Drinking water quality research summary and suggested priorities report EXECUTIVE SUMMARY In 2009, upon receiving funding from the RBC Foundation’s Blue Water fund, the Harris Centre created The RBC Harris Centre Drinking Water Applied Research Fund. The Fund’s steering committee felt it would be best to first inventory existing water research in the province and to investigate knowledge gaps and real-world issues which could direct the research fund. This information will be made available to researchers who wish to apply to the Fund. The fund’s steering committee tasked Dr. Sue Ziegler, Kelly Butt and Dr. Tahir Husain with exploring various aspects of drinking water issues in Newfoundland and Labrador, and identifying knowledge gaps that need to be further addressed. The researchers produced individual reports which will be made available on the Fund’s intranet site. The reports highlighted historic issues with drinking water in Newfoundland and Labrador as well as in Canada and identified the existing research in the area. The researchers identified the knowledge gaps that span across the range of issues including public perception of drinking water, to issues surrounding disinfectant by-products in drinking water. Four broad research gaps and possible research themes emerged as the result of the reports: 1. Public perceptions of drinking water issues in Newfoundland and Labrador

a. issues of chlorination, aesthetic and trust issues b. role of media and other information sources c. awareness of water quality monitoring programs and issues

2. Alternative sources of drinking water in Newfoundland and Labrador

a. in-home treatment b. bottled water

3. Cost effective technologies for delivering clean, uninterrupted drinking water

to rural communities. a. treatment options b. water distribution system design c. water treatment technology selection for site specific conditions d. long-term trends in water quality

4. Issues surrounding disinfectant by-products in drinking water

a. mechanisms of DBPs formation b. regulations and treatment technologies minimizing DBPs

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RBC Water Research Fund Introduction

Drinking water quality has been of increasing concern in the media. Highly publicized public water supply problems such as the Escherichia coli (E. coli) outbreak in Walkerton, Ontario in 2000 and the Cryptosporidium outbreak in North Battleford, Saskatchewan in 2001 highlight the importance of safe drinking water to the public (Charrois, Graham, Hrudey, & Froese, 2004; Holme, 2003; Hrudey, Payment, Huck, Gillham, & Hrudey, 2003; Stirling, et al., 2001; Waterborne outbreak of gastroenteritis associated with a contaminated municipal water supply, Walkerton, Ontario, May-June 2000, 2000). Less published in the national press are the over 200 boil water advisories (BWAs) that are in place in Newfoundland and Labrador (NL) every year (Drinking water safety in Newfoundland and Labrador, 2007). Although BWAs are an important tool to ensure drinking water safety, they can increase consumer anxiety and alter perceptions about public drinking water. Reduced confidence in public drinking water can lead consumers to select alternatives to their public tap water, such as bottled water or various in-home treatment methods (D. C. Jones AQ, Doré K, Majowicz SE, McEwen SA, Waltner-Toews D, Henson SJ, Mathews E., 2007). Officials in charge of public water supplies may counter this reduced confidence with drinking water reports, however; there may be a disconnect between information provided by water operators and the self-reported knowledge of the average consumer (Johnson, 2003). Although many studies have focused on the quality of drinking water, few studies have addressed the issue of public perceptions.

Water quality evidence, such as bacteriological, chemical, and physical parameters, has obvious importance in the development of national, provincial and municipal drinking water policies. It is also important to understand community-level perceptions in order to effectively inform residents on topics pertaining to drinking water and to make recommendations for future research, programs, policy and practice in NL and Canada.

Drinking Water Regulation in Canada

Health Canada’s Water Quality and Health Bureau publishes the Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality. The Federal-Provincial-Territorial Committee on Drinking Water establishes these guidelines. The committee is made up of jurisdictional members (ten provinces, three territories, and the federal government), as well as representatives from the Committee on Health and Environment, Environment Canada, and the Canadian Advisory Council on Plumbing. The guidelines help to prevent disease and protect the health of Canadians by setting maximum acceptable concentrations for substances found in drinking water. The guidelines are based on scientific research that pertains to exposure levels of contaminants, aesthetic effects and operational considerations (Federal-Provincial-Territorial Committee on Drinking Water, 2008).

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In Canada, the provision of safe drinking water is the responsibility of the individual provinces and territories. The Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality are voluntarily used by every jurisdiction in Canada, and are the basis for establishing drinking water quality requirements for all Canadians. Public Water Systems in NL

“Water supply system” is the term used to describe the entire infrastructure (e.g. pumps, pipes, valves, water treatment units) used to transport water from a water supply source to the consumer (Drinking water safety in Newfoundland and Labrador, 2006). A “public water supply system” is a water supply system operated by a community, whereas a “private water supply system” is a water supply system that is not operated or maintained by a community (Drinking water safety in Newfoundland and Labrador, 2006). Examples of private water supplies include private water wells or water cisterns. There are 535 public water supply systems that serve 599 communities in NL (Drinking water safety in Newfoundland and Labrador, 2007). Government Departmental Roles in NL.

The NL Inter-Departmental Safe Drinking Water - Technical Working Group is made up of representatives of four departments: Environment and Conservation, Health and Community Services, Government Services and Municipal Affairs. There are also representatives from the Public Health Laboratory and Medical Officers of Health from each of the province’s four Regional Health Authorities. This working group supports the Committee of Deputy Ministers, which is made up of the Deputy Ministers of each of the four governmental departments (Drinking water safety in Newfoundland and Labrador, 2007).

Monitoring the chemical and physical parameters of public drinking water is the responsibility of the Department of Environment and Conservation, while the Department of Government Services is responsible for monitoring bacteriological tap water quality and residual chlorine concentrations (Drinking water safety in Newfoundland and Labrador, 2007). The province of NL adopted the Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality guidelines in 2001.

Boil water advisories in NL

BWAs are issued for a variety of reasons. For example, in 2007, the year pertaining to this thesis, 215 BWAs affected 146 communities and 31,116 people in NL (Drinking water safety in Newfoundland and Labrador, 2007). The BWAs were issued for the following reasons: residual chlorination problem (36.3%), no disinfection system (25.6%), broken system or no chlorine (10.7%), operational problem in the distribution system (9.3%), disinfection system that was turned off by the operator (8.8%), or failed microbiological tests (8.8%). The procedures for issuing a BWA in NL are proactive and conservative for disease prevention; a BWA is issued at the slightest possibility of increased risk to the community. Thus, the number of BWAs is not necessarily indicative of the water quality in NL (Drinking water safety in Newfoundland and Labrador, 2007).

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When an unsatisfactory drinking water test result is determined, the standard protocol is for repeat samples to be taken upstream and downstream of the flagged sample within 24 hours to reduce the possibility that there was an error in the sampling procedure. Sampling errors can be related to a contaminated sample specimen bottle or bacteria on the tap from which the sample was drawn. If these repeat samples cannot be taken, a BWA is issued as a precautionary measure.

In the event of an unsatisfactory drinking water test result, the Regional Medical Officer of Health and the community official responsible for the water supply are notified immediately by telephone, and a BWA is recommended. It is the responsibility of the owner/operator of the water supply system to implement the BWA; the community officials must immediately notify all water consumers (Department of Health and Community Services, 2005).

Corrective measures appropriate to the identified problem are initiated by the owner/operator of the water supply. The BWA continues until two consecutive samples show the absence of total coliform and E. coli. In addition, there must be adequate disinfection as defined by the presence of disinfectant residuals, that is, the chlorine left over at the end of the chlorination process. When these indicators have returned to normal, the BWA is lifted. Again, it is the owner/operator of the water supply who notifies water consumers that public water in their area is safe to drink (Department of Health and Community Services, 2005). Drinking water reports In NL

Each year, the Government of NL publishes a Drinking Water Safety Annual Report. These reports and other information on drinking water quality are available on the Department of Environment and Conservation website (Department of Health and Community Services, 2005). The sixth annual report covers the fiscal year April 1, 2006 to March 31, 2007 (Drinking water safety in Newfoundland and Labrador, 2007), the time period during which this research was undertaken. That report (2007) highlights the progress and accomplishments of the NL government for ensuring safe drinking water in NL (Drinking water safety in Newfoundland and Labrador, 2007).

Annual and quarterly reports are also provided to individual NL municipal offices in which drinking water has been routinely sampled. These reports may include information about sampling results of source water supplies or tap water, as well as summary tools, such as the Drinking Water Quality Index (WQI).

The WQI produces a single score from the scope, frequency and amplitude of water quality, and produces a number between 0 and 100 to represent the overall water quality (Khan, Paterson, & Khan, 2004). The same variables are used in calculations for each water system, and scores are produced for each season. This is to ensure a systematic approach for comparing drinking water quality data among communities in NL. It allows for the communication of water quality information to the general public, without the technical language of the formal public water supply reports. It is possible for a water supply system to rank favourably in the WQI index even if the water is not

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suitable for human consumption. As such, WQI scores are not produced for water systems that have a BWA in place, or exceed the Drinking Water Quality Guidelines for contaminants (Khan, et al., 2004). Health Promotion and Disease Prevention

Health is more than the absence of disease. The World Health Organization (WHO) describes health as, “a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being. An individual or group must be able to identify and to realize aspirations, to satisfy needs, and to change or cope with the environment. Health is, therefore, seen as a resource for everyday life, not the objective of living” (World Health Organization, 1986).

