THE C O N C E P T O F .LEADERSHIP IN

M O D E R N A M E R I C A N WAR NOVELS

A P P R O V E D :

£&I M a j o r P r o f e s s o r

Mino r P r o f e s s o r

. e-$>•-££ D i r e c t o r of the D e p a r t m e n t of E n g l i s h

1 Dean of the G r a d u a t e School

THE C O N C E P T O F L E A D E R S H I P IN

M O D E R N A M E R I C A N "WAR N O V E L S

THESIS

P r e s e n t e d t o t h e G r a d u a t e C o u n c i l of t h e

N o r t h T e x a s S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y in P a r t i a l

F u l f i l l m e n t of t h e R e q u i r e m e n t s

F o r the D e g r e e of

M A S T E R O F A R T S

By

S t a n l e y C. W i g g i n s , B. S,

D e n t o n , T e x a s

A u g u s t , 1968

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Chapter

PREFACE

I. WAR NOVELS AND LEADERSHIP . . . . . . . . . . . 1

II. STYRON AND URIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Wil l iam Styron Leon Ur i s

III. JONES, MAILER, AND SHAW 48

J a m e s Jones N o r m a n M a i l e r I rwin Shaw

IV. COZZENS, HERSEY, AND H E L L E R . . . . . . . . . . 80

J a m e s Gould Cozzens John H e r s e y Joseph He l l e r

V. WO UK AND MICKENER . . . . . . . 106

H e r m a n Wouk J a m e s A. M i c h e n e r

VI. CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

i n

P R E F A C E

T h i s w r i t e r h a s t w e l v e y e a r s s e r v i c e wi th the r e g u l a r M a r i n e

C o r p s and t h e M a r i n e C o r p s r e s e r v e , bo th a s an e n l i s t e d m a n arid a s

an o f f i c e r . He p r e s e n t l y ho ld s the r a n k of m a j o r in the M a r i n e C o r p s

r e s e r v e . Al though he h a s not a c t u a l l y e x p e r i e n c e d c o m b a t , he h a s b e e n

c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d wi th m a n y who h a v e s e r v e d u n d e r f i r e . The w r i t e r

h a s t r a i n e d f o r c o m b a t , b e e n i n d o c t r i n a t e d wi th the l e a d e r s h i p p r e c e p t s

p r e s e n t e d in the s tudy , and s e r v e d f o r o v e r s ix y e a r s a s a p r o f e s s i o n a l

o f f i c e r and l e a d e r . Thus t h i s s tudy of l e a d e r s h i p in f i c t i o n is p r e s e a t e d

by one who h a s an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the r e a l i t y of l e a d e r s h i p .

A s tudy of c o n t e m p o r a r y A m e r i c a n m i l i t a r y n o v e l s is no t un ique

by any m e a n s ; h o w e v e r , a s t udy of the t r e a t m e n t of m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s ,

bo th o f f i c e r s and n o n c o m m i s s i o n e d o f f i c e r s , i s f e l t to be a f r e s h a p p r o a c h .

L e a d e r s h i p , w h e t h e r it be m i l i t a r y , r e l i g i o u s , p o l i t i c a l , o r e d u c a t i o n a l ,

i s of u t m o s t i m p o r t a n c e to a s o c i e t y e n g a g e d m o r e and m o r e in g r o u p

a c t i o n , a s o c i e t y l e s s f r e q u e n t l y i n f l u e n c e d by ind iv idua l d e c i s i o n . As

the n o v e l i s t h a s an i m p o r t a n t f u n c t i o n in d e t e r m i n i n g the i d e a s of a

p e o p l e , the a u t h o r ' s i d e a s abou t l e a d e r s h i p and a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d l e a d e r s

a r e c e r t a i n l y w o r t h y of c o n s i d e r a t i o n . O u r s i s a c o n t r o v e r s i a l and c o m -

b a t i v e d e c a d e , in a c e n t u r y of w a r f a r e . It is f u r t h e r an age of l i t e r a c y

iv

w h e r e i n r e a d i n g p e o p l e a r e i n f l u e n c e d by e d u c a t e d l e a d e r s . A s t u d y of

m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s h i p a s p o r t r a y e d in n o v e l s i s t h e r e f o r e f e l t t o b e p a r t i c -

u l a r l y p e r t i n e n t . .

By w a y of i n t r o d u c t i o n t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r w i l l d e a l w i t h t h e w a r n o v e l

a s a l i t e r a r y g e n r e , a n d w i t h l e a d e r s h i p a t t r i b u t e s a s v i e v / e d b y t h e

m i l i t a r y e s t a b l i s h m e n t . Sx ibsequen t c h a p t e r s w i l l c o n s i d e r i n d i v i d u a l

l e a d e r s a n d l e a d e r s h i p c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s p r e s e n t e d in a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e

c o l l e c t i o n of w a r n o v e l s . T h e n o v e l s s t u d i e d w e r e s e l e c t e d on t h e b a s i s

of p o p u l a r i t y a n d l i t e r a r y v a l u e , a n d i n c l u d e s t o r i e s d e a l i n g w i t h a l l f o u r

a r m e d s e r v i c e s . In o r d e r to l i m i t t h e s c o p e of t h e s t u d y , t h e p r i m a r y

c o n c e r n i s w i t h n o v e l s of t h e S e c o n d W o r l d W a r a n d t h e K o r e a n C o n f l i c t .

N o v e l s of t h e F i r s t W o r l d W a r h a v e h a d l i t t l e i n f l u e n c e on t o d a y ' s r e a d e r s ,

a s t h e m o o d of t h e n a t i o n a n d t h e c u l t u r e of t h e A m e r i c a n p e o p l e d i f f e r

f r o m t h a t of t h e t w e n t i e s . T h e r e h a v e t h u s f a r b e e n no w i d e l y r e a d

n o v e l s c o n c e r n i n g t h e p r e s e n t c o n f l i c t in S o u t h e a s t A s i a .

P r i m a r y a t t e n t i o n in t h e s t u d y w i l l b e d e v o t e d to t h e w o r k s of

J a m e s J o n e s , W i l l i a m S t y r o n , J a m e s G o u l d C o z z e n s , a n d H e r m a n

W o u k . T h e w o r k s of t h e s e w r i t e r s b e s t r e p r e s e n t t h e l e a d e r s h i p c o n c e p t ,

in a n d out of c o m b a t , in n o v e l s of t h e f o u r b r a n c h e s of t h e a r m e d f o r c e s .

W a r n o v e l s of o t h e r a u t h o r s w i l l a l s o b e s t u d i e d in t h e b e l i e f t h a t c o n s i d -

e r a t i o n of a b r o a d e r r a n g e of n o v e l s w i l l m a k e t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n of

w r i t e r s ' l e a d e r s h i p a t t i t u d e s m o r e v a l i d . T h e o t h e r w o r k s to b e d i s c u s s e d

a r e by N o r m a n M a i l e r , J a m e s M i c h e n e r , I r w i n Shaw, J o h n H e r s e v ,

J o s e p h H e l l e r , a n d L e o n U r i s .

T h e l e a d e r s of t h e n o v e l s s t u d i e d f o r t h i s t h e s i s w i l l be e v a l u a t e d

b y t h e h i g h i d e a l s of m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s h i p p r i n c i p l e s , a n d w i t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n

f o r t h e f a c t t h a t e v e r y m a n h a s s o m e f a u l t s , in o r d e r to d e t e r m i n e if t he

c o n c e p t of m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s in A m e r i c a n w a r n o v e l s i s t r u l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e

of a c t u a l m e n guided, b y t h e p r i n c i p l e s of l e a d e r s h i p e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e

a r m e d f o r c e s d u r i n g t h e n i n e t e e n f o r t i e s a n d f i f t i e s . It i s f e l t t h a t t h e

p o p u l a r c o n c e p t i o n of r e a d e r s i s t h a t w a r n o v e l i s t s p r e s e n t a d i s t o r t e d

v i e w of m i l i t a r y l e a . d e r s . T h e s e n o v e l i s t s a r e c o m m o n l y t h o u g h t to

d e s p a i r of t h e m i l i t a r y s y s t e m , a n d to r e g a r d t h e s y s t e m ' s l e a d e r s a s

b e i n g f a s c i s t i c t y r a n t s who c o n t r o l t h e i r s u b o r d i n a t e s by a u t h o r i t y g a i n e d

t h r o u g h t h e i r r a n k a n d f e a r on t h e p a r t of t h e e n l i s t e d m e n . T h e e i g h t e e n

n o v e l s s t u d i e d f o r t h i s t h e s i s r e v e a l t h e i d e a s a b o v e a r e i n c o r r e c t .

A l t h o u g h s o m e w a r w r i t e r s GO e x h i b i t a s e n s e of d e s p a i r a n d o u t r a g e a t

t h e m i l i t a r y s y s t e m a n d i t s l e a d e r s , t h e s e a u t h o r s a r e in t h e m i n o r i t y .

l h e m a j o r i t y of t h e n o v e l i s t s s t u d i e d s u p p o r t t h e m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e s

a n d t h e i r l e a d e r s . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e n o v e l i s t s w h o d i s l i k e t h e m i l i t a r y

d e p i c t s o m e good l e a d e r s , a n d n o v e l i s t s w h o r e s p e c t t h e a r m e d f o r c e s

p o r t r a y s o m e l e a d e r s w i t h w e a k n e s s e s . It i s , t h e n , t h e c o n t e n t i o n of

t h i s w r i t e r t h a t m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s a r e w e l l r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e c h a r a c t e r s

of A m e r i c a n w a r n o v e l s in g e n e r a l , a n d t h a t t h e c o n c e p t of l e a d e r s h i p

VI

p r e s e n t e d b y t h e w r i t e r s i s a c c u r a t e . T h e a t t i t u d e s h o w n b y the

m a j o r i t y of t h e w a r n o v e l i s t s to m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s i s b e l i e v e d to b e

s y m p a t h e t i c .

VII

C H A P T E R I

W A R N O V E L S A N D L E A D E R S H I P

A 1955 L i f e m a g a z i n e e d i t o r d e p l o r e d t h e s t a t e of t h e A m e r i c a n

n o v e l w i t h t h e s e t h o u g h t s ;

T h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t o d a y s e e m s to d e s e r v e b e t t e r l i t e r a t u r e t h a n . . . t h e o b s c e n i t y - o b s e s s e d s c h o o l of " n e w r e a l i s m ' 1 e x e m p l i f i e d b y a. p a r a d e of w a r n o v e l s w h i c h m o s t l y r e a d J ike the d i a r y of a p r o f e s s i o n a l g r i e v a n c e c o l l e c t o r w i t h a d i r t y m i n d a n d t o t a l r e c a l l . J a m e s Gould C o z z e n s ? G u a r d of I l o n o r w a s o n e of t h e f e w m i l i t a r y n o v e l s t h a t r a n g t r u e wi th d i g n i t y . In m o s t of t h e o t h e r s t h e e n e m y i s no t tl ie one s h o o t i n g a t u s bu t o u r own o f f i c e r s and a r m y .

T h e w a r n o v e l i s b o t h p r a i s e d a n d c o n d e m n e d , b u t m o s t i m p o r t a n t l y ,

i t i s r e a d by m a n y p e o p l e . T h e q u e s t i o n of w h e t h e r w a r n o v e l r e a d e r s

a r e b e i n g p r e s e n t e d w i t h a f a i r p i c t u r e of t h e m i l i t a r y l e a d e r i s p r e c i s e l y

t h e s u b j e c t t h i s s t i d y wi l l e x p l o r e .

A l e x a n d e r P o p e , in h i s " E s s a y on M a n , n s t a t e d t h a t t h e o n l y p r o p e r

s t u d y of m a n k i n d i s m a n . T h i s m a x i m i s quoted, by F i e l d - M a r shad G. P .

2 M o n t g o m e r y in d i s c u s s i n g l e a d e r s h i p , a n d c e r t a i n l y the s t u d y of m a n is

^ " W a n t e d ; An A m e r i c a n N o v e l , " L i f e , XXXIX ( S e p t e m b e r 12, 1955) , 4 8 .

2 F i e l d - Ma r s h a l G, P . M o n t g o m e r y , T h e P a t h to L e a d e r s h i p (New

Y o r k , 1961) , p . 160. ~ ~ — ~ ~

1

t h e b a s i s f o r t h e c r e a t i o n a n d s t u d y of L i t e r a t u r e . A s a r e t h e m a j o r i t y

of n o v e l s , t h e w a r n o v e l is a n o v e l of c h a r a c t e r , n o t i d e a s ; i d e a s a r e

m o s t o f t e n p r e s e n t e d in a n o n - f i c t i o n f o r m a t . C h e s t e r E i s i n g e r s a y s

t h a t t he " d i s c u s s i o n of p o l i t i c a l i s s u e s . . . m a k e s T h e N a k e d a n d t h e

D e a d one of t h e f e w s u c c e s s f u l n o v e l s of i d e a s to b e w r i t t e n in the e n t i r e

3 d e c a d e . " B u t a n o t h e r c r i t i c s a y s t h a t c h a r a c t e r i s the c e n t r a l t h e m e

4

of M a i l e r ! s b o o k , a s i t u n f o l d s t h e m o r a l d i l e m m a of m e n a t w a r . T h e

t y p i c a l p a t t e r a of W o r l d W a r II n o v e l s i s t o p i c t u r e t h e i n d i v i d u a l w i t h i n

a m i l i t a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n . T h r o u g h t h e i n v o l v e m e n t of t h e i n d i v i d u a l

c h a r a c t e r t h e w r i t e r a t t e m p t s to e v a l u a t e t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n ' s c o m p l e x 5

s t r u c t u r e in w a r a n d p e a c e , a s a m a n i f e s t a t i o n of c o n t e m p o r a r y s o c i e t y .

T h e l i t e r a t u r e of w a r in the p e r i o d f o l l o w i n g t h e S e c o n d W o r l d W a r i s

c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e v a l u e s of a n a t i o n a t w a r , f r e q u e n t l y s t r e s s i n g m o t i v e s

a n d i d e a l s r a t h e r t h a n b a t t l e s . A t t e n t i o n i s g i v e n to t h e e n e m y w i t h i n t h e

r a n k s ; t h e b a t t l e s a r e f o r t h e d i g n i t y of m a n , r a c i a l e q u a l i t y , and f r e e d o m 6

f r o m a r b i t r a r y a u t h o r i t y .

3 C h e s t e r E . E i s i n g e r , F i c t i o n of t h e F o r t i e s ( C h i c a g o , 19b3) , p . 33.

4 J o h n W. A l d r i d g e , A f t e r t h e L o s t G e n e r a t i o n (New Y o r k , 1951) ,

p . 135.

5 M a x w e l l G e i s m a r , A m e r i c a n M o d e r n s (New Y o r k , 1958) , p. 171.

6 W, P . A l b r e c h t , " W a r a n d F r a t e r n i t y ; A S t u d y of S o m e P^ecent

A m e r i c a n W a r N o v e l s , n N e w M e x i c o Q v i a r t e r l £ , X X I ( W i n t e r , 1951) , 4 6 2 - 4 6 4 ,

J o h n H e r s o y , w r i t e r of t h r e e w a r n o v e l s , s a y s t h a t " c h a r a c t e r i s

7 t h e p r o p e r f o c u s of n o v e l s of a n y g e n r e . " H e r s e y b e l i e v e s t h a t m o s t of

u s k n o w w h a t l i t t l e w e do k n o w of w a r f r o m n o v e l s , t h a t f a c t c a n n o t do

8

w h a t f i c t i o n d o e s , " m a k e r e a l i t y s e e m r e a l . " He e s t a b l i s h e s t h e

s t a n d a r d s f o r t h e g e n r e of t h e n o v e l of c o n t e m p o r a r y h i s t o r y , w h i c h

i n c l u d e s t h e w a r n o v e l , in. s a y i n g , " A b o v e a l l , t h i s kind, of n o v e l s h o u l d

m a k e a n y o n e w h o r e a d s i t b e t t e r a b l e to m e e t l i f e in h i s g e n e r a t i o n - -9

w h e n e v e r t h a t g e n e r a t i o n m a y b e . " M a n y g e n e r a t i o n s of t h i s t w e n t i e t h

c e n t u r y h a v e f a c e d , a n d a r e f a c i n g , w a r a s a pa . r t of t h e i r l i v e s . H e r s e y

i s o n l y one of s e v e r a l w r i t e r s w h o h o p e to h a v e t h e r e a d e r w h o h a s e x p e -

r i e n c e d w a r s a y , " T h a t i s h o w it w a s , " a n d to h a v e o t h e r r e a d e r s t h i n k ,

" T h a t i s h o w it m u s t h a v e b e e n . " T h e m o t i v a t i o n s l i s t e d f o r w r i t i n g a

n o v e l of c o n t e m p o r a r y h i s t o r y c o u l d b e a p p l i e d to a l l w r i t e r s of w a r n o v e l ?

T h e s e m o t i v a t i o n s a r e a s e a r c h f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g , a d e s i r e f o r c o m m u -

n i c a t i o n , t h e w i l l to p r o m o t e w o r l d c i t i z e n s h i p , a n d a n a n g e r a t t h e s t a t u s

10 q u o .

T h e w a r n o v e l , c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h r e a l i s m a n d n a t u r a l i s m ,

w a s p r e d o m i n a n t a s a l i t e r a r y m o v e m e n t in t h e l a t e f o r t i e s a n d e a r l y

f i f t i e s . It i s s a i d b y s o m e t h a t t h e w a r n o v e l i s m o r e i m p o r t a n t a s a n 7

J o h n H e r s e y , " T h e N o v e l of C o n t e m p o r a r y H i s t o r y , " T h e A t l a n t i c , C L X X X I V ( N o v e m b e r , 1949) , 82. ~

8 9 i o Ib id . , p . 80 . Ib id . , p . 82 . Ib id . , p . 84 .

h i s t o r i c a l p h e n o m e n o n t h a n a s an. a r t i s t i c a c h i e v e m e n t , t h a t it i s a

11

p r o d u c t of i t s t i m e , of h i s t o r i c a l a c c u m u l a t i o n s and c u l t u r a l t e n s i o n s ,

T h i s content ion , i s v a l i d , to a l a r g c e x t e n t , f o r the r e s p o n s e of w a r

w r i t e r s - - n i h i l i s m , a f f i r m a t i o n , a n d w i t h d r a w a l - - s a y s m u c h of the c u l t u r e

of t he f o r t i e s . F r o m p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e a n d j o u r n a l i s t i c a n d f i c t i o n a l

a c c o u n t s , t h e r e a d e r s of t h e g e n e r a t i o n s i n c e 1945 c a n r e a d i l y b e l i e v e

t h a t t h e h e r o i c s of e a r l i e r w a r s a r e s e l d o m s e e n in m o d e r n w a r f a r e .

" S u r v i v a l , no t the t h o u g h t of d a n g e r a n d d e a t h , w a s w h a t p r e o c c u p i e d 12

young A m e r i c a n s . " S u r e l y no c r i t i c w i l l a r g u e t h a t a book l a c k s l i t e r a r y

v a l u e j u s t b e c a u s e i t t r e a t s t h a t w h i c h c o n c e r n s a g e n e r a t i o n of r e a d e r s .

Book e d i t o r s , p r o f e s s o r s of l i t e r a t u r e , and c r i t i c s h a v e f o r y e a r s

d i s c u s s e d a p p r o p r i a t e c r i t e r i a f o r j u d g i n g a w r i t e r ' s w o r k , The l i b e r a l

v i e w i s to a g r e e w i t h t h e P u l i t z e r P r i z e f o r F i c t i o n c o m m i t t e e s a n d

c o n t e n d t h a t a b o o k h a s m e r i t b e c a u s e i t i s of " s u s t a i n i n g i n t e r e s t " a n d 13

d e a l s w i t h p u b l i c i s s u e s . B o o k s d e a l i n g w i t h p u b l i c i s s u e s a n d t h e

t y p i c a l l i f e and s o c i a l h i s t o r y of a n a g e a r e m o s t o f t e n b e s t s e l l e r s of

t h a t a g e . A b e s t s e l l e r h a s l i t e r a r y i m p o r t a n c e , if n o t a r t i s t i c v a l u e ,

s i m p l y b e c a u s e of t h e n u m b e r of p e r s o n s i n f l u e n c e d by b e s t s e l l i n g 11 E i s m g e r , F i c t i o n of the F o r t i e s , p . 18.

12 Ibid. , p . 23.

13 W. J . S t u c k e y , The P u l i t z e r P r i z e Nove l s ( N o r m a n , O k l a h o m a ,

1966), p. 212.

a u t h o r s . L o n T i n k l e , b o o k c r i t i c of t h e D a l l a s M o r n i n g N e w s , i s o n e of

a g r o w i n g n u m b e r of p e r s o n s who f e e l t h a t t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l s c o r n f o r t h e

p o p u l a r i s o f t e n w r o n g . A n d s o t h e w a r n o v e l , s e l d o m c o n s i d e r e d to be

a r t i s t i c , i s n o n e t h e l e s s w o r t h y of n o t e . M a n y of t h e n o v e l s d i s c u s s e d in

t h i s s t u d y a r e o r h a v e b e e n b e s t s e l l e r s . F o u r h a v e b e e n a w a r d e d

P u l i t z e r P r i z e s : A B e l l f o r A d a no, T a l e s of t h e Sou th P a c i f i c , G u a r d

of H o n o r , a n d T h e C a m e M u t i n y .

A l t h o u g h E r n e s t H e m i n g w a y i n f l u e n c e d a l l v / a r w r i t e r s of t h i s

c e n t u r y w i t h h i s t h e m e s of c o m b a t a n d p e r s o n a l s u b j u g a t i o n , w h i c h

14 . . .

p e r s i s t in w a r f i c t i o n , m a n y of t h e W o r l d W a r II w r i t e r s a r e o p t i m i s t i c

a n d p o s i t i v e , f e e l i n g t h a t t h e i r w a r w a s n e c e s s a r y a s an i d e a l o g i c a i c o n f l i c t ,

T h e s e w r i t e r s s t i l l v i e w w a r a s h a t e f u l , b r u t a l , a n d c r u e l ; t h e y s t i l l d i s l i k e

t h e b r a v e a n d t h e h o n e s t d y i n g , bu t b e c a u s e of a s u b t l e c h a n g e in the a t t i -

t u d e of t h e p r e s e n t s o c i e t y , t h e r e a r e no w r i t e r s of W o r l d W a r II l i k e 15

H e m i n g w a y o r Dos P a s s o s . Of t h e m a n y c o m p a r i s o n s w h i c h m i g h t

b e m a d e b e t w e e n H e m i n g w a y a n d w r i t e r s of t h e S e c o n d World . W a r , one

i s e s p e c i a l l y i n t e r e s t i n g . B o t h H e m i n g w a y a n d I r w i n S h a w c o m m e n t e d on

w a r w r i t e r s . H e m i n g w a y , w h o w r o t e v i v i d s t u d i e s of w a r ' s i m p a c t on t h e 14

C h a r l e s A. F e n t o n , ' ' T h e W r i t e r s Who C a m e Out of t h e W a r , " S a t u r d a y R e v i e w , C X X X V ( S e p t e m b e r 3, 1956) , 5.

15 J . W a l d m e i r , " N o v e l i s t s of T w o W a r s , " N a t i o n , C L XX XV If

( N o v e m b e r , 1958) , 304 .

d e f e n s e l e s s h u m a n t e m p e r a m e n t , t h o u g h t t h a t t o o m u c h w a r e x p e r i e n c e

w a s d e s t r u c t i v e t o a w r i t e r , bu t t h a t s o m e w a s i n v a l u a b l e . ^ S h a w , of

w h o m m o r e w i l l b e s a i d in a l a t e r c h a p t e r , s a i d , " I a m s o r r y f o r w r i t e r s

in t h e w a r , bu t I a m e v e n s o r r i e r f o r w r i t e r s ou t of i t , " a n d , 11 T h e a r t

. 1 7

of w r i t i n g , l i k e t h e a r t of s u r g e r y , p r o f i t s f r o m w a r .

W h i l e a l l w a r n o v e l s a r e , of c o u r s e , s t o r i e s a b o u t w a r , t h i s i s b y

no m e a n s t h e i r on ly r e l a t i o n . T h e s e n o v e l s h a v e t h e m e s in c o m m o n

a s i d e f r o m b u l l e t s a n d b l o o d . T h e s e s i m i l a r f e a t u r e s of w a r n o v e l s a r e

a l l r e l a t e d to l e a d e r s h i p c o n c e p t s a n d t h e n o v e l i s t s 1 v i e w s of l e a d e r s .

J o h n F r e d e r i c k s a y s t h a t t h e u n i v e r s a l t h e m e s of W o r l d W a r II b o o k s

a r e a c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n f r o n t l i n e s a n d b a s e c a m p s , a n d a n a n t a g o n i s m 18

b e t w e e n o f f i c e r s and e n l i s t e d m e n . W. P . A l b r e c h t l i s t s t h e c o n s t a n t s

of w a r n o v e l s a s a n e x p r e s s i o n of t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y of t r a d i t i o n a l v a l u e s ,

t h e r e p u d i a t i o n of t h e s e v a l u e s by s o l d i e r s a n d c i v i l i a n s d u r i n g a w a r , 19

a n d t h e i m p r o b a b i l i t y of t h e i r p r o g r e s s i v e r e a l i z a t i o n . He s e e s t h e

16

B e t t y J e a n S m i t h , " W a r a s a F a c t o r in t h e F i c t i o n oi E r n e s t H e m i n g w a y , n u n p u b l i s h e d m a s t e r ' s t h e s i s , N o r t h T e x a s S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , D e n t o n , T e x a s , 1957, p . 24 .

1 7

I r w i n S h a w , n I f You W r i t e A b o u t t h e W a r , " S a t u r d a v R e v i e w of L i t e r a t u r e , XXVII I ( F e b r u a r y 17, 1945) , 6. _ ~ — —

18 J o h n T. F r e d e r i c k , " F i c t i o n of W o r l d W a r II , n C o l l e g e E n g l i s h ,

XVII ( N o v e m b e r , 1955) , 4 5 1 . 1 9

A l b r e c h t , " W a r a n d F r a t e r n i t y : A S t u d y of S o m e R e c e n t A m e r i c a n W a r N o v e l s , " p . 473 .

g e n e r a l s 1 t y r a n n y a s a n e x t e n s i o n of t h e ev i l s h a r e d b y c i v i l i a n - s o l d i e r s

a n d t h e c i v i l i a n s . G e n . M a r v i n of A B e l l fojr Ad a no a n d Gen , G u m m i n g s

of T h e N a k e d a n d t h e D e a d m a y b e u s e d f o r e x a m p l e s of m e n d e n y i n g t h e

d e m o c r a t i c v a l u e s f o r w h i c h t h e y f i g h t . R a c i a l c o n t e n t i o n a b o u n d s i n

G u a r d of H o n o r , T h e Young L i o n s , T h e W a l l , a n d m a n y o t h e r s , A

c o r r u p t i o n of s o c i e t y i s s h o w n in T h e Young I / i o n s , T h e L o n g M a r c h ,

T h e N a k e d a n d t h e J2ead , F r o m H e r e to E t e r n i t y , a n d o t h e r s .

Al l w a r n o v e l s , t o a g r e a t e r o r l e s s e r e x t e n t , t e n d to s h o w r e c o g -

n i t i o n of t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r good a n d e v i l . A B e l l J.'or

A d a n o , T h e Young L i o n s , a n d M i l a 18 e x e m p l i f y t h i s t r a i t .

E v e n t h o u g h t h e r e i s in m o s t of t h e s e n o v e l s t h e c o m m o n t h e m e of

s a c r i f i c e of s e l f f o r " f r a t e r n i t y , n s t i l l t h e r e i s m u c h p e s s i m i s m in m a n y

of t h e b o o k s . One c r i t i c h a s e s t a b l i s h e d t h r e e d e g r e e s of p e s s i m i s m

in to w h i c h w a r n o v e l s m a y b e p l a c e d . In t h e f i r s t c l a s s , e v i l d e f e a t s

g o o d : T h e N a k e d a n d t h e D e a d a n d F r o m H e r e to E t e r n i t y . In t h e n e x t

c l a s s , d e m o c r a c y l i m i t s f r a t e r n i t y : G u a r d of H o n o r . In t h e t h i r d c l a s s ,

i , 2 0

t h e l e a s t p e s s i m i s t i c , e v i l i s " d e e p l y s e a t e d in m a n a n d n a t u r e , !l

T h e C a m e M u t i n y w o u l d s e r v e a s a n e x a m p l e of t h i s c l a s s . T h u s o n e

m a y r e a d of a p r o g r e s s i v e d e c l i n e in d e m o c r a t i c v a l u e s in M a i l e r ' s

n o v e l , o r h e m a y r e a d Shaw 1 s s u g g e s t i o n t h a t d e m o c r a c y m a y t a k e a

s t a n d t h r o u g h t he l e a d e r s h i p of a n e n l i g h t e n e d £e\v. 20

Ib id . , p . 4 7 0 .

A c c o r d i n g to J o h n Aid r i d g e , a u t h o r s M a i l e r , Shaw, a n d m o s t

o t h e r w a r w r i t e r s m a i n l y a c h i e v e d M an e x c e e d i n g l y w o r k m a n l i k e j o b

of r e c o r d i n g in m i n u t e d e t a i l t h e p r o g r e s s i o n of e v e n t a f t e r e v e n t ,

v i o l e n c e a f t e r v i o l e n c e , in a w a r s i t u a t i o n w h i c h w a s by i t s e l f p e r f e c t l y

2 1

s u i t e d to t h e i r p u r p o s e s . n P e r h a p s t h i s i s so . Bu t n e v e r t h e l e s s the

w a r n o v e l i s t s a r e a m o n g t h e m o s t s u c c e s s f u l of t h e r o m a n t i c n o v e l i s t s

of t h e f o r t i e s a n d f i f t i e s . T h e b o o k s of t h e s t a n d a r d A m e r i c a n r o m a n t i c

n o v e l i s t s of t h e d a y a r e s a i d b y J o h n F i s c h e r to h a v e f o u r e a r m a r k s .

T h e m a j o r i t y of t h e W o r l d W a r II n o v e l s d i s p l a y t h e s e f o u r t r a i t s . T h e s e

f e a t u r e s a r e a d i s p l a y of e x o t i c c h a r a c t e r s in a r e v o l t a g a i n s t s o c i e t y ,

h e r o e s p o r t r a y e d in s e n t i m e n t a l t e r m s a n d t h e r e a d e r e x p e c t e d to w e e p

f o r t h e m , e x o t i c s e t t i n g s f i l l e d w i t h l u s t a n d v i o l e n c e , a n d f i n a l l y t h e 22

i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of t h e n o v e l i s t w i th one of t h e c h a r a c t e r s . A u t h o r s

M a i l e r a n d J o n e s h a v e e x o t i c h e r o e s ; Shaw and Wouk p i c t u r e c h a r a c t e r s

in s e n t i m e n t a l t e r m s ; J o n e s a n d U r i s w r i t e of e x o t i c s e t t i n g s , a n d Wouk

a n d S t y r o n a r e t w o w r i t e r s w h o s e e m to i d e n t i f y t h e m s e l v e s wi th one of

t h e i r c h a r a c t e r s .

