously, their metaphorical projections are different and based on their own are different and based on their own cultural values.cultural values.

Evidently, the structure of the human Evidently, the structure of the human body does not necesserily produce body does not necesserily produce universal metaphors.universal metaphors.

CONCLUSIONCONCLUSION

1. Linguistic categorization of the body 1. Linguistic categorization of the body reveals that all human beings have a reveals that all human beings have a common set of conceptual metaphors common set of conceptual metaphors ((universal/generic level metaphors)universal/generic level metaphors) that that are based on the following:are based on the following:

common body structure common body structure basic sensory experiencesbasic sensory experiences common features of social organization common features of social organization

and behaviour>common cultural and behaviour>common cultural environmentenvironment

common features of the natural common features of the natural environmentenvironment

Globalization Globalization

2. specific metaphors2. specific metaphors The body and its individual parts are used in The body and its individual parts are used in

metaphorical projections as symbols of specific metaphorical projections as symbols of specific cultural and social values. cultural and social values.

Specific cultural and social environmentSpecific cultural and social environment Sensory experience? Not all information is Sensory experience? Not all information is

registered: registered: selective attention or selective attention or economical economical perceptionperception> > diversity/specific level diversity/specific level metaphorsmetaphors

Through the development of new technologies Through the development of new technologies human environment has been radically modified. human environment has been radically modified. Accordingly, the human body has evolved to Accordingly, the human body has evolved to adapt to its environment. New metaphorical adapt to its environment. New metaphorical projections are introduced.projections are introduced.