The WHO defines health promotion as, “the process of enabling people to increase control over, and to improve, their health” (World Health Organization, 1986). Health promotion includes providing the knowledge base to make informed drinking water choices, including providing information on the drinking water source and treatment device use. For a level of complete physical, mental and social health, consumers should have access to safe drinking water, and also perceive their drinking water as safe.

From a health promotion perspective, it is important to understand what water sources consumers are using and why, and to address any potential health problems relating to public and alternative water sources before they experience negative health outcomes relating to water-borne contaminants. This upstream approach to health involves identifying risk factors and at-risk populations. Disease prevention is concerned with both upstream and downstream approaches to health and disease. As defined by the WHO, “disease prevention covers measures not only to prevent the occurrence of disease, such as a risk factor, but also to arrest its progress and reduce its consequences once established” (World Health Organization, 1998). There are three categories of disease prevention: primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention. Primary prevention aims to avoid the development of disease. Most population-based health promotion activities are examples of primary preventive measures. For example, public awareness campaigns designed to promote informed decision-making about drinking water are primary prevention strategies. Water treatment such as chlorination is another example. Secondary prevention aims at early disease detection such as testing water for pathogens. Such strategies increase opportunities for early interventions such as implementing a BWA that would prevent the emergence of illness in the population. Tertiary prevention aims to reduce the negative impact of an already established disease by restoring function and reducing disease-related complications. For example, if a population experiences a waterborne outbreak, the appropriate corrective action would be to treat the waterborne illness, reduce secondary transmission, and perhaps post a sign warning others not to drink from that water source. Addressing water quality issues has been an important move forward for public health. The burden of enteric illness.

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Gastrointestinal (GI) illness can be caused by a variety of organisms transmitted via a variety of routes including, but not limited to, food, environmental agents and drinking water. When enteric illnesses occur on a large scale, the personal and community economic impact can be significant, especially when associated with high mortality and morbidity rates as was the case in Walkerton, Ontario (Charrois, et al., 2004; Holme, 2003; Hrudey, et al., 2003; Stirling, et al., 2001; Waterborne outbreak of gastroenteritis associated with a contaminated municipal water supply, Walkerton, Ontario, May-June 2000," 2000).

Several studies have estimated the burden of GI illness in Canada. A cross-sectional study in Hamilton, Ontario found an incidence of 1.3 cases of self-reported acute GI illness per person-year, a mean duration of illness of 4.23 days, and a 71.0% average probability for an individual to develop acute GI illness during the year (Majowicz, et al., 2004; Schuster, et al., 2005). These results were substantiated by a second cross-sectional telephone survey in British Columbia that found an incidence of 1.3 cases of self-reported acute GI illness per person-year, a mean duration of illness of 3.7 days, and a 71.6% average probability for an individual to develop acute GI illness during the year (Thomas, et al., 2006).

Although the above studies do not distinguish among GI illness causes, the contribution of waterborne causes should not be ignored as a potential cause for acute GI. Schuster et al. (2005) presented data on Canadian waterborne disease outbreaks from 1974-2001 to gain a picture of the burden of disease on the public health system in Canada (Schuster, et al., 2005). They found that out of 288 outbreaks linked to a drinking water source, 34% were linked to public water systems (Schuster, et al., 2005). Severe weather, nearness to animal populations, treatment system malfunctions, and poor maintenance and treatment practices were associated with reported waterborne disease outbreaks (Schuster, et al., 2005).

Highly publicized waterborne outbreaks are a reminder of the potentially significant morbidity and mortality associated with unsafe drinking water. There were over 2,300 people ill and 7 deaths associated with the E. coli.0157:H7 contamination of the drinking water in Walkerton, Ontario in May 2000 (Hrudey, et al., 2003). Also, between 5,800 and 7,100 residents and visitors were sick from the drinking water contaminated by Cryptosporidium parvum during the May 2001 outbreak in North Battleford, Saskatchewan (Stirling, et al., 2001). These are just two examples of the adverse health consequences caused by unsafe drinking water. Heightened awareness, particularly via the news media, of unsafe drinking water associated with waterborne outbreaks can alter public perceptions of public drinking water (Doria, Abubakar, Syed, Hughes, & Hunter, 2006). Public Perceptions of Drinking Water

The discussion of perceptions of drinking water quality is complicated. A review of the literature cites aesthetic characteristics, chlorine, odour and flavour, information sources, including the media, and trust in utility workers as dynamic

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factors that may influence consumer attitudes towards public water quality (Burlingame & Mackey, 2007; Doria, et al., 2006; Driedger & Eyles, 2003; Johnson, 2003; D. C. Jones AQ, Doré K, Majowicz SE, McEwen SA, Waltner-Toews D, Henson SJ, Mathews E., 2007). Public Perceptions of Drinking Water: Aesthetic characteristics.

Mineral content can alter the aesthetics of drinking water, while remaining below the maximum health and safety standard limits of the Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality established by the Federal-Provincial-Territorial Committee on Drinking Water (Azoulay, Garzon, & Eisenberg, 2001; Dietrich, 2006). If consumers are not informed about, or do not understand, this characteristic, they may perceive aesthetic variation as an indication of poor drinking water quality. Aesthetically unpleasing drinking water may elicit concerns that the water is unsafe or undesirable to drink (Doria Mde, Pidgeon, & Hunter, 2009; D. C. Jones AQ, Doré K, Majowicz SE, McEwen SA, Waltner-Toews D, Henson SJ, Mathews E., 2007). This perception may lead to increased use of treatment devices and tap water alternatives (Jones, Dewey, Dore, Majowicz, McEwen, Waltner-Toews, et al., 2006). Public Perceptions of Drinking Water: Chlorination.

Other water quality indicators, such as residual chlorine levels, may also impact consumer perception. In two studies conducted in 1994 and 2001 in Quebec, Canada, consumers living nearest to a water treatment plant, where residual chlorine levels are highest, perceived the most risk and least satisfaction with the quality of their drinking water (Turgeon, Rodriguez, Theriault, & Levallois, 2004). Mackey et al. (2004) tested consumer sensitivity to free and combined chlorine in seven different demographic and geographic locations across the United States. Contrary to the Quebec study, they found that, although individual sensitivity varied widely, very few participants were able to recognize the chlorine flavour, even at concentrations close to the US maximum contaminant level (Mackey, Baribeau, Crozes, Suffet, & Piriou, 2004). Furthermore, there was no statistically significant difference in sensitivity threshold to chlorinous flavours among tap, bottled, and filtered water drinkers. This study concluded that consumers did not switch to alternative tap water solutions based solely on their detection of free chlorine in the water (Mackey, et al., 2004). Environmental factors, such as exposure to industrialization or pollution, may also affect attitudes about chemicals, including chlorination of drinking water (Doria Mde, et al., 2009). Public Perceptions of Drinking Water: Information sources.

Perceptions of risk from drinking water are influenced by information sources (Doria, et al., 2006). In a study conducted in the United Kingdom in 2001/2002, it was found that people were more likely to perceive waterborne contamination as the cause of enteric illness if the information came from the media or friends than if it came from other information sources (19). Consumers were also more likely to view water as the cause of enteric illness if the

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information came from a health professional; but consumers did not associate a specific cause with enteric illness if their information source was the Internet or leaflets (Doria, et al., 2006). However, in a study conducted in the United States, quantitative water quality reports did not shift consumers’ perceptions of water quality and utility performance at all (Johnson, 2003). Public Perceptions of Drinking Water: Media.

Doubts and fears about drinking water may be exacerbated by stories in the media or by commercial advertisements featuring alternative drinking water options or treatment devices. Chlorine disinfection of drinking water saves lives and prevents significant morbidity by reducing enteric illness, but chlorine by-products have also been suggested to be carcinogens (Johnson, 2003). Media presentations of linking chlorine disinfection and cancer can shape lay risk perceptions (Johnson, 2003). While microbiological contamination would cause far greater morbidity, the public views any exposure to a potential risk of cancer as unacceptable (Fawell & Nieuwenhuijsen, 2003; Johnson, 2003). Public Perceptions of Drinking Water: Trust in utility workers.

Trust in water utility performance can attenuate risk perceptions in the public drinking water supply (Doria Mde, et al., 2009; Johnson, 2003). In a study conducted by Jones et al. (2007) in Hamilton, Ontario Canada in 2003, participants felt that their scepticism about a public water system might be offset by a newsletter that highlighted employee dedication (D. C. Jones AQ, Doré K, Majowicz SE, McEwen SA, Waltner-Toews D, Henson SJ, Mathews E., 2007).