A s p r e v i o u s l y m e n t i o n e d , one of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e W o r l d

W a r II n o v e l i s t h e t e n d e n c y to d e p i c t d i s s e n s i o n in t h e r a n k s , d i s c o r d 21

A l d r i d g e , A f t e r t he .Lost G e n e r a t i o n , p. 97 .

22 J o h n F i s c h e r , " T h e E d i t o r ' s E a s y C h a i r , n H a r p e r ' s M a g a z i n e ,

CCXV* ( S e p t e m b e r , 1957) , 15.

a m o n g m e m b e r s of t h e s a m e g r o u p . W h i l e m a n y of t h e b o o k s p r o m o t e

i n d i v i d u a l i s m a n d t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s of p e r s o n a l i n t e g r i t y , a l a r g e

n u m b e r of t h e s e s a m e n o v e l s p o r t r a y v a r i o u s f o r m s of r a c i a l p r e j u d i c e ;

t h u s the. s a m e w r i t e r m a y a d v o c a t e p e r s o n a l f r e e d o m b y h a v i n g a

c h a r a c t e r d e n y t h e f r e e d o m of e q u a l i t y to m e m b e r s of m i n o r i t y g r o u p s :

J e w s , N e g r o e s , o r M e x i c a n s .

A l t h o u g h J e w s a n d N e g r o e s a r e o f t e n s h o w n a s v i c t i m s of p e r s e -

c u t i o n , m o r e o f t e n t h e v i c t i m i s t h e e n l i s t e d m a n , a n d o c c a s i o n a l l y t h e

j u n i o r o f f i c e r . It i s i r o n i c to n o t e t h e f r e q u e n c y w i t h w h i c h A m e r i c a n

n o v e l i s t s d e s c r i b e a n A m e r i c a n a r m y d e f e a t i n g a n e n e m y in s p i t e of t h e

u s e of t h e d e p l o r a b l e , f a s c i s t i c m e t h o d s e m p l o y e d by t h e e n e m y . " T h e

r e b e l l i o n a g a i n s t m i n d l e s s , a r b i t r a r y a u t h o r i t y , w h i c h h a d b e e n d i r e c t e d

a g a i n s t t h e p o l i c e in t h e t h i r t i e s , w a s d i r e c t e d , in t h e w a r n o v e l s , a g a i n s t

23

t h e o f f i c e r c l a s s . " T h e o f f i c e r c l a s s of W o r l d W a r II n o v e l i s t s i s

c r i t i c i z e d s e v e r e l y in a n u m b e r of t h e b o o k s s t u d i e d . R o b e r t H e a l e y

s a y s t h a t " o f f i c e r s w e r e e i t h e r f a s c i s t s o r i n c o m p e t e n t s o r b o t h , t h o u g h

t h e f a s c i s t s a r e u s u a l l y d e p i c t e d a s v e r y c o m p e t e n t a n d i n t e l l i g e n t in 24

g a m i n g t h e i r e n d s . " E i s i n g e r c o m m e n t s on t h i s f a c t in s a y i n g , " I n

d i s c u s s i n g t h e i r o f f i c e r s , e n l i s t e d m e n w e r e l e s s c r i t i c a l of i n c o m p e t e n c e 23

E i s i n g e r , F i c t i o n of t h e F o r t i e s , p. 27 .

2 4 -R o b e r t G. H e a l e y , " A B u n c h of D i s p o s s e s s e d , " F i f t y Y e a r s of

t h e A m e r i c a n N o v e l , e d i t e d b y H a r o l d C . G a r d i n e r (New Y o r k , T^TsT)," p . 2 5 9 .

10

25

t h a n t h e y w e r e of s p e c i a l p r i v i l e g e s e n j o y e d by t h a t g r o u p . 11 T h i s

s t a t e m e n t , of c o u r s e , r e f e r s to t h e j e a l o u s l y g u a r d e d c o n c e p t of R H I P

( r a n k h a s i t s p r i v i l e g e s ) , of w h i c h m o r e w i l l b e s a i d in t h e d i s c u s s i o n

of l e a d e r s h i p . n I n M i s t e r R o b e r t s , T a l e s of t h e Sou th P a c i f i c , G u a r d of H o n o r ,

a n d A B e l l f o r A d a n o t h e r e i s a s t r i k i n g l y d i f f e r e n t p o r t r a i t of o f f i c e r s

26

a n d m e n , a m o r e r o u n d e d and c e r t a i n l y a m o r e h o p e f u l o n e . 11 T h e

b o o k s of Wouk , S t y r o n , a n d U r i s m i g h t a l s o be a d d e d to t h e l i s t , a s t h e s e

a u t h o r s , t o o , p i c t u r e s o m e o f f i c e r s a s n e i t h e r b l a c k n o r w h i t e , b u t g r a y ,

o r d i n a l r y m e n w i t h b o t h s t r e n g t h s a n d w e a k n e s s e s . E v e n t h o u g h N o r m a n

M a i l e r m i g h t d i s a g r e e , i t s e e m s o n l y l o g i c a l t h a t t h e r e m i g h t be good

a n d b a d o f f i c e r s , l e a d e r s w i t h good a n d b a d t r a i t s , j u s t a s e n l i s t e d m e n

a r e s h o w n to b e m a d e u p of v a r y i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

T h e n o v e l s w h i c h t r e a t o f f i c e r s f a i r l y , o r s o m e t i m e s e v e n in

g l o w i n g t e r m s , a r e no t t h o s e of d e s p a i r , bu t t h o s e of a f f i r m a t i o n , o f t e n

c a l l e d by c r i t i c s " p a t r i o t i c ' 1 n o v e l s . " T w o of t h e m o s t s u c c e s s f u l

n o v e l s to c o m e ou t of t h e w a r , J a m e s G o u l d C o z z e n s 1 G u a r d of H o n o r

a n d H e r m a n W o u k ' s T h e C a i n e M u t i n y . . . c o n t e n d t h a t c o r r e c t i o n of

b a d l e a d e r s a n d t h e c e s s a t i o n of p r e j u d i c e m u s t n o t o b s t r u c t the w a r

2 5 _ K i s i n g e r , F i c t i o n of t h e F o r t i e s , p. 24 .

26 H e a l e y , ! IA B u n c h of D i s p o s s e s s e d , n p . 2 5 9 .

11

27

e f f o r t . " A f e w w r i t e r s , M i c b e n e r a n d U r i s a m o n g t h e m , a v o i d a l l

s u c h p r o b l e m s by m a k i n g a l l o f f i c e r s w o r t h y of c o m m a n d a n d r e s p e c t .

M a n y w a r n o v e l s r e s p o n d to a d e m a n d f o r n a t i o n a l i s m w i t h a g l o r i f i -28

c a t i o n of t h e a r m e d f o r c e s a n d m a k e the o f f i c e r s d e m o c r a t i c h e r o e s .

E i s i n g e r c a l l s T h e C a i n e M u t i n y a p a t r i o t i c n o v e l , o n e w h i c h s e e k s t o

j u s t i f y i n d i v i d u a l s u b m e r s i o n f o r t h e good of a l l c o n c e r n e d . W o u k i s

s a i d to a d m i r e t h e w e l l - t r a i n e d a n d c o m p e t e n t o f f i c e r a s an a t h l e t i c

m i l i t a r y h e r o . T h e " b r a s s , " t h e s e n i o r o f f i c e r s , a r e s h o w n t o b e

c o n c e r n e d f o r t h e i r m e n a n d w i l l i n g to s a c r i f i c e t h e m o n l y in o r d e r to

s h o r t e n t h e w a r . Men of w a r a r e h o n o r e d a n d g i v e n a d i g n i t y of i 2 9

c o m m a n d , C r i t i c B e r n a r d O l d s e y s a y s t h a t C a n t w e l l f e e l s t h a t p r o f e s s i o n a l

30

s o l d i e r s l e a v e t h e h u m a n p r o b l e m s of w a r to s o c i o l o g i s t s . M r . O l d s e y

m i g h t h a v e a d d e d t h e w a r n o v e l i s t s t o t h o s e d e a l i n g w i t h t h e h u m a n

p r o b l e m s . Bu t O l d s e y b r i n g s ou t a n i m p o r t a n t p o i n t , n o n e t h e l e s s .

T h e r e c e r t a i n l y i s a h u m a n p r o b l e m in w a r f a r e , a n d i t i s a l w a y s t h e m o s t

i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n . It i s n o t e w o r t h y t h a t n o n e of t h e a u t h o r s s t u d i e d

27 W a l d r n e i r , " N o v e l i s t s of Two W a r s , M p. 30o .

2 8 E i s i n g e r , F i c t i o n of the F o r t j . e s , p . 44 .

29 . I b id . , p. 4o .

30 B e r n a r d S. O l d s e y , " H e m i n g w a y ' s O ld M e n , If M o d e r n F i c t i o n

S t u d i e s , I {Augus t , 1955) , 34.

12

w e r e p r o f e s s i o n a l s o l d i e r s , c a r e e r m i l i t a r y m e n . In f a c t , no A m e r i c a n

m i l i t a r y p r o f e s s i o n a l w r o t e a w a r n o v e l d a r i n g t h e f o r t i e s a n d f i f t i e s .

T h e A m e r i c a n w a r n o v e l w r i t e r s a l l h a d s o m e e x p e r i e n c e e i t h e r a s

s e r v i c e m e n o r a s j o u r n a l i s t s , bu t a l l of t h e m , s e r v e d f o r a r e l a t i v e l y

f e w y e a r s , u s u a l l y a s r e s e r v i s t s , o r c i v i l i a n - s o l d i e r s . None of t h e r n

p r o f e s s e d to m a k e a l i f e t i m e c a r e c r of t h e m i l i t a r y . N o n e of t h e m

a s s u m e d t h e c r i t i c a l a t t i t u d e a n d a n a l y t i c s t u d y of l e a d e r s h i p t h a t i s a

p a r t of t he t r a i n i n g and r o u t i n e of one w h o d e v o t e s h i s l i f e t o c a r e e r

s e r v i c e . A l a r g e p a r t of t h e j o b of a r e g u l a r o f f i c e r o r n o n c o m m i s s i o n e d

o f f i c e r i s to m o s t e f f e c t i v e l y u t i l i z e t h o s e m a t e r i a l s w h i c h h e i s g i v e n to

c o m p l e t e an a s s i g n e d m i s s i o n . T h e m o s t v i t a l p o r t i o n of t h a t m a t e r i a l

c o n s i s t s of the. m e n u n d e r h i s c o m m a n d .

E v e r y w o r k m a n s h o u l d k n o w h i s t o o l s , t h e i r c a p a b i l i t i e s a n d

l i m i t a t i o n s , in o r d e r t h a t h e m i g h t u s e t h e m to t h e b e s t a d v a n t a g e . T h e

o n l y t o o l s of a l e a d e r a r e h i s m e n , a n d so t h e l e a d e r ' s p r o p e r f i e l d of

s t u d y i s c e r t a i n l y o t h e r m e n . T h e w a r of w h i c h J o n e s , Wouk , a n d M a i l e r

w r i t e w a s f o u g h t by b o t h p r o f e s s i o n a l s a n d c i t i z e n - s o l d i e r s . W a r s s i n c e

t h a t t i m e h a v e e n g a g e d t h e s a m e c o m b i n a t i o n of p r o f e s s i o n a l a n d c i v i l i a n

in u n i f o r m . H o w e v e r , t h e p r i m a r y t a s k s of d i r e c t i o n of t h e s e c o m b i n e d

g r o u p s h a v e a l w a y s b e e n a s s i g n e d to t h o s e p e r s o n s b e s t q u a l i f i e d by

t r a i n i n g a n d e x p e r i e n c e , t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l s o l d i e r s , b o t h c o m m i s s i o n e d

and e n l i s t e d l e a d e r s . T h e s e m e n h a v e t r a i n e d in a n a t m o s p h e r e of

13

m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s h i p , a n a t m o s p h e r e c r e a t e d by t r a d i t i o n and p r o m o t e d

by e x a m p l e . In o r d e r to a c c u r a t e l y judge the l e a d e r s of the n o v e l s to

be d i s c u s s e d , s o m e k n o w l e d g e of t h i s f o r m of l e a d e r s h i p is i m p e r a t i v e .

The i d e a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a l e a d e r a r e p r o b a b l y b e s t s u m m a r i z e d

in the w o r d s of John P a u l J o n e s , in h i s r e m a r k s e n t i t l e d n C o d e of a

Naval O f f i c e r " :

It i s , by no m e a n s , enough t h a t an o f f i c e r of the Navy be a c a p a b l e m a r i n e r . He m u s t be t ha t , of c o u r s e , but a l s o a g r e a t dea l m o r e . He shou ld be , a s we l l , a g e n t l e m a n of l i b e r a l e d u c a t i o n , r e f i n e d m a n n e r , p u n c -t i l i o u s c o u r t e s y , and the n i c e s t s e n s e of p e r s o n a l h o n o r . He shou ld not only be a b l e to e x p r e s s h i m s e l f c l e a r l y and wi th f o r c e in h i s onw l a n g u a g e both wi th tongue and pen , but he shou ld be v e r s e d in F r e n c h and S p a n i s h . . . . He shou ld be the sou l of t a c t , p a t i e n c e , j u s t i c e , f i r m n e s s , and c h a r i t y . No m e r i t o r i o u s a c t of a s u b o r d i n a t e shou ld e s c a p e h i s a t t e n t i o n or be l e f t to p a s s wi thou t i t s r e w a r d , if even the r e w a r d shou ld be one w o r d of a p p r o v a l . C o n v e r s e l y , he shou ld not be b l ind to a s i ng l e f a u l t in any s u b o r d i n a t e , though a t t he s a m e t i m e he should be qu i ck and u n f a i l i n g to d i s t i n g u i s h e r r o r f r o m m a l i c e , t h o u g h t l e s s n e s s f r o m i n c o m p e t e n c y , and w e l l - m e a n t s h o r t c o m i n g f r o m h e e d l e s s o r s tup id b l u n d e r . As he shou ld be u n i v e r s a l and i m p a r t i a l in h i s r e w a r d s and a p p r o v a l of m e r i t , so shou ld he be j u d i c i a l and unbend ing in h i s p u n i s h m e n t or r e p r o o f of m i s c o n d u c t . ~ ^

It i s in the l igh t of such i d e a l s a s t h e s e t h a t the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a.

m i l i t a r y l e a d e r a r e f o r m u l a t e d .

It i s not enough to quote the a x i o m tha t n h e l e a d s b e s t who l e a d s

by e x a m p l e . n T h e r e m u s t f i r s t be a c l e a r i m a g e a s to wha t e x a m p l e

31 John P a u l J o n e s , p e r s o n a l l e t t e r , c i t e d in A d m i r a l L e l a n d P .

L o v e t t e , Naval C u s t o m s T r a d i t i o n s a.xid Us_age (Annapo l i s , 1959), pp . 3 2 1 - 3 2 2 ,

14

s h o u l d be f o l l o w e d . T h e i d e a t h a t r a n k h a s i t s p r i v i l e g e s i s d e c r i e d by

m a n y of t h e n o v e l i s t s of d e s p a i r w h o w r i t e of w a r . T h e c o n s c i e n t i o u s

o f f i c e r o r N. C. O. v/ho i s w e l l - g r o u n d e d in l e a d e r s h i p p r i n c i p l e s

c h o o s e s t o b e l i e v e t h a t r a n k h a s f a r m o r e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s t h a n p r i v i l e g e s ,

An o u t l i n e of t h e s e r e s p o n s i b i ! i t i e s m a y b e f o u n d in t h e c o m m e n t s of

m e n d e f i n i n g l e a d e r s h i p arid d e s c r i b i n g l e a d e r ' s , A n o t e d B r i t i s h l e a d e r

h a s d e f i n e d l e a d e r s h i p a s " t h e c a p a c i t y a n d t h e w i l l to r a l l y m e n a n d

w o m e n to a c o m m o n p u r p o s e a n d t he c h a r a c t e r w h i c h w i l l i n s p i r e

32 c o n f i d e n c e . A n o t h e r l e a d e r , C d r . M a s o n H a r l o w , d e f i n e s l e a d e r s h i p

a s w h a t one d o e s , n o t w h a t h e i s . It i s t h e e f f e c t a l e a d e r h a s on m e n

33

w h i l e d o i n g w h a t e a c h s i t u a t i o n c a l l s f o r .

C o m . H a r l o w , w r i t i n g f o r t h e U . S . N a v a l I n s t i t u t e P r o c e e d i n g s ,

f u r t h e r d i s c u s s e s t w o t y p e s of l e a d e r s h i p . T h e two b r o a d c a t e g o r i e s

a r e p e r s o n a l a n d i n s t i t u t i o n a l in "nature . P e r s o n a l l e a d e r s h i p i s

a c h i e v e d by t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a n d a c t i o n s of a n i n d i v i d u a l . I n s t i t u t i o n a l

l e a d e r s h i p i s t h a t p o s i t i o n of c o m m a n d c o n f e r r e d u p o n a m a n by a n

o r g a n i z a t i o n , a m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e in t h i s c a s e . S u c h i n s t i t u t i o n a l

l e a d e r s h i p c a r r i e s w i t h it r a n k , w h i c h i s u s e d p r o p e r l y o r p o o r l y

32 M o n t g o m e r y , T h e P a t h to L e a d e r s h i p , p . 10.

33 C o m m a n d e r A. M a s o n H a r l o w , n A New L o o k a t N a v a l L e a d e r s h i p , n

S e l e c t e d R e a d i n g s in L e a d e r s h i p , e d i t e d by C o m m a n d e r M a l c o l m E . W o l f e a n d C a p t a i n F„ J . M u l h o l l a n d ( A n n a p o l i s , I 9 6 0 ) , p, 29.

15

a c c o r d i n g to t h e p e r s o n a l p r i n c i p l e s a n d m o t i v a t i o n s of t h e i n d i v i d u a l .

And t h u s i t m a y be s a i d t h a t l e a d e r s a r e b o t h b o r n a n d m a d e . T h e m a n

w h o a c q u i r e s f r o m b i r t h t h e p e r s o n a , ! a t t r i b u t e s b e f i t t i n g a l e a d e r

b e c o m e s a good l e a d e r w h e n he i s p l a c e d in a p o s i t i o n of c o m m a n d b y

a n o r g a n i z a t i o n . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h i s b l e n d of t h e t w o c l a s s e s of l e a d e r -

s h i p i s no t a l w a y s f o u n d in t h o s e m e n who a ~ e a w a r d e d t h e r a n k of a

m i l i t a r y l e a d e r . ' ' L e a d e r s h i p d o e s not n e c e s s a r i l y f a l l to c a p a b l e m e n

34

b u t m o r e o f t e n to m e n w h o a r e a g g r e s s i v e in a s s u m i n g i t . n M a i l e r 1 s

Sg t . C r o f t a n d Gen , C u m m i n g s , W o u k ' s C a p t . Que eg , a n d J o n e s ' Cap t \

H o l m e s a l l e x e m p l i f y t h e d a n g e r t h a t i s p o s s i b l e w h e n a g g r e s s i v e b u t

i n c a p a b l e m e n a s s u m e l e a d e r s h i p .

T h i s t y p e of m a n , t h e l e a d e r , i s m a r k e d w i t h t h e t r a i t s of a n

e x t r o v e r t . He i s c a p a b l e a n d e n e r g e t i c , a c t i v e a n d , t h o u g h no t n e c e s -

s a r i l y i n t e l l i g e n t , he i s a l e r t a n d s h r e w d . He i s o f t e n a n i m p u l s i v e

a n d c o l o r f u l f i g u r e , a n d v e r y p u b l i c a n d c o n s p i c u o u s in h i s b e h a v i o r . 35

T h e e x t r o v e r t m a y o f t e n b e i n t o l e r a n t a n d u n y i e l d i n g . T h e l e a d e r

s h o u l d b e g r e g a r i o u s , h a v e a s e n s e of h u m o r , a n d b e g e n e r o u s a n d

l o y a l to h i s f r i e n d s . He i s a p t to b e s h r e w d a n d s t u b b o r n , a n d h e m a y 36

h a v e l i t t l e r e c o u r s e to o r a t o r i c a l a p p e a l . A c o m p o s i t e of t h e a b o v e

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s e l i c i t s i m a g e s of m a n y of t h e c h a r a c t e r s to b e f o u n d in

c o n t e m p o r a r y A m e r i c a n w a r n o v e l s . 3 4

Cv S. B l u e m e l , W a r , P o l i t i c s , a n d I n s a n i t y ( D e n v e r , 1948) , p . 15,

^ J I b i d . ^ Ib id . , p . 13.

16

T h e v i e w s of p r o f e s s i o n a l m i l i t a r y m e n a s to t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

of a g o o d l e a d e r a r e s o m e w h a t m o r e e x p l i c i t . Adrn. A r l e i g h B u r k e ,

n o t e d a s a n o u t s t a n d i n g f l e e t c o m m a n d e r in the P a c i f i c d u r i n g W o r l d

W a r II, f e e l s t h a t a l e a d e r m u s t h a v e s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e , e n t h u s i a s m ,

s e l f - di s c i p l i n e , a n d s e l f ~ r e l i a n e e . l i e m u s t a l w a y s m a i n t a i n p r i d e in

37

h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n , h i m s e l f , h i s c o u n t r y , and h i s s e r v i c e . A W o r l d

W a r I A r m y m a j o r , C. A, B a c h , b e l i e v e s l e a d e r s h i p to b e a c o m p o s i t e

of s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e , m o r a l a s c e n d e n c y , s e l f - s a c r i f i c e , p a t e r n a l i s m , 3 8

f a i r n e s s , i n i t i a t i v e , d e c i s i o n , d i g n i t y , a n d c o u r a g e . ~ ' A n o t e d m i l i t a r y

h i s t o r i a n , D o u g l a s F r e e m a n , l e c t u r e r at the N a v a l W a r C o l l e g e , r e l a t e s

t h r e e s i m p l e r u l e s f o r b e i n g a g o o d l e a d e r : "know y o u r s t u f f , be a man., 39

a n d l o o k a f t e r y o u r m e n . n C e r t a i n l y t h e v i e w s e x p r e s s e d a r e v e r y

i d e a l ] stic. , but t h e s e a r e w o r d s of m e n d e v o t e d to a n i d e a l . A m a n w h o

i s l o y a l to h i s c o u n t r y , a n d t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l m i l i t a r y m a n i s e x p e c t e d to

b y l o y a l , h a s a l o n g t r a d i t i o n of i d e a l s o n w h i c h to b a s e h i s a t t i t u d e s . 37

A d m i r a l A r l e i g h A . B u r k e , 11 N a v a l L e a d e r s h i p in A c t i o n , n

S e l e c t e d R e a d i n g s in L e a d e r s h i p , e d i t e d b y C o m m a n d e r M a l c o l m E . W o l f e and C a p t a i n F . J. M u l h o l l a n d ( .Annapol i s , I 9 6 0 ) , pp . 1 2 - 1 4 .

38 • M a j o r C. A . B a c h , " L e a d e r s h i p , 11 S e l e c t e d R e a d i n g s in

L e a d e r s h i p , e d i t e d b y C o m m a n d e r M a l c o l m E . W o l f e and C a p t a i n F . J. M u l h o l l a n d ( A n n a p o l i s , I 9 6 0 ) , p. 17 .

39 D o u g l a s S. F r e e m a n , " L e a d e r s h i p , tf S e l e c t e d R e a d i n g s i n

L e a d e r s h i p , e d i t e d by C o m m a n d e r M a l c o l m E . W o l f e a n d C a p t a i n F . J. M u l h o l l a n d ( A n n a p o l i s , i 9 6 0 ) , pp. 4 0 - 4 3 ,

17

A n y n u m b e r of v e r b a l k e y s to p r o p e r a n d e f f i c i e n t m i l i t a r y

l e a d e r s h i p h a v e b e e n p r o p o s e d by m i l i t a r y w r i t e r s . One of t h e s e i s

o u t l i n e d by t h e a c r o n y m USA. T h e l e t t e r s r e p r e s e n t : u n d e r s t a n d ,

s u p e r v i s e , a n d a c c o m p l i s h . When a n o r d e r i s g i v e n , i t m u s t b e

p r e s e n t e d w i t h s u c h c l a r i t y a s to be c l e a r l y u n d e r s t o o d b e f o r e the t a s k

c a n b e b e g u n . A f t e r t h e w o r k i s s t a r t e d , t h e l e a d e r ' s j o b i s t o s u p e r v i s e

in s u c h a m a n n e r t h a t no t i m e w i l l be l o s t a n d no e r r o r s w i l l b e m a d e .

If t h e s e f i r s t t w o s t e p s a r e d o n e c o r r e c t l y , t h e n t h e m i s s i o n w i l l b e

a c c o m p l i s h e d w i t h e x p e d i e n c y . T h e s e r u l e s a r e s i m i l a r to t h e t h r e e

s t e p s of l e a d e r s h i p a d v o c a t e d by M. L . B r e s s o u d , a w r i t e r f o r t h e

M a r i n e C o r p s G a z e t t e . l i e s a y s t h e l e a d e r m u s t a l w a y s s e e k t o b e

u n d e r s t o o d ; h e s h o u l d b e m e n t a l l y a t e a s e so t h a t h e m i g h t c o n t i n u o u s l y

e r r rp lay good c o m m o n s e n s e , and f i n a l l y h e m u s t b e an e f f e c t i v e c o m m u -

n i c a t o r . C o m m u n i c a t i o n in t h i s s e n s e i m p l i e s r e c e i v i n g o r d e r s a n d

40

s u g g e s t i o n s a n d i s s u i n g d i r e c t i v e s c l e a r l y .

F i e l d - M a r s h a l M o n t g o m e r y l i s t s w h a t he t e r m s t h e " F o u r

C a r d i n a l v i r t u e s of JLeader . sh ip . " T h e f i r s t of t h e s e v i r t u e s i s p r u d e n c e .

T h i s p r u d e n c e i s c o m p o s e d of w i s d o m , t a c t , i m p a r t i a l i t y , a n d t h e

i n c l i n a t i o n to f o l l o w d i v i n e g u i d a n c e . S e c o n d on t h e l i s t i s j u s t i c e .

J u s t i c e m e a n s , to M o n t g o m e r y , , g i v i n g due c o n s i d e r a t i o n to God, s e l f ,

40 M. L . B r e s s o u d , J r . , " B y C h a r a c t e r and Sk i l l , " S e l e c t e d

R e a d i n g s in L e a d e r s h i p , e d i t e d by C o m m a n d e r M a l c o l m E . W o l f e a n d C a p t a i n F . J . M u l h o l l a n d ( A n n a p o l i s , I 9 6 0 ) , p . 59.

18

a n d o t h e r s . T h e p o s s e s s i o n of t h i s a t t r i b u t e c a u s e s a m a n to h a v e a

r e l i g i o n , to b e o b e d i e n t a n d g r a t e f u l , a n d to p o s s e s s i n t e g r i t y a n d g o o d -

w i l l . T e m p e r a n c e i s t h e t h i r d v i r t u e . T e m p e r a n c e , a l s o i d e n t i f i e d a s

s e l f - c o n t r o l , g i v e s t h e l e a d e r p u r i t y , h u m i l i t y , a n d p a t i e n c e . F i n a l l y

t h e F i e l d - M a r s h a l l i s t s f o r t i t u d e . He e x p l a i n s t h a t t h e l e a d e r m u s t

h a v e t h e s p i r i t t o r e s i s t , e n d u r e , a n d t r i u m p h o v e r w e a k n e s s a n d

t e m p t a t i o n s . Such a s p i r i t g i v e s a m a n m o r a l c o u r a g e a n d a n i n d u s t r i o u s

41

a t t i t u d e , a n d p r o m o t e s s e l f - d i s c i p l i n e .

R e a d i n g M o n t g o m e r y 1 s v i r t u e s of l e a d e r s h i p , w i t h t h e i r e m p h a s i s

on s e l f - c o n t r o l , h u m i l i t y , a n d o b e d i e n c e , one i s r e m i n d e d of t h e S to i c

p h i l o s o p h y of t h e c l a s s i c s . T h e p r i n c i p l e s of d i s c i p l i n e a n d c o n t r o l l e d

w i s d o m a d v o c a t e d by c o n t e m p o r a r y w r i t e r s on l e a d e r s h i p c o u l d h a v e

b e e n w r i t t e n by E p i c t e t u s o r M a r c u s A u r e l i u s . M a r c u s A u r e l i u s , h i m -

se l f a m i l i t a r y c o m m a n d e r , wou ld h a v e a p p r o v e d of t h e l e a d e r s h i p t r a i t s

p r e s c r i b e d f o r t o d a y ' s l e a d e r . T h e v i r t u e s of F i e l d - M a r s h a l M o n t g o m e r y

m i g h t h a v e b e e n m o d e l e d a f t e r E p i c t e t u s 1 e s s a y n S e l f C o n t r o l . n M i l i t a r y

m e n h a v e a l w a y s a d m i r e d t h e v i e w s of S to ic i s m ; d u t y a s a n e n d in i t s e l f ,

s t r i c t c o n t r o l of t h e p a s s i o n s wi th t h e e n s u i n g e m o t i o n l e s s o u t l o o k on

l i f e , a n d . the d i g n i t y a t t a c h e d to one w h o i s a loof a r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

w h i c h m i g h t f i t m a n y of t he g e n e r a l s of h i s t o r y , o r of f i c t i o n . T h e r e m a r k

of A d m . W i l l i a m P r a t t , in a n a r t i c l e f o r t h e U, S. N a v a l I n s t i t u t e

41 M o n t g o m e r y , T h e P a t h to L e a d e r s h i p , p . 13.

19

P r o c e e d i n g s a d d r e s s e d to young n a v a l o f f i c e r s , is c e r t a i n l y Stoic in

n a t u r e . " B e a r in m i n d t h a t you h a v e e n t e r e d a p r o f e s s i o n wh ich r e q u i r e s

42

you to p l a c e s e r v i c e above self d u r i n g y o u r e n t i r e c a r e e r . 11

It h a s b e e n s a i d t h a t the w o r l d is d i v i d e d into l e a d e r s and f o l l o w e r s ,

and in s ay ing tha t t he w o r l d m u s t have l e a d e r s v/ith c o n f i d e n c e , Mon t -

g o m e r y sa id , " L e a d e r s h i p is a m a j o r p r o b l e m of o a r a g e a n d , i n d e e d , 43

in e v e r y a g e . " The c o n t e m p o r a r y w a r n o v e l i s t s who d e s p a i r of the

" e s t a b l i s h e d s y s t e m " of o u r m o d e r n s o c i e t y ( J o n e s and M a i l e r ) a p p e a r

to l a y m u c h of the b l a m e f o r the l o s s of p e r s o n a l i n t e g r i t y and f r e e d o m

of the i nd iv idua l on p o o r l e a d e r s . The o p t i m i s t i c n o v e l i s t s who s e e

hope f o r s o c i e t y t h r o u g h the a c t i o n of i n s p i r e d and d e d i c a t e d m i l i t a r y

l e a d e r s (Wouk and U r i s ) would have the r e a d e r b e l i e v e that the d i s s e n t e r s

are g r a v e l y m i s t a k e n . B e c a u s e the t h e m e of e v e r y w a r novel is largely-

d e p e n d e n t on the a t t i t u d e of t h e n o v e l i s t t o w a r d t h o s e c h a r a c t e r s in

l e a d e r s h i p p o s i t i o n s , any j u d g m e n t of the v a l i d i t y of the nove l m u s t

i n c l u d e a n e v a l u a t i o n of the l e a d e r s d e p i c t e d in. the nove l . The fo l l owing

c h a p t e r s wi l l c o n s i s t of a d i s c u s s i o n of the l e a d e r s in w a r n o v e l s and the

t r e a t m e n t a f f o r d e d t h e m by the n o v e l i s t s . 42

A d m i r a l W i l l i a m V . P r a t t , " L e a d e r s h i p , " S e l e c t e d R e a d i n g s in L e a d e r s h i p , ed i t ed by C o m m a n d e r M a l c o l m E . Wolfe and C a p t a i n F . J . M u l h o l l a n d (Annapo l i s , 1960), p . 1.