In summary, perceptions of water quality are affected by a variety of factors; these perceptions may play a role in drinking water consumption patterns and choices. When consumers have negative perceptions about their public drinking water, they may look for alternative choices such as bottled water or various water treatment devices. This tendency to use other methods of obtaining drinking water can alter health risks, perhaps negatively in cases where the alternative source is inferior. Alternative Sources of Water: In-home treatment

In a study conducted in Hamilton, Ontario in 2001/2002, 49% of 1,752 respondents reported using an in-home water treatment method (Jones, Dewey, Dore, Majowicz, McEwen, & Waltner-Toews, 2006). The top three in-home treatment devices reported were jug filter (66%), tap filter (16.3%), and boiling water (6.8%) (Jones, Dewey, Dore, Majowicz, McEwen, & Waltner-Toews, 2006). Additionally, 2.5% of respondents used two treatment methods (Jones, Dewey, Dore, Majowicz, McEwen, & Waltner-Toews, 2006). Similarly, a study in British Columbia in 2002/2003 reported that 47% of 4,610 respondents used in-home water treatment methods to treat their tap water (Jones, et al., 2007). The use of water treatment devices was associated with an increase in the amount of water consumed per day, by both sexes (Jones, et al., 2007). Both the Hamilton, Ontario and British Columbia studies reported that household income was not associated with the use of water treatment methods, but was associated with the

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specific type of treatment method (Jones, Dewey, Dore, Majowicz, McEwen, & Waltner-Toews, 2006; Jones, et al., 2007). Alternative Sources of Water: Bottled water.

In Canada, bottled water is not subject to the same regulations as public drinking water. It is federally regulated as a food under the federal Food and Drugs Act and falls under the authority of the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (Health Canada, 2008b). Under this regulation, the microbiological safety requirements for bottled water are very limited: fluoride, arsenic and lead are the only chemical contaminants for which testing is required (Health Canada, 2008b). Although manufacturers can enforce extra monitoring and testing measures, these are not widely regulated for consistency.

Bottled water is produced by a variety of manufacturers. A variety of brand names, treatment types, additives and supplements, and labelling, as well as inconsistent terminology, may mislead or confuse consumers (Pip, 2000). In Canada, fluoride concentrations are not required on bottled water nutrition labels (Department of Justice Canada, 1999). If such information is not provided on the nutrition labels, the only way to determine the levels of certain minerals, such as fluoride, is to have the water tested or to contact the manufacturer (Lalumandier & Ayers, 2000), however; bottled water testing may be expensive and impractical for individual consumers.

Drinking water may be an important source of mineral intake, especially if the water is from a mineral-rich source (Azoulay, et al., 2001). Waterborne minerals are easily absorbed into the gastrointestinal tract. Daily mineral intake can depend on the individual, the water source and treatment method, and the amount of water consumed (Mahajan, Walia, Lark, & Sumanjit, 2006). The recommended dietary intake of minerals can vary with age, sex and underlying conditions or diseases (Azoulay, et al., 2001). Those with specific dietary mineral restrictions should be hyper-aware of the mineral intake from drinking water and should select drinking water with an optimal mineral profile (Azoulay, et al., 2001). Thus, choice of drinking water can impact individual health because of lower levels of minerals in some bottled water compared to tap water. Individuals may need mineral supplements if bottled water is the only drinking water source (Azoulay, et al., 2001; Lalumandier & Ayers, 2000; Mahajan, et al., 2006).

Different brands may contain varying mineral levels (Lalumandier & Ayers, 2000), and some mineral waters may actually have low mineralization (Azoulay, et al., 2001; Pip, 2000). A study conducted in Amritsar, India in 2006, found that some bottled waters were over-treated and therefore deficient in certain minerals according to the recommended limits of the WHO and the United States Environmental Protection Agency (Mahajan, et al., 2006). Over-treatment occurs when non-harmful components of water such as minerals are removed to alter the aesthetic properties of the water.

There may also exist differences in water quality between tap and bottled waters. A study conducted in Quebec City, Canada in 1992 found that water tested from commercial bottled water coolers in participants’ homes was

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significantly more contaminated than that from the first streams of public tap water (Levesque, et al., 1994). The quality of bottled drinking water may deteriorate through handling, transport, storage, bottling and packaging (Pip, 2000). Further, the advertised analyses of bottled water are typically done at the source of origin and may not adequately represent the quality of the water by the time it reaches the consumer (Pip, 2000). A study by Levesque et al. (1994) concluded that the bacterial quality of public tap water is superior to that of water dispensed by residential water coolers, as these coolers can promote a multitude of bacteria, and the microbiological standards that exist for bottled water are generally not applied once the bottle is installed on the dispenser (Levesque, et al., 1994).

Percptions of Public Drinking Water in Newfoundland and Labrador Kelly D. Butt 1,2,δ, Andria Q. Jones 3, Diana L. Gustafson 1, Fern M. Brunger 1, Vereesh G. Gadag 1 1 Division of Community Health and Humanities, Faculty of Medicine, The Health Sciences Centre, Memorial University of Newfoundland, P.O. Box 4200, St. John’s, NL, A1B 3V6, Canada. 2 Government of Newfoundland and Labrador, Department of Health and Community Services, Division of Public Health, P.O. Box 8700, St. John’s, NL A1B 4J6, Canada. 3 Department of Population Medicine, Ontario Veterinary Collage, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Road East, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada. δ Primary author Abstract: From a health promotion perspective, it is important to understand what water sources the public is using and why, and to address any potential health risks relating to public and alternative water sources before negative health outcomes relating to water-borne contaminants are experienced.

The purpose of this mixed methods study was to examine perceptions of public drinking water in NL. The main research objectives were to identify:

1. the perceptions of the quality and safety of public tap water; 2. the factors that influence public drinking water consumption patterns; 3. the reported reasons for alternative water use; and 4. the expressed need for information on drinking water. Three focus groups were conducted in October 2006 and a telephone survey in

March and April 2007 with residents of NL. Consumers appeared to use water aesthetics as a proxy measure of water safety for

tap water and alternative water sources. When participants were unsure about the quality and safety of their tap water, they tended to find an alternative drinking water source. Low compliance with boil water advisory notifications was also observed, which may increase risk of waterborne illness in this population. Transparent communication enhanced trust and general perceptions by public water consumers. In general, public tap water consumers in NL felt that more information about their household drinking water quality would provide more confidence in the product. Enhanced information dissemination may improve perceptions of the safety of drinking water, and minimize health risks to the general public. No single information dissemination method was found to be extensive enough to communicate with the entire population; a combination of distribution methods is recommended to ensure widespread and timely information transfer. A health promotion framework was used to make upstream recommendations for changes in drinking water policy and programs in NL.

Municipal Water Quality in Western Newfoundland Lead Researcher and Department Dr. Gabriela L. Sabau, Assistant Professor, Economics/Environmental Studies, Sir Wilfred Grenfell College Collaborators and Students Dr. Morteza Haghiri, Assistant Professor, Economics, Sir Wilfred Grenfell College Summary This project deals with municipal water quality in western Newfoundland. It started as an application of a problem solving approach for my course EVST 4010. Together with my students we surveyed Corner Brook inhabitants to measure their willingness to contribute more financially in order to improve the municipal water quality. We also made them aware of a new approach to water provision and consumption, the demand–side approach, developed by University of Victoria, BC, in the Polis Project on Ecological Governance. The survey results have been analyzed using a cross-sectional logit model developed together with my colleague Dr. Morteza Haghiri. The results show that the levels of education and annual family income have positively affected households’ willingness to get involved in municipal water quality projects. In addition, the degree of public awareness has had a significant impact on shaping the households’ decisions. The results have been published in April 2008 in Water and Environment Journal. Dates 2006 -2007 Keywords Demand-side management approach, Water quality, Willingness-to-engage Locations Corner Brook Corner Brook - Rocky Harbour Zone 8 - Humber Industry Sectors Local, Municipal and Regional Public Administration (Public Administration) Thematic Categories Municipal Water Sewer & Roads (Municipal Development) Water Resources (Environment and Conservation) Departments Environmental Science, Division of Science (SWGC)

Brooks, Buckets and Komatiks: The Problem of Water Access in Black Tickle Lead Researcher and Department Maura Hanrahan, Adjunct Professor, Division of Community Health, Faculty of Medicine, Memorial University Funding Resources Dr. Ian Bowmer, Dean of the Faculty of Medicine; Office of the Vice-President, Memorial University Summary It is estimated that approximately 40% of the world’s population does not have easy access to safe, drinkable water. The residents of the Labrador community of Black Tickle have very limited access to drinkable water. After the permanent settlement in the 1960’s, the community has to deal with a deteriorating water-access situation, with residents forced to drink water from shallow wells and brooks where water quality is extremely poor. This study reports on the social and economic issues, including health issues, associated with water access in the community. This is not a medical report since water testing was not carried out. It is rather an anthropological analysis of an identified community problem: water access. After presenting a brief history of the community and a description of the geographical factors involved, the author details the extreme measures local residents need to employ in order to secure water for their daily use throughout the year. The impact of lack of water access is presented, both in terms of contaminated water and its effects on human health, and as a contributing factor to the acute social and economic problems faced by the community. Dates 2000 Keywords Water access, Metis, Community health, Water costs Locations Labrador Zone 4 - Aurora Black Tickle Island of Ponds Industry Sectors Aboriginal Public Administration (Public Administration) Thematic Categories Metis (Aboriginal Peoples) Water Resources (Environment and Conservation) Departments Faculty of Medicine (STJ)

Water Rights and Wrongs Lead Researcher and Department Maura Hanrahan, Adjunct Professor, Division of Community Health, Faculty of Medicine, Memorial University Summary Households in Black Tickle, Labrador are among the hundreds and perhaps thousands in Indigenous Canada without running and/or safe water. The Terms of Union between the Dominions of Newfoundland and Canada in 1948 did not contain any reference to the island’s or Labrador’s Indigenous people: the result is that funding of Indigenous programs has been sporadic and minimal. Although the federal government acknowledges responsibility for Aboriginal people elsewhere in Canada, the situation is different in this province. Prior to the 1960s, Black Tickle was a summer fishing station. Inuit-Metis families moved seasonally, spending their winters on mainland Labrador, close to fur bearing animals and a wood supply. Resettlement was a focus of government policy in Newfoundland and Labrador in the 1960s, with the result that Black Tickle became a year-round community. No consideration was given to water access and other resource issues. Lobbying by the residents of Black Tickle has produced a temporary water system, but its location a kilometer and a half from the village and its reliance on electricity concern the residents who fear cut off at any time. Even outside Newfoundland and Labrador, federal and provincial authorities have been slow to react to water problems in Indigenous communities. The small racialized spaces where Indigenous peoples in Canada now live create an "isolation” which permits mainstream society to forget they exist. Poor water conditions exist in Indigenous communities because Canadian society ignores them. Such conditions can be alleviated through a realignment of existing power relationships, leading to greater political, economic and cultural self-determination for Indigenous people. Dates 2003 Keywords Water rights, Water resources, Drinking water, Indigenous people, Metis, Inuit-Métis Locations Black Tickle Island of Ponds Labrador Zone 4 - Aurora Industry Sectors Aboriginal Public Administration (Public Administration) Thematic Categories Metis (Aboriginal Peoples) Inuit-Métis (Aboriginal Peoples) Water Resources (Environment and Conservation) Departments Faculty of Medicine (STJ)

Does Private Management of Water Supply Services Really Increase Prices? An Empirical Analysis in Spain Lead Researcher and Department Roberto Martinez-Espineira, Department of Economics, Memorial University, Maria A. Garcia-Valinas, Department of Economics, University of Oviedo, Francisco Gonzalez-Gomez, Department of Applied Economics, University of Granada Summary This study investigates differences in the average price of domestic water supply services in Spain, paying special attention to the effects of privatization of the service on price levels, through an analysis of a 'treatment effects' model on a sample of 53 major urban municipalities. The model includes some municipalities with public ownership and management of the water service, and another group which has delegated the service to a private firm. It is found that there seems to be a positive and significant effect of privatization on water price levels. A basic aim of urban water supply systems is to make compatible high levels of efficiency with a universal supply of an acceptable quality. Additionally, residential water suppliers are expected to pursue equity objectives, because of the essential character of water. These factors create a continuing debate about the desirability of privatizing water supply firms. Privatization is most often justified because private firms can more easily provide an efficient service, because publicly managed firms face several constraints that do not affect the operation of private firms. The incorporation of private firms into the water sector may lead to permanent conflicts between public and private interests. After some decades of privatization, several countries now show opposition to further privatizing of public services. Water suppliers generally operate as local monopolies or at least in highly concentrated markets. These low levels of effective competition mean that the privatizing of water public services should be approached with caution. As well, privatization can be criticized on equity grounds. It is noteworthy that water prices are negatively related to the income level of the municipality. It would be interesting to analyze whether the regulatory framework in Spain is leading to inequitable water prices. Published in: Urban Studies, v.46, no. 4, p. 923-945, April 2009 Dates 2009 Keywords Water supply, Privatization, Water supply services Locations Spain St. John's Avalon Peninsula Industry Sectors Economic Research and Development (Professional, Scientific and Technical Services — Scientific Research and Development Services — Research and Development in the Social Sciences and Humanities) Water, Sewage and Other Systems (including Fossil Fuel, Hydro-electric and Nuclear Power Generation) (Utilities) Thematic Categories Water Resources (Environment and Conservation) Water Supply (Natural Resources — Water) Municipal (Public Administration) International Collaboration Social Sciences (International Research) Departments Economics, Faculty of Arts (STJ)

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SUMMARY OF RECENT RESEARCH REGARDING DRINKING WATER QUALITY IN NL: (PREPARED FOR INCLUSION IN SUMMARY BY WATER QUALITY RESEARCH SUMMARY GROUP.) Aiden Dunn and Sue Ziegler Department of Earth Sciences I. Brief Review Primary Issues Researched in the Recent Past a. Cyanobacteria blooms in lakes/ponds of NL In the fall of 2007, Newfoundland and Labrador documented it’s first algal bloom on record. In some cases these cyanobacteria contain toxins, which are dangerous to humans, but vary in composition and quantity or release. These toxins include hepatotoxins, affecting the liver, neurotoxins, which affect the nervous system, and dermatotoxins, which affect the skin (Water Resources Management Division, 2008).

Because of the potential releas of these toxins, there are specific guidelines put in place regarding algal abundances (including cyanobacteria) in drinking and recreation water. Water containing more then 20,000 blue-green algae cells per milliliter is unsafe for recreation (Health Canada). Water containing blue-green algae abundances of 20,000 – 100,000 cells per milliliter may adversely affect people who are more susceptible to the bacteria, and contact should not be made with waters containing over 100,000 cells per milliliter (World Health Organization). At present the main approach for all algal bloom management, and prevention of risks associated with toxics produced by such blooms, is the monitoring of phosphorus and nitrogen based compounds in critical waterbodies (Water Resources Management Division, 2008). These waterbodies are mainly focused on those for drinking water supplies as well as those in close proximity to dense population. Analysis of cyanobacterial cell numbers for those water bodies immediately affected concluded that it was safe proceed with disinfection for drinking water use, and also that it was safe for recreational use. These conclusions come from the analysis compared to the guidelines listed above. But, even though they were deemed safe, more regular monitoring is needed in case of high nutirent increases are followed by algal blooms. Also, culvert sites must be made to monitor water quality from drainage ditches in efforts to see where the nutrient input originates (Water Resources Management Division, 2008). In conclusion, this work points to the need to continue diligent water quality monitoring but also indicates the isolated nature of these bloom events in NL presently. The key thing to stress in this instance is that we need to keep track of the long term trends in N and P levels in all drinking water supplies in order to stay on top of the increased monitoring needed prior to blooms such as those experienced in 2007. NL may very well be entering into a new nutrient regime and only long term monitoring can provide the necessary tools to prevent health complications associated with algal blooms.

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b. Determining risks associated with land-use activities on drinking water sources. This topic has some relationship to understanding and predicting algal blooms as well as determining when to assess drinking water for their presence and abundance. Like algal blooms, other water quality parameters are subjected to changes with alteration of the watershed landscape via multiple landuse activities including agriculture, recreation, commercial and residential development, and forestry practices occurring in regions within the province. At present these risk factors appear to be assessed on an ad hoc basis in response to a local concern brought to the attention of community leaders and the province. One example of this was the hydrogeological assessment of Cold Brook, Newfoundland and Labrador designed to understand the effects, if any, that the new developments in Cold Brook have on the drinking supply in the town of Stephenville, Newfoundland (AMEC, 2008). The point being to limit the amount of development in this new area, because of the possible strain it could have on Stephenville’s already heavily used supply. So in this case it was not a question of water quality but sustainable quantity, a question that may become of increasing importance with climate change and increasing population in some regions of the province. Very little regulatory information can be derived from the study of Cold Brook other then the actual empirical information they use to judge water usage per capita. The assumption that is made is that all houses contain four people, and each person uses four hundred liters per day. It was determined that 167 houses would be able to be sustained, given the amount of water that is replenished in the Cold Brook watershed. This is assuming all the water that is recharged into the surfacial aquifer and are able to be serviced by the wells. Septic system contamination was unable to be identified due to a lack of percolation data before this report was published (AMEC, 2008). This one report simply provides insight into the lack of information regarding the connectivity between landscape attributes, hydrology, water use and water quality as this is the only report we uncovered during our literature search. Septic system contamination is a good example of an issue that has not been address to any large extent to the best of our knowledge and localized concerns regarding the availability of drinking water need not only consider the quantity of water available as localized populations grow due to development but also has human activities grow (e.g. sewage management, runoff). The provincial Water Resources Division has been active in monitoring water quality including drinking water supplies throughout the province and this has lead to some insight into possible key issues regarding drinking water quality and its relationship to landscape and land-use. The relatively large provincial database has bee analyzed using statistical approaches to determine if there are any key trends of concern. The samples were taken from 65 different water quality monitoring sites, using 36 different water quality variables and samples for the period of 1986-2004 (Dawe, 2006). The geography of Newfoundland and Labrador was divided into four main sectors: Eastern NL, Central NL, Western NL, and all of Labrador. Depending on the station, these samples were