43 M o n t g o m e r y , The P a t h to L e a d e r s h i p , p. 17.

C H A P T E R II

STYRON AND URIS

W i l l i a m S t y r o n and L e o n U r i s we l l r e p r e s e n t a u t h o r s who w r i t e

abou t the M a r i n e C o r p s ; they d e s c r i b e o f f i c e r s in g lowing t e r m s a s m e n

who s e r v e duty f i r s t a t a l l t i m e s , wi th h o n o r and g l o r y f o r t h e m s e l v e s

and t h e i r c a u s e . T h e s e o f f i c e r s l e a d a l m o s t a s though d iv ine ly i n s p i r e d ,

a s s i s t e d by n o n c o m s who a r e equa l ly l oya l and d e d i c a t e d . T h e s e a u t h o r s

c r e a t e l e a d e r s who a r e m e n of a p a r t i c u l a r type , m e n who s i n c e r e l y

b e l i e v e in S e m p e r F i d e l i s , in be ing a l w a y s f a i t h f u l .

S t y r o n h a s only w r i t t e n only one book wh ich m i g h t be c o n s i d e r e d

a w a r novel , t he nove l l a The Long M a r c h . U r i s h a s w r i t t e n f i v e w a r

n o v e l s : Ba t t l e C r y , The A n g r y H i l l s , Topaz , Mi la 18, and A r m a g e d d o n .

Of t h e s e , o n l y B a t t l e C r y d e a l s wi th the M a r i n e C o r p s ; t h r e e of the o t h e r s

t r e a t c i v i l i a n s d u r i n g a w a r , and the f o u r t h is about A r m y p e r s o n n e l ,

U r i s is c o n s i d e r e d a M a r i n e C o r p s w r i t e r b e c a u s e he w a s h i m s e l f a

m a r i n e , a s w a s S t y r o n , and Ba t t l e _C_ry w a s h is f i r s t n o v e l and i s h i s

m o s t widely r e a d w o r k . As e x - m a r i n e s , S t y r o n and U r i s have a p a r t i c -

u l a r a t t i t u d e t o w a r d m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s wh ich is u n l i k e tha v i ews e x p r e s s e d

by w r i t e r s of the o t h e r s e r v i c e s .

20

21

W i l l i a m S t y r o n

W i l l i a m S ty ron , b e s t known a s a S o u t h e r n w r i t e r , w a s b o r n in

N e w p o r t News , V i r g i n i a , in 1925: h i s f a t h e r w a s a n a t i v e of Nor th

C a r o l i n a , but S ty ron now m a k e s h i s h o m e in C o n n e c t i c u t . He r e c e i v e d

h i s A. B. d e g r e e f r o m Duke U n i v e r s i t y , w h e r e he p u b l i s h e d s h o r t s t o r i e s

a t the age of e i g h t e e n . He s e r v e d in W o r l d W a r .11 a s a m a r i n e , a t t a i n i n g

the r a n k of f i r s t l i e u t e n a n t a f t e r a to ta l of t h r e e - a n d - o n e - h a l f - y e a r s '

s e r v i c e . S ty ron is s a i d to be a m o n g the f i v e o r s ix m o s t p r o m i s i n g

A m e r i c a n w r i t e r s t o d a y . * The f e e l i n g s and a t t i t u d e s e x p r e s s e d by

Lb S t y r o n t o w a r d a M a r i n e C o r p s l e a d e r , L t . Col . T e m p l e t o n of The Lon<

M a r c h , a r e the con.cern of t h i s s e c t i o n of the s tudy .

The Long M a r c h is t he s t o r y of a r e g i m e n t a l t r a i n i n g e x e r c i s e a t

a M a r i n e C o r p s c a m p in N o r t h C a r o l i n a . The plot r e v o l v e s r . round

t h r e e o f f i c e r s : Lt . Col . T e m p l e t o n is a b a t t a l i o n c o m m a n d i n g o f f i c e r

and a r e g u l a r , o r p r o f e s s i o n a l ; Ca.pt. M a n n i x and L t . Cxilver a r e

r e s e r v i s t s r e c a l l e d to a c t i v e duty b e c a u s e of the K o r e a n C o n f l i c t .

T h r o u g h C u l v e r the r e a d e r v i e w s the v a s t d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n the

c o l o n e l and the c a p t a i n , t he r e g u l a r and the r e s e r v e . The s t o r y o p e n s

j u s t a f t e r the d e a t h of e ight young m a r i n e s , c a u s e d by a m o r t a r a c c i d e n t ,

and ends a f t e r a t h i r t y - s i x m i l e , t h i r t e e n - h o u r cond i t ion ing h i k e .

1 J a m e s M. E t h r i d g e , e d i t o r , C o n t e m p o r a r y A u t h o r s , V - V I

( D e t r o i t , 1963), 400.

22

T h e L o n g M a r c h i s a s h o r t n o v e l , b u t i t t e l l s m u c h of t he v i e w s

of t h i s a u t h o r t o w a r d l e a d e r s h i p in t h e m i l i t a r y . " T h i s n o v e l l a i s a

c o n t r i b u t i o n to t h e w o r l d of v i o l e n c e a n d i s c o m p a r a b l e i n s c o p e , d e s p i t e

i t s l e n g t h , t o a l m o s t a n y of t h e m o r e a m b i t i o u s l i t e r a r y r e a c t i o n s to

2 W o r l d W a r II o r K o r e a . " D a v i d S t e v e n s o n c a l l s t h e n o v e l " a w e l l -

3 e x e c u t e d p i e c e of d o c u m e n t a r y f i c t i o n in c o n v e n t i o n a l n a r r a t i v e f o r m . "

E u g e n e M c N a m a r a b e l i e v e s t h e b o o k r e f l e c t s t h e t e n o r of ot i r t i m e , t h a t

i t s t o n e i s f r u s t r a t i o n a n d a q u e s t i o n i n g of w a s t e in a s y s t e m of c o n f o r m i t y .

J u s t a s P r e w i t t of F r o m H e r e to E t e r n i t y i s a n a r c h e t y p e of t h e i n d i v i d u a l ,

4

s o L t . C u l v e r of 1'he L o n g M a r c h i s a n a r c h e t y p e of c o n f o r m i t y .

C u l v e r i s t h e n a r r a t o r of t h e s t o r y t o l d in t h e n o v e l ] a , a n d i t i s

t h r o u g h h i s t h o u g h t s t h a t w e j u d g e C a p t . M a n n i x a n d C o l . T e m p l e t o n .

T h e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n t h e t w o o f f i c e r s , M a n n i x a n d T e m p l e Ion, c o m p r i s e s

t h e c e n t r a l t h e m e of t h e s t o r y . A s in o t h e r w o r k s , S t y r o n h e r e p r e s e n t s

a c o m p l e x v i s i o n of m e n d e t a c h e d f r o m a l l t h e i r o ld v a l u e s a n d s e e k i n g

d e s p e r a t e l y t o g i v e t h e i r l i v e s m e a n i n g a n d r e a l i t y . C u l v e r a n d M a n n i x

do n o t b e l i e v e in t h e v a l u e s of T e m p l e t o n , bu t a l l t h e y do s u p p o r t s t h e

2 M e l v i n J . F r i e d m a n , " W i l l i a m S t y r o n : An I n t e r i m A p p r a i s a l , "

T h e E n g l i s h J o u r n a l , L ( M a r c h , 1961) , 155.

3 D a v i d L . S t e v e n s o n , " S t y r o n a n d t h e F i c t i o n of t h e F i f t i e s , "

C r i t i q u e , III ( S u m m e r , I 9 6 0 ) , 58.

4 . E u g e n e M c N a m a r a , " W i l l i a m S t y r o n ' s L o n g M a r c h , " W e s t e r n

H u m a n i t i e s R e v i e w , XV ( S u m m e r , 1961) , 267 .

23

5 C o l o n e l ' s r e a l i t y . T h e C o l o n e l r e p r e s e n t s a s y s t e m of o r d e r a m o n g

c h a o s ; n e v e r f o r c i n g a c t i o n f r o m h i s o f f i c e r s , a t t i m e s a l m o s t p a t e r n a l ,

h e r e p r e s e n t s t h e s t a b l e s o c i a l o r d e r of h i s own f o r m of s o c i e t y , t h e

6

M a r i n e C o r p s . T h e a u t h o r s e e m s to b e l i e v e t h a t t h e r e i s no m e a n i n g

in e x i s t e n c e , on ly b e i n g .

T h a t e x i s t e n c e , in the. c a s e of t h e t w o y o u n g o f f i c e r s , i s a l m o s t

t o t a l l y c o n t r o l l e d by t h e i r l e a d e r , T e m p i e t o n . W h e n T e m p ] e t o n i s t o ld

of t h e m o r t a r a c c i d e n t a n d t h e e i g h t d e a d , t h e r e i s on ly a b r i e f f l i c k e r

of u n e a s i n e s s in h i s e y e s ; t y p i c a l l y he t h e n r e s p o n d s in a r o u t i n e m a n n e r ,

w i t h o u t e x c i t e m e n t . T h e C o l o n e l i s c a l l e d " O l d R o c k y " by t h e t r o o p s ,

a n d a l t h o u g h h e i s no t y e t f o r t y - f i v e , h i s h a i r hay a g r a y s h e e n a n d h i s

t r a n q u i l e y e s s e e m to conta in , t h e w i s d o m of g r e a t a g e . He i s s l e n d e r

a n d w a l k s w i t h a boy i sh , s p r i n g y s t r i d e . Hi s v o i c e i s n e i t h e r h a r s h n o r

p e r e m p t o r y , n o r i s i t g e n t l e ; i t i s s i m p l y a v o i c e w h i c h o b v i o u s l y e x p e c t s

o b e d i e n c e , a n d t h o u g h t h e v o i c e s e l d o m s h o w s h o s t i l i t y o r r e p r o o f , i t

c o m m a n d s a c t i o n . H i s s m i l e i s m y s t i f y i n g , c o n t e m p l a t i v e a n d b r i e f ,

b u t n e v e r c o m p l a c e n t o r u n f r i e n d l y . C u l v e r s a y s of t h e C o l o n e l , " H e ' s

j u s t a r e g u l a r . . . . A b i t off h i s nu t , l i k e a l l of t h e m . " 7

5 Shaun C ' C o n n e l l , " T h e V i s i o n of W i l l i a m S ty ro r i , " C r i t i q u e ,

VII I ( W i n t e r , 1 9 6 5 - 6 6 ) , 33.

6 P e t e r L . H a y s , " T h e N a t u r e of R e b e l l i o n in T h e L o n g M a r c h , "

C r i t i q u e , VIII ( W i n t e r , 1 9 6 5 - 6 6 ) , 73 .

7 W i l l i a m S t y r o n , The L o n g M a r c h (New Y o r k , 1952) , p. 34.

24

L t . C u l v e r i s a l m o s t t h i r t y ; h e f e e l s o ld , a n d h e i s a £ r a \ d of w a r .

He h a d s e r v e d on O k i n a w a d u r i n g t h e S e c o n d W o r l d W a r , a n d had j u s t

b e e n r e c a l l e d to a c t i v e d u t y . C u l v e r i s by t r a d e a New Y o r k L a w y e r ;

h e h a s a w i f e a n d c h i l d , a n d h e l i k e s c l a s s i c a l m u s i c . W h e n h e t h i n k s

of t h e t h i r t y - s i x m i l e h i k e , h i s f e a r i s no t of t h e h i k e i t s e l f , b u t of

d r o p p i n g ou t . T h i s p r i d e in p h y s i c a l a c h i e v e m e n t , a n d s u b s e q u e n t f e a r

of f a i l u r e , i s i n g r a i n e d in e v e r y m a r i n e , C u l v e r w a s b o r n in to a c e n t u r y

of c o n f o r m i s t s a n d f e e l s t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l r e b e l l i o n of h i s f r i e n d M a n n ix

i s h o p e l e s s ,

C a p t . M a n n i x i s a b i t t e r , r e c k l e s s m a n . He d e s p i s e s e v e r y t h i n g

a b o u t t h e M a r i n e C o r p s , I , t . C o l . T e m p l e t o n in p a r t i c u l a r . He h a t e s

T e m p l e t o n b e c a u s e he i s a r e g u l a r a n d a c o l o n e l , a n d t h u s h a s a b s o l u t e

a u t h o r i t y o v e r M a n n i x . D u r i n g t h e h i k e , M a n n i x b e c o m e s a l m o s t u n b a l -

a n c e d in h i s f u r i o u s h a t r e d of T e m p l e t o n . B u t C u l v e r s e n s e s t h a t M a n n i x ,

t o o , d o u b t s t h e s e n s e of h i s i n d i v i d u a l r e b e l l i o n . T h e C o l o n e l i s t h e v e r y

e p i t o m e of t h e s y s t e m ; f o r t h e b a t t a l i o n of r e s e r v i s t s , he i s t h e M a r i n e

C o r p s in one b o d y .

T h e r e a r e m o m e n t s w h e n C u l v e r a l m o s t l i k e s t h e C o l o n e l , no t in

a n a f f e c t i o n a t e m a n n e r , b u t in t h e s p i r i t of r e s p e c t . T h e s e a r e t h e t i rn t : s

w h e n t h e I.jie uten<uit e s p e c i a l l y n o t e s t h e h o n e s t y arid f a i r n e s s of t he o l d e r

m a n . He a d m i r e s t h e l a c k of a n y t h i n g e v i l o r u n j u s t , t h e h i d d e n e m o t i o n s ,

t h e d e s i r e t o be t h o u g h t t o u g h , b u t f a i r . C u l v e r d o u b t s t h e C o l o n e l a t

25

t i m e s , b u t h e a l w a y s k n o w s t h a t T e r n p l e t o n w i l l n o t a s k m o r e of h i s

m e n t h a n h e w i l l g i v e of h i m s e l f . E v e n m i d w a y t h r o u g h t h e l o n g m a r c h ,

C u l v e r o b s e r v e s t h e m a r k e d d i f f e r e n c e in t h e b e d r a g g l e d t r o o p s a n d

j u n i o r o f f i c e r s a n d t h e j a u n t y a p p e a r a n c e of t h e C o l o n e l . H i s n e a t n e w

b o o t s arid d u n g a r e e s a n d t h e a f f e c t a t i o n of t h e p e a r l - h a n d l e d p i s t o l on

h i s h i p , a r e , l i k e t h e t e n d e r a i r of a u t h o r i t y , a l l p a r t of t h e l e a d e r ' s

i m a g e . T h e n o n c h a l a n t m a n n e r a n d s t u d i e d c a s u a l n e s s , l i k e a n a t h l e t e ' s

a r e p a r t of t h e s a m e i m a g e , bu t n o n e of i t i s r e a l l y o f f e n s i v e to t h e

L i e u t e n a n t .

S t y r o n , t h r o u g h C u l v e r , s e e m s to b e l i e v e t h a t t h e r e i s no h a r m

in a n a c t w h i c h p l e a s e s t h e C o l o n e l ' s v a n i t y a n d d o e s h i s m e n no h a r m ,

b u t r a t h e r s e e m s to a d d to t h e i r p r i d e in t h e i r l e a d e r . A n d no o n e c a n

d e n y t h a t t h e y h a v e c a u s e f o r p r i d e . A f t e r t h e m o r t a r a c c i d e n t ,

T e r n p l e t o n g r o w s a l i t t l e m o r e t a u t , b u t m o v e s w i t h t y p i c a l b r i s k

e f f i c i e n c y to do w h a t h e c a n to h e l p . D u r i n g t h e h i k e h e l e a d s t h e

8

b a t t a l i o n w i t h a " s l i n k y - h i p p e d , a t h l e t i c s t r i d e . " It i s t h e w a l k of a

t r a i n e d h i k e r , f a s t , d e t e r m i n e d , a n d u n h e s i t a n t . S e e i n g h i m a t t h e

h e a d of t h e c o l u m n , c a l m a n d u n w i n d e d , C u l v e r t h i n k s of h i m a s a n

O l y m p i a n . He i s i m p e r s o n a l , n e i t h e r good n o r e v i l , b u t a l s o no t v e r y

h u m a n , ^

8 I b i d . , p . 73 .

9 J e r r y H. B r y a n t , " T h e H o p e f u l S t o i c i s m of W i l l i a m S t y r o n , . "

Sou th A t l a n t i c Q u a r t e r l y , L X I I ( A u t u m n , 1963) , 546.

26

It is d u r i n g the t o r m e n t of the long h ike t h a t T e m p l e t o n and MannLx

c l a s h , and in t h e i r d i s a g r e e m e n t the s t a n d a r d s of T e m p l e t o n , the p r o f e s -

s i o n a l l e a d e r , s t a n d out in s h a r p c o n t r a s t to the a t t i t u d e s of the r e b e l l i o u s

r e s e r v e c a p t a i n . M a n n i x is o p p o s e d to the f o r c e d m a r c h in the beg inn ing ,

con t end ing t h a t it is too d i f f i c u l t f o r the m e n of the b a t t a l i o n , h i m s e l f

i n c l u d e d . M a n n i x i s doub t fu l t ha t t he Colone l wi l l h ike wi th h i s t r o o p s ,

bu t the C a p t a i n is d e t e r m i n e d to h ike a l l the way , wi th h i s c o m p a n y

i n t ac t , s i m p l y to s p i t e the Co lone l . M a n n i x f e e l s t h a t T e m p l e t o n h a s

c a l l e d f o r the h ike only to add to h i s own g l o r y , to m a k e a n a m e f o r h i m -

s e l f . As the h ike p r o g r e s s e s , a na i l in M a n n i x ' s boot b e g i n s to r u b h i s

h e e l , un t i l soon he i s l i m p i n g wi th p a i n a s well a s pan t ing wi th e x e r t i o n .

Col . T e m p l e t o n , s e e i n g M a n n i x ' s i n f l a m e d h e e l w h e n the b a t t a l i o n s t o p s

to r e s t , r e c o m m e n d s t h a t Cap t , M a n n i x r i d e to c a m p on the t r u c k

p r o v i d e d f o r t h o s e who canno t f i n i s h the m a r c h . M a n n i x m a k e s a c u r t

r e p l y and c o n t i n u e s to l i m p a long and b e r a t e h i s m e n to k e e p t h e m

m a r c h i n g .

N e a r the end of the m a r c h Mann ix i s i n c o h e r e n t wi th p a i n and

f a t i g u e , and the Co lone l o r d e r s h i m to go in on the t r u c k . M a n n i x

a c c u s e s the Co lone l of not wa lk ing a l l t he way and r e f u s e s to obey the

o r d e r . The a c c u s a t i o n is u n t r u e ; T e m p l e t o n had w a l k e d an h o u r o r so

a t the end of the c o l u m n . E v e n though h i s ank le i s s w o l l e n and he c a n -

no t touch the h e e l to the g r o u n d , M a n n i x c u r s e s the Co lone l and i n s i s t s

27

on w a l k i n g . Col . T e m p l e t o n coo l ly i n f o r m s Cap t . Mann ix tha t he wi l l

be con f ined to q u a r t e r s and wi l l r e c e i v e a c o u r t - m a r t i a l a f t e r the h i k e .

F i n a l l y T e m p l e t o n , by th i s t i m e shak ing wi th w r a t h , but s t i l l s p e a k i n g

qu i e t l y , t e l l s t h e C a p t a i n to k e e p h i s m o u t h shu t and ge t b a c k to h i s

c o m p a n y .

L t . C u l v e r ' s r e a c t i o n to the h a r s h m a r c h , a s w e l l a s to M a n n i x ' s

s e n s e l e s s a n g e r and T e m p l e t o n ' s i n s i s t e n t r e s p o n s e , is one of d i s b e l i e f ,

h a t r e d , and f i n a l l y n u m b r e s i g n a t i o n . As C u l v e r s t u m b l e s a long ,

e x h a u s t e d , he f e e l s " t h a t he k n e w of no one on e a r t h he had e v e r l o a t h e d 1 0

so m u c h b e f o r e . " But he d o e s no t h a t e T e m p l e t o n , the w i s e and

a l m o s t e n d e a r i n g m a n ; he d e s p i s e s the Colone l , t he m a r i n e . C u l v e r

t h i n k s the s e r g e a n t who a d m i r e s and r e s p e c t s the c r e a t o r of s u c h a

wi ld and l u n a t i c p u n i s h m e n t v e r y s tup id , but he a l s o w e a r i l y w o n d e r s if

t he s e r g e a n t cou ld be r i g h t and h i m s e l f and Mann ix w r o n g . When

C u l v e r h e a r s t ha t t he m e n wi l l be f o r c e d to w a l k the l a s t s i x m i l e s

w i thou t a b r e a k - - t h e Co lone l had w e a r i l y g r i n n e d and s a i d t h a t w i th

a n o t h e r b r e a k t h e y would n e v e r ge t t he t r o o p s off t he g r o u n d - - h e t h inks

t h e i dea a n o t h e r s e n s e l e s s p i e c e of s a d i s m . But l a t e r he r e a s o n s t h a t

it w a s a good i d e a ; the Co lone l d o e s know h i s m e n a.f ter a l l .

C u l v e r w a t c h e s the a r g u m e n t b e t w e e n T e m p l e t o n and Mann ix and

w o n d e r s why the Cap ta in canno t u n d e r s t a n d tha t t he Co lone l d o e s not

10 S ty ron , The Long M a r c h , p. 89.

28

c a r e abou t M a n n i x ' s op in ion of the m a r c h . To T e m p l e t o n the h ike h a s

no th ing to do wi th c o u r a g e o r s a c r i f i c e o r s u f f e r i n g ; i t is only a t a s k to

be p e r f o r m e d . At the end of t h e m a r c h the L i e u t e n a n t t h i n k s t h a t the

Co lone l h a s had h i s m a r c h and h i s v i c t o r y , bu t C u l v e r w o n d e r s why he

s t i l l c anno t h a t e the m a n . He d e c i d e s p e r h a p s i i is b e c a u s e T e m p l e t o n

i s a d i f f e r e n t k ind of m a n , d i f f e r e n t enough to be h a r d l y a m a n a t a l l ,

bu t j u s t a q u a n t i t y of a t t i t u d e s r e m o t e f r o m C u l v e r ' s w o r l d .

And T e m p l e t o n i s d i f f e r e n t , f o r S t y r o n h a s g iven h i m the a t t i t u d e s

and v a l u e s c o n s i s t e n t w i th h i s s y s t e m . T e m p l e t o n d o e s not , a s a

M a r i n e C o r p s l e a d e r n e v e r shou ld , b e t r a y w e a k n e s s o r any s i gn t h a t

t he sys t em, is w r o n g . In t h e end C u l v e r c h o o s e s the Co lone l o v e r

M a n n i x b e c a u s e he m u s t , no t t h a t e i t h e r m a n is good o r ev i l , but t h a t

Mann ix is o b s o l e t e . S t y r o n is s a y i n g t h a t m a n m u s t e n d u r e the m i s e r i e s

of ou r t i m e . T e m p l e t o n h a s a l r e a d y a c c e p t e d the s y s t e m and l e a r n e d

e n d u r a n c e ; M a n n i x s u f f e r s b e c a u s e he s t r u g g l e s a g a i n s t t he s y s t e m ,

q u e s t i o n i n g and r e b e l l i o u s . E n d u r a n c e of T e m p l e t o n ' s s o r t is b a s e d on

i n n o c e n c e , f a i t h , and s i m p l i c i t y ; i t i s s t o i c in n a t u r e . B r y a n t , in

d i s c u s s i n g T e m p l e t o n and o ty ron*s l e s s o n on e n d u r a n c e , q u o t e s t h e

R o m a n s t o i c p h i l o s o p h e r , S e n e c a :

He who, o p p r e s s e d by s o r r o w s n u m b e r l e s s And d r i v e n f r o m h i s r e a l m , w i th u n b e n t n e c k

M c N a m a r a , " W i l l i a m S t y r o n ' s Long M a r c h , " p- 269.

29

C a r r i e s h i s b u r d e n s , no t d e g e n e r a t e Or c o n q u e r e d , who s t a n d s f i r m beneat l^ jpie we igh t , Of a l l h i s b u r d e n s , he is g r e a t i ndeed .

M c N a m a r a m a k e s r e f e r e n c e to t h e r e l i g i o u s c o n n o t a t i o n s of

S t y r o n ' s w o r k , ca l l i ng Mann ix b a s i c and u n c o n v e r t e d and T e m p l e t o n

t h e p r i e s t of a n e w r e l i g i o n . He c o n s i d e r s the m a r c h a r i t u a l , and the

m a r i n e s a s o r t of m o n a s t i c o r d e r u n i t e d in devo t ion to the M a r i n e

C o r p s . P e a c e in t h i s s y s t e m is to be found only in o b e d i e n c e ; r e b e l l i o n

is d e s t r u c t i o n . The s e r v i c e of p r o f e s s i o n a l s o l d i e r s t h e n b e c o m e s a

13

, f m e t a t h e o l o g y , f of ou r t i m e .

Indeed S t y r o n ' s w o r d s a r e o f t e n t h o s e of the c h u r c h , and the

s i n c e r i t y of T e m p l e t o n f i t t i ng to a r e l i g i o u s l e a d e r , t he r e l i g i o n be ing

the m i l i t a r y . T e m p l e t o n is s a id to h a v e a b e m u s e d , u n s h a k a b l e look

? , l ike c e r t a i n young e c c l e s i a s t i c s . M He i s s a i d once to r e t u r n to n t h a t

devou t , o r d e r e d s t a t e of c o m m u n i o n w h i c h the C a p t a i n ' s w o r d s had e v e r

so b r i e f l y d i s t u r b e d . n In m e n l i ke T e m p l e t o n a l l e m o t i o n s a r e s a i d to

e m a n a t e " f r o m a p r i e s t l i k e , r e l i g i o u s f e r v o r . ,f The Co lone l i s c a l l e d

" d e v o u t but i n c l i n e d t o w a r d m e r c y . M C u l v e r d e s c r i b e s T e m p l e t o n a s

look ing ;

s t i l l no t so m u c h the s o l d i e r but t he p r i e s t in w h o m p a s s i o n and f a i t h had m a d e a n a l loy , a t l a s t , of on ly

12 S e n e c a , T h y e s t e s , V, i i , 5 - 1 2 , c i t e d in B r y a n t , p. 539.

13 M c N a m a r a , " W i l l i a m S t y r o n l s Long M a r c h , M p. 29

30

the p u r e s t good i n t e n t i o n s ; above m e a n n e s s o r s p i t e , he w a s l e a d i n g a m a r c h to s o m e h u m o r l e s s s a l v a t i o n .

Mann ix , w h e n he d e f i e s the Co lone l in i m p a s s i o n e d f u r y , is c a l l e d

14

"no l o n g e r a s i m p l e d o u b t e r bu t the h e r e t i c . "

S ty ron d e p i c t s two o f f i c e r s , two l e a d e r s , w o r k i n g w i t h i n a m i l i t a r y

s y s t e m . Cap t . Mann ix , a c i v i l i a n a t h e a r t , is open ly c o n t e m p t u o u s of

the s y s t e m and s e r v e s a t f i r s t only b e c a u s e he is o r d e r e d . L a t e r he

c o n t i n u e s out of a n g r y sp i t e , and f o o l i s h p r i d e . He is s e e n b e r a t i n g

h i s m e n f o r f a l l i ng out of the m a r c h and c l i m b i n g on the t r u c k . He

c u r s e s h i s c o m p a n y and h i s co lone l , and s h o u t s a t h i s m e n whi l e

d e m e a n i n g the t a s k t hey a r e g iven . Col . T e m p l e t o n , the p r o f e s s i o n a l ,

i s p i c t u r e d a s p e r s o n a l l y l i k a b l e , s t e a d f a s t in h i s d e v o t i o n to h i s duty

a s he v i e w s it , e x p e c t i n g and r e c e i v i n g o b e d i e n c e and r e s p e c t . Al though

s o m e w h a t v a i n in p e r s o n a l a p p e a r a n c e , h i s only c o n c e r n s e e m s to be

the job a t hand . He p r o b a b l y d i s l i k e s Mann ix p e r s o n a l l y , but o r d e r s

h i m on the t r u c k w h e n the C a p t a i n i s p h y s i c a l l y d i s a b l e d . The Co lone l

is qu ie t , a loo f , and e f f e c t i v e . He l e a d s by e x a m p l e , i s a d m i r e d in

s p i t e of the u n p o p u l a r i t y of h i s o r d e r s , and even w h e n p r o v o k e d d o e s

not b e c o m e e x c i t e d . If t h e s e two m e n r e p r e s e n t t h e e x t r e m e s of l e a d e r -

sh ip , t h e r e is r o o m f o r m a n y t y p e s b e t w e e n the two.