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taken at least at a quarterly basis (Others monthly, and bi-monthly). The water quality parameters are also grouped into four groups. These groups include physical/chemical parameters, major ions, nutrients and metals (Dawe, 2006). Some examples of key parameters and trends identified in the study include increases in nitrate, nitrite and total nitrogen throughout the province and a noticeable decrease in arsenic throughout the province, especially in the Avalon Peninsula. Unlike many other boreal regions, this study did not reveal any long-term trend in dissolved organic carbon. The changes in N loading, however, raises some concern over the identification of the source and understanding the potential for algal blooms. The decreasing trends in arsenic raises questions regarding hydrology and its interaction with parent materials in some parts of the province. Recent discovery of high arsenic levels in certain regions of the province raise concern regarding natural geological source, however, this study indicates that levels of this toxic substance is not solely dependent upon parent material but must also consider hydrological connectivity and hydrogeological processing. c. Assessing the Risks and Determining the Best Practices for Controlling Disinfection by-Products (DBPs) in Drinking Water in Newfoundland and Labrador The majority of Newfoundland and Labrador’s drinking water is disinfected with the use of chlorine. Disinfection by-products (DBPs) are chemical compounds that are formed when the chlorine is mixed with water, and reacts with organic precursors. The most common of these by-products are trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acid (HAAs). These have been shown to have long term effects as known carcinogens when in drinking water, and even short term when it comes to pregnancy (King & Marrett 1996; Amy et al. 2005). Since the higher the concentration of chlorine there is, the greater concentrations of THMs and HAAs. This is why the maximum recommended chlorination for drinking water is 3500 Mg/L. When drinking water is tested, Health Canada states the concentration of THMs needs to be less then 0.100 Mg/L, and concentrations of HAAs need to be 0.080 Mg/L in order to be drinkable. This still results in the production of DBPs which have the potential for causing long-term health risks with extreme variation in the level of DBP across the province (Water Resources Management Division, 2009a). The majority of the regions or water supplies exhibiting elevated levels of DBPs in their drinking water are rural, having populations less then 1500. A “blanket solution” done province wide is not an option due to the various ways DBPs can form and the unidentified factors controlling the yield of these contaminants. THMs and HAAs, which are NL’s most common form of DBP (likely because they are the groups currently monitored), form because of the availability of dissolved organic carbon. Although DBPs pose long-term health risks, consuming non-disinfected drinking water it is not an option given the immediate health risks associated with untreated drinking water (Water Resources Management Division, 2009b). Reducing the amount of DBP-forming DOM in water supplies is thought to be one of the most cost-effective means of reducing DBP exposure (Water Resources Management Division 2009a), however little knowledge exists regarding the watershed sources of humic substances and other DBP-forming components of DOM in Newfoundland and

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Labrador. Studies from other regions have investigated sources of organic matter such as plants, soil and vegetation litter in terms of their potential to form DBPs, often revealing differences in their ability to generate DOC with high DBP formation capacity (Bergamaschi et al. 1999; Fleck et al. 2004; Reckhow et al. 2007). For example, Reckhow et al. (2004, 2007) reported that DOM leached from the leaf/needle litter of red maple, white oak and white pine trees contains varying amounts of THM and HAA precursors and that higher ratios of HAA/THM formation were measured for the maple and oak compared to the pine, possibly reflecting compositional differences between THM and HAA precursors. The focus on terrestrial sources, again, has evolved from the idea that most DBP precursors are derived from aromatic-rich organic carbon and terrestrial organic matter is rich in aromatic compounds such as structural polymers (e.g. lignin) and humic substances. Other sources should not be ruled out given that aromaticity is not always a good predictor of DBP formation. Limited results from a small number of studies have indicated algae can be potentially important sources of DBP precursors in some water supplies (Nguyen et al. 2005; Huang et al. 2009). Further, it has been determined that DBP levels of drinking water supplies in NL designated as protected areas are not significantly different than those of non-protected supplies, and so it is mainly natural sources of DOM serving as precursors for these DBP contaminants rather than anthropogenic sources (Water Resources Management Division, 2009a). The Water Resources Division (2009a) also determined that DOC concentration, pH, and colored DOM content were not significant predictors of THM or HAA levels in drinking water. In addition, some DBP monitoring studies have shown that the availability of DBP precursors changes with season (Kraus et al. 2008; Uyak et al. 2008), which may be the case in NL where subtle seasonal variations have been seen for average THM and HAA concentrations measured in tap water samples across the province. Since dissolved organic matter chemical composition is linked to source, knowledge of important sources of DBP-precursors would also provide information on precursor characteristics and composition, which would be helpful in choosing effective treatment methods (Water Resources Management Division, 2009a). In addition to assessing the precursor composition and its source to determine best water treatment practices tailored to specific rural drinking water supplies there needs to be some emphasis based upon the disinfection process itself to determine if that can be controlled or made more consistent to reduce DBP production. The Water Resource Division has invested in training programs and efforts to address this in the recent past with some good success (Water Resources Management Division, 2009a), however, it remains to be shown whether practices are still contributing to some of the variation in DBP levels in rural drinking water in the province. Furthermore, any study of factors to help reduce the risk and presences of these contaminants needs to control for the disinfection process itself. Trihalomethanes (THMs) are one of the most common by-products of disinfection when using chlorine. The most commonly occurring THM is chloroform; constituting 90% of the concentration of THMs. Chloroform has been phased out of most substances used by humans, due to its carcinogenic properties yet remains in high concentrations at times in many rural drinking water supplies around the

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province. Higher levels of THMs in the drinking water supplies in the rural communities in Newfoundland (Canada) is a serious health concern and has received considerable attention in governmental establishments (Sadiq et al, 2001). Various agencies have put limits on acceptable concentrations of THMs in drinking water, and the usual summary level is 100 ppb (World Health Organization), even though the US Environmental Protection Agency suggests 80 ppb as opposed to the WHO’s value of 100 ppb. To specifically assess the impact of drinking water THM levels on health in NL a statistical approach was taken to assess the cancer risk and the viability of one potential preventative measure, granular activated carbon. It was calculated that and exceedance of the set limit of 100 ppb was highly certain in Clarenville and of low concern in St. John’s. The chloroform associated health risk was also calculated to exceed average risk at times in Clarenville but below average risk in St. John’s. Granular activated carbon is a potential treatment technology was calculated to be very effective when theoretically introduced to the St. John’s water supply and exhibited a theoretical removal efficiency of 68% (Sadiq et al, 2001). This theoretical based study nicely points how treating drinking water for specific fractions of the dissolved organic matter content of the drinking water supply could have significant community health implications. Therefore it is important to determine the halogenated reactivity of the DOC in rural NL water supplies to better inform the most effective and cost effective strategies for the unique drinking water around the province. d. Management and communication surrounding drinking water quality and quantity in NL. The decline of Canada’s seemingly abundant freshwater resources has stimulated questions regarding governance and individual’s willingness-to-engage (WTE) in changes related to drinking water policy and practice. Water is priced differently depending on where one lives and does not always reflect its true cost- costs associated with disinfection, infrastructure maintenance, monitoring and protection. There is also ongoing debates regarding whether water should be viewed as a public good or an economic good. As an economic good, two large financial rolls needs to be address, such as price of maintenance of the system, and its opportunity cost (Sabau and Haghiri, 2008). A study regarding the governance and specific tasks or roles individuals could take on was conducted for a region of the west coast of Newfoundland (Sabau and Haghiri, 2008). The results of this analysis indicates that the provincial government needs to shift to a more sustainable method of water infrastructure, and focus on implementing new priorities when it comes to water management. The modeling of Corner Brook’s WTE has could be reviewed to determine if it may be incorporated and compared to other infrastructures in other communities. Seems these types of analyses or studies could improve longer term sustainability of water supplies and their quality. The government of Newfoundland and Labrador breaks down their water quality program into what is called the Multi-Barrier Strategic Action Plan (MBSAP) that