14 S ty ron , The L o n g M a r c h , pp . 18, 29, 30, 87, 109.

31

J o h n A l d r i d g e r e f e r s to The Long M a r c h a s "one of t h e two o r

15

t h r e e d i s t i n g u i s h e d n o v e l e t t e s of the l a s t t h i r t y y e a r s . " If The Long

M a r c h is d i s t i n g u i s h e d , it i s b e c a u s e of t h e i m a g e and c h a r a c t e r of

Col . T e m p l e t o n . " T h e a t h l e t i c , d a n d y i s h , and m c v i e - l i k e Co lone l

T e m p l e t o n " is d r a w n a s an i m p a r t i a l , s t e r n f a t h e r f i g u r e . He is t he

c o r r e c t s o l d i e r , the r i g h t e o u s but c o r r e c t p r i e s t , the a p o s t l e of M a r i n e

16 C o r p s ideo logy . S t y r o n m a y be the m o s t m a t u r e and t a l e n t e d m e m b e r

of t h e g r o u p of new w r i t e r s of the f i f t i e s , f o r he s e e s the ind iv idua l

t r a p p e d in p r e d i c a m e n t s w h e r e p e r s o n a l i n s u r r e c t i o n t e n d s to w o r s e n

17

the s i t u a t i o n . The a u t h o r v o i c e s a p l e a f o r c o n f o r m i t y in showing

Mann ix s u f f e r i n g in h i s s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t t he s y s t e m ; such c o n f o r m i t y to

a s y s t e m would a p p e a l to m a n y in th i s d e c a d e .

L e o n U r i s

L e o n U r i s , b o r n in B a l t i m o r e in 1924, soon m o v e d to P h i l a d e l p h i a ,

f r o m wh ich c i t y he jo ined the M a r i n e C o r p s a t s e v e n t e e n . He s e r v e d in

the M a r i n e C o r p s f r o m 1942 t h r o u g h 1945, and w r o t e h i s f i r s t novel ,

B a t t l e C r y , abou t the m a r i n e s . His only f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n beyond h igh

s c h o o l w a s r e c e i v e d d u r i n g a s h o r t p e r i o d of s tudy a t B a l t i m o r e Ci ty

15 , John W. A l d r i d g e , In S e a r c h of H e r e s y (New York , 1956), p . 59.

16 M a x w e l l G e i s m a r , A m e r i c a n M o d e r n s (New York , 1958),

pp . 2 4 7 - 2 4 9 .

17 Ibid. , p . 250.

32

18 C o l l e g e . U r i s s a y s of h i m s e l f t h a t h e h a s b e e n a " w o r k i n g s t i f f " a l l

19 h i s l i f e . A f t e r t h e w a r U r i s , a n e x - p f c . , m a r r i e d a n e x - w o m a n

m a r i n e s e r g e a n t a n d l i v e d in Sati F r a n c i s c o , w o r k i n g a s a n e w s p a p e r

20

c i r c u l a t i o n m a n a g e r . He h a s c o n t i n u e d t o l i v e in C a l i f o r n i a , b u t n o w

h e t r a v e l s , r e a d s , a n d d o e s r e s e a r c h f o r h i s b o o k s .

It h a s b e e n m e n t i o n e d t h a t t h e W o r l d W a r I w r i t e r s , s u c h a s

H e m i n g w a y a n d F a u l k n e r , h a t e d w a r , bu t n o t t h e o f f i c e r s a n d m e n w h o

f o u g h t . M a n y of t h e W o r l d W a r II w r i t e r s h a t e w a r a n d t h e s e r v i c e , b u t

U r i s i s no t one of t h e s e . He i s no t a n g r y , a n d h e l o v e s t h e M a r i n e C o r p s

21 a n d i t s o f f i c e r s . B a t t l e C r y i s s a i d to b e t h e m o s t i n t i m a t e a n d

22

a c c u r a t e a c c o u n t of t h e w a y m a r i n e s t r a i n e d a n d f o u g h t .

T h e p r i m a r y l e a d e r of B a t t l e C r y i s M a j . S a m H u x l e y , a b a t t a l i o n

c o m m a n d e r . M i l l e r s a y s of H u x l e y , " H e i s a m a r i n e f i r s t a n d a h u m a n

b e i n g s e c o n d , a n d M r . U r i s h a s m a d e h i m c o n s i d e r a b l y l a r g e r t h a n bu t

a l s o p a r t of l i f e . He i s h a r d a n d h e i s h a r s h a n d h e d i s c o u r a g e s i n t i m a c y . "

18 E t h r i d g e , C o n t e m p o r a r y A u t h o r s , I, 2 3 8 - 2 3 9 .

19 E a r l e F . W a l b r i d g e , " L e o n U r i s , " W i l s o n L i b r a r y B u l l e t i n ,

XXXIV ( D e c e m b e r , 1959) , 252 .

20 M e r l e M i l l e r , " T h e B a c k d r o p i s V i c t o r y , " S a t u r d a y R e v i e w ,

X X X V I ( A p r i l 25, 1953) , 17. ~

21 Ib id . , p . 16.

22 W a l b r i d g e , " L e o n U r i s , " X X X I V , 2 5 2 .

33

T h e c r i t i c e n d s by s a y i n g , "Leon U r i s k n o w s t h a t H u x l e y i s t h e k i n d of

23

m a n who w i n s w a r s . n So M a j . H u x l e y j o i n s L»t. Col . T e m p l e ton a s a

l e a d e r who i s d r a w n to s u p e r h u m a n p r o p o r t i o n s , two m e n e q u a l , o r a t

l e a s t n e a r l y e q u a l , to t h e h i g h i d e a l s of J o h n P a u l J o n e s .

B a t t l e C r y is t h e s t o r y of a m a r i n e b a t t a l i o n c o m m u n i c a t i o n s

s q u a d in t r a i n i n g in C a l i f o r n i a a n d in c o m b a t in t h e P a c i f i c . It i s

p r i n c i p a l l y n a r r a t e d by a m a r i n e m a s t e r s e r g e a n t who i s t h e c o m m u n i -

c a t i o n s s q u a d l e a d e r a n d u s u a l l y s e e n a s one of t h e b o y s . T h e b a t t a l i o n

c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f f i c e r i s W a r r a n t O f f i c e r K e a t s , who i s a l s o s e e n m o r e

a s a n o t h e r m e m b e r of t h e s q u a d t h a n a s a l e a d e r . T h e p lo t f o l l o w s t h e

young e n l i s t e d m e m b e r s of t h e s q u a d t h r o u g h t h e r i g o r s of t r a i n i n g to t h e

p l e a s u r e s of l e a v e in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d New Z e a l a n d . Bu t the a t t i t u d e s

a n d a c t i o n s of M a j . H u x l e y a r e of m a j o r i m p o r t a n c e in t h i s s t u d y , a s he

i s s e e n by t h e s q u a d a n d t h e a u t h o r .

M a c , t h e m a s t e r s e r g e a n t , d e s c r i b e s H u x l e y a s a , ! he l l of a good

m a n . n M a c s a y s of H u x l e y ;

An A n n a p o l i s g r a d u a t e a n d f o r m e r A l l - A m e r i c a n e n d a t Ohio S t a t e , h e w a s t o u g h e r t h a n a cob . He hung a l e a n r a w b o n e d h u n d r e d a n d n i n e t y - f i v e p o u n d s on a t o w e r i n g s i x - f o o t - t h r e e f r a m e . He s o r t of k e p t a n a r r o g a n t d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e e n l i s t e d m e n ; n e v e r t h e l e s s we c o u l d n r t h e l p bu t r e s p e c t h i m . No m a t t e r how he d r o v e h i s m e n , you w o u l ^ a l w a y s f i nd o ld H i g h p o c k e t s a t t he h e a d of t h e c o l u m n .

23 M i l l e r , " T h e B a c k d r o p i s V i c t o r y , n p . 16

24 L e o n U r i s , B a t t l e C r y (New Y o r k , 1953), p . 4 .

34

Hux ley t e l l s h i s p r o f e s s i o n a l s , the N. C. O. 1 s , t ha t the g r e e n t r o o p s a r e

v o l u n t e e r s , l i ke t h e m , and he n e e d s the o l d t i m e r s ! h e l p in m a k i n g r e a l

m a r i n e s of t h e m . He s ly ly i n t i m a t e s t h a t the n e w young o f f i c e r s wi l l

a l s o n e e d he lp . The C. O. s p e a k s to h i s f e l l o w p r o f e s s i o n a l l e a d e r s , t he

r e g u l a r N. C. O. ' s , in such a f l a t t e r i n g and c o n s p i r a t o r i a l m a n n e r t ha t

he e a s i l y w ins t h e i r l o y a l t y and r e s p e c t f u l c o o p e r a t i o n , to s u p p o r t t he

o b e d i e n c e he a s s u m e s .

Dur ing t r a i n i n g in C a l i f o r n i a , w h e n M r . K e a t s , t h e c o m m u n i c a t o r ,

c o m p l a i n s of h i s old e q u i p m e n t , Hux ley v e r y qu i ck ly i n f o r m s K e a t s t h a t

a l l m a r i n e c o m b a t g e a r is old, but the M a r i n e C o r p s h a s a l w a y s m a n a g e d

to h a v e one h u n d r e d p e r cen t e f f i c i e n c y out of the g e a r b e c a u s e of the

d e v e l o p m e n t and t r a i n i n g the m e n r e c e i v e f r o m t h e i r l e a d e r s . The

M a j o r ' s i n t en t i s m a d e c l e a r and the c o n v e r s a t i o n ends w h e n Hux ley

s a y s to K e a t s , f ,You a r e the c o m m u n i c a t i o n s o f f i c e r - - s t a r t c o m m u n i -

25

ea t i ng J f !

The m e n of the b a t t a l i o n ca l l t h e m s e l v e s n H u x l e y ! s Hiking W h o r e s "

b e c a u s e t h e i r C. O. f i r m l y b e l i e v e s in h ik ing . He f e e l s t h a t h i s m e n c a n

s e r v e b e t t e r and l ive l o n g e r if t h e y a r e in e x c e l l e n t p h y s i c a l cond i t ion ,

and cond i t ion ing is r e a c h e d t h r o u g h long h i k e s . The m e n c a n r e a d

H u x l e y f s f i e r c e g l a r e when a n e x h a u s t e d m a n t a i l s to f i n i s h a h i k e . Th i s

a t t i t u d e of Hux ley / s i s in c o n t r a s t to t ha t of S ty ron 5 s Lt . Col . T e m p l e t o n ,

25 I b i d . , p. 123,

35

who p r o v i d e d t r u c k s f o r the s t r a g g l e r s and o r d e r e d a c a p t a i n wi th arx

i n j u r e d h e e l to get a b o a r d a t r u c k . M a c knows Huxley i s th ink ing t h a t

t h e r e i s no p l a c e in the M a r i n e C o r p s f o r s t r a g g l e r s . E v e n cooks and

b a k e r s h ike , f o r a l l a r e m a r i n e s and bound to l ive up to the s t r i n g e n t

p h y s i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t s of b a t t l e , and S a m Huxley .

M a j . H u x l e y ' s a t t i t u d e t o w a r d h i s t r o o p s i s d i s p l a y e d in a c o n v e r -

s a t i o n b e t w e e n the m a j o r and an a r m y g e n e r a l c o m m a n d i n g a l l the f o r c e s

in one a r e a of the P a c i f i c . The g e n e r a l h a s ou t l i ned h i s p lan f o r u s i n g a

c o m b i n e d f o r c e of a r m y and m a r i n e u n i t s to s w e e p a n i s l a n d and c l e a r

out the r e m a i n i n g e n e m y s c a t t e r e d o v e r t he i s l a n d . In a tone tha t is

j u s t b a r e l y r e s p e c t f u l , Hux ley r e q u e s t s t h a t the m a r i n e s be he ld f o r a

l a t e r o p e r a t i o n and no t be u s e d in the r o u t i n e l a b o r of c l e a n i n g up p o c k e t s

of J a p a n e s e . Huxley w a n t s the m a r i n e u n i t s to be u s e d only a s a s s a u l t

t r o o p s ; he w a n t s h i s b a t t a l i o n to l e a d an a t t a c k on a b e a c h h e a d . |His

r e a s o n i n g is t ha t the m a r i n e s a r e b e t t e r t r a i n e d and m o r e c a p a b l e t h a n

the s o l d i e r s , and wi l l be w a s t e d in the m o p p i n g - u p o p e r a t i o n be ing

p l a n n e d . The g e n e r a l d e n i e s the r e q u e s t , o f f e n d e d t h a t Hux ley t h i n k s

h i s m a r i n e s b e t t e r f i g h t e r s , but t h a n k f u l to have t h e s e s a m e m a r i n e s

d e f e n d i n g the f l a n k .

In the o p e r a t i o n i t s e l f , M a j . Huxley d i s p l a y s h i s d e d i c a t i o n to

duty , and to h i s m e n , in h i s e v e r y a c t i o n . He is s e e n s t a n d i n g on top

of a s l o p e , e x p o s e d to e n e m y f i r e , in o r d e r t ha t he m i g h t b e t t e r d i r e c t

h i s m e n . He v e h e m e n t l y s c o l d s a j u n i o r o f f i c e r f o r r i d i n g in a j e e p and

f o r c i n g the m e n to w a l k and c a r r y t h e r a d i o which had b e e n in the l i e u -

t e n a n t ' s s e a t . L a t e r , in p r i v a t e , Hux ley a n g r i l y d e f l a t e s the l i e u t e n a n t

and b lun t ly t e l l s h i m t h a t he i s a w o r t h l e s s o f f i c e r , p r e t e n t i o u s , e g o t i s -

t i c a l , and t o t a l l y wi thou t the f igh t ing s p i r i t n e c e s s a r y f o r h i s job . M a j .

Hux ley knowing ly d i s c u s s e s the i n t e l l i g e n c e and e d u c a t i o n of h i s e n l i s t e d

m e n and i n f o r m s L t . B r y c e tha t any m a n in the uni t is s u p e r i o r to B r y c e .

The M a j o r d i s c u s s e s the p r i d e the M a r i n e C o r p s h a s in i t s o f f i c e r s and

b i t t e r l y i n f o r m s B r y c e t h a t he ho lds h i s r a n k only b e c a u s e of the l o w e r e d

q u a l i f i c a t i o n s b r o u g h t on by the w a r t i m e s i t u a t i o n . The L i e u t e n a n t l e a v e s

t h e i n t e r v i e w a v e r y unhappy m a n .

When the o p e r a t i o n e n d s , t he m e n of the b a t t a l i o n th ink v e r y h igh ly

of S a m Huxley . But wi th the f igh t ing o v e r , Hux ley a g a i n r e t u r n s the un i t

to a s t a t e of f u l l m i l i t a r y d i s c i p l i n e . T h e y b e g i n to t a k e long h i k e s in the

s c o r c h i n g sun , and e v e r y m a n t a k e s the p u n i s h m e n t by ca l l i ng on r e s e r v e

s t r e n g t h b r o u g h t on by a n g e r a t t h e C. O. and a d e t e r m i n a t i o n not to f a l l

a s long a s the M a j o r i s s t i l l m a r c h i n g .

B a c k in New Z e a l a n d to p r e p a r e f o r a n o t h e r p h a s e of the b a t t l e ,

t h e un i t r e s u m e s t r a i n i n g e x e r c i s e s . Hux ley is p r o m o t e d to l i e u t e n a n t

c o l o n e l and c o n t i n u e s to p u s h h i s un i t to be the b e s t in e v e r y t h i n g . He

a l s o m a i n t a i n s h i s c a r e f o r t h e m and h i s p r i d e in t h e i r p e r f o r m a n c e .

When a r a d i o o p e r a t o r a l m o s t f a l l s off a l and ing ne t into the w a t e r , i t is

37

Huxley , wi th M a c ' s he lp , who r a c e s down t h e n e t to c a t c h the boy and

t a k e the h e a v y r a d i o off h i s b a c k . When the boy l a t e r b e g i n s to s h a k e

wi th a bad c a s e of n e r v e s , Col . Hux ley s e n d s h i m to s i c k b a y f o r a

doub le sho t of m e d i c i n a l b r a n d y . When t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s s q u a d

b e g i n s to s t e a l t e l e p h o n e w i r e , b e c a u s e t h e r e is none to be had by

o f f i c i a l m e a n s , and to s end f r i v o l o u s m e s s a g e s o v e r the r a d i o n e t s in

an e f f o r t to r e l i e v e b o r e d o m , Huxley c a l l s in Gunne r K e a t s , t he c o m m u -

n i c a t i o n s o f f i c e r . The Co lone l t e l l s K e a t s to w a r n h i s m e n to s top the

p l ay ing and to p u n i s h t h e m . He a l s o t e l l s K e a t s to r a n t a n d r a v e , bu t

no t to p u n i s h t h e m s e v e r e l y , s i n c e t h e y a r e doing a n e x c e l l e n t job .

Dur ing the r e s t and r e c u p e r a t i o n p e r i o d in New Z e a l a n d , one of

t h e e n l i s t e d m e n in t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s s q u a d f a l l s in l ove wi th a l o c a l

g i r l . At a un i t p a r t y Col . Hux ley m a k e s it a poin t to m e e t t h e g i r l , P a t ,

and d a n c e wi th h e r , t e l l i n g h e r t h a t t he h a p p i n e s s of e v e r y one of h i s

m e n c o n c e r n s h i m . The g i r l c h i d e s h i m wi th a t o a s t " to t h a t h a r d -

h e a r t e d b r u t e wi th a h e a r t of p u r e gold , " and Hux ley r e m a r k s t h a t he

s u p p o s e s the m e n h a t e h i m a t t i m e s , a s he s o m e t i m e s h a t e s h i m s e l f .

P a t r e p l i e s , " I t i s n ' t too h a r d w h e n t h e y c a n s e e t h e i r s k i p p e r a t the

26

h e a d of the c o l u m n . . . . T h e y m u s t be f i t o r t h e y ' l l d i e . 11 Huxley ,

t h e l o n e l y m a n , t hen t a l k s to h e r of h i s w i f e . When the m a r i n e wan t ing

to m a r r y t h i s g i r l s p e a k s to the c h a p l a i n abou t p r o c e s s i n g the m a r r i a g e

26 Ibid. , p. 315.

38

r e q u e s t , he f i n d s t h a t Col, Hux ley h a s a l r e a d y s e n t a no t e to t he c h a p l a i n

a p p r o v i n g the m a r r i a g e and a s k i n g f o r c o o p e r a t i o n in cu t t ing the r e d t a p e

i nvo lved . The c h a p l a i n , G u n n e r K e a t s , and Col . Hux ley w e r e a l l a t t he

wedd ing , and the n e w l y w e d s a s k p e r m i s s i o n to n a m e the f i r s t boy a f t e r

Hux ley .

St i l l t h e cond i t ion ing h i k e s con t i nue , on ly t h e y b e c o m e l o n g e r and

f a s t e r . A l though the m e n w a n t to qu i t , t h e y k e e p up wi th the r a p i d p a c e

b e c a u s e the C. O. s t a y s ; he knows t h e i r a n g e r a t h i m wi l l k e e p t h e m

m o v i n g , and m a r c h i n g w i l l b e n e f i t t h e m in c o m b a t . A f t e r a p a r t i c u l a r l y

d i f f i c u l t h ike , w h e n the m e n . a r e t o t a l l y e x h a u s t e d , Hux ley p r o p o s e s

t h a t t he un i t m a r c h b a c k to c a m p i m m e d i a t e l y , a t an e v e n f a s t e r p a c e .

The b a t t a l i o n d o c t o r , who h a s m a r c h e d wi th t he m e n , l i m p s in to t he

c o m m a n d t e n t and a n g r i l y w a r n s the C. O. t h a t the t o r t u r e s e s s i o n m u s t

end o r the e n t i r e un i t w i l l be h o s p i t a l i z e d .

Hux ley f i r m l y t e l l s D r . K y s e r t h a t if he canno t t a k e t h e t ough

h i k e , t h e n he shou ld l e a v e the b a t t a l i o n . The Co lone l i n t e n d s to d r i v e

h i m s e l f and h i s m e n un t i l t h e y a r e the b e s t ou t f i t in t h e M a r i n e C o r p s .

He w a n t s no one to d ie in b a t t l e b e c a u s e he i s w e a k , and though the C. O.

d o e s not even l ike h i m s e l f f o r t r e a t i n g the t r o o p s in s u c h a m a n n e r , he

f e e l s it is h i s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to t h e m . The d o c t o r f i n a l l y u n d e r s t a n d s

and s a y s , " T h a n k God the m a r i n e s a r e f i l l e d w i th c r a z y o f f i c e r s l ike

27 you . M a y b e we would n e v e r m a k e it o t h e r w i s e . n The m e n m a k e the

27 Ibid. , p . 344.

39

f i n a l m a r c h in v i c i o u s a n g e r , hoping only to b r i n g Huxley down. The

Co lone l knows tha t only such a p a s s i o n a t e r a g e wi l l b r i n g t h e m up to

t h e t a s k . When the b a t t a l i o n m a r c h e s into c a m p , h e a d s up and s ing ing ,

t h e y a r e g r a n t e d i m m e d i a t e t h r e e - d a y l e a v e s . Huxley i s c o n g r a t u l a t e d

f o r the r e m a r k a b l e f e a t of h i s m e n , and t h e n u p b r a i d e d f o r g r a n t i n g the

t r o o p s l e a v e w h e n t h e y a r e s c h e d u l e d to s t and g u a r d duty .

Aga in and a g a i n U r i s d e p i c t s Hux ley s u p p o r t i n g h i s m e n in o r d e r

t h a t t hey m i g h t be m o r e e f f i c i e n t . His c o n c e r n f o r the i nd iv idua l is r e a l ,

but b e n e a t h it is t he idea t h a t duty c o m e s f i r s t , and happy m e n do b e t t e r

w o r k . The C. O. t u r n s h i s h e a d to a l l o w a s e r g e a n t to l e a v e the sh ip

and s e a r c h f o r a m a n who h a s f a i l ed to r e t u r n f r o m s h o r e l e a v e ; he

e x p o s e s h i m s e l f to c a l l in c o v e r i n g f i r e f o r t r o o p s a s s a u l t i n g a b e a c h ;

he c r o s s e s a s t r e a m a h e a d of h i s m e n , into e n e m y t e r r i t o r y , so t h a t

he m a y d i r e c t t he a c t i o n of the t r o o p s a s t h e y a r r i v e on the s c e n e .

D u r i n g one b a t t l e a r i f l e m a n is k i l l e d and the Co lone l m o u r n s t h e d e a t h

of t h i s one wh i l e m a i n t a i n i n g c o n c e r n f o r the o t h e r e igh t h u n d r e d m e n

in h i s c o m m a n d . In a d d i t i o n to c a r i n g f o r the m e n and knowing t h e m

p e r s o n a l l y . Col . Huxley h a s the i n t e l l i g e n c e and i n s igh t to u t i l i z e t h e m

to t h e b e s t a d v a n t a g e . He r e c e i v e s a new o f f i c e r , who h a s a r e p u t a t i o n

f o r be ing wi ld and i n d e p e n d e n t , l e c t u r e s h i m on m i l i t a r y d i s c i p l i n e and

o f f e r s to f i gh t h i m if n e c e s s a r y , and then g i v e s h i m the r e s p o n s i b l e p o s t

40

of c o m p a n y c o m m a n d e r . F u r t h e r , Hux ley a s s i g n s the w e a k l i e u t e n a n t

to h i m a s e x e c u t i v e o f f i c e r .

P e r h a p s the h e r o i c s s e e m t r i t e ; m a y b e S a m Huxley a p p e a r s to be

u n r e a l , not h u m a n , but s u c h a t t i t u d e s a r e r e q u i r e d if a m a n i s to l e a d

o t h e r m e n to i m p e n d i n g d e a t h . His d e v o t i o n to h i s m i s s i o n and the m e n

who a r e to a c c o m p l i s h t h a t m i s s i o n c a u s e h i m to r e f u s e to v i s i t h i s w i fe

w h e n she w r i t e s s ay ing she w i l l be in H a w a i i w h e n the b a t t a l i o n r e t u r n s

t h e r e f o r r e f i t t i n g . The Co lone l r e p l i e s t h a t he canno t a l l ow h i m s e l f

to s e e h i s w i f e w h e n h i s m e n c a n n o t v i s i t t h e i r l o v e d o n e s . He d e n i e s

h i m s e l f and h i s w i f e h a p p i n e s s , in o r d e r t h a t he no t c a u s e h i s t r o o p s

u n h a p p i n e s s .

Once m o r e , in Hawa i i , Hux ley a s k s a g e n e r a l to u s e h i s b a t t a l i o n

f o r a n a s s a u l t job . Th i s t i m e the g e n e r a l , t he m a r i n e d i v i s i o n c o m m a n d e r ,

g r a n t s the r e q u e s t , knowing t h a t m a n y of H u x l e y ' s m e n wi l l d ie a s t h e y

f i gh t to t a k e an i s l a n d , and p r o v e t h e i r w o r t h . The G e n e r a l t e l l s Hux ley

why he i s g r a n t i n g the r e q u e s t by s a y i n g , "I t is c r a z y b a s t a r d s l i ke you

t h a t m a k e the M a r i n e C o r p s . " G e n e r a l Sn ipes ends the i n t e r v i e w wi th

t h i s c o m m e n t . " S a m , I s o m e t i m e s t h ink m y s e l f i t ' s a h e l l of a way to

28 m a k e a l iv ing . "

S a m Huxley l o s e s a l eg in t ha t t i na l a t t a c k . He g o e s m o m e n t a r i l y

b e s e r k d u r i n g the a s s a u l t on the b e a c h w h e n h i s o r d e r l y i s k i l l e d . Then

28^ . , Ibid. , p. 450.

41

h e q u i c k l y r e g a i n s c o n t r o l a n d b e g i n s d i r e c t i n g t h e a d v a n c e of h i s m e n .

An a r t i l l e r y r o u n d h i t s h i s p o s i t i o n , a n d t h e C o l o n e l t i e s a t o u r n i q u e t

on t h e b l e e d i n g s t u m p of h i s l e g w h i l e o r d e r i n g M. Sgt . M a c , a t g u n p o i n t ,

t o l e a v e h i m a n d go on w i t h t h e a s s a u l t . L e o n U r i s , in a c l o s i n g s t a t e -

m e n t a t t h e e n d of t h e b o o k , s t a t e s t h a t h e w a s o n l y a P f c . , a n d t h e

o f f i c e r s a r e t h e r e f o r e d r a w n f r o m h i s i m a g i n a t i o n , t h o u g h h i s a d m i r a t i o n

a n d r e s p e c t f o r M a r i n e C o r p s o f f i c e r s i s t a k e n f r o m l i f e . It i s e a s y to

d e t e c t t h i s r e s p e c t , a n d U r i s ' i d e a s of w h a t a l e a d e r s h o u l d b e a r e

c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e p r e c e p t s of l e a d e r s h i p a d v o c a t e d by o t h e r l e a d e r s .

U r i s 1 r e s p e c t f o r o f f i c e r s i s t y p i c a l of m a n y a u t h o r s w h o w r i t e

a b o u t t h e M a r i n e C o r p s . E d w a r d A a r o n s , w h o h a s w r i t t e n a l i t t l e -

k n o w n s t o r y of m a r i n e s in t h e P a c i f i c t i t l e d H e l l t o E t e r n i t y , p i c t u r e s

•29

m a r i n e l e a d e r s m u c h l i k e S t y r o n ' s T e m p l e t o n a n d U r i s ' H u x l e y .

M. Sg t . B i l l H a z e n a n d C a p t . S c h w a b e a r e a l s o a t h l e t i c , u n d e r s t a n d i n g

m e n , w h o l o v e t h e i r m e n a n d t h e i r f a m i l i e s . T h e y a r e f i g h t i n g l e a d e r s ,

w i t h a f l a i r f o r h e r o i c s , a n d t h e y l e a d by e x a m p l e , w h i l e i n s t i l l i n g a

s p i r i t of p r i d e in t h e i r t r o o p s .

U r i s h a s w r i t t e n f o u r o t h e r w a r n o v e l s , n o n e of w h i c h c o n c e r n

t h e M a r i n e C o r p s . T o p a z c a n e a s i l y b e c o n s i d e r e d a n o v e l of c o n t e m -

p o r a r y h i s t o r y , b e i n g t h e s t o r y of a R u s s i a n d e f e c t o r w h o i s g i v e n r e f u g e

29 E d w a r d S. A a r o n s , H e l l t o E t e r n i t y ( G r e e n w i c h , C o n n . , I 9 6 0 ) .

42

by t h e U. S. g o v e r n m e n t . He r e v e a l s s e c u r i t y l e a k s in t h e NATO

o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d t h e F r e n c h g o v e r n m e n t . P a r t of the a c t i o n c e n t e r s

30

on the m i s s l e c r i s i s p r e c i p i t a t e d by R u s s i a m Cuba . It i s no t

s t r i c t l y a m i l i t a r y nove l , and no l e a d e r s a r e e m p h a s i z e d . The A n g r y

H i l l s t r e a t s c i v i l i a n s s t r u g g l i n g a g a i n s t the G e r m a n s in G r e e c e j u s t

p r i o r to the Second W o r l d W a r . T h i s n o v e l a l s o l a c k s a n e m p h a s i s on

m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s .

" A r m a g e d d o n " i s a s t o r y of a r m y o c c u p a t i o n f o r c e s in G e r m a n y

a f t e r t h e w a r . The nove l h a d i t s s t a r t in G r e e c e w h e n U r i s w a s working 31

on a s c r e e n p l a y , and a d i r e c t o r took h i m to v i s i t B e r l i n . The p r o t a g -

o n i s t of the book i s C a p t . Sean O ' S u l l i v a n . He i s an A m e r i c a n A r m y

o f f i c e r who f i r s t l o v e s an E n g l i s h w a r widow, t h e n h i s j o b , and f i n a l l y

a G e r m a n g i r l . He i s t w e n t y - e i g h t , a n d he w o r k e d h i s w a y t h r o u g h

c o l l e g e a s a p r i z e f i g h t e r . The p lo t b e g i n s a s the w a r i s ending;

O ' S u l l i v a n i s b i t t e r b e c a u s e h e h a s no t a c t u a l l y fough t , a n d d i ed , a s

h a v e two b r o t h e r s , and h e d o e s no t h a v e the devo t ion to t h e j o b tha t h i s

g e n e r a l h a s . But the g e n e r a l g i v e s h i m the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of be ing

m i l i t a r y g o v e r n o r of a l a r g e G e r m a n c i ty , a n d h i s s e n s e of duty b e g i n s

to g r o w .

30 L e o n U r i s , " T o p a z , " L o o k , XXXI ( S e p t e m b e r 19, 1967), 3 6 - 4 0 ,

a n d 5 3 - 5 6 .

31 L e o n U r i s , " A r m a g e d d o n , " L o o k , XXVII (Apr i l 20, 1963), 39.

43

The C a p t a i n s e l e c t s the t e a m m e m b e r s who wi l l h e l p h i m g o v e r n

the town, He i s a s h r e w d judge of c h a r a c t e r and c h o o s e s w e l l . He

d i s p l a y s a n g e r when he f o r c e s G e r m a n c i t i z e n s to w a l k t h r o u g h a

l i b e r a t e d c o n c e n t r a t i o n c a m p , and c o m p a s s i o n and u n d e r s t a n d i n g w h e n

d e a l i n g wi th r e l e a s e d p r i s o n e r s and the h u m a n f o i b l e s of h i s own s t a f f .

O ' S u l l i v a n ' s s e n s e of j u s t i c e i s s e e n in h i s d e c i s i o n to h a v e G e r m a n

c r i m i n a l s j udged by f e l l o w G e r m a n s , and in the p r o f e s s i o n a l r i s k he

t a k e s in not p r o s e c u t i n g a w o m a n when the p r o s e c u t i o n would be u n f a i r ,

a l t hough i t i s c a l l e d f o r by O l Su l l i van 1 s s u p e r i o r s . In a l l h i s d e a l i n g s

wi th the G e r m a n p e o p l e he i s s t e r n , f a i r , and s t u d i o u s . He knows t h e m

and t h e i r c u l t u r e b e t t e r t han t h e y know t h e m s e l v e s .

I n s p i r e d by the f e r v o r of h i s g e n e r a l f o r the job to be done f o r

f r e e d o m , and by the p a t r i o t i s m of h i s p a r e n t s , O ' S u l l i v a n r e m a i n s in

the A r m y by cho i ce and g o e s on to B e r l i n . E n t e r i n g B e r l i n , h i s convoy

i s s t o p p e d by R u s s i a n s o l d i e r s . He d i s p l a y s a c a l m s k i l l a t d i p l o m a c y

t h a t b l u f f s t h e R u s s i a n s and. w i n s h i m a d m i r a t i o n f r o m h i s own m e n .

The now M a j o r O f S u l l i v a n c o n t i n u e s to g a r n e r r e s p e c t a s he w o r k s and

d r i n k s wi th o f f i c e r s of m a n y n a t i o n s , i nc lud ing a R u s s i a n c o l o n e l who

t r u s t s h i m above a l l o t h e r s . O1 Su l l ivan i s p r o m o t e d to l i e u t e n a n t

co lone l , and p r o v e s to be a m a n who w o r k s w e l l u n d e r s t r e s s and is

equa l to any a s s i g n m e n t .

44 .

In h i s d i s c u s s i o n of the p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r the B e r l i n A i r l i f t , U r i s

c o m m e n t s in d e t a i l on the A m e r i c a n o f f i c e r s and N. C. O. ' s who a c c o m -

p l i s h so m o n u m e n t a l a t a s k a s supp ly ing an e n t i r e c i ty wi th a l l i t s n e e d s

by a i r . Al l of t h e s e l e a d e r s a r e d r a w n a s un i t ed in a f e v e r i s h be l i e f in

the m i s s i o n and t h e i r own a b i l i t y to p e r f o r m the m i r a c l e s e x p e c t e d of

t h e m , a s t h e y a r e shown to be a l i ke in b e i n g b r i l l i a n t , i nven t i ve , and

p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d a t a l l t i m e s wi th ge t t i ng the job done . Lt . Col .

O ' S u l l i v a n is one of t h e s e l e a d e r s , one who h a s an a d d i t i o n a l o b s t a c l e .

He l o v e s a g i r l w h o s e f a t h e r i s a w a r c r i m i n a l . He n e g l e c t s h i s s w o r n

du ty to p r o t e c t h i s love , but f i n a l l y h i s s e n s e of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y is too

s t r o n g , and he g i v e s in to du ty . T h r o u g h h i s c o n v e r s a t i o n s b e t w e e n

c h a r a c t e r s who a r e l e a d e r s , U r i s p o i n t s out t h a t m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s , of

a l l n a t i o n s , a r e m e n who love t h e i r c o u n t r y , who a r e i n t e l l i g e n t enough

to s e l e c t t he b e s t p o s s i b l e m e n to do the n e c e s s a r y t a s k s , and who

32 p o s s e s s a h igh and i d e a l i s t i c s e n s e of v a l u e s .

C r i t i c a l c o m m e n t on U r i s ' Mi l a 18 i s b r i e f and d i s p a r a g i n g . O n e

c r i t i c c a l l e d U r i s "a g i f t e d w r i t e r of h a r d - c o r e t r a s h " a f t e r r e a d i n g the

n o v e l , and sa id , "He h a s f o r the f i r s t t i m e b r o u g h t off genu ine t r a s h

33 abou t the J e w s . " The book i s v e r y s i m i l a r in p lo t , if not in f o r m , to

32 L e o n U r i s , A r m a g e d d o n (New York , 1963), pp . 650, 661.

33 Midge D e c t e r , " P o p u l a r J e w s , " C o m m e n t a r y , XXXII (Oc tobe r

1961), 358, 360.

45

t h e e a r l i e r n o v e l of John H e r s e y , The Wal l , w h i c h a l s o d e a l s w i th the

J e w i s h ghe t to in W a r s a w d u r i n g W o r l d W a r II.

The h e r o of Mi la 18 i s a J e w , of c o u r s e , but h e h a s an u n u s u a l

o c c u p a t i o n . A n d r e i A n d r o f s k i i s an o f f i c e r in the P o l i s h a r m y b e f o r e

the G e r m a n s m o v e into P o l a n d . He i s a l s o a c t i v e a s an o r g a n i z e r f o r

a g r o u p w o r k i n g t o w a r d t h e r e d e m p t i o n of P a l e s t i n e . A n d r e i i s t w e n t y -

s ix j u s t p r i o r to t he falJ of P o l a n d and h a s d r e a m e d a l l h i s young l i f e

of be ing a s o l d i e r , a n d h e b e c o m e s a r o m a n t i c of f icer , , A t h l e t i c ,

c o m p e t i n g in the O l y m p i c s a s a h o r s e m a n , h a n d s o m e , a n d w o r s h i p p e d

by h i s t r o o p e r s , he i s t he e p i t o m e of the h e r o i c l e a d e r . He i s a l s o

i m p u l s i v e a n d h e a d s t r o n g , but t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e m a d e a l m o s t

a p p e a l i n g by U r i s . E v e n a f t e r be ing con f ined in the g h e t t o , A n d r e i

f r e t s to jo in the P o l i s h H o m e A r m y , w h e r e he can f i g h t a s a c o m m a n d e r .

When t h w a r t e d in h i s p e r s o n a l d e s i r e s , A n d r e i t e n d s to b e c o m e a n g r y

a n d m o r o s e .

A f t e r y e a r s of s u f f e r i n g beh ind the ghe t t o w a l l , the young c a v a l r y

o f f i c e r s t i l l f e e l s h i m s e l f a s o l d i e r in a s m a l l w a y , a n d h e s e r v e s h i s

c a u s e , w h e n not su lk ing , u n s e l f i s h l y . N e a r t h e end of the w a r , w h e n

the J e w s b e g i n to h i d e f r o m the G e r m a n s and f i gh t b a c k , A n d r e i f i n d s

t ha t he p o s s e s s e s t h e q u i e t c o u r a g e of a c o m m o n s o l d i e r , a s w e l l a s

t he b r a v a d o of one who l e a d s c a v a l r y c h a r g e s . He c o m e s to f e e l t ha t

l i f e is an e n d l e s s w a r , w h i c h no one can e v e r win; a l l he c a n a s k of

46

l i f e is " to c h o o s e a b a t t l e . . . m a k e the b e s t you can , and l e a v e the

3 4

f i e l d wi th h o n o r . " In t h e end of the s t o r y , t he f igh t w i th in the ghe t to

i s c o n d u c t e d by the J e w s f r o m t h e i r c o m m a n d b u n k e r u n d e r Mi la 18.

A n d r e i i n s p i r e s and c a l m s t h e J e w s and i s c o n s i d e r e d a " w o r k h o r s e , "

a " n o n p a r e i l w a r r i o r . " His w r a t h a n d f i gh t ing s p i r i t a t the end of the

b a t t l e s e r v e to give h i m an a l m o s t m y s t i c p o w e r o v e r h i s f i g h t e r s .

And thus ends a n o t h e r U r i s nove l , d o m i n a t e d by a h e r o of s u p e r h u m a n

s t a t u r e , s u f f e r i n g , bu t a l w a y s m a i n t a i n i n g h i s h o n o r .

The M a r i n e C o r p s is in m a n y w a y s a un ique o r g a n i z a t i o n , t h e

s m a l l e s t and m o s t t i g h t l y - k n i t g r o u p of the f o u r r e g u l a r b r a n c h e s of

the a r m e d f o r c e s . M a r i n e s h a v e a p r o u d h i s t o r y and a long t r a d i t i o n

of e x e m p l a r y s e r v i c e . Hav ing b e e n " the f i r s t to f i g h t " f o r n e a r l y two

c e n t u r i e s , m e m b e r s of the M a r i n e C o r p s s e r v e God, c o u n t r y , and

C o r p s in s u c h a m a n n e r a s to m a i n t a i n the h o n o r of t h e i r t r a d i t i o n .

The p r i d e of s e r v i c e w h i c h is f o s t e r e d by the h igh e s p r i t de c o r p s of

t h e M a r i n e C o r p s i s r e f l e c t e d in the F i r s t W o r l d War n o v e l by W i l l i a m

M a r c h , C o m p a n y K. Th i s s a m e s p i r i t is s e e n in U r i s ' s t o r y of m a r i n e s

in W o r l d War II and S t y r o n ' s n o v e l e t t e a b o u t m a r i n e t r a i n i n g d u r i n g the

K o r e a n C o n f l i c t .

The M a r i n e C o r p s b a s e s i t s r e c o r d of s e r v i c e and t r a d i t i o n of

un i ty on i t s e m p h a s i s on l e a d e r s h i p . E v e r y M a r i n e C o r p s o f f i c e r ,

34 L e o n U r i s , Mil a 18 (New Y o r k , 1961), p. 4-29.

47

whethe r he be pi lot , l awye r , o r company c o m m a n d e r , u n d e r g o e s the

s a m e t r a in ing as a comba t i n f an t ry c o m m a n d e r . E a c h m a r i n e N. C. O. ,

whe the r cook, t echn ic ian , o r squad l e a d e r , e x p e r i e n c e s t r a in ing as a

comba t unit l e a d e r . A s p i r i t of conf idence and an e m p h a s i s on s u p e r i o r

l e a d e r s h i p is b a s i c in the t r a in ing of a l l m a r i n e s , o f f i c e r and en l i s t ed .

The Mar ine Corps mot to , S e m p e r F i d e l i s , a lways fa i th fu l , imp l i e s the

loyal ty and t r u s t expl ic i t in e v e r y m a r i n e l e a d e r . T h e s e qua l i t i e s a r e

wel l dep ic ted in the o f f i c e r s of both Styron and Ur i s .

C H A P T E R III

J O N E S , M A I L E R , A N D SHAW

T h e a u t h o r s of w a r n o v e l s c o n c e r n i n g t h e a r m y i n c l u d e t h r e e of

t h e m o s t p u b l i c i z e d w r i t e r s of t h e f o r t i e s a n d f i f t i e s . T h e s e t h r e e

w r i t e r s , J a m e s J o n e s , N o r m a n M a i l e r , a n d I r w i n Shaw, h a v e m u c h in

c o m m o n . T h e y w e r e a l l in t h e A r m y d u r i n g t h e S e c o n d W o r l d W a r ;

t h e y a l l w r o t e n o v e l s a b o u t s o l d i e r s i n t h a t w a r , a n d t h e i r w a r n o v e l s

w e r e a l l f i r s t n o v e l s a n d a t l e a s t p a r t i a l l y a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l . A l l t h r e e

m e n h a v e w r i t t e n on o t h e r t o p i c s . J o n e s i s t h e o n l y one who h a s w r i t t e n

m o r e t h a n o n e w a r n o v e l . M a i l e r h a s b e c o m e l a r g e l y a s o c i a l c r i t i c ,

and Shaw h a s c o n t i n u e d to w r i t e p l a y s , s h o r t s t o r i e s , a n d m o v i e s c r i p t s ,

a s h e d id b e f o r e t h e w a r . J a m e s J o n e s , in h i s f i r s t n o v e l , F r o m H e r e

to E t e r n i t y , s e e s t h e A r m y a n d i t s l e a d e r s m u c h m o r e a c c u r a t e l y t h a n

t h e o t h e r t w o , a n d t h e ch i e f c o n c e r n of t h i s c h a p t e r w i l l b e w i t h J o n e s .

J a m e s J o n e s

J a m e s J o n e s w a s b o r n in R o b i n s o n , I l l i n o i s , in 1921. T h e s e c o n d

of t h r e e c h i l d r e n , h e g r e w up u n d e r t h e s h a d o w of a n o l d e r b r o t h e r .

1 J a m e s M, E t h r i d g e , e d i t o r , C o n t e m p o r a r y A u t h o r s , II ( D e t r o i t ,

1963), 85.

48

49

Since t h e r e w a s no m o n e y f o r co l l ege when he f i n i s h e d h igh s c h o o l , he

j o i n e d the A r m y in 1939. J o n e s w a s s t a t i o n e d in H a w a i i , f i r s t s e r v i n g

2

wi th t h e A i r C o r p s a n d t h e n t r a n s f e r r i n g to the i n f a n t r y . H e con t inued

to f i g h t a s a w e l t e r - w e i g h t in the A r m y , a s he h a d in t he h igh s c h o o l

d i v i s i o n of the Go lden Gloves in I l l i n o i s . When t h e w a r s t a r t e d , J o n e s saw

c o m b a t w i th t he A r m y un i t wh ich r e l i e v e d the m a r i n e s a t G u a d a l c a n a l ; h e

w a s w o u n d e d a n d d i s c h a r g e d f r o m the A r m y in 1944, a s a s e r g e a n t . H i s

f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n b e y o n d h igh s choo l w a s c o m p o s e d of s h o r t p e r i o d s of

s t udy at the U n i v e r s i t y of H a w a i i and at New York U n i v e r s i t y . He took

a n E n g l i s h c o u r s e in H a w a i i and qui t NYU a f t e r t h r e e m o n t h s .

J o n e s s t u d i e d and w r o t e u n d e r the t u t e l a g e of M r s . L o w n e y Handy

a t h e r h o m e in M a r s h a l l , I l l i n o i s , and on the b e a c h in F l o r i d a . He s a y s

s h e t a u g h t h i m a l l he knows; she and h e r h u s b a n d did s u p p o r t h i m w h i l e

he w r o t e F r o m H e r e to E t e r n i t y , a n d she f o r c e d a s t y l e of d i s c i p l i n e on

h i m by h a v i n g h i m copy H e m i n g w a y , T h o m a s Wol fe , a n d o t h e r s f o r

s e v e r a l h o u r s e a c h day . In l a t e r y e a r s J o n e s g a v e a p o r t i o n of h i s

e a r n i n g s to M r s . H a n d y ' s w r i t e r ' s co lony , and f o r a t i m e he w o r k e d

t h e r e , w h e r e young a s p i r i n g v / r i t e r s l i v e d a m o n a s t i c l i f e wi th J o n e s

the p r i e s t and M r s . Handy the m o t h e r s u p e r i o r .

B e f o r e l e a v i n g the A r m y J o n e s w e n t A. W. O. L* f r o m the h o s p i t a l ,

s t a y e d d r u n k f o r d a y s , and w a s g e n e r a l l y v e r y r e b e l l i o u s . With t h e

A. B. C. Whipple, " J a m e s J o n e s and His A n g e l , fl L i f e , XXX ( M a y ? , 1951), 142. "

50

H a n d y s 1 g u i d a n c e he b e g a n w o r k on a nove l . He f i n i s h e d the f i r s t book ,

w o r k e d on a f i s h i n g boa t in F l o r i d a w h i l e r e w r i t i n g i t , a n d then t r i e d to

s e l l i t . The f i r s t book did not s e l l , but a p u b l i s h e r gave J o n e s the i d e a

f o r F r o m H e r e to E t e r n i t y , wh ich of c o u r s e p r o v e d to be h i s beg inn ing

a s a n o v e l i s t . The t i t l e f o r t h i s nove l i s t a k e n f r o m R u d y a r d Kip l ing

v i a t he Yale f , Whiffenpoof Song. n The " g e n t l e m e n r a n k e r s " of the song ,

m e n t i o n e d f i r s t by Kip l ing , w e r e the y o u n g e r s o n s of B r i t i s h n o b l e m e n

3

s e n t to the A r m y to be f o r g o t t e n . J o n e s c o n s i d e r e d h i m s e l f such a

son , a n d he w e n t to H a w a i i w i t h t h e A r m y , to s o l d i e r , drin^c, a n d box,

but not to be a b u g l e r a s P r e w i t t i s . Dav id R a y f i n d s h i n t s of Dos P a s s o s , S tendha l , J o y c e , H e m i n g w a y ,

4 and M a i l e r in J o n e s r nove l . C o n s i d e r i n g h i s w o r k unde r M r s . Handy ,

t h i s i m i t a t i o n s e e m s n a t u r a l . In a l e t t e r to a c r i t i c J o n e s s a y s t h a t h e

5

i s S l ade , the A i r F o r c e s e n t r y , in the nove l . But the r e a d e r s e e s m u c h

of J o n e s 1 own r e b e l l i o n in the t h e m e of the c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n i nd iv idua l

and i n s t i t u t i o n e x p r e s s e d by P v t . P r e w i t t . C a l l e d the b e s t s i n g l e nove l

3 Ibid. , p. 150.

4 David Ray , " M r s . H a n d y r s W r i t i n g Mi l l , n London M a g a z i n e , V

( Ju ly , 1958), 36.

5 L e e A. B u r r e s s , J r . , " J a m e s J o n e s on F o l k l o r e and B a l l a d , "

C o l l e g e E n g l i s h , XXI ( D e c e m b e r , 3959)* 162.

51

6 of i t s p e r i o d and a h e r o i c e p i c nove l , F r o m H e r e to E t e r n i t y h a s b e c o m e

a m o v i e , b e e n t r a n s l a t e d into t e n l a n g u a g e s , and w a s g i v e n the N a t i o n a l

7

Book A w a r d in 1951. C h e s t e r E i s i n g e r s a y s the book i s l e s s t h a n good

but m o r e t h a n c o m p e t e n t . Whi le h e b e l i e v e s the n a t u r a l i s t i c s ty l e i s

i n t e r e s t i n g , E i s i n g e r th inks the c o n t r i b u t i o n and o r i g i n a l i t y of the book

i s m i n i m a l . The c r i t i c c l a s s e s F r o m H e r e to E t e r n i t y a s a r o m a n t i c

s t o r y , m i d w a y b e t w e e n d e s p a i r and a f f i r m a t i o n . The t h e m e i s r e b e l l i o n ;

the a n t i s o c i a l c o m p u l s i o n s of P r e w i t t and W a r d e n a r e r o m a n t i c , bu t t h e 8

a c c e p t a n c e of t h e A r m y by J o n e s and h i s s o l d i e r s i s a f f i r m a t i v e in n a t u r e .

The a m o u n t of c r i t i c a l c o m m e n t on t h i s n o v e l r a n k s i t a s equa l to

The Naked and the D e a d in c a u s i n g a pub l i c o u t c r y on the p a r t of l i t e r a r y

c r i t i c s . F o r tha t r e a s o n J o n e s ' v iew of l e a d e r s h i p i s e s p e c i a l l y n o t e -

w o r t h y . R o b e r t H e a l e y s a y s t h e s t o r y " i s p r o b a b l y the f r a n k e s t and

m o s t b r u t a l s e r i o u s n o v e l in A m e r i c a n f i c t i o n . " 9 John F r e d e r i c k

c r i t i c i z e s the nove l in say ing tha t i t i s "an a e s t h e t i c m o n s t r o s t i t y , a

^Maxwe l l G e i s m a r , A m e r i c a n M o d e r n s (New Y o r k , 1958), p . 225.

7 E t h r i d g e , e d i t o r , C o n t e m p o r a r y A u t h o r s , II , 85.

8 C h e s t e r E . E i s i n g e r , F i c t i o n of the F o r t i e s ( C h i c a g o , 1963),

pp . 21, 26, 41.

9 R o b e r t C. H e a l e y , "A Bunch of D i s p o s s e s s e d , " F i f t y Y e a r s of

t h e A m e r i c a n Novel , e d i t e d by H a r o l d C. G a r d i n e r (New Y o r k , 195J.), p . 263.

52

10 h y b r i d b e t w e e n n a t u r a l i s m a n d s e n t i m e n t a l r o m a n c e . !f A l f r e d K a z i n

w r i t e s , " J a m e s J o n e s w r o t e a r e a l l y e x t r a o r d i n a r y d o c u m e n t a r y n o v e l

11 in F r o m H e r e to E t e r n i t y . 11 L e s l i e F i e d l e r b e l i e v e s t h e n o v e l 1 s

M v a l u e a s l i t e r a t u r e . . . l i e s in i t s r e d e e m i n g f o r t h e i m a g i n a t i o n

12

a s p e c t s of r e g u l a r A r m y l i f e n e v e r b e f o r e e x p l o i t e d . 11

E v e r y c r i t i c s e e m s to h a v e a n o p i n i o n to a i r on t h i s n o v e l ; o n e f e e l s

t h a t s e x a n d o b s c e n i t y in J o n e s a n d M a i l e r m a k e u p a " m u d m y s t i c i s m " 13

w h i c h r e p l a c e s God. A n o t h e r c o m p a r e s J o n e s ' i n d i v i d u a l - v e r s u s - t h e -

s y s t e m c o n f l i c t to t h e s t r u g g l e s b e t w e e n A n t i g o n e a n d C r e o n , a n d s a y s

14

t h a t J o n e s t e l l s b o t h s i d e s e q u a l l y r i g h t . T h e h i g h e s t p r a i s e of J o n e s

c o m e s f r o m R i c h a r d A d a m s , w r i t i n g in C o l l e g e E n g l i s h . He s a y s t h a t

J o n e s u s e d m e t h o d s of " n a t u r a l i s t i c r e a l i s m " and t h a t h i s ( J o n e s ' )

" t e m p e r e d b e l i e f in t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of a n o r g a n i c r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n

10 J o h n T . F r e d e r i c k , " F i c t i o n of W o r l d W a r II, " C o l l e g e E n g l i s h

XVI I ( N o v e m b e r , 1955) , 4 5 5 . " —

A l f r e d K a z i n , " T h e A l o n e G e n e r a t i o n , " H a r p e r 1 s M a g a z i n e , C C X I X ( O c t o b e r , 1959) , 131.

12 L e s l i e A. F i e d l e r , " J a m e s J o n e s 1 D e a d - E n d Young W e r t h e r :

T h e B u m a s A m e r i c a n C u l t u r e H e r o , " C o m m e n t a r y , XII ( S e p t e m b e r , 1951) , 253 .

13 R o b e r t E . F i t c h , " L a M y s t i q u e d e l a M e r d e , " T h e N e w R e p u b l i c ,

C X X X V ( S e p t e m b e r 3, 1956) , 1 7 - 1 8 . " ~

14 B e n W. G r i f f i t h , J r . , " R e a r R a n k R o b i n Hood , J a m e s J o n e s 1

F o i k H e r o , " G e o r g i a . R e v i e w , X ( S p r i n g , 1956) , 41 - 4 5 .

5 3

t h e i n d i v i d u a l a n d s o c i e t y a n d b e t w e e n m a n a n d n a t u r e o f f e r s t h e b e s t

15

h o p e I c a n s e e f o r t h e a r t s in o u r c u l t u r e . 11

R o b e r t E . L e e P r e w i t t i s t h e c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r of F r o m H e r e to

E t e r n i t y , bu t i t i s no t P r e w i t t w h o m t h i s s t u d y w i l l c o n s i d e r . R a t h e r

t h e e m p h a s i s w i l l be o n t h e l e a d e r w h o mois t i n f l u e n c e s P r e w i t t , F i r s t

S e r g e a n t M i l t o n A n t h o n y W a r d e n . Bo th W a r d e n a n d P r e w i t t c a r r y o n

t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l s t r u g g l e s w i t h i n t h e c o m p a n y of C a p t . " D y n a m i t e f r

H o l m e s , b o x i n g c o a c h a n d c o m p a n y c o m m a n d e r ; t h u s H o l m e s , t o o , i s

a l e a d e r w h o s e s t y l e of l e a d e r s h i p w a r r a n t s s c r u t i n y . It i s i n c o n t r a s t

w i t h H o l m e s t h a t W a r d e n i s b e s t s e e n a s a g o o d l e a d e r , a n d i t i s t h e

b a d l e a d e r s h i p of H o l m e s w h i c h c a u s e s m o s t of t h e p r o b l e m s of P r e w i t t .

A l l t h r e e of t h e s e m e n a r e p r o f e s s i o n a l s o l d i e r s , a l l d e v o t e d , e a c h i n

h i s o w n w a y , to t h e i r s e r v i c e i n t h e A r m y .

J o n e s d r a w s a v e r y d a r k p i c t u r e of t h e o f f i c e r c l a s s i n h i s b o o k .

A l l of t h e o f f i c e r s a r e i d e n t i f i e d a s f a l s e ; n o n e of t h e m a r e s h o w n to b e

d e c e n t o r e f f i c i e n t , e x c e p t p e r h a p s L t . R o s s , w h o a l l o w s h i m s e l f t o be

t u t o r e d by F i r s t Sgt . W a r d e n . T h e h a t r e d of t h e o f f i c e r c l a s s i s o v e r d o n e

in F r o m H e r e to E t e r n i t y ? ^ , ! T h e a r i s t o c r a c y a n d m i d d l e c l a s s e s a r e

15 R i c h a r d P . A d a m s , TfA S e c o n d L o o k a t F r o m H e r e to E t e r n i t y , ,f

C o l l e g e E n g l i s h , XVII ( J a n u a r y , 1956) , 210. ~~ ~ ~ "

16 G e i s m a r , A m e r i c a n M o d e r n s , p . 234 .

54

b l e n d e d into the o f f i c e r s , " and no p e r s o n who h a s not b e e n poo r is

though t to be good. The A r m y in the n o v e l s y m b o l i z e s an a b s t r a c t ,

d e h u m a n i z i n g , s o u l - c r u s h i n g i n s t i t u t i o n which s u b j u g a t e s the ind iv idua l

by i m p o s i n g the f e a r of a u t h o r i t y . " T h a t , in f a c t , m a y be s e t down a s

the d o m i n a n t t h e m e of the nove l : t he i n d i v i d u a l ' s s e a r c h f o r i n t e g r i t y

18

and f u l f i l l m e n t , d e s p i t e a l l the o b s t a c l e s p l a c e d in h i s pa th . " C e r t a i n l y

chief a m o n g the m a n y o b s t a c l e s o b s t r u c t i n g the i nd iv idua l s o l d i e r a r e

o f f i c e r s l ike Cap!:. H o l m e s .

H o l m e s i s p i c t u r e d a s the cu lminat ion , of a l l t ha t is ev i l in o f f i c e r s ,

and t h e r e is no good. J o n e s m a k e s i t s e e m a s though a l l l i e u t e n a n t s w i l l

g r o w up to be l ike the Cap ta in , and a l l c o l o n e l s a r e o l d e r , m o r e c o r r u p t ,

m o r e e x p e r i e n c e d v e r s i o n s of H o l m e s . T h i s m a n is g iven no s ing l e

r e d e e m i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c by the a u t h o r . He is va in , a r r o g a n t , and

e g o t i s t i c a l . To c o m p o u n d h i s f a u l t s , he is guid ing h i s son, by a d v i c e

a n d e x a m p l e , to be e x a c t l y l ike h i m , the f a t h e r . He is a s p o r t s e n t h u -

s i a s t , the r e g i m e n t a l boxing c o a c h . It i s q u i c k l y a p p a r e n t t h a t he v /o rks

a t t h i s a d d i t i o n a l duty f u l l - t i m e , a l lowing W a r d e n to r u n the c o m p a n y .

It i s a l s o obv ious tha t H o l m e s a t t e n d s h i s d u t i e s a s boxing c o a c h not out

of a love f o r the g a m e , but s o l e l y to p r o m o t e h i s own s e l f - i n t e r e s t .

17 F i e d l e r , " J a m e s J o n e s ' D e a d - E n d Young W e r t h e r : The B u m a s

A m e r i c a n C u l t u r e H e r o , " p. 252.

1 8

C h a r l e s I. G l i c k s b e r g , " R a c i a l A t t i t u d e s in F r o m H e r e to E t e r n i t y , " P h y l o n , XIV ( F o u r t h Q u a r t e r , 1953), 3 8 4 - 3 8 5 .

55

When, h i s f i g h t e r s win t r o p h i e s , h i s c o l o n e l is happy ; w h e n the co lone l

i s happy , H o l m e s ge t s s p e c i a l p r i v i l e g e s and a b e t t e r c h a n c e f o r

p r o m o t i o n to m a j o r .

With a v e r y r e a l p u r p o s e in m i n d , Cap t . H o l m e s o p e r a t e s h i s

c o m p a n y a s a b a s e f r o m wh ich to ga in e v e r y a d v a n t a g e f o r h i s p r i z e

f i g h t e r s , and t h e r e b y to i m p r o v e h i s own s t a t u s . With the e x c e p t i o n of

W a r d e n , who is n e c e s s a r y to k e e p the un i t f u n c t i o n i n g , e v e r y n o n c o m

in t h e c o m p a n y is a f i g h t e r , o r h a s b e e n a f i g h t e r . In H o l m e s ' c o m p a n y

f a v o r i t i s m is the r u l e ; f a i r p l a y i s t he e x c e p t i o n . When P r e w i t t r e f u s e s

to f igh t , t hus h u r t i n g the t e a m ' s c h a n c e s of winning a n o t h e r t r o p h y , the

w r a t h of a l l t h e c o m p a n y ' s l e a d e r s d e s c e n d s on h i m . Only W a r d e n

s e n s e s the u n f a i r n e s s of the p r e s s u r e . J u s t a s t hey a r e i n t e l l i g e n t only

in the r i n g , so boxing N. C. O. ' s a r e e f f i c i e n t only in h a r a s s i n g the

i nd iv idua l who wi l l not c o o p e r a t e . T h e i r s o l d i e r l y s k i l l s a r e n o n e ;

t h e i r l e a d e r s h i p a b i l i t y is not to be c o n s i d e r e d . Aga in wi th the e x c e p t i o n

of W a r d e n , t h e y a r e e x p e c t e d on ly to p l e a s e Cap t . H o l m e s in o r d e r to

m a k e and k e e p t h e i r r a n k . P l e a s i n g the C a p t a i n is done by be ing a

w inn ing f i g h t e r . In off h o u r s t h e y p l a y at be ing s o l d i e r s .