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involves three steps: 1) Drinking water protection, treatment and distribution 2) Monitoring, enforcement, corrective measures, etc. 3) Legislation, public awareness, research and development, etc. To improve drinking water quality the Water Resources Division of the NL government has identified the need to determine a means to improve the communication of results regarding drinking water quality and the response of rural communities to these results and the development of efficient samply strategies given the diversity and distribution of water supplies in the province. Examples of such strategies include the classification of water distribution systems, and the importance of the microbacterial water quality sampling frequency, which matches the number of people in an area versus how much sampling is needed for the reservoir (Water Resources Management Division, 2009c). The number of boil water advisories (BWAs) in NL have exceeded all other provinces in Canada in the past several years, therefore, this communication and tactic has been under review and represents one important issue faced by the people of NL. The reasons for these BWAs included: Residual chlorination problem (35.1%), No disinfection system (23.7%), System broke or no chlorine (14.7%), Operational problem in distribution system (11.4%), System is turned off by operator (10.4%), and Microbiological (4.7%). During 2008-2009, however, BWAs were found to be the lowest they’ve been in the 9-year record of this annual report (Water Resources Management Division, 2009c). Even though there was such a low number of BWAs, the bacteriological, aesthetic, contamination exceedances were around the same, or higher (Water Resources Management Division, 2009c). This reflects an improvement in the proper detection of bacteriological contamination that has been imposed by improved monitoring of water quality in the province. It also illustrates the value of the monitoring program currently in place in the province which is now better able to assess the quality in drinking water and respond appropriately by communicating with the communities affected. In another effort to improve communication regarding drinking water quality across the province to better address health related issues, the Water Resources Division undertook a study to determine the effectiveness of the application of the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment Water Quality Index (CCME WQI) in communicating drinking water quality data in NL (Khan et al. 2004). The basis of the Water Quality Index is the group, or label different water supplies into different categories. This is measured based on the components of the drinking water like contaminants, disinfection and exceedants. The ranking is as follows: Rank: WQI Value: Description: Excellent 95-100 WQ is protected with a virtual absence of threat Good 80-94 WQ is protected with minor degree of threat Fair 65-79 WQ is usually protected but occasionally threatened Marginal 45-64 WQ is frequently threatened

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Poor 0-44 WQ is almost always threatened (Modified from Table 2, Khan et al, 2004) The summarizing of data using the CCME WQI approach appears to often leads to the loss of some aspect of the water quality data which may be key in specific circumstances. Barring the obvious problems associated with summarizing data it is apparent that the ongoing sampling and monitoring of drinking water quality, and required subsequent report distributed on an annual and possibly quarterly basis, is a step in the right direction. An issue with the distribution of this physical and chemical data to smaller communities is that the proper training has to be supplemented to be able to understand and deal with this information. Some water quality officers needed simplified versions of the information given to them in the report, therefore the CCME WQI is likely useful (Khan, A. et al, 2004). II. Summary of main drinking water issues that are need of further research.

a. Cost effective technologies for delivering clean, uninterrupted drinking water to rural communities.

a. Focus on factors regulating DBP formation potentials in drinking water supplies to assist in the identification of best treatment technologies to reduce their presence in drinking water.

b. Assessing unique options for the range of conditions surrounding drinking water supplies around the province to determine potential options for rural communities. These could range from whole community water station solutions to in-house solutions and will depend upon the outcome of research on factors regulating the DBP formation.

b. Assessing long-term trends in water quality data in relation to landscape attributions and land-use trends to (1) determine best land-use practices for sustainable drinking water supplies, and (2) assess risk factors such as arsenic levels in drinking water based upon hydrologic/hydrogeologic research.

c. Determining strategies to increase public awareness of the (1) water quality monitoring program in place in the province and what it provides, (2) current water quality issues (e.g. DBPs, arsenic), and (3) true cost of delivering clean drinking water across the large and diverse region represented by the province.

Literature Cited [This review was solely based upon primary literature or reports no conference proceedings or abstracts were accessed for this review.]

AMEC Earth and Environmental, 2008, Hydrogeological Assessment Of Cold Brook, Newfoundland And Labrador, Division of AMEC Americas Limited

Amy, G., Graziano, N., Craun, G., Krasner, S., Cantor, K., Hildesheim, M., Weyer, P., King, W. (2005). Improved Exposure Assessment on Existing Cancer Studies. Denver, CO: American Water Works Association Research Foundation, 231 p.

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Bergamaschi, B.A., Fram, M.S., Kendall, C., Silva, S.R., Aiken, G.R., Fujii, R. (1999). Carbon isotopic constraints on the contribution of plant material to the natural precursors of trihalomethanes. Organic Geochemistry 30: 835-842.

Dawe, P., 2006, A Statistical evaluation of Water Quality Trends in Selected Water Bodies of Newfoundland and Labrador, Journal of Environmental Engineering Science, Vol. 5, pp 59-73

Fleck, J.A., Bossio, D.A., Fujii, R. (2004). Dissolved organic carbon and disinfection by-product precursor release from managed peat soils. Journal of Environmental Quality 33: 465-475.

Huang, J., Graham, N., Templeton, M.R., Zhang, Y., Collins, C., Nieuwenhuijsen, M. (2009). A comparison of the role of two blue–green algae in THM and HAA formation. Water Research 43: 3009-3018.

Khan, A. A. et al, 2004, Modification and Application of the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment Water Quality Index (CCME WQI) for the Communication of Drinking Water Quality Data in Newfoundland and Labrador, Water Quality Res. Journal, Vol. 39, pp 28-293

King, W.D., Marrett, L.D. (1996). Case-control study of bladder cancer and chlorination by-products in treated water (Ontario, Canada). Cancer Causes & Control 7: 596-604.

Kraus, T.E.C., Bergamaschi, B.A., Hernes, P.J., Spencer, R.G.M., Stepanauskas, R., Kendall, C., Losee, R.F., Fujii, R. (2008). Assessing the contribution of wetlands and subsided islands to dissolved organic matter and disinfection byproduct precursors in the Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta: A geochemical approach. Organic Geochemistry 39: 1302-1318.

Nguyen, M.-L., Westerhoff, P., Baker, L., Hu, Q., Esparza-Soto, M., Sommerfeld, M. (2005). Characteristics and reactivity of algae-produced dissolved organic carbon. Journal of Environmental Engineering 131: 1574-1582.

Reckhow, D.A., Rees, P.L.S., Bryan, D. (2004). Watershed sources of disinfection byproduct precursors. Water Science & Technology: Water Supply 4: 61-69.

Reckhow, D.A., Rees, P.L., Nüsslein, K., Makdissy, G., Devine, G., Conneely, T., Boutin, A., Bryan, D. (2007). Long-Term Variability of BDOM and NOM as Precursors in Watershed Sources. AwwaRF Report 91186. Denver, CO: American Water Works Association Research Foundation, 344 p.

Sabau, G., Haghiri, M., 2008, Household Willingness-to-Engage in Water Quality Projects Western Newfoundland and Labrador: A Demand-side Management Approach, Water and Environment Journal, Vol. 22, pp. 168-176

Sadiq, R. et al, 2001, Chloroform Associated Health Risk Assessment Using Bootstrapping: A Case Study For Limited Drinking Water Samples, Water Air and Soil Pollution, Vol. 138, pp. 123-140

Uyak, V., Ozdemir, K., Toroz, I. (2008). Seasonal variations of disinfection by-product precursors profile and their removal through surface water treatment plants. Science of the Total Environment 390: 417-424.

Water Resources Management Division, 2008, Blue-Green Algae Report, Department of Environment and Conservation, Government of Newfoundland and Labrador

Water Resources Management Division, 2009a, Best Management Practices for the control of Disinfection by-Products in drinking Water Systems in Newfoundland

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and Labrador, Department of Environment and Conservation, Government of Newfoundland and Labrador

Water Resources Management Division, 2009b, Decision Framework Selecting DBP Corrective Measures, Department of Environment and Conservation, Government of Newfoundland and Labrador

Water Resources Management Division, 2009c, Drinking Water Safety In Newfoundland and Labrador Annual Report 2009: “Rural Reactions and Remedies”, Department of Environment and Conservation, Government of Newfoundland and Labrador

Other sources accessed during this review process but not directly used in the text summary above. Chowdhury, S. et al, 2010, Investigating Effects of Bromide Ions on Trihalomethanes and

Developing Model for Predicting Bromodichloromethane in Drinking Water, Water Research, Vol. 44, pp. 2349-2359

Department of Environment and Conservation, 2009, BMPs for the Control of Disinfection By-Products

Water Resources Management Division, 2007, Drinking Water Safety In Newfoundland and Labrador Annual Report 2007, Department of Environment and Conservation, Government of Newfoundland and Labrador

Water Resources Management Division, 2008, Drinking Water Safety in Newfoundland and Labrador Annual Report 2008: “Small town Solutions”, Department of Environment and Conservation, Government of Newfoundland and Labrador