Cap t . H o l m e s i s u s e l e s s a s a m i l i t a r y l e a d e r ; h i s s e r v i c e to h i s

t r o o p s , h i s un i t , and the A r m y d o e s t h e m h a r m , not good. As a h u s b a n d

and f a t h e r h i s w o r t h is e v e n l e s s . His young son is an e n t h u s i a s t i c

p^-pil> he wi l l fo l low in h i s f a t h e r ' s f o o t s t e p s to b e c o m e a d i s s e r v i c e to

56

h i m s e l f and a b l igh t on h i s s o c i e t y , M r s . H o l m e s , ha t i ng h e r h u s b a n d

a s m u c h l e s s t h a n a m a n and l o s i n g h e r s o n to the evi l i n f l u e n c e of h i s

f a t h e r , r e j e c t s the C a p t a i n a l t o g e t h e r and b e c o m e s the p a r t - t i m e

m i s t r e s s of Sgt. W a r d e n , The i m p l i e d i n s u l t to h e r h u s b a n d , f e l t by

t h e r e a d e r to be d e s e r v e d , i s doub led by t h e f a c t t ha t t h i s m a n the w i f e

l o v e s i s no t only an e n l i s t e d m a n , but a l s o one of h e r husband*s N. C. O. ! s ,

The few t i m e s H o l m e s i s shown in h i s c o m p a n y o f f i c e , h e i s

s e e n b l u s t e r i n g and i n c o m p e t e n t , i n s i s t i n g on h i s own w a y , w h i c h i s to

f a v o r the f i g h t e r s . M o s t of h i s t i m e i s s p e n t in the g y m , a t the b a r , o r *

on the golf c o u r s e . W h e n h e d o e s c o m e in to the c o m p a n y a r e a , i t i n v a r -

i a b l y c a u s e s t r o u b l e . Once P r e w i t t r e b e l s a t u n f a i r t r e a t m e n t a t t h e

h a n d s of an N. C. G. w h o m H o l m e s f a v o r s , a n d H o l m e s o r d e r s c r u e l

p u n i s h m e n t a d m i n i s t e r e d to P r e w i t t ; h e i s u p s e t b e c a u s e P r e w i t t d o e s

n o t b r e a k u n d e r the u n f a i r m a r c h i n g . In t h i s i n c i d e n t , a s in m a n y o t h e r s ,

H o l m e s i s d e c e i v e d by W a r d e n , who a l w a y s a p p e a r s s m a r t e r t h a n the

o f f i c e r . H e r e , a s e l s e w h e r e in t he s t o r y f he i s shown to be h a t e d by

h i s m e n , and e v e n u n a p p r e c i a t e d by t h o s e who h a v e b e n e f i t e d f r o m h i s

s e l f i s h p a t e r n a l i s m .

T h e r e a r e t i m e s w h e n H o l m e s r e a l i z e s w h a t a f a i l u r e he i s . H e

k n o w s he i s d i s l i k e d by a l m o s t e v e r y o n e , but i s n e v e r a b l e to u n d e r s t a n d

w h y . In a p r i v a t e d e b a u c h wi th h i s c o l o n e l and a g e n e r a l , h e l d in the

o f f i c e r ' s c lub a n d - c a t e r e d by the c o l o n e l f s e n l i s t e d o r d e r l y , H o l m e s

57

l i s t e n s a v i d l y to t h e g e n e r a l ' s l e c t u r e on g o v e r n i n g by f e a r . H e c a t e r s

t o t h e g e n e r a l i n t e l l e c t u a l l y , o n l y ha l f u n d e r s t a n d i n g , b u t a l w a y s h o p i n g

t o g a i n f o r h i m s e l f b y b e i n g n i c e to t h e r i g h t p e r s o n . He a g r e e s w h e n

19

G e n . S l a t e r s a y s , " Y o u c a n b r e a k a n y m a n . You a r e a n o f f i c e r , "

e v e n t h o u g h he h a s a l r e a d y b e g u n to s u s p e c t t h a t h e c a n n o t b r e a k

P r e w i t t , a n d h e k n o w s W a r d e n d o e s no t f e a r h i m . F i n a l l y C a p t . H o l m e s

i s p r o m o t e d to m a j o r a n d l e a v e s t h e c o m p a n y . B u t h i s p r o m o t i o n c o m e s

f o r p o l i t i c a l r e a s o n s , n o t b e c a u s e of h i s v a l u e a s a n o f f i c e r a n d l e a d e r .

H o l m e s e x p l a i n s h i s c o d e to W a r d e n in t h e s e w o r d s , " T h e f i r s t t h i n g

a n o f f i c e r h a s t o l e a r n i s to b e a b l e t o s w i t c h h o r s e s o f t e n a n d in m i d -20

s t r e a m w i t h o u t g e t t i n g h i s f e e t w e t . " T h u s H o l m e s , t h e o f f i c e r ,

r i d e s t h e c r e s t of p o l i t i c a l e x p e d i e n c y to p r o m o t i o n , l a c k i n g o n l y m a n -

h o o d , h o n o r , p r i d e , a n d p e r s o n a l i n t e g r i t y to b e a r e a l l e a d e r .

J o n e s p l a c e s F i r s t S e r g e a n t M i l t W a r d e n h a l f w a y b e t w e e n t h e

t h i n k e r s , o f f i c e r s , a n d t h e d o e r s , e n l i s t e d m e n , a n d g i v e s h i m t h e b e s t

a t t r i b u t e s of b o t h c l a s s e s . He t o o , l i k e P r e w i t t , i s a t y p e of f o l k h e r o , 21

a n i n d i v i d u a l f i g h t i n g a n a g e of r e g i m e n t a t i o n . B u t W a r d e n h a s a

c o n c e p t i o n of h i m s e l f a n d h i s p l a c e w h i c h P r e w i t t l a c k s ; h e r e b e l s a g a i n s t 19

J a m e s J o n e s , F r e m H e r e t o E t e r n i t y (New Y o r k , 1951) , p . 335 .

Ib id . , p . 601 . 21

G r i f f i t h , " R e a r R a n k R o b i n Hood , J a m e s J o n e s ' F o l k H e r o , " p . 46 .

58

the m i d d l e c l a s s by t ak ing H o l m e s ' w i f e and by r e f u s i n g to b e c o m e an

22

o f f i c e r , but he d o e s noth ing tha t e n d a n g e r s h i s p o s i t i o n . W a r d e n

f e e l s t ha t to be an o f f i c e r one m u s t not u n d e r s t a n d m e n , bu t h e m u s t

s e e the A r m y a s a m a c h i n e . W a r d e n w a n t s the A r m y to be a n o r g a n i -23

z a t i o n in w h i c h a f r e e indiv idual c a n f u n c t i o n p r o d u c t i v e l y .

F i r s t S e r g e a n t Mi l t W a r d e n h a s e v e r y t h i n g , He h a s e a r n e d h i s

r a n k by h i s n a t i v e i n t e l l i g e n c e ; he k e e p s the s t r i p e s w i th a n e f f i c i e n t

p r o f e s s i o n a l c o m p e t e n c e . W a r d e n e n j o y s the b e s t of two v / o r l d s : h e i s

f r e e f r o m the i n d i v i d u a l s u b j u g a t i o n of the n o n - r a t e d e n l i s t e d m e n , and

h e i s equa l ly f r e e f r o m the p o l i t i c a l m a n i p u l a t i o n s of t h e o f f i c e r c l a s s .

He w e a r s the b e s t c l o t h e s , d r i n k s the b e s t l i q u o r , and s l e e p s wi th a

lady; t h e r e f o r e , the o f f i c e r s m i g h t envy h i m . He i s i n d e p e n d e n t and

i m p o r t a n t and d o e s w h a t he p l e a s e s w i t h Cap t . H o l m e s and o t h e r o f f i c e r s

b e c a u s e h e k n o w s h i s job and d o e s it w e l l , and they d e p e n d on h i m .

T h i s m a k e s h i m t h e envy of the t r o o p s . He g a m b l e s w i th h i s m e n on

p a y d a y and s t a y s in the b e s t h o t e l s w h e n on l e a v e . The w h o l e w o r l d i s

h i s . He s i n c e r e l y c a r e s f o r h i s c o m p a n y , h a s p r i d e in a job w e l l done ,

and p o s s e s s e s the s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e n e c e s s a r y to i n s p i r e o b e d i e n c e in t he m e n

a n d r e s p e c t f r o m the o f f i c e r s . He k n o w s the s a t i s f a c t i o n of a m a n f u l -

f i l l e d .

E i s i n g e r , F i c t i o n of the F o r t i e s , p . 43.

23 A d a m s , f fA Second Look a t ."From H e r e to E t e r n i t y , 11 p .

2 0 6 - 2 0 7 . . ~

59

P r e w i t t r e s p e c t s W a r d e n and f e e l s he i s doing a good job , a l t h o u g h

he m a y s e e m to be s t r i c t . W a r d e n , t h i r t y - f o u r , l i k e s the f a c t t ha t he is

t hough t to be s t r i c t , and he a l s o f e e l s t h a t he is doing a v e r y good job.

He knows he h a s a v a s t c a p a c i t y f o r h a r d w o r k , is c a p a b l e of s w i f t

e f f i c i e n c y , and f u r t h e r , t h a t he a p p l i e s h i m s e l f only to s e r v e h i s c o m p a n y .

To W a r d e n , the uni t i s h i s , no t H o l m e s 1 , and he d o e s h i s u t m o s t to m a k e

it s u p e r i o r . His b r i s t l i n g m u s t a c h e and b o o m i n g v o i c e o f t e n s e r v e to

f r i g h t e n a m a n into doing wha t W a r d e n w a n t s , w h a t is b e s t f o r the c o m p a n y .

In a n i n t e r v i e w wi th P r e w i t t the F i r s t S e r g e a n t s a y s :

I r u n t h i s c o m p a n y . H o l m e s i s t he CO, but he i s l i ke the r e s t of the o f f i c e r c l a s s : a d u m b b a s t a r d t h a t s i g n s p a p e r s a n r i d e s h o r s e s an w e a r s s p u r s a n ge t s s t i nk ing d r u n k up a t the^ o f f i c e r ' s c lub . I ! m t h e guy t h a t r u n s t h i s c o m p a n y .

W a r d e n is t he b o s s . He d i s p l a y s the k n o w l e d g e and sk i l l of a m a n - i n -

c h a r g e on e v e r y p a g e of the n o v e l . He c h o o s e s a m e s s cook who i s of

top qua l i t y , m a n a g e s to c o n v i n c e h i m to t r a n s f e r to t he c o m p a n y , and

p e r s u a d e s Cap t . H o l m e s to r e p l a c e the old and d r u n k e n cook , a f r i e n d

of H o l m e s , so the c o m p a n y wi l l e a t w e l l . The F i r s t S e r g e a n t h e l p s the

supp ly c l e r k do an e x c e l l e n t job , in o r d e r t h a t the s loppy a d m i n i s t r a t i o n

of the supp ly s e r g e a n t wi l l no t h a r m the c o m p a n y ' s r e p u t a t i o n , With

s e e m i n g l y o c c u l t k n o w l e d g e , he s e n s e s a f i gh t in the s q u a d - r o o m and

s t o p s it b e f o r e any one is h u r t . W a r d e n is e v e r y w h e r e , a l w a y s doing

24 J o n e s , F r o m H e r e to E t e r n i t y , p . 53.

60

t h e r i g h t th ing a t t h e r i g h t t i m e . He q u a l i f i e s s u p e r b l y f o r t h e de f i n i t i on

of l e a d e r s h i p w h i c h s t a t e s tha t a good l e a d e r i s one who d o e s j u s t w h a t

e a c h s i t u a t i o n c a l l s f o r .

P r e w i t t f e e l s f o r W a r d e n a k i n s h i p t h a t i s a l m o s t l ove . It i s

n o t only b e c a u s e W a r d e n s e e m s to be the on ly n o n c o m w i t h a s e n s e of

f a i r n e s s ; it i s only p a r t l y b e c a u s e t h e F i r s t S e r g e a n t s e e m s to be a b l e

to do any th ing b e t t e r t h a n any o t h e r m a n , P r e w i t t t h i n k s of W a r d e n a s

h e d o e s s i m p ly b e c a u s e h e s e n s e s in the m a n p e r s o n a l h o n o r . It i s a s

though W a r d e n h a s a p p l i e d to h i s w h o l e l i f e a s e t of a r b i t r a r y r u l e s , a

s e t of p r i n c i p l e s by w h i c h h e l i v e s , ga in ing s a t i s f a c t i o n f r o m e s t a b l i s h i n g

l i m i t s f o r h i s own b e h a v i o r and n e v e r s t e p p i n g b e y o n d t h o s e l i n e s . The

r u l e s a r e no t a l l good , a s j udged e i t h e r by the A r m y o r by t h e m o r a l i t y

of a n o r m a l s o c i e t y . But t hey su i t Mil t W a r d e n , and l iv ing w i t h i n the

s e l f - e s t a b l i s h e d b o u n d a r i e s p r o v i d e s a s e l f - d i s c i p l i n e w h i c h p l e a s e s

h i m . The c l o s e n e s s b e t w e e n P r e w i t t and W a r d e n i s n e v e r m e n t i o n e d by

e i t h e r , but u n d e r s t o o d by both; h a r d e n e d s o l d i e r s u n d e r s t a n d m a n y r u l e s

of the p r o f e s s i o n w i t h o u t e v e r d i s c u s s i n g t h e m .

When P r e w i t t i s in the s t o c k a d e , W a r d e n v i s i t s h i m , a s h i s f i r s t

s e r g e a n t and a s h i s f r i e n d . . T h i s v e r y n a t u r a l a c t f o r a l e a d e r d e v e l o p s

in to a n a c t i o n of f r i e n d s h i p when P r e w i t t a s k s f o r a n d r e c e i v e s a p e r s o n a l

f a v o r . One o t h e r t i m e W a r d e n r e l a x e s a n d l e t s doen the b a r r i e r w h i c h

a l w a y s e x i s t s b e t w e e n noncom and n o n - r a t e d t r o o p e r . Whi le on f i e l d

61

m a n e u v e r s W a r d e n and P r e w i t t ge t d r u n k t o g e t h e r in the m i d d l e of a

d i r t r o a d l a t e a t n igh t . They b e c o m e a s s e n t i m e n t a l a s only d r u n k s

can , but the i n c i d e n t i s n e v e r b r o u g h t up a g a i n a f t e r w a r d s . In s p i t e of

h i s s y m p a t h y f o r P r e w i t t ' s p r o b l e m s , and t h e s i n c e r e p a t e r n a l f e e l i n g .

W a r d e n h a s f o r P r e w i t t a s a m e m b e r of t h e un i t and a s a f r i e n d , t h e r e

i s n e v e r any u n s e e m l y f a v o r i t i s m shown by the F i r s t S e r g e a n t . To

show p a r t i a l i t y would c a u s e W a r d e n to l o s e r e s p e c t , s e l f - r e s p e c t and

the a d m i r a t i o n of a l l s o l d i e r s . W a r d e n v a l u e s h i s s e l f - r e s p e c t a s

h igh ly a s P r e w i t t v a l u e s the r e s p e c t he b e l i e v e s W a r d e n h a s f o r h i m .

F o r a l l h i s a t t r i b u t e s of q u a l i t y , W a r d e n i s s t i l l a m a n , and a s

s u c h he h a s p r o b l e m s of h i s own, m o s t l y p r o b l e m s wi th a w o m a n .

A d m . P r a t t , Nava l A c a d e m y l e c t u r e r , s a y s t h a t w o m e n a r e a bad

25

i n f l u e n c e on l e a d e r s , and K a r e n H o l m e s p r o v e s to be d e t r i m e n t a l to

W a r d e n . She l o v e s h i m and a r o u s e s in h i m s o m e t h i n g ak in to l ove .

A f t e r m u c h t i m e K a r e n p e r s u a d e s W a r d e n to a p p l y f o r a c o m m i s s i o n

and m a r r y h e r . He d o e s m a k e a p p l i c a t i o n , a n d wi th h i s r e c o r d of

s e r v i c e and r e p u t a t i o n f o r e x c e l l e n t l e a d e r s h i p known to e v e r y o f f i c e r

f r o m the c o l o n e l to t h e l i e u t e n a n t , he i s q u i c k l y a c c e p t e d . But a f t e r

m u c h m e n t a l t o r m e n t and s e l f - s t r u g g l e w i th h i s d e s i r e f o r K a r e n and

2,5 A d m i r a l W i l l i a m V. P r a t t , " L e a d e r s h i p , " S e l e c t e d R e a d i n g s in

L e a d e r s h i p , ed i t ed by C o m m a n d e r M a l c o l m E . Wolfe and C a p t a i n F . J . M u l h o l l a n d (Annapo l i s , I960) , p. 6.

6?,

hat red , of the o f f i c e r c l a s s , he shuns the w o m a n and t e a r s up t h e p r o f -

f e r r e d c o m m i s s i o n . T h r o u g h a l l h i s d i l e m m a s wi th e n l i s t e d m e n ,

o f f i c e r s , and w o m e n , W a r d e n n e v e r s u f f e r s s h a m e . He b e l i e v e s t h a t

26

"a m a n who knows h i s own m i n d d o n ' t know wha t s h a m e i s , "

F i r s t S e r g e a n t W a r d e n ' s s u p e r i o r l e a d e r s h i p is s e e n m o s t c l e a r l y

a t the c l i m a c t i c m o m e n t of the J a p a n e s e a t t a c k on Schof i e ld B a r r a c k s .

While o t h e r s a r e s t i l l s t u n n e d by shock and i n c o h e r e n t wi th e x c i t e m e n t ,

W a r d e n o r g a n i z e s h i s c o m p a n y . He h a s a l l e l e m e n t s of the un i t m a k e

i m m e d i a t e p r e p a r a t i o n s to m o v e to d e f e n s i v e p o s i t i o n s on t h e b e a c h ,

l o a d s a u t o m a t i c w e a p o n s , and o r d e r s h i s t r o o p e r s to ta.ke s a f e c o v e r

in the b a r r a c k s and s t a y out of s igh t . Then , only a f t e r h i s r e s p o n s i -

b i l i t i e s a s a n o n c o m a r e a t t e n d e d to, he r e l a x e s and s h e d s the d ign i ty

of a l e a d e r . In p u r e g l e e he and o t h e r s e n i o r N, C. C). ' s t a k e t h e i r

w h i s k e y b o t t l e s and m a c h i n e guns to the b a r r a c k s ' roof a n d b e g i n

shoo t ing a t t he s t r a f i n g p l a n e s .

When Lit. R o s s , t he n e w c o m p a n y c o m m a n d e r , f i n a l l y a p p e a r s on

the s c e n e to q u e r y W a r d e n abou t t ak ing c a r e of the c o m p a n y , W a r d e n

y e l l s to h i m tha t it is a l l done . E v e r y q u e s t i o n R o s s a s k s is a n s w e r e d

wi th a n e x p l a n a t i o n of wha t h a s been done and is b e i n g done . When it

b e c o m e s obv ious tha t W a r d e n is a long s t e p a h e a d of R o s s in a l l h i s

d u t i e s , the F i r s t S e r g e a n t i n v i t e s h i s C. O. to g r a b a gun and c l i m b to

26 J o n e s , F r o m H e r e to E t e r n i t y , p. 701.

63

the roof to shoo t a t p l a n e s . A f t e r the c h a o t i c a t t a c k e n d s , the r e g i m e n t

d o e s m o v e to the b e a c h . But the m o v e is m a d e h o u r s b e f o r e m o s t

c o m p a n i e s a r e fu l l y r e a d y , and h o u r s a f t e r W a r d e n ' s C o m p a n y nGM i s

c o m p l e t e l y p r e p a r e d ,

J o n e s ' f i n a l s c e n e s show a g a i n the two s i d e s of Sgt. W a r d e n ,

W a r d e n , t r y i n g to e x p l a i n to L t . R o s s t h a t P r e w i t t , who h a s j u s t b e e n

k i l l ed , w a s c r a z y b e c a u s e he loved the A r m y , e x p l a i n s h i s own f e e l i n g .

R o s s , p r e s e n t i n g the A r m y v iew, c o n t e n d s t h a t p r o d u c t i o n w i n s w a r s .

W a r d e n , s p e a k i n g a s a m a n , a s o l d i e r , and an e x p e r i e n c e d l e a d e r ,

b e l i e v e s t h a t m e n win w a r s , but he a l s o t h i n k s a n y o n e who b e l i e v e s t h i s

h a s to be c r a z y . L a t e r W a r d e n and the m e s s s e r g e a n t h a v e a f igh t and

a p a r t y in a w h o r e h o u s e . T h e y indu lge in s u c h p l e a s u r e on ly a f t e r t h e i r

un i t is s e c u r e l y s e t t l e d in to r o u t i n e g u a r d duty , and a l l t h e p r e s s u r e is

o f f .

J a m e s J o n e s h a s c r e a t e d two l e a d e r s of w i d e l y c o n t r a s t i n g

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ; t he o f f i c e r i s o v e r d r a w n a s a n i r r e s p o n s i b l e l e a d e r , and

the f o l k - h e r o n o n c o m is too cocky , but b e t w e e n the two p r o b a b l y l i e s the

t r u t h . E v e r y l e a d e r i s but a m a n , w i th s o m e of the f a u l t s of H o l m e s ,

but he i s m o r e . He i s a m a n d e d i c a t e d to a c a u s e and s y m p a t h e t i c to

o t h e r s who s e r v e t ha t c a u s e , a s i s W a r d e n .

64

J o n e s to ld W i l l i a m S t y r o n tha t t he s t a r t of e v e r y book i s l ike

27

l e a r n i n g to w r i t e o v e r aga in , B e f o r e f i n i s h i n g The Th in Red L ine in

1962, J o n e s p u b l i s h e d a n o v e l l a , in 1958, t r e a t i n g s o l d i e r s in H a w a i i

in e a r l y 1942. T h i s book , The P i s t o l , d e a l s w i th n o n - r a t e d m e n and

p r e s e n t s l i t t l e of i n t e r e s t to a s tudy of l e a d e r s h i p . The p l o t , the s e t t i n g ,

t he p e o p l e , a l l but the n a m e s c o m e out of a n i n c i d e n t in F r o m H e r e to

E t e r n i t y . A s o l d i e r ' s c o m p a n y m o v e s into b e a c h d e f e n s e p o s i t i o n s

w h e n the J a p a n e s e a t t a c k . D u r i n g the e x c i t e m e n t the m a n k e e p s a

p i s t o l he w a s i s s u e d f o r g u a r d duty . O t h e r s o l d i e r s t r y to s t e a l t he

w e a p o n , and f i n a l l y i t i s r e c l a i m e d by the supp ly c l e r k .

Some c o m m e n t s a r e m a d e a b o u t l e a d e r s ; Pvt* M a s t , t he n a r r a t o r ,

s a y s t h a t H e v e r y s o l d i e r knows a s e r g e a n t who h a s an o f f i c e r o b s e r v i n g 2 8

h i m does not a c t a t a l l the s a m e a s a s e r g e a n t who i s on h i s own. ,r

L a t e r in the s t o r y a j u n i o r n o n c o m t r i e s to s t e a l the p i s t o l and M a s t i s

s h o c k e d tha t a n N. C„ O. wou ld u s e h i s r a n k to do such a m o n s t r o u s

th ing . He f e e l s t h e n o n c o m h a s n e g a t e d t h e r e s p e c t due h i s r a n k . Th rough-

out t he n o v e l l a i s t he i m p l i c a t i o n tha t p o s s e s s i n g a p i s t o l g i v e s a m a n a

c e r t a i n s w a g g e r i n g s e n s e of c o u r a g e , the b r a v a d o e n j o y e d m o s t l y by

o f f i c e r s and s e n i o r N. C. O. 's who p e r h a p s w e a r p i s t o l s f o r j u s t t h a t

r e a s o n . 27

J a m e s J o n e s and W i l l i a m Styron., "Two W r i t e r s T a l k i t O v e r , n

E s q u i r e , L X ( Ju ly , 1963), 59.

28 J a m e s J o n e s , The P i s t o l (New Y o r k , 1958), p . 29.

65

J o n e s s a y s h e spen t f o u r y e a r s w r i t i n g The Th in Red L ine ; F r o m

H e r e to E t e r n i t y i s a b e t t e r book and w a s w r i t t e n in l e s s t i m e . T h i s

l a t e r w a r nove l i s qu i t e p r o b a b l y b a s e d on J o n e s 1 e x p e r i e n c e s on

G u a d a l c a n a l ; s i n c e it d e a l s wi th t he P a c i f i c i s l a n d c a m p a i g n . The t i t l e

of t h i s nove l h a s a f a m i l i a r s o u r c e . As h e d id f o r h i s f i r s t n o v e l t i t l e ,

J o n e s a g a i n q u o t e s Kip l ing , u s i n g the p o e t ' s l i n e abou t the B r i t i s h

29

s o l d i e r s in c o m b a t , w h o a r e a " T h i n r e d l i n e of f e r o e s . 11 The s e t t i ng

i s G u a d a l c a n a l in 1942-43, and the c h a r a c t e r s a r e the m e m b e r s of

C o m p a n y n C . n The p lo t c o n c e r n s the c o m p a n y ' s m o v e m e n t , u n d e r f i r e ,

t h r o u g h j u n g l e s and o v e r b a r r e n h i l l s .

J a m e s J o n e s i s a n o v e l i s t w i th f i r m i d e a s about o f f i c e r s ; he d o e s

no t l ike t h e m . T h i s l a s t w a r nove l a l s o h a s a c a p t a i n , who i s t h e C* Oe ,

and who i s a w e a k m a n . It h a s a l i e u t e n a n t who i s u n s u r e a t t i m e s ,

o v e r c o n f i d e n t a t o t h e r t i m e s , a n d a b a d l e a d e r a l l of t he t i m e . And of

c o u r s e t h e r e i s a c o m p a n y f i r s t s e r g e a n t , c y n i c a l a n d l a c o n i c .

F i r s t S e r g e a n t E d w a r d W e l s h i s a t a l l , n a r r o w - h i p p e d , h e a v i l y -

m u s c l e d m a n in h i s earLy t h i r t i e s , w i th d a r k h a i r and c o m p l e x i o n . H i s

b l a c k e y e s and f o r e b o d i n g g r i n f i t h i s W e l s h b lood . He h a s a s l i t t l e a s

p o s s i b l e to s a y to any o f f i c e r , i s a d e m a n d i n g t a s k m a s t e r of h i s c o m p a n y

c l e r k s , and g e n e r a l l y d o e s h i s j o b w e l l a n d m i n d s h i s own b u s i n e s s .

Al though h e c o n s t a n t l y w o r r i e s abou t k e e p i n g g in in h i s c a n t e e n s , and

29 J a m e s J o n e s , The Th in Red L i n e (New York , 1962), t i t l e p a g e .

66

m u m b l e s a b o u t a l l w a r s b e i n g f o u g h t o n l y f o r p r o p e r t y , h e s e e m s to

l i k e h i s p o s i t i o n a n d e v e n e n d u r e s c o m b a t a n d b a d l e a d e r s s t o i c a l l y . He

i s no t t h e s u p e r m a n t h a t Sgt . W a r d e n i s , b u t h e i s c o m p e t e n t a n d i n d e -

p e n d e n t , a n d h e r e f u s e s to l e a v e c o m b a t o r t h e c o m p a n y , e v e n w h e n h e

i s g i v e n t h e o p p o r t u n i t y to do s o .

C a p t . J a m e s I. " B u g g e r 1 1 S t e i n i s , l i k e C a p t . H o l m e s , a b a d

o f f i c e r a n d l e a d e r . B u t S t e i n i s no t c o r r u p t , j u s t p e r s o n a l l y w e a k a n d

i n e f f e c t u a l a s a l e a d e r . He i s n o t e v i l , b u t h e d o e s n o t h i n g c o n s t r u c t i v e .

He i s s i m p l y a m i s p l a c e d c i v i l i a n l a w y e r n e i t h e r k n o w i n g n o r l i k e l y to

e v e r u n d e r s t a n d t h e f i n e p o i n t s of m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s h i p . S t e i n f e e l s a

m o n u m e n t a l s e n s e of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r h i s c o m p a n y , b u t no t k n o w i n g

h o w to h a n d l e m e n , l a r g e l y b e c a u s e h e i s s o u n s u r e of h i m s e l f , h e d o e s

e v e r y t h i n g p o o r l y .

C a p t . S t e i n c o n s t a n t l y b e t r a y s h i s c o n t i n u a l n e r v o u s n e s s by

a d j u s t i n g h i s g l a s s e s , o v e r a n d o v e r , w i t h h i s t h u m b a n d f o r e f i n g e r .

He i s f r e q u e n t l y i r r i t a t e d b y t h e l i t t l e i n e f f i c i e n c i e s t h a t a r e a l w a y s

e x p e c t e d in w a r , b u t w h i c h c a n n e v e r be p l a n n e d f o r , a n d t h e a g g r a v a t i o n

of Sgt . W e l s h r s g r i n n i n g c o n t e m p t a l w a y s i n f u r i a t e s h i m , c a u s i n g h i m to

s h o u t in a v e r y u n b e c o m i n g b u t s a t i s f y i n g m a n n e r . He b e c o m e s f r i g h t -

e n e d d u r i n g a i r r a i d s , a n d i s r a c k e d b y i n d e c i s i o n a t t h e s e t i m e s . Shou ld

h e b e h e r o i c a n d w a l k a b o u t in d i s d a i n , o r s h o u l d h e u s e c o m m o n s e n s e

a n d go to h i s h o l e ? He a l w a y s t a k e s c o v e r , b u t n e v e r w i t h o u t w o r r y i n g

6 7

a b o u t h i s i m a g e a s an o f f i c e r and a C. O. When a g r o u p of h i s m e n

p l a n to " l i b e r a t e 1 1 s o m e m a c h i n e guns f r o m a m a r i n e t e n t , the C a p t a i n

f a c e s a n o t h e r d i f f i c u l t d e c i s i o n . If h e r e f u s e s t h e m p e r m i s s i o n to t a k e

t h e g u n s , h e w i l l look l i ke a n old m a i d , r u i n i n g t h e f u n w i th o v e r c a u t i o u s

a d v i c e . But if he l e t s t h e m go, a n d they a r e caugh t , h e f a c e s t r o u b l e .

F i n a l l y , w i th a s a d s e n s e of a g e . h e a l l o w s t h e m to go, bu t w a r n s h i s

s o l d i e r s t h a t o f f i c i a l l y he does not know abou t the r a i d and h e w i l l t a k e

no r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r i t . T h e y go, on t h e i r own, a n d Ste in j u s t w o r r i e s .

O v e r and o v e r C a p t . S te in i s h e s i t a n t a n d f e a r f u l , and no t knowing

w h a t to do, h e o f t e n does no th ing . He i s c u r s e d by a h y s t e r i c a l s o l d i e r ,

a n d j u s t w a l k s away , r e a l i z i n g he h a s l o s t r e s p e c t , and a n g r y b e c a u s e

he i s h a t e d f o r be ing an o f f i c e r e v e n w h e n he t r i e s to look a f t e r h i s m e n .

At o t h e r t i m e s , w h e n i t wou ld be b e s t to s a y no th ing , h e b a b b l e s l i ke

the f o o l i s h m a n h i s t r o o p s th ink h e i s , a s he did in the m a c h i n e gun

i n c i d e n t . The C a p t a i n i s n e v e r s u r e t ha t w h a t h e does i s r igh t ; f e a r

and a p p r e h e n s i o n d r a i n h i s e n e r g y , and h id ing t h e s e a p p r e h e n s i o n s

f r o m h i s m e n i s e v e n m o r e f a t i g u i n g . He f e e l s an i n e r t i a in h i m s e l f

and in h i s c o m p a n y .

F a c e d wi th t h e t a s k of o r d e r i n g h i s m e n in to w i t h e r i n g f i r e , S te in

b r e a k s down. N u m b and even a s t o n i s h e d a t h i m s e l f , h e r e f u s e s to o b e y

the o r d e r s f r o m h i s c r i s p a n d f u r i o u s co lone l f o r a f r o n t a l a t t a c k , Col .

Ta l l i g n o r e s h i s d i s o b e d i e n c e f o r the t i m e and d i r e c t s the c o m p a n y

68

a t t a c k h i m s e l f . S te in f e e l s Ta l l is a m b i t i o u s and v i c i o u s , d e s p e r a t e to

s u c c e e d b e f o r e h i s wa tch ing s u p e r i o r s , When the m i s s i o n is finally-

a c c o m p l i s h e d , S te in is c o n g r a t u l a t e d , t h e n r e l i e v e d of h i s c o m m a n d .

T a l l i s a d v a n c e d to a m o r e r e s p o n s i b l e job; Ste in r e t u r n s to d i v i s i o n

h e a d q u a r t e r s to s e r v e a s a l a w y e r . But the C a p t a i n w i l l a l w a y s w o n d e r

w h e t h e r he r e f u s e d to a d v a n c e b e c a u s e of f e a r f o r h i s m e n , o r f e a r f o r

h i m s e l f .

C o m p a n y " C " c o n t i n u e s to f igh t u n d e r a r a p i d l y g rowing l i s t of

C. O, 1 s , m o s t l y l i e u t e n a n t s who a r e e a g e r , but i n e x p e r i e n c e d , and who

a r e soon k i l l e d o r r e l i e v e d . F i n a l l y Cap t . B o s c h e t a k e s the c o m p a n y ;

he i s a s c a l m a s F i r s t S e r g e a n t We l sh , and a s p r o f e s s i o n a l a s Col . Ta l l ,

and the w a r g o e s on.

In t h i s l a t e r nove l J o n e s s e e s the o f f i c e r c l a s s in a s o m e w h a t

d i f f e r e n t l igh t f r o m t h a t of h i s f i r s t book. T h e r e is now hope shown f o r

o f f i c e r s to be e f f i c i e n t , but s t i l l t he a u t h o r d i s p l a y s no l i k ing f o r o f f i c e r s ,

even if t h e y a r e c o m p e t e n t . J o n e s ' s y m p a t h y is s t i l l w i th the l o w e r c l a s s

of the m i l i t a r y s o c i e t y , the e n l i s t e d m e n . But by t h i s v e r y n e g a t i v e

a t t i t u d e t o w a r d o f f i c e r s a s a g r o u p , J o n e s i m p l i e s the q u a l i t i e s he

b e l i e v e s l e a d e r s shou ld p o s s e s s . T h e s e q u a l i t i e s , m i s s i n g in t h o s e

w h o m he c a s t i g a t e s , a r e s u m m a r i z e d by the l e a d e r s h i p p r i n c i p l e s ou t -

l i n e d in C h a p t e r I of t h i s s tudy .

69

N o r m a n M a i l e r

N o r m a n M a i l e r w a s b o r n in 1923, in Long B r a n c h , New J e r s e y .

He r e c e i v e d h i s B. A. d e g r e e f r o m H a r v a r d , a n d w a s an A r m y i n f a n -

30

t r y m a n d u r i n g W o r l d W a r II. The Naked a n d the Dead w a s h i s f i r s t ,

a n d p r o b a b l y h i s b e s t , nove l . At H a r v a r d h e w r o t e s h o r t s t o r i e s , s o m e

of t h e m a b o u t w a r , and in the A r m y h e w a s an i n t e l l i g e n c e c l e r k a n d a 31

r i f l e m a n in a r e c o n n a i s s a n c e p l a toon . M a i l e r s a i d h e d e b a t e d w i th

h i m s e l f e a r l y in the w a r w h e t h e r the b e s t n o v e l of the w a r w o u l d c o m e

32

f r o m the A t l a n t i c o r the P a c i f i c . He h a s b e e n c o m p a r e d w i t h W i l l i a m

S t y r o n b e c a u s e bo th a u t h o r s a r e of t h e s a m e a g e a n d b a c k g r o u n d ; both

w e r e young s e r v i c e m e n i n W o r l d W a r II, a n d bo th h a v e r e t i r e d to p u b l i c

l i f e a f t e r w r i t i n g f i r s t n o v e l s in t h e i r t w e n t i e s and shock ing n o v e l s in

33

t h e i r t h i r t i e s .

The Naked and the Dead , w h i c h M a r v i n M u d r i c k c a l l e d "a m a n u a l

of s o l d i e r i n g in t h e t r o p i c s , " i s c l a s s e d by C h e s t e r E i s i n g e r and o t h e r 30

E t h r i d g e and B a r b a r a K o p a l a , e d i t o r s , C o n t e m p o r a r y A u t h o r s , XI -XI I , 2 3 6 - 2 3 7 .

31 B r u c e A. Cook, " M a i l e r , the T e m p t a t i o n to P o w e r , " R e n a s c e n c e ,

XIV ( S u m m e r , 1962), 206. 32

M a r v i n M u d r i c k , " M a i l e r and S ty ron : G u e s t s of the E s t a b l i s h m e n t , " H u d s o n R e v i e w , XVII (Autumn, 1964), 347.

33 Ib id . , p. 346.

70.

34

c r i t i c s a s one of the good w a r n o v e l s . The nove l , w r i t t e n in f i f t e e n

, 3 5

m o n t h s , h a s e l i c i t e d c r i t i c a l c o m m e n t f o r o v e r f i f t e e n y e a r s . It i s

s a i d to be m e c h a n i c a l in t ha t it f a i l s to d e l v e into the c o m p l e x i t i e s of

t h e m o r a l i s s u e s p r e s e n t e d , but s t i l l t he c r i t i c p r a i s e s the book a s "a 3 6

p o w e r f u l and s o m b r e p i c t u r e of w a r a s it ought not to be . " N o r m a n

P o d h o r e t z , w r i t i n g f o r the P a r t i s a n R e v i e w , s e e s The Naked and t h e

Dead a s a n o t h e r s t o r y of s o l d i e r s f i gh t ing t h e A r m y , the e n e m y , and

n a t u r e . P o d h o r e t z s a y s , " I t is t r u e , I t h ink , t h a t M a i l e r ' s p h e n o m e n a l

t a l e n t f o r r e c o r d i n g the p r e c i s e look and f e e l of t h i n g s is h i s m o s t 37

i m p r e s s i v e s i n g l e g i f t . "

Al l c r i t i c s , h o w e v e r , a r e not so i m p r e s s e d wi th M a i l e r ' s w o r k .

John A l d r i d g e c a l l s the s i t u a t i o n of the n o v e l u n b e l i e v a b l e in t h a t t he

good m e n l o s e , t he ev i l m e n a r e m a d e r i d i c u l o u s , " a n d the m e d i o c r e 38

r i d e to v i c t o r y on an a c c i d e n t . " E i s i n g e r c o m p l a i n s t ha t nobody w i n s 34

E i s i n g e r , F i c t i o n of the F o r t i e s , p. 21.

35 H a r v e y B r e i t , The W r i t e r O b s e r v e d (New York , 1956), p. 199.

36 H e r b e r t G o l d s t o n e , " T h e Nove l s of N o r m a n M a i l e r , " The

E n g l i s h J o u r n a l , XLV ( M a r c h , 1956), 113.

37 N o r m a n P o d h o r e t z , " N o r m a n M a i l e r : The E m b a t t l e d V i s i o n . "

P a r t i s a n Rev i ew , XXVI (Win te r , 1959), 371.

38 John W. A l d r i d g e , A f t e r the L o s t G e n e r a t i o n (New York , 1951).

p. 139.

71

39

in the s t o r y ; a l l f a i l , s e t t i n g a p a t t e r n of d e s p a i r f o r t h e book. In a

s i m i l a r v e i n G o r e Vidal s a y s in Na t ion m a g a z i n e tha t t he nove l is a

f a k e , "wi th a s e t of m a d e - u p , p r e d i c t a b l e c h a r a c t e r s t a k e n , not f r o m 40

l i f e , but f r o m the s a m e n o v e l s a l l of u s had r e a d . " T h e s e v e r y

c h a r a c t e r s p r o m p t R o b i e M a c a u l e y to n a m e The Naked and the Dead

a s the b e s t nove l of c o m b a t e v e r w r i t t e n . He c l a s s e s the t h r e e l e a d e r s

of the s t o r y a s r e p r e s e n t i n g t h r e e d i f f e r e n t p h i l o s o p h i e s . Gen. Cummi r ig s

is a s y m b o l of a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m ; L t . H e a r n r e p r e s e n t s a l a i s s e z - f a i r e 41

d o c t r i n e , and Sgt. C r o f t i s the m o d e l of e f f i c i e n c y .

The Naked and t h e Dead is the s t o r y of an a r m y d i v i s i o n and i t s

a s s a u l t on the m y t h i c a l P a c i f i c i s l a n d of A n o p o p e i . The c h a r a c t e r s

f o l l o w e d t h r o u g h t h e nove l a r e m e m b e r s of the d i v i s i o n h e a d q u a r t e r s

s t a f f ; the p r i n c i p a l l e a d e r s a r e Gen. G u m m i n g s , d i v i s i o n c o m m a n d i n g

g e n e r a l , L t . H e a r n , t he G e n e r a l ' s a i d e , and Sgt. C r o f t , p l a t o o n

s e r g e a n t of the i n t e l l i g e n c e - r e c o n n a i s s a n c e p l a t o o n . T h e s e t h r e e m e n

a r e i n t e r t w i n e d in a s t r u g g l e f o r and a g a i n s t p o w e r , and t h e y a l l l o s e

the s t r u g g l e . They a r e a l l a f r a i d ; H e a r n f e a r s the l o s s of h i s s e l f -

c o n t r o l , and C u m m i n g s and C r o f t f e a r the l o s s of t h e i r c o m m a n d s . 3 9 _ . E i s i n g e r , F i c t i o n of the F o r t i e s , p. 37.

40 G o r e Vida l , " T h e N o r m a n M a i l e r S y n d r o m e , " Nat ion , CLXC

( J a n u a r y 2, I960) , 13.

41 R o b i e M a c a u l e y , " F i c t i o n of the F o r t i e s , " W e s t e r n R e v i e w ,

XVI (Autumn, 1951), 60.

72

C u m m i n g s s e e k s to c o n t r o l m e n ; C r o f t w a n t s to o v e r p o w e r n a t u r e ,

a n d H e a r n s i m p l y s e a r c h e s f o r s o m e d i r e c t i o n i n h i s l i f e . The m e n

canno t be s e p a r a t e d , f o r an ac t i on on the p a r t of o n e of t h e m h a s a n

i n f l u e n c e on the o t h e r two. T h i s i s e s p e c i a l l y t r u e of C u m m i n g s

b e c a u s e h e i s a g e n e r a l .

M a j o r G e n e r a l E d w a r d C u m m i n g s , " the e m b o d i m e n t of m i l i t a r y

f a s c i s m , " ^ i s a m a n wi th a l l t he f a s c i n a t i o n and p o w e r of ev i l i t s e l f .

He p o s s e s s e s s u p e r b l e a d e r s h i p q u a l i t i e s and an i n tu i t i ve s e n s e of

t a c t i c s ; h e ' i s a r o m a n t i c i n t e l l e c t u a l in h i s r e a s o n i n g , but he a l s o

b e l i e v e s f i r m l y in p o w e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n , in the l a d d e r of f e a r a s c e n d i n g

w i th m i l i t a r y r a n k . He f e e l s tha t t h e e n l i s t e d m e n ' s s p i r i t i s to be b r o k e n

by o f f i c e r s . ^ C u m m i n g s r e p r e s e n t s t h e ev i l p o w e r of the A r m y s y s t e m

in t h e nove l , a n d w i th the e x c e p t i o n of H e a r n , a l l the o f f i c e r s a n d Sgt.

C r o f t a r e wi l l ing i n s t r u m e n t s of tha t p o w e r . R o b e i t H e a l e y s a y s ,

" B e c a u s e M a i l e r h a t e s t h e G e n e r a l so m u c h m o r e t h a n h i s o t h e r c h a r -

a c t e r s , he m a k e s C u m m i n g s the m o s t f u l l y r e a l i z e d c h a r a c t e r in t h e

44

book . "

Gen. C u m m i n g s i s i ndeed a p a r a d o x , t a l e n t e d a s a l e a d e r , and

ev i l a s a m a n . He h a s a n a l m o s t un ique a b i l i t y to e x t e n d h i s t h o u g h t s

^ A l d r i d g e . A f t e r t h e L o s t G e n e r a t i o n , p. 137,

43 E i s i n g e r , F i c t i o n of t h e F o r t i e s , p . 35.

44 H e a l e y , "A Bunch of D i s p o s s e s s e d , " p . 262.

73

in to i m m e d i a t e and e f f e c t i v e a c t i o n , arid a f t e r t w e n t y - e i g h t y e a r s of

s e r v i c e he h a s l e a r n e d how to s ay the r i g h t th ing a t the r i g h t t i m e to

e n l i s t e d a n d o f f i c e r c l a s s e s a l i k e . He k n o w s a l l h i s l ine o f f i c e r s , and

u s e s h i s a c u t e m e m o r y to k e e p an a c c u r a t e p i c t u r e of c o m m a n d e r s '

p e r s o n a l i t i e s , t r o o p s t r e n g t h f i g u r e s , and uni t l o c a t i o n s in h i s m i n d a t

a l l t i m e s . T h e r e i s no t a f a c e t of the d i v i s i o n o p e r a t i o n s w i th w h i c h

h e i s not t h o r o u g h l y f a m i l i a r , and h e only shows a n n o y a n c e w h e n s o m e -

one t r i e s to t e l l h i m w h a t he a l r e a d y k n o w s . The G e n e r a l i s h a p p i e s t

w h e n m a k i n g qu ick a n d i n s t i n c t i v e l y j u s t d e c i s i o n s in t h e f i e l d of t a c t i c s .

E a r l y in h i s m i l i t a r y c a r e e r Gen, G u m m i n g s h a d shown a t a l e n t

f o r o r g a n i z a t i o n and c o m m a n d . A s a p r o f e s s i o n a l l e a d e r he h a s a long

and d i s t i n g u i s h e d r e c o r d . But a s a m a n he h a s m a n y f a u l t s and p r o b l e m s .

H i s p e r s o n a l l i f e h a s no s u b s t a n c e ; h i s w i f e h a s long s i n c e d i s c o v e r e d

tha t h e does not c a r e f o r f u n , o r l o v e , but on ly f o r a d v a n c e m e n t . H i s

q u a r t e r s , w h e t h e r t e n t o r s t a t e r o o m , a r e a l w a y s b a r e of any p e r s o n a l

m o m e n t o o r h in t t h a t t he G e n e r a l i s a n i nd iv idua l . When f r u s t r a t e d in

h i s p l a n s , G u m m i n g s , i s o f t e n s h o c k e d into a s t a t e of i m p o t e n t r a g e .

Al though he p o s s e s s e s an e x c e l l e n t knowledge of the p s y c h o l o g y of w a r ,

h i s p e r c e p t i o n in p r e d i c t i n g the a c t i o n s of e n e m y o f f i c e r s a n d h i s own

s o l d i e r s i s a c u t e ; s t i l l h i s p e r s o n a l m e n t a l s t a t e i s s o m e w h a t l e s s t h a n

s t a b l e .

74

L t . H e a r n i s a n n o y e d b y t h e n u m b v a c a n c y in t h e G e n e r a l ' s s m i l e ,

a n d H e a r n i s a l a r m e d a t h i s d e t e c t i o n of h o m o s e x u a l t e n d e n c i e s in

C u m m i n g s ' b e h a v i o r . T h e G e n e r a l m a k e s h i s p e r s o n a l p h i l o s o p h y of

l i f e v e r y c l e a r t o H e a r n . He f e e l s m a n ' s b a s i c u r g e i s to b e o m n i p o t e n t ,

and t h a t m e n ' s n a t u r a l s t a t e of a n x i e t y s h o u l d b e u t i l i z e d b y t h e l e a d e r

a s a m e a n s t o c o n t r o l t h e i n d i v i d u a l . C u m m i n g s i s o b v i o u s l y o b s e s s e d

w i t h t h e d e s i r e to m a k e H e a r n a f r a i d of h i m , t h e r e b y f o r c i n g t h e

L i e u t e n a n t to a c k n o w l e d g e t h e s u p e r i o r i t y t h e G e n e r a l f e e l s in h i m s e l f .

G e n . C u m m i n g s t e l l s H e a r n t h a t e n l i s t e d m e n m u s t b e b r o k e n in s p i r i t ;

t h e y s h o u l d h a t e a l l o f f i c e r s a n d f e a r t h e m . So w h e n a p r i v a t e s e e s a

c a p t a i n g e t t i n g s p e c i a l p r i v i l e g e s , t h e p r i v a t e h a t e s t h e o f f i c e r m o r e ,

b u t h e a l s o f e a r s h i m m o r e . T h i s i s t h e l a d d e r of f e a r on w h i c h M a i l e r

b e l i e v e s t h e m i l i t a r y s y s t e m i s b a s e d .

W h e r e a s C u m m i n g s i s a c o l d l y i n t e l l e c t u a l f a s c i s t , H e a r n i s a

l i b e r a l . H i s ch i e f w e a k n e s s i s a l a c k of c o m m i t m e n t t o a s p e c i f i c s e t

of v a l u e s ; h i s p r o b l e m i s one of b e l i e f . H e a r n i s f i n a l l y c o m p r o m i s e d

b y h i s own l a c k of i n t e g r i t y , no t b y t h e G e n e r a l . J u s t b e f o r e h e d i e s

on a c o m b a t p a t r o l , h e r e a l i z e s t h a t h e i s a l s o m o t i v a t e d b y a l u s t f o r

p o w e r , l i k e G e n . C u m m i n g s a n d Sgt . C r o f t , bu t i t i s t h i s v e r y m o t i -

v a t i o n w h i c h h e h a s a l w a y s d i s l i k e d in o t h e r s a n d d e n i e d in h i m s e l f .

4 5

H e a r n i s " t h e k i n d of m a n o t h e r m e n l o v e t o s e e h u m i l i a t e d . " He i s

45 N o r m a n M a i l e r , T h e N a k e d a n d t h e D e a d (New Y o r k , 1948) , p . 55.

75

p e r s o n a l l y a r r o g a n t , bu t d e s p i s e s t h e s a m e t r a i t in o t h e r s . A n d

H e a r n i s f u r t h e r t r o u b l e d w i t h s t i l l a n o t h e r i n c o n s i s t e n c y . W h i l e

d i s l i k i n g o f f i c e r s h e f e e l s g u i l t y f o r b e i n g a n o f f i c e r , y e t s t i l l h e e n j o y s

t h e p o s i t i o n h e h o l d s a s a n o f f i c e r . He s e e m s no t to l i k e a n y o n e , no t

e v e n h i m s e l f , a n d o t h e r m e n s e n s e t h i s v e r y q u i c k l y .

H e a r n d i s l i k e s C u m m i n g s m o s t l y b e c a u s e t h e G e n e r a l r e c o g n i z e s

a m b i t i o n in H e a r n , a n d t h e L i e u t e n a n t d i s t r u s t s a m b i t i o n , e v e n in h i m -

s e l f . Ye t w h e n he b e c o m e s t h e p l a t o o n l e a d e r of C r o f t ' s r e c o n n a i s s a n c e

p l a t o o n , h e f i n d s h i m s e l f e n j o y i n g the j o b of a l e a d e r , a n d t r y i n g t o m a k e

t h e m e n l i k e h i m s o t h a t t h e y w i l l h e l p h i m do a b e t t e r j o b . At t h e s a m e

t i m e h e r e c o g n i z e s in h i s e x p e r i e n c e s w i t h Sgt . C r o f t s o m e of t h e s a m e

a t t i t u d e s h e h a s s e e n in G e n . C u m m i n g s , a n d h e b e c o m e s d i s g u s t e d

w i t h h i m s e l f . Bu t f i n a l l y he u n d e r s t a n d s t h a t e v e n t h o u g h l e a d e r s h i p

i s a s f i l t h y a s h e h a d a l w a y s t h o u g h t i t t o b e , h e e n j o y s i t . He c o n f e s s e s ,

t o h i m s e l f , j u s t b e f o r e d y i n g t h a t t h e G e n e r a l w a s r i g h t a b o u t h i m a f t e r

a l l . Sgt . C r o f t , a T e x a n , i s a n e r e c t , e x p r e s s i o n l e s s m a n w h o h a t e s

w e a k n e s s , w a s t e s n e i t h e r e n e r g y n o r e m o t i o n , a n d f e e l s a s u p e r i o r

c o n t e m p t t o w a r d n e a r l y a l l o t h e r m e n . He d i s p l a y s c r u e l t y in d e a l i n g

w i t h t h e J a p a n e s e , a n d u s e s t h e h a t r e d of h i s m e n t o h i s own a d v a n t a g e

in a r u t h l e s s m a n n e r . C r o f t w e l c o m e s a n y c h a l l e n g e , w h e t h e r i t b e a

m o u n t a i n to c l i m b o r a m a n t o d i s c i p l i n e , a n d h e f e a r s o n l y t h e l o s s of

p o w e r . W h e n L t . H e a r n i s m a d e c o m m a n d e r of h i s p l a t o o n , C r o f t

r e s e n t s i t a n d h a t e s H e a r n . Bu t t h e one t h i n g C r o f t w i l l n o t f i g h t i s

76

the s y s t e m ; the A r m y h a s ma.de H e a r n a l i e u t e n a n t , so C r o f t d o e s not

open ly c h a l l e n g e h i m .

Sgt. C r o f t , the co ld , b r u t a l , and e f f i c i e n t l e a d e r , is a s b r a v e ,

c o m p e t e n t , and c o n t e m p t u o u s of w e a k n e s s a s i s Gen. C u m m i n g s . He

i s l i ke the G e n e r a l in t h a t he too w a n t s to d o m i n a t e m e n , to have the

a b s o l u t e a u t h o r i t a r i a n f r e e d o m of be ing a b l e to e x e r c i s e h i s w i l l w i t h -

out any l i m i t a t i o n of m a n o r n a t u r e . Whi le L t . H e a r n i s s e e n a s a n

u n s u r e s o c i a l r e b e l , C r o f t is an e x c e l l e n t s o l d i e r , and a r i g i d and

i m p l a c a b l e t y r a n t wi th h i s p l a t o o n . He c o n s t a n t l y s e e k s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ,

i s e l a t e d by c o m b a t , and h a s the s a m e l u s t f o r p o w e r t h a t C u m m i n g s

e x h i b i t s . He e x p e r i e n c e s the s a m e f r u s t r a t i o n when b a l k e d by anyone

o r any th ing t h a t Gen. C u m m i n g s f e e l s . C r o f t i s , w i th C u m m i n g s , a

p r i m a r y c h a r a c t e r of M a i l e r ' s book . T h e s e two m e n r e p r e s e n t t h e

a u t h o r ' s be l i e f t ha t l e a d e r s h i p c a n only be bad , t ha t a l u s t f o r p o w e r

i s the so l e m o t i v a t i o n of a l l l e a d e r s . The u n c e r t a i n t i e s of L t . H e a r n

s u p p o r t t he u l t i m a t e m o t i v a t i o n s e e n by M a i l e r in a l l m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s .

I r w i n Shaw

I r w i n Shaw, b o r n in New Y o r k in 1913, r e c e i v e d a B. A. d e g r e e

f r o m B r o o k l y n Co l l ege , and s p e n t t h r e e y e a r s in the A r m y . He w a s

46 d i s c h a r g e d a s a w a r r a n t o f f i c e r in 1945. The Young L i o n s w a s h i s

46 E t h r i d g e and K o p a l a , e d s . , C o n t e m p o r a r y A u t h o r s , XV-XVI ,

3 9 7 - 3 9 8 .

77

f i r s t n o v e l , a n d i s h i s o n l y w a r n o v e l . S h a w i s a f o r m e r d r a m a c r i t i c

a n d c r e a t i v e w r i t i n g i n s t r u c t o r a t N e w Y o r k U n i v e r s i t y a n d ' n o w r e s i d e s

in S w i t z e r l a n d .

T h e Young L i o n s , m o d e l e d a f t e r J o h n D o s P a s s o s 1 T h r e e S o l d i e r s

(1921) , i s l i k e a m o c k - u p of w a r . " E v e r y t h i n g a b o u t t h e b o o k h a s a.n

a i r of p r e f a b r i c a t i o n a n d c o n t r i v a n c e , n s a y s J o h n A l d r i d g e . He c a l l s

S h a w ' s Noah A c k e r m a n a c r e a t u r e of s u c h i n c r e d i b l e f o r t i t u d e t h a t no

47

one c a n b e l i e v e h i m r e a l l y p o s s i b l e . S h a w d o e s no t e m p h a s i z e

m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s in h i s n o v e l , b u t h i s c o n t e n t i o n t h a t c o r r u p t i o n a n d

f a s c i s m e x i s t in a l l a r m i e s i s r e l e v a n t to t h i s s t u d y . E v e n t h o u g h t w o

of S h a w ' s t h r e e m a i n c h a r a c t e r s b e c o m e n o n c o m s > t h e a u t h o r 1 s a t t i t u d e

t o w a r d l e a d e r s is b e s t s e e n in o f f i c e r s w h o a r e v i e w e d b y t h e t h r e e

p r o t a g o n i s t s .

N o a h A c k e r m a n i s a n A m e r i c a n J e w w h o s u f f e r s b r a v e l y b o t h

r a c i a l p r e j u d i c e a n d t h e d a n g e r s of c o m b a t . M i c h a e l W h i t a c r e i s a

N e w Y o r k s t a g e m a n a g e r w h o c o m e s to v i ew h i s s o c i e t y a s f a l s e a n d

c o r r u p t . C h r i s t i a n D i e s t l i s a G e r m a n c o m m u n i s t . A l l b e c o m e s o l d i e r s

f i g h t i n g in E u r o p e . A t t h e e n d of t h e n o v e l t h e t h r e e m e n c o m e t o g e t h e r

in a s y m b o l i c m o m e n t of t r u t h and t e r r o r . N o a h a n d C h r i s t i a n d i e , a n d

M i c h a e l a l o n e l i v e s . He i s t h e e n l i g h t e n e d o n e w h o w i l l s e e a b e t t e r i -» -i 4 3

w o r l d a f t e r t h e w a r .

47 A l d r i d g e , A f t e r t h e L o s t G e n e r a t i o n , pp . 147, 103,

78

C h r i s t i a n D i e s t l b e c o m e s a s e r g e a n t and l e a r n s to e n j o y the s e l f -

s a t i s f a c t i o n of m i l i t a r y c o m m a n d . He l e a r n s h i s l e a d e r s h i p s k i l l s

u n d e r Lt . H a r d e n b u r g , who b e l i e v e s t h a t an o f f i c e r ' s job is to p l a c e

h i s m e n in s u c h a m a n n e r t h a t t hey wi l l e i t h e r f igh t o r d i e . Th i s is

e f f e c t i v e , but b r u t a l , l e a d e r s h i p . D i e s t l l e a r n s h i s l e s s o n we l l , and

b e f o r e the w a r ends he is s e e n v e r y s k i l l f u l l y i n f l i c t i ng d a m a g e on h i s

e n e m y .

M i c h a e l W h i t a c r e is i m p r e s s e d by t h r e e o f f i c e r s , Cap t . Co lc lough

is a va in bu l ly and a c o w a r d who u s e s h i s p o s i t i o n of c o m m a n d p u r e l y

f o r s e l f - i n t e r e s t . Co lc lough i s m u c h l ike the l i e u t e n a n t w h o m W h i t a c r e

s e e s v i s i t i n g the f r o n t l i n e s . The young o f f i c e r b e h a v e s l i ke a t o u r i s t ,

f o o l i s h l y hun t ing s o u v e n i r s and f u l l y e x p e c t i n g to r e t u r n a t n i g h t f a l l to

the s a f e t y and c o m f o r t of h i s r e a r e c h e l o n c o m m a n d p o s t . The l i e u t e n a n t

d i e s a t the f r o n t b e c a u s e he i s s tup id and p r o u d . Cap t . G r e e n is a s m a l l ,

q u i e t m a n wi th a s h r i l l v o i c e . Yet he d o e s h i s job in a c a l m , c r i s p ,

m a n n e r , a l w a y s e f f i c i e n t and i m p e r s o n a l . His e n e r g y and c o m m o n

s e n s e , coup led wi th h i s u n a s s u m i n g m a n n e r , win h i m e n o r m o u s r e s p e c t

f r o m e v e r y o n e . Noah A c k e r m a n knows bo th Co lc lough and G r e e n ; he

d e f i e s the u n f a i r n e s s of C o l c l o u g h and g i v e s l oya l s u p p o r t to Cap t . G r e e n ,

T h e s e t h r e e n o v e l i s t s who w r i t e of l e a d e r s in the A r m y g e n e r a l l y

t e n d to s e e e n l i s t e d m e n a s h e r o e s and o f f i c e r s a s s o m e t h i n g l e s s t h a n

good. J o n e s , M a i l e r , and Shaw d e p i c t m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s h i p a s a n e c e s s a r y

79

e v i l b r o u g h t a b o u t b y w a r s w h i c h a r e t h e r e s u l t of c o r r u p t m o t i v a t i o n s

a n d i d e a l s . M a n y of t h e l e a d e r s d r a w n b y t h e s e w r i t e r s a r e r u i n e d b y

t h e p e c u l i a r i t i e s of t h e A r r a y s y s t e m a n d t h a t s y s t e m ' s b a s i s of

a u t h o r i t a t i v e c o n t r o l g r a n t e d to a f e w o v e r m a n y . A v e r y f e w of t h e

o t h e r l e a d e r s a r e s e e n to b e good m e n in s p i t e of t h e p r e r o g a t i v e s of

t h e i r r a n k . T h e s i m i l a r i t i e s of t h e s e t h r e e w r i t e r s a r e m a n y . A l l

w e r e i n t e l l e c t u a l s of l o w r a n k in t h e A r m y ; a l l c r i t i c i z e a s y s t e m

w h i c h r e c o g n i z e s o n l y r a n k a n d g i v e s i n t e l l i g e n c e l i t t l e c r e d i t . A l l

t h r e e m e n s h o w o f f i c e r s w h o a r e b a d l e a d e r s a n d n o n c o m s w h o a r e

good l e a d e r s . E a c h of t h e m d e p i c t s t h e p e r s e c u t i o n of J e w s . M a i l e r

d i s c u s s e s u n f a i t h f u l w ives , a n d J o n e s a n d Shaw h a v e o f f i c e r s ' w i v e s

b e i n g u n f a i t h f u l w i t h e n l i s t e d m e n ; p e r h a p s t h i s i s a n a c t of r e v e n g e on

t h e p a r t of t h e s e e x - e n l i s t e d w r i t e r s . T h e s e a u t h o r s a r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e

of m o s t A m e r i c a n w a r n o v e l i s t s , w h o s e s i m i l a r b a c k g r o u n d s a r e

e x h i b i t e d in t h e i r n o v e l s w i t h m a n y c o m m o n t h e m e s .