Review of Drinking Water Quality Research in Newfoundland and Labrador

Afsana Khandokar and Tahir Husain

Faculty of Engineering & Applied Science

Introduction:

In 19th century, various waterborne diseases (cholera, typhoid, dysentery, etc) were common around the world. In those days, the greatest challenge was to reduce waterborne diseases. The professionals adopted various water treatment methods (e.g., slow sand filtration, boiling, etc) to minimize waterborne diseases. Although, these actions were successful in reducing epidemics significantly (for example, slow sand filtration prevented cholera epidemic in the city of Altona, Germany in 1892), these were not enough to prevent the waterborne diseases completely. Even in the recent years, improper disinfection and/or external contamination of microorganisms has resulted in the occurrences of waterborne diseases. Example: In Walkerton (Ontario, Canada), seven people died and more than 2,300 became ill after E. coli contamination of the community’s municipal water supply system in the year 2000 (MOE 2002). In April 1993, more than 400,000 people were affected by Cryptosporidium in drinking water at Milwaukee (USA), which resulted in the death of approximately 100 people (Mackenzie et al. 1994). The World Health Organization (WHO) reported that approximately 3.4 million people, mostly children, die every year from water related diseases in the developing countries (WHO 2002). Keeping the above discussions in mind, some primary water related issues in the province of Newfoundland and Labrador are discussed below:

Some primary issues related to drinking water:

(a) Decision made of selecting water treatment technologies for site specific conditions: The first level second step of Newfoundland Government action plan for water quality safety is water treatment systems. Water treatment in the province is comprised of 459 chlorination systems, 14 water treatment plants and several other systems with filtration or other treatments. They are operated to remove or inactivate microbiological contamination, remove chemical substances or to improve upon aesthetic parameters. As of March 2006, the province listed 599 communities with 551 public water supply systems. Of the 551 public water systems, 308 are public surface-water sources, and 214 are public groundwater sources. The remaining 29 drinking-water sources are shared by one or more communities. 223 communities have no public water-supply system and many residents use private wells or other sources to meet their water needs. There are have some issues in some communities throughout the province that require infrastructure upgrades for modern cost-effective treatment options, aging infrastructure, frequently break, have high leakage rates, are causing water quality to deteriorate, and they have reduced hydraulic capacity. The maintenance required to repair leaks and breaks increases the cost. Water-treatment plant is the one way to solved water problems.

Drinking water treatment is the process of removing undesirable chemicals, materials, and biological contaminants from source water. The goal is to produce water fit for a specific purpose. Drinking water supply systems generally carry out pre-treatment of the source water prior to disinfection for supplying microbiologically safe drinking water. In addition to the conventional pre-treatment (e.g., screening, coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation and filtration), the water supply systems often employs enhanced coagulation, granular activated carbon (GAC) or membrane filtration for improved pre-treatment before applying disinfectants (chlorine, chloramines, chlorine dioxide, ozone and ultraviolet radiation). It is imperative that appropriate combinations of treatments and disinfection be adopted to ensure proper disinfection in the treatment plants and throughout the water distribution systems, minimizing the formation of DBPs to protect human health and minimize costs. The pre-treatment processes can reduce NOM, turbidity and pathogens; thus potential DBPs formation is reduced. Formation of DBPs can be further reduced by lowering the amounts of NOM through improved pretreatments using enhanced coagulation, granular activated carbon (GAC) or membrane filtration prior to chlorination (Edzwald, 1993; Shorney et al., 1999). However, the improved pretreatments can increase the operational and maintenance costs by 50-80% compared to that of conventional pretreatment (Clark et al., 1994, 1998). Alternatively, by using different disinfectants or combinations of disinfectants, formation of THMs and HAAs can be reduced. However, use of alternative disinfectants can form different sets of DBPs, some of which may be of more harmful to human health than THMs and HAAs. For example, chloramines, ozone and chlorine dioxide form low amounts of DBPs, while the ultraviolet (UV) radiation does not produce any DBPs. Chloramines form several unregulated DBPs and N-Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA), which is more toxic. There are lots of systems available in the market; it is difficult to perform straightforward assessment for any particular combination. Multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) frameworks are often considered to be an appropriate approach to deal with these situations and performing decision-making through the consideration To obtain a clear idea on the overall status for a combination of approaches for treatment and disinfection for water supply systems, it is required that the approaches are ranked based on the overall attributes and then the best combination is selected. (b) Risk assessment, model prediction and control of disinfection by products in drinking water: There are many challenges for the province and municipalities which may be financially challenged to spend a large amount of money on water treatment plants. The presence of THM (trihalomethanes) and BDCM's (bromodichloromethane) in drinking water supplies at levels above the Maximum Acceptable Concentrations is a concern. There are number of communities in the province with THM levels above the guideline. Under the GCDWQ, an annual running average of 100 µg/L is considered the maximum acceptable concentration (MAC) for THMs. Looking at tap water quality data from the period 2003-2006, the total population impacted by THM exceedances has remained fairly constant over the period of interest averaging at 24%. In total there are 124 communities with THM issues in the province; 42 communities have major THM issues,

48 moderate THM issues, and 34 minor THM issues (DOEC, 2008). THM exceedances are broken down into the following descriptive categories:

• Minor– exceedances are detected but average is generally less than 120 ug/L • Moderate– exceedance average is generally between 120 and 150 ug/L with individual levels not exceeding approximately 200 ug/L • Major– exceedance averages above 150 ug/L or individual samples exceeding 200 ug/L The GCDWQ maximum acceptable concentration (MAC) for BDCMs is 16 µg/L. Analysis of water quality data for the period 2003-2006 the total population impacted by BDCM exceedances is averaging at 2.6%. In total there are 45 communities with BDCM issues in the province; 8 communities have major BDCM issues, 5 moderate BDCM issues, and 32 minor BDCM issues (DOEC, 2008). BDCM exceedances are broken down into the following descriptive categories:

• Minor– average BDCM levels do not exceed 16 ug/L and their were few individual exceedances • Moderate– average BDCM level is just above the 16 ug/L level but BDCM exceedances are not on a consistent basis • Major– BDCM levels are consistently above the 16 ug/L limits and the average BDCM level may be well above the limit HAAs have been handled as a special parameter by the Department of Environment and Conservation and therefore sampling is on a site-specific basis, and the extent and frequency of sample collection is decided annually. A guideline of 80 µg/L for total HAAs (or HAA5, the five most commonly found HAA species in drinking water). The US EPA has declared a maximum concentration limit (MCL) of 60 µg/L for HAAs. Looking at tap water quality data from the period 2003-2006, the total population impacted by HAA exceedances has gone as high as 48%. In total there are 184 communities with HAA issues in the province; 22 communities have very major HAA issues, 57 communities have major HAA issues, 41 moderate HAA issues, and 64 minor HAA issues (DOEC, 2008). HAA exceedances are broken down into the following descriptive categories:

• Minor– average level is between 60-100 µg/L • Moderate – average level is between 100-150 µg/L • Major– average level is between 150-250 µg/L • Very Major– average level is above 250 µg/L From this above information of some major DBPs recent status in Newfoundland and taking it as a major concern followings is some review of DBPs. Review of DBPs: Chlorination for drinking water disinfection has virtually eliminated most waterborne diseases from drinking water ingestion (USCDC 1997). Despite the enormous success in supplying safe drinking water to communities through the use of disinfectants, disinfection by-products (DBP) have become a serious health concern since their

discovery in drinking water (Rook 1974). Approximately 14%-16% of bladder cancers in Ontario (Canada) can be attributed to the drinking waters containing relatively high levels of chlorinated by-products (King & Marrett 1996; National Cancer Institute 1998; Wigle 1998). Disinfection is the process of treating source water in drinking water treatment facilities by inactivating microorganisims by Wallace et al. (2002), According to Eigener (1988); it is used in various fields of application with the aim of preventing the spread of infection and contamination. There is a wide range of disinfectants used in water treatment. These include chlorine, chlorine dioxide, chloramines, ozone and ultraviolet irradiation. Chlorination is one of the most widely practised public health forms of disinfection in the developed world and according to Karlin (1999); it is credited with reducing cholera incidence by 90%, typhoid by 80% and amoebic dysentery by 50% in the United States. There are a variety of disinfection methods utilized worldwide for the treatment of water. The naturally occurring organic matter (NOM) in surface waters reacts with disinfecting agents such as chlorine, chloramine, ozone, etc. in the treatment plant and distribution systems to produce DBP. The formation of trihalomethanes has been found to be the highest, followed by haloacetic acids, haloacetonitriles and haloketones in drinking water (Singer et al. 1981; Shorney et al. 1999; Kim et al. 2002; Kolla 2004; MOE 2004). The presence of bromide ions in chlorinated water results in the increased formation of brominated species of DBP (Symons et al. 1993), which are more carcinogenic to human health (Richardson 2005; IRIS 2006) and, consequently, a reduction in the formation of chlorinated species (Nokes et al. 1999; Barrett et al. 2000). Trihalomethanes formation typically increases with increasing pH (Oliver & Lawrence 1979; Kim et al. 2002; Latifoglu 2003), while haloacetic acids and haloacetonitriles formation generally decrease with increasing pH (Singer 1994; Kolla 2004). Stevens et al. (1976) and Kolla (2004) reported higher DBP formation at higher temperatures. An increase in NOM in water is represented by a higher UV absorbance capacity, which is employed as a surrogate measure of NOM in water, and increased DBP formation (Edzwald et al. 1985; Garcia-Villanova et al. 1997; Li et al. 1998; Sung et al. 2000; Clark et al. 2001). Although, most of the DBP are formed rapidly within a few hours of reaction between organic and chlorinated species, the contact period in the treatment plant and distribution systems may add significant amount of DBP in drinking water (Kim et al. 2002; USEPA 2006). The formation of disinfection by-products is a complex process controlled by numerous parameters. In simple terms, disinfection by-products are the result of the chemical reaction between disinfectants used for water treatment and natural organic matter (NOM) present in raw drinking water.

Disinfectant + NOM = DBPs Factor affecting the formation of DBPs can be summarized as: Use of disinfectants for supplying safe drinking water primarily depends on many factors, including disinfection efficiency, costs, availability, maintenance and protection of water in the water distribution systems. The efficiencies of disinfectants to inactivate or kill microorganisms are generally affected by physico-chemical and biological factors.

Disinfection efficiencies can be determined from the product of residual disinfectant concentration (C) and the contact time of the disinfectant in the water (t). Generally, the Ct value is considered as one of the design parameters of water supply systems (MWH, 2005; Connell, 1996). Factors affecting DBPs formation are summarized below:

(i) Increase in pH within the normal operation range (6.5–8.5) increases the formation of DBP (Stevens et al. 1976). (ii) Increase in reaction time increases THM formation (Gang et al. 2002). However, some of the initially formed DBP such as haloacetonitriles and haloketones decay with time as a result of hydrolysis and reactions with residual chlorine (Nikolaou et al. 1999). (iii) At higher temperatures, reaction rates generally increase, yielding a higher rate of THM formation (Stevens et al. 1976; Engerholm & Amy 1983). (iv) Bromide ions can be an important factor for THM formation in coastal areas (Symons et al. 1993; Black et al. 1996), while brominated species generally present a greater human health concern than chlorinated DBP (IRIS 2005; Richardson 2005). (v) The NOM has been found to be important in characterizing THM formation (Edzwald et al. 1985; Sung et al. 2000; Clark et al. 2001), where a good correlation betweenNOMandTHMhas been reported in the literature (Pelizetti et al. 1994; White et al. 2003). (vi)The chlorine demand is positively correlated with THM formation (Rook 1974; Peters et al. 1980; Clark et al. 1998, 2001; El-Shahat et al. 2001). (vii) The TOC and DOC have good correlations with THM formation (Edzwald et al. 1985; Muller 1998; Westerhoff et al. 2000; Chang et al. 2001; Kolla 2004).

Control of DBPs in drinking water can be achieved by the options like source control, precursor control, alternative disinfectants and DBPs removal. Source control requires control of nutrient inputs to waters. Management strategies for controlling nutrient enrichment of waters include structural controls such as storm-water detention basins to trap nutrients, and nonstructural controls such as land-use controls, e.g. limiting development on watersheds used for water supply. Precursor removal refers to strategies aimed at lowering the concentration of NOM. The alternative oxidants and disinfectants category involves supplementing or replacing the use of chlorine; some of these alternatives serve only a limited function, e.g. as an alternative primary or secondary disinfectant, and must still be used in conjunction with chlorine or other alternatives discussed in this section. Although these alternative oxidants and disinfectants may assist in the control of halogenated DBPs, some of them produce other non-halogenated DBPs that may also be of concern. DBPs, which have already been formed, can be removed with the methods of air stripping, rreverse osmosis, and granulated activated carbon. Extensive research has been carried out for the characterization of parameters and formation of DBPs in drinking water during the last three decades. Research on the parameters required for DBPs formation, predictive models developments, gaining more control on the water quality and operational variables and human health effects from exposure to DBPs are the active areas of current research. In a natural system, the parameters associated with the formation of DBPs vary spatially and temporarily. As such, consideration of the interaction effects of parameters may be more logical for the

modeling studies. Despite over 100 models being reported in the literature on DBPs formation to date, most of the models were developed by following a “one factor at a time” experimental approach or using historically collected datasets. Although most models used four to six parameters (e.g., one or more from TOC, DOC and UV254, chlorine dose, pH, temperature, reaction time and bromide ions) for predicting DBPs formation. (c) Issues of drinking water quality with distribution systems: Level one third step of Government plan give priority on distribution systems of water supply systems. Most of the community has distribution system issue for their drinking water quality. Inadequate protection of the water distribution systems may lead to an increased incidence of waterborne diseases as a result of an increased exposure to pathogenic microorganisms, and thus, pose a greater risk to human health (IPCS, 2000). Considering the complexities of the problem, designers of drinking water supply systems often need to determine the best approach to provide adequate disinfection, form minimum amounts of DBPs to protect human health and keep the water supply systems cost-effective. More recent research suggests that some chlorinated DBPs (including HAAs and HANs) may actually degrade in extremities of distribution systems. The water distribution system is the final physical component in water treatment systems. The water distribution network is also the largest component of a water-supply’s physical infrastructure. It includes all the pipes, valves, service lines, pumping stations, fire hydrants, and storage facilities that work together to deliver drinking water to homes, businesses, and industries. Typical chlorine dosages for small water distribution systems in Newfoundland and Labrador range between 5 and 15 mg/L. In Newfoundland and Labrador, “very small” distribution systems are the most common type that faces some challenges like operation and maintenance. Many communities with small systems also serve relatively few people who are spread over a large geographical area, which makes both providing safe drinking water and maintaining the water-supply system demanding tasks. The infrastructure of water distribution systems is inherently subject to leaks and breaks, which can reduce hydraulic capacity and degrade water quality. In 2007–08, the Department of Municipal Affairs spent $25.49 million on water-supply infrastructure. Water distribution system characteristics that have a major influence on drinking water quality and DBP formation include: System configuration Pipe age, material and condition Water storage tanks Hydraulic conditions Operation and Maintenance Blending:

Some recent research conducted on drinking water quality in Newfoundland:

1. A statistical evaluation of water quality trends in selected water bodies of Newfoundland and Labrador (Paula Dawe)  

2. Chloroform associated Human Health Risk and Water Treatment Control Technology: A Case Study of Newfoundland (Rehan Sadiq, Tahir Husain, Sudip Kar )

3. Fuzzy risk-based decision-making approach for selection of drinking water disinfectants (Shakhawat Chowdhury, Pascale Champagne and Tahir Husain) Journal of Water Supply: Research and Technology—AQUA;xx.not known, 2007

4. Models for predicting disinfection by product (DBP) formation in drinking waters: A chronological review(Shakhawat Chowdhury , Pascale Champagne, P. James McLellan )Science of the Total Environment, journal homepage: ww.elsevier.com/locate/scitotenv

5. Modification and Application of the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment Water Quality Index (CCME WQI) for the Communication of Drinking Water Quality Data in Newfoundland and Labrador ( Amir Ali Khan, Renée Paterson, Haseen Khan)Water Quality Research Journal of Canada Vol. 39 (3): 285 - 293 (2004). General issue

6. Statistical Analysis of Newfoundland Drinking Water Sources Containing Arsenic (Osama M. Rageh, Cynthia A. Coles, and Leonard M. Lye) OttawaGeo2007/OttawaGéo2007

7. Uses of chloride/bromide ratios in studies of potable water. (Davis, S. N., Whittemore, D. O., and Fabryka-Martin, J. 1998. Groundwater 36 (2): 338–350.

8. Asbestos in drinking water:A Canadian view(P.Toft and M.E.Meek) Environmental health perspectives Vol.53, pp. 177-180, 1983

9. Rural Drinking Water On The Prairie And Waterborne Diseases (H.G. Peterson, R.D. Robarts, T. Preston, A. V. Zhulidov and M. Kumagai),Safe Drinking Water Foundation, UNEP-WHO GEMS/Water, Scottish Universities Research and Reactor Centre, Centre for Preparation and Implementation of International Projects on Technical Assistance (Russia), Lake Biwa Research Institute (Japan)

10. Human health risk from trihalomethanes (THM) in drinking water-evaluation with fuzzy aggregation.(Chowdhury, S. & Husain, T. 2005) WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment 85, 299–309.

11. Evaluation of drinking water treatment technology: An entropy-based fuzzy application.(Chowdhury, S. & Husain, T. 2006) Journal of Environmental Engineering, ASCE 132(10),