C H A P T E R IV

C O Z Z E N S , H E R S E Y , AND H E L L E R

J a m e s Gould C o z z e n s , J o h n H e r s e y , and J o s e p h H e l l e r m a y

i n i t i a l l y a p p e a r to h a v e l i t t l e in c o m m o n , T h e r e i s a t w e n t y y e a r

d i f f e r e n c e in t h e i r a g e s ; t h e i r v o c a t i o n s a r e d i f f e r e n t in e m p h a s i s , and

a l t hough C o z z e n s and H e l l e r w e r e both W o r l d War II A i r F o r c e o f f i c e r s ,

John H e r s e y h a s s e e n m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e only a s a w a r c o r r e s p o n d e n t . Of

c o u r s e a l l t h r e e m e n have w r i t t e n w a r n o v e l s wh ich t r e a t m i l i t a r y

l e a d e r s , and i n c i d e n t a l l y a l t t h r e e w r i t e r s h a v e w r i t t e n of l e a d e r s in the

A i r F o r c e . C o z z e n s ' G u a r d of H o n o r , H e r s e y ' s The W a r L o v e r , and

H e l l e r ' s C a t c h 22 a l l d e a l wi th p i l o t s d u r i n g the Second W o r l d W a r .

J o h n H e r s e y h a s a l s o w r i t t e n two e t h e r n o v e l s wi th a w a r o r m i l i t a r y

s e t t i n g ; t hey a r e A Be l l f o r Adano and The Wal l .

J a m e s Gould C o z z e n s

A l a r g e n u m b e r of c r i t i c s h a v e begun j o u r n a l a r t i c l e s abou t

C o z z e n s by c o m m e n t i n g t h a t too l i t t l e c r i t i c a l w o r k h a s b e e n done on

t h i s n o v e l i s t . A p p a r e n t l y so m a n y w r i t e r s have w o r r i e d abou t the

n e g l e c t of J a m e s Gould C o z z e n s t h a t t h e r e i s now a m a s s i v e a m o u n t of

c r i t i c a l m a t e r i a l a v a i l a b l e on the a u t h o r . Only t h a t m a t e r i a l d i r e c t l y

80

81

re la ted to Cozzens as a w r i t e r about mi l i t a ry l e a d e r s will be cons idered

for this study. Cozzens was born in Chicago in 1903, at tended Harvard

Universi ty , was an Ai r F o r c e of f ice r f r o m 1942 until 1945, and p resen t ly

1

l ives in Massachuse t t s . He rece ived the Li t t . D. degree f r o m Harva rd

in 1953, and is thought of as an a r i s t o c r a t , the c lass ic man with a white,

Amer ican , Republican, pro tes tant point of view.

F a c t s a r e his special ty; his philosophy is that what a m a n does

and what he is a r e the same , and that every man works always within 2

the l imi t s of the poss ible . Ma t t e r -o f - f ac t ly , with normal s i tuat ions

and bel ievable c h a r a c t e r s , Cozzens desc r ibes "the se l f i shness , the

s tupidi t ies , the fa i lu res , the inescapable m a r c h to a mean ing less death .. 3

of ou r se lves and our f r i ends . His plots concern the e thics of respon-

sibili ty, re la t ive to every r e a d e r , and important to eve ry l eade r .

Cozzens tends to leave his own persona l i ty out of h is s to r i e s ; he seeks

to avoid all sent imental i ty . He says in a l e t t e r to a publ isher , "I

s imply put down, when I wri te , what the things I have seen and known "''James M. Ethr idge and B a r b a r a Kopala, edi tors , Contemporary

Authors , XI-XII (Detroi t , 1965), 95-96.

2

Irving Howe, J a m e s Gould Cozzens: Novelist of the Republic, The New Republic, CXXXVIII ( January 20, 1958), 15-19.

3 John Lydenberg, "Cozzens and the Cr i t ics , " College English,

XIX (December , 1957), 102.

82

4

l o o k l i k e to m e . I t r y no t to i n t r u d e w h a t I t h i n k , n T h i s h a s obvious ly-

b e e n a v e r y s u c c e s s f u l f o r m u l a , f o r C o z z e n s h a s p u b l i s h e d t w e l v e n o v e l s

a n d a n u m b e r of s h o r t s t o r i e s , F o u r of h i s n o v e l s w e r e s e l e c t e d a s

R o o k - o f - t h e - M o n t h C l u b C h o i c e s , a n d G u a r d of H o n o r w o n t h e P u l i t z e r

P r i z e i n 1949.

C o z z e n s i s n o t e d f o r t h e t e c h n i c a l a c c u r a c y i n h i s b o o k s . H e i s

k n o w n a s a w r i t e r of t h e p r o f e s s i o n s , h a v i n g w r i t t e n n o t o n l y of t h e

m i l i t a r y , bu t a l s o of t h e m i n i s t r y a n d of b o t h m e d i c i n e a n d l a w . H i s

c h a r a c t e r s a r e m a r k e d by t h e i r w i s d o m a n d m a t u r i t y ; j u d g i n g b y t h e

h e r o e s of h i s b o o k s , t h e t h e m e of C o z z e n s ! w o r k s m i g h t be s a i d to

c o n c e r n n t h e d i g n i t y a m a n a t t a i n s by a c t i n g i n f u l l a w a r e n e s s of t h e

i r o n y of t h e c o n d i t i o n s w i t h i n w h i c h h e m u s t e x i s t . H e i s said, t o b e

a t r a d i t i o n a l , c o n s e r v a t i v e , o l d - f a s h i o n e d w r i t e r , w h o s e p r o t a g o n i s t s

a r e m e n of m a t u r i t y w h o a v o i d a l l e x t r e m e s . F o r C o z z e n s t h e p r o p e r

s t u d y of m a n i s t h e c o n d i t i o n of m a n ; h i s c h a r a c t e r s a r e m a t u r e m e n

m a k i n g j u d g m e n t s w i t h i n t h e b o u n d s of t h e i r p r o f e s s i o n s , w o r k i n g

" w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s of t h e p o s s i b l e f f i n I !a k i n d of p r a g m a t i c p h i l o s q p h y

4 R i c h a r d M. L u d w i g , MA R e a d i n g of J a m e s G o u l d C o z z e n s 1

M a n u s c r i p t s , n P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y C h r o n i c l e , XIX ( A u t u m n , 1957) , 4. , ~ ~ ~

5 J o h n W. W a r d , " J a m e s G o u l d C o z z e n s a n d t h e C o n d i t i o n of

M o d e r n M a n , ,f A m e r i c a n S c h o l a r , XXVII ( W i n t e r , 1 9 5 7 - 5 8 ) , 92«

83

6

of c o m p r o m i s e . n Wi th t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e H e r m a n Wouk , C o z z e n s

s e e m s to i m p l y t h a t to b e s a v e d a m a n m u s t b e a S t o i c . T h i s r a t h e r

p h i l o s o p h i c n o v e l i s t s h o w s m e n t h i n k i n g , a s w e l l a s a c t i n g ; h e d e p i c t s

l e a d e r s in t h e c o n d i t i o n of m a t u r i t y , r a t h e r t h a n in t h e p r o c e s s of

m a t u r i n g .

A l t h o u g h C o z z e n s , a s a n o f f i c e r in t h e A i r F o r c e , h a d a j o b in

O r l a n d o m u c h l i k e t h e b i l l e t of C a p t , Na t H i c k s in G u a r d of H o n o r , h e

h i m s e l f i s i n v i s i b l e in t h i s n o v e l . T h e n o v e l i s t ' s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of

o b j e c t i v i t y i s ap j> l i cab le in t h i s b o o k , a s in h i s o t h e r w o r k s ; h e m a i n -

t a i n s h i s p a s s i o n f o r p e r s o n a l d e t a c h m e n t . R i c h a r d L u d w i g q u o t e s

C o z z e n s a s s a y i n g of h i s s e r v i c e in t h e A i r F o r c e , " I d o n ' t t h i n k a n y o n e 7

h a d o c c a s i o n to s i t d o w n w i t h a n d l i s t e n to s o m a n y of t h e a i r g e n e r a l s . 11

So C o z z e n s h a s a b a s i s of k n o w l e d g e f o r h i s a t t i t u d e t o w a r d l e a d e r s ,

t h o u g h h e k e e p s h i s a p p r o a c h to t h e c h a r a c t e r s i m p e r s o n a l . S e v e r a l of

t h e b a s i c t h e m e s of t h i s a u t h o r l i s t e d b y S. E . H y m a n in a N e w M e x i c o

Q u a r t e r l y a r t i c l e may b e n o t e d in G u a r d of H o n o r . V a r i o u s c h a r a c t e r s ,

f o r i n s t a n c e , d i s p l a y a n e a r n e d m o r a l i t y , w h e r e b y m e n d i s c o v e r s o m e

p r i n c i p l e t h r o u g h s u f f e r i n g . T h e i m p e r f e c t a b i l i t y of m a n , t h e e f f e c t s 6.

F r e d e r i c k B r a c h e r , " J a m e s G o u l d C o z z e n s : H u m a n i s t , " C r i t i q u e , I ( W i n t e r , 1958) , 17, 28 .

7 L u d w i g , " A R e a d i n g of J a m e s G o u l d C o z z e n s ' M a n u s c r i p t s , "

P- 7

8 S. E . H y m a n , " J a m e s G o u l d C o z z e n s a n d t h e A r t of t h e P o s s i b l e ,

New M e x i c o Q u a r t e r l y , XIX ( W i n t e r , 1949) , 4 7 7 .

84

of p o w e r and a u t h o r i t y , t he i n f l u e n c e s of c h a n c e and luck , s u r v i v a l

i n s t i n c t s , and s o m e u n f o r t u n a t e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of old a g e m a y a l l be

s e e n in t h i s nove l .

G u a r d of Honor is a s t o r y of t h r e e d a y s in the l i f e of a g r o u p of

o f f i c e r s on an A i r F o r c e b a s e in F l o r i d a d u r i n g W o r l d W a r II. The

t r a i n i n g b a s e at O c a n a r a is c o m m a n d e d by M a j . Gen. I r a N. " B u s "

B e a l ; h i s l a r g e s ta f f of o f f i c e r s i s d o m i n a t e d by Col. R o s s , a l a w y e r

and judge in c i v i l i a n l i f e and the m a i n s t a y of Gen. Bea l 1 s h e a d q u a r t e r s

g r o u p . Dur ing the t h r e e d a y s , T h u r s d a y t h r o u g h S a t u r d a y , of the nove l ,

s e v e r a l r e l a t e d i n c i d e n t s o c c u r w h i c h e m b r o i l B e a l and R o s s in a

c o n s t a n t p r o c e s s i o n of c o n f u s i n g p r o b l e m s . A whi t e o f f i c e r , a p i lo t

f r i e n d of the G e n e r a l , h i t s a n o t h e r p i lo t , a j u n i o r N e g r o o f f i c e r , f o r

n e a r l y c a u s i n g a c o l l i s i o n of two a i r c r a f t . The s c u f f l e b e t w e e n the

o f f i c e r s c a u s e s r a c i a l r e p e r c u s s i o n s in W a s h i n g t o n and in the l o c a l

c o m m u n i t y . T h e r e a r e o t h e r i n c i d e n t s w i th N e g r o e s ; t h e o f f i c e r who

w a s h i t . i s g iven a m e d a l by a v i s i t i n g g e n e r a l f r o m Wash ing ton , and

s o m e c o l o r e d o f f i c e r s a t t e m p t to f o r c e t h e i r way in to t h e b a s e o f f i c e r s '

c lub , d e c l a r e d o f f - l i m i t s to t h e m . F i n a l l y , on S a t u r d a y , s o m e p a r a -

t r o o p e r s d ie in an a c c i d e n t d u r i n g an a i r show and c o m b a t d e m o n s t r a t i o n .

Involving, a s it d o e s , m a n y p e r s o n s in m a n y h a p p e n i n g s , t he nove l i s a

s e r i e s of s m a l l d r a m a s i n t e g r a t e d into a who le p lo t , w i th the c e n t r a l

f i g u r e s be ing Gen. B e a l c o m m a n d i n g and Col . R o s s a s s i s t i n g . G u a r d of

Honor is c a l l e d by m a n y c r i t i c s C o z z e n s 1 b e s t nove l .

85

T h e n o v e l w a s f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s one of t h e b o o k s on t h e r e q u i r e d

r e a d i n g l i s t f o r o f f i c e r s a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s A i r C o m m a n d a n d Staf f

S c h o o l . T w o A i r F o r c e c o l o n e l s , w h e n a s k e d a b o u t t h e b o o k , c o m m e n t e d

on C o z z e n s 1 t e c h n i c a l k n o w l e d g e , m o r a l r e a l i s m , c a r e in p r o d u c i n g t h e

e n v e l o p i n g a c t i o n , a n d a b i l i t y to c r e a t e p o w e r f u l s c e n e s a n d c h a r a c t e r s

9

f r o m o r d i n a r y e x p e r i e n c e s . T h i s s e n s e of t h e o r d i n a r y l e a d s F r e d e r i c k

B r a c h e r t o w r i t e in a P a c i f i c S p e c t a t o r a r t i c l e t h a t C o z z e n s 1 h e r o e s a r e

n o t h e r o i c , a n d t h u s a r e m o r e r e a l . T h e s e c h a r a c t e r s p r o v e t h a t m a t u r i t y

i s i t s own r e w a r d , t h a t a m a n g a i n s a s s u r a n c e f r o m t h e f , c o m p e t e n t 10

e x e r c i s e of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . n P r o m i n e n t in t h i s n o v e l " i s t h e a s s u m p t i o n

t h a t d u t y a n d a c c o m p l i s h m e n t a r e m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n e n j o y m e n t o r

h a p p i n e s s . M T h e c h a r a c t e r s o b v i o u s l y r e a l i z e " t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r

a d a p t i n g p r i n c i p l e s t o p a r t i c u l a r o c c a s i o n s . 11 C o z z e n s u s e s t h i s n o v e l

to d e p i c t t h e c o m p l e x i t y a n d i m m e n s i t y of h u m a n e x p e r i e n c e b y s h o w i n g

t h e i n t e r a c t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l s i n v o l v e d in t h e p o s s e s s i o n a n d f l o w of

p o w e r w i t h i n a n o r g a n i z a t i o n . The n o v e l i s t , l i k e t h e c l a s s i c S t o i c s ,

s e e s a s e n s e in t h e f l u x of t h i n g s . He p l a c e s e m p h a s i s on r e a s o n ,

d i s c i p l i n e , a n d s e l f - c o n t r o l . 9

J a m e s A . P a r r i s h , J r . , " C o z z e n s F i g h t s a W a r , " A r i z o n a Q u a r t e r l y , XVII I ( W i n t e r , 1962) , 336 , 339 .

10 F r e d e r i c k B r a c h e r , "Of Youth a n d A g e : J a m e s G o u l d C o z z e n s , "

P a c i f i c S p e c t a t o r , V ( W i n t e r , 1951) , 59.

^ F r e d e r i c k B r a c h e r , T h e N o v e l s of J a m e s G o u l d C o z z e n s (New

Y o r k , 1959) , p p . 9, 16, 6 7 - 6 9 , 234 .

86

G u a r d of H o n o r i s t h o u g h t b y m i l i t a r y m e n to be one of t h e b e s t

of t h e w a r n o v e l s b e c a u s e i t s h o w s a n a w a r e n e s s of a c t u a l s e r v i c e

p r o b l e m s . T h e b o o k i s p r a i s e d no l e s s h i g h l y by m a n y c r i t i c s , R i c h a r d

L u d w i g s a y s t h e n o v e l " s h o w s g o o d s e n s e a n d a d u l t i n t e l l i g e n c e a n d

12

s c o p e . 11 C h e s t e r E i s i n g e r b e l i e v e s t h a t n t h e p a r a d o x e s a n d c o n t r a -

d i c t i o n s h a v e p r o d u c e d a t e n s i o n v /h ich m a k e s G u a r d of H o n o r t h e b e s t

n o v e l C o z z e n s h a s t h u s f a r w r i t t e n , a n d o n e of t h e f e w m e m o r a b l e 13

n o v e l s to c o m e ou t of t h e S e c o n d W o r l d W a r , n M i c h a e l M i l l g a t e ,

w r i t i n g in t h e C r i t i c a l Q u a r t e r l y , s t a t e s t h a t C o z z e n s l a c k s p a s s i o n ,

b u t H a t b e s t , C o z z e n s i s t h e e q u a l of a l l bu t t h e g r e a t e s t of m o d e r n

A m e r i c a n w r i t e r s . G u a r d of H o n o r , c e r t a i n l y , i s n o t o n l y h i s own f i n e s t

a c h i e v e m e n t bu t o n e of t h e b e s t n o v e l s to a p p e a r a n y w h e r e s i n c e t h e e n d

of t h e S e c o n d W o r l d W a r . " 1 4

J o h n F r e d e r i c k , i n d i s c u s s i n g t h e n o v e l s of W o r l d W a r I I ,

p r a i s e s G u a r d of H o n o r a b o v e a l l o t h e r s . H e f e e l s t h a t n o o t h e r n o v e l

of t h i s w a r r e v e a l s so c l e a r l y t he i n t r i c a t e m e s h i n g of p e r so n a l i t i e s a n d

d e s t i n i e s , i n a m i l i t a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n , s h o w n a s t h e i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e of 12

L u d w i g , n A R e a d i n g of J a m e s G o u l d C o z z e n s , r M a n u s c r i p t s , n

p . 8.

13 C h e s t e r E . E i s i n g e r , F i c t i o n of t h e F o r t i e s ( C h i c a g o , 1963) ,

p . 165. — - - —

14 M i c h a e l M i l l g a t e , n T h e J u d g m e n t s of J a m e s G o u l d C o z z e n s , !t

C r i t i c a l Q u a r t e r l y , IV ( S p r i n g , 1962), 91.

87

*

p a r t s in a v a s t and v a s t l y c o m p l i c a t e d m a c h i n e . F r e d e r i c k s a y s tha t

C o z z e n s a l o n e , of the Wor ld W a r II n o v e l i s t s , h a s shown sk i l l in w r i t i n g

s e r i o u s r e a l i s t i c f i c t i o n . He s t a t e s t h a t if a n y w a r n o v e l d o e s , G u a r d of

Honor wi l l s h a r e a p e r m a n e n t p l a c e in l i t e r a t u r e wi th the b e s t of the w a r ' s

15

n o n - f i c t i o n .

P r o b a b l y one of the chief r e a s o n s t h i s p a r t i c u l a r w o r k is r e g a r d e d

so h igh ly is t ha t it b r e a k s the t r a d i t i o n of m a n y w a r n o v e l s and shows

both r e s p e c t and a l ik ing f o r h i g h - r a n k i n g o f f i c e r s . C o z z e n s m a k e s

even the c o l o n e l s and g e n e r a l s a p p e a r a s h u m a n b e i n g s . He g ive s a

f a i r and a c c u r a t e p r e s e n t a t i o n of w o m e n o f f i c e r s , of o f f i c e r - e n l i s t e d

r e l a t i o n s , and of the c o n t r a s t s b e t w e e n p r o f e s s i o n a l m i l i t a r y m e n and

t h o s e who only w e a r the u n i f o r m f o r the d u r a t i o n . J o h n Woodburn

b e l i e v e s t ha t C o z z e n s , in G u a r d of Honor , p r e s e n t s

o b j e c t i v e l y , c o m p a s s i o n a t e l y , and b r i l l i a n t l y the g r a t i n g c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n the c i v i l i a n in u n i f o r m and the c a r e e r -s o l d i e r : the one t r o u b l e d and q u e s t i o n i n g , e n d u r i n g a p r o f o u n d s e n s e of d i s l o c a t i o n , u n c o m f o r t a b l y a c c e p t i n g the w a r a s a t r a g i c , p e r h a p s n o t - u n a v o i d a b l e d i s a s t e r ; the o t h e r e n g r o s s e d and e x h i l a r a t e d , a t sp l end i j i ^ease in the f a m i l i a r c l i m a t e of a c t i o n and a u t h o r i t y .

15 John T. F r e d e r i c k , " F i c t i o n of Wor ld W a r II, n C o l l e g e E n g l i s h ,

XVII ( N o v e m b e r , 1955), 455.

John Woodburn , " W a r : A m a t e u r V e r s u s P r o f e s s i o n a l V e r s u s C h i l d r e n , ,f S a t u r d a y R e v i e w of L i t e r a t u r e , XXXI (Oc tobe r 2, 1948), 15.

88

John Lydenberg says of Cozzenfe' l e ade r s , "They a r e h a r d - p r e s s e d ,

imper fec t worthies doing the i r best in a difficult world made up of

17

people much l e s s worthy, on the whole, than t h e y . "

Gen. Beal and his legal staff o f f icer , Col. Ross , a r e the two

mos t important such wor th ies in the novel. Nei ther is pe r fec t , but

both a r e depicted as m o r e capable than those whom they command and

control . Gen. Beal i s one who has l ea rned to adapt to l i fe ; he is happy

between two e x t r e m e s , adapting the ideal of l eadersh ip to the "exigencies" 18

of the human si tuation. Beal , age for ty , i s best at act ive pa r t i c i -

pation; he is not intended by na ture for high-level l eadersh ip . He is ,

however, being observed by the Ai r F o r c e high command, for they hope

to give him a m a j o r ro le in l a t e r s tages of the war . This is one purpose

for Gen. Nichols ' visi t to Ocanara . "Bus" Beal is seen as having the

"unl imi ted in tegr i ty that accepted a s the law of nature such elevated

concepts as the mi l i t a ry academy ' s Duty-Honor -Count ry . " This type

of in tegr i ty is essen t ia l in winning the war , but Beal is not effect ive 19

without the direct ion of Gen. Nichols and the support of Col. Ross .

17 John Lydenberg, "Cozzens and the Conserva t ives , " Cri t ique,

I (Winter, 1958), 6.

18 W. J . Stuckey, The Pu l i t ze r P r i z e Novels (Norman,Oklahoma,

1966), p. 146.

19 B r a c h e r , Novels of Cozzens, p. 255.

89

Gen. N i c h o l s i s a m o r e n e a r l y s u p e r h u m a n l e a d e r t han Bea l ;

N i c h o l s h a s l e a r n e d to be r e s i g n e d , to a c c e p t the b e s t t h a t i s p o s s i b l e

u n d e r the c i r c u m s t a n c e s . He b e s t u n d e r s t a n d s the l i m i t s of the p o s s i b l e .

He i s shown a l w a y s to be o b j e c t i v e and d e t a c h e d , n e i t h e r c o m m i t t i n g

"? A

h i m s e l f no r e x p e c t i n g too m u c h of o t h e r s . N icho l s i s the cool ,

p r o f e s s i o n a l l e a d e r a g a i n s t w h o s e c a l m the i m p u l s i v e n a t u r e of B e a l

s e e m s b o y i s h .

Gen . B e a l , y o u n g e s t t w o - s t a r g e n e r a l in t he A i r F o r c e a t t h i s

t i m e , h a s a s n u b - n o s e d f a c e and s h o r t , n a t u r a l l y c u r l y h a i r . H i s p l a t -

i num w a t c h and h e a v y go ld i d e n t i f i c a t i o n b r a c e l e t c o n t r a s t w i th h i s

w i l t e d s h i r t and s loppy g a r r i s o n cap . H i s d r e s s and a t t i t u d e a r e c a s u a l ,

s o m e t i m e s r e c k l e s s and i m p u l s i v e , but h i s t e c h n i c a l sk i l l a s a p i l o t i s

s u p e r i o r , and h i s p r o m o t i o n s h a v e c o m e r a p i d l y . Al though h i s e x p l o i t s

a r e the t a l k of the s e r v i c e and h i s f u t u r e i s v e r y b r i g h t , h e r e a l l y does

no t s e e m to c a r e abou t h i s c a r e e r . He c a r e s about f ly ing and abou t

doing wha t h a s to be done . He i s d e c i s i v e a n d c o u r a g e o u s in c o m b a t

and in c o m m a n d ; h i s c o u r a g e i s s e e n in t h e d a n g e r o u s m i s s i o n s h e h a s

a c c o m p l i s h e d in A f r i c a and in the d i f f i c u l t d e c i s i o n s h e m a k e s so qu ick ly .

He o f t e n s e e m s to be i r r i t a t e d by t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s of a t r a i n i n g c o m m a n d ;

h i s i n s t i n c t t e l l s h i m to ge t on w i th the w a r , and th i s d e s i r e c a u s e s the

20 E i s i n g e r , F i c t i o n of t h e F o r t i e s , p . .168.

90

G e n e r a l to be i m p a t i e n t a t t i m e s . B e a l o f t e n g i v e s the i m p r e s s i o n of a

t r o u b l e d boy wan t ing to ge t b a c k to the g a m e .

In d i s c i p l i n i n g a n o t h e r p i lo t , B e a l i s s e e n r a t i o n a l i z i n g the s e r i -

o u s n e s s of the p i lo t 1 s e r r o r s b e c a u s e the m a n is an e x c e p t i o n a l a v i a t o r .

The G e n e r a l w o r r i e s abou t c r e e p i n g a g e s lowing h i s r e a c t i o n t i m e , and

he t a k e s t i m e out to f l y w h e n he shou ld be in h i s o f f i c e a t t e n d i n g to

a d m i n i s t r a t i v e m a t t e r s . Of t en the G e n e r a l a s k s Col . R o s s to h a n d l e

a m a t t e r f o r h i m , i n d i c a t i n g h i s l igh t r e g a r d of any th ing not d i r e c t l y

r e l a t e d to f l y ing . He is c o n c e r n e d abou t m a i n t a i n i n g the r e s p e c t of h i s

f e l l o w p i l o t s , but the op in ions of o t h e r s , h i s w i f e and d e s k - b o u n d

o f f i c e r s , s e e m not to b o t h e r h i m . Yet Gen. B e a l h a s t h e a l l - i m p o r t a n t ,

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a b o r n l e a d e r w h i c h c a u s e s t h o s e who know h i m to

w a n t to w o r k wi th h i m and f o r h i m . E v e n w h e n Col . R o s s d i s l i k e s B e a l

f o r su lk ing , he i s e a g e r to s u p p o r t h i m in e v e r y p o s s i b l e way , and B e a l

e x h i b i t s an a p t i t u d e f o r s e l e c t i n g the r i g h t m e n to h a n d l e h i s p r o b l e m s

f o r h i m .

The G e n e r a l i s , in s h o r t , a m a n of a c t i o n ; he is a d e m a n d i n g

l e a d e r , but i s s e l d o m s e r i o u s f o r long and r e m a i n s p l a y f u l wi th h i s w i fe

in t he m o s t s e r i o u s c i r c u m s t a n c e s . He m a y o v e r l o o k a h u n d r e d

c o m m e n d a b l e a c t i o n s , but is qu i ck to c o m p l i m e n t a j o b we l l done when

he d o e s n o t i c e i t . Gen. B e a l e x p e c t s , and n e e d s , s t r o n g l o y a l t y f r o m

h i s s u b o r d i n a t e s , but he g i v e s the s a m e s o r t of l o y a l t y to t h o s e u n d e r

91

h i m . He is a s i m p l e m a n who l i k e s to h a v e h i s own w a y and is not i

t r o u b l e d by d o u b t s . His s k i l l and c o n f i d e n c e i n s p i r e l o y a l t y and

c o n f i d e n c e in o t h e r s , and he d o e s a d i f f i c u l t job we l l by be ing p e r s o n a l l y

c h a r m i n g o r a g g r e s s i v e l y c o m m a n d i n g a s the s i t u a t i o n d e m a n d s . Indeed

h i s f i n e s t a t t r i b u t e of l e a d e r s h i p is h i s f l e x i b i l i t y .

Col . R o s s is t he w i s e f a t h e r - f i g u r e of j u d g m e n t and a u t h o r i t y in

t h e nove l . At age s ix ty , old enough to be B e a l ' s f a t h e r , he i s the

m a t u r e t h i n k e r who m o s t o f t e n " c o u n s e l s and e x e c u t e s a s k i l f u l s e r i e s 2 1

of c o m p r o m i s e s . " Gen. B e a l i s the d r a m a t i c c e n t e r of a n e t w o r k of

e v e n t s in the s t o r y , but Col . R o s s , a l w a y s the i m p e r t u r b a b l e m a n of

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , is c o n s t a n t l y beh ind the G e n e r a l , p l a c e d t h e r e by

C o z z e n s a s the a p o s t l e of p r u d e n c e , t h e s p o k e s m a n f o r t h e p r a g m a t i c

v i ewpoin t . R o s s a p p e a r s to a l w a y s be a b l e to so lve a n y p r o b l e m ; d e s p i t e

any w e a k n e s s o r f a i l u r e in t h o s e a r o u n d h i m , the Co lone l goes on doing

wha t he can , and t h a t is enough. R o s s 1 c r e e d is t h a t e v e r y m a n m u s t

s t a n d up and do the b e s t he c a n wi th wha t he h a s . .Living t h i s c r e e d

R o s s c a r r i e s c o m m o n s e n s e to the l e v e l of w i s d o m . " H i s is t he r e s p o n -

s i b i l i t y f o r m a k i n g t h e B a s e w o r k . He is c o u r a g e o u s , shrewd,- he h a s

t h e d ign i ty w h i c h c o m e s f r o m doing an i n d i s p e n s a b l e job, and it i s 22

i m p o s s i b l e not to s h a r e M r . C o z z e n ' s a d m i r a t i o n f o r h i m . " In t h e

21 I b i d . , p . 166.

22 F r a n c i s F e r g u s s o n , " T h r e e N o v e l s . " P e r s p e c t i v e s USA, VI

(Win t e r , 1954), 37.

92

w o r d s of R o b e r t Hea ley , "Old Col. R o s s . . . i s a f i ne d i s t i l l a t i o n of

23

a l l the r i c h p r a c t i c a l w i s d o m of the w o r l d . "

At the end of the novel , when it is c l e a r to a l l t ha t the G e n e r a l

i s a g u a r d i a n f o r the na t ion , but Col . R o s s is B e a l ' s g u a r d i a n , the

obvious in ten t of the a u t h o r is t ha t only the m a t u r e ind iv idua l can g u a r d

24

the g u a r d i a n s . With the he lp of m e n l ike R o s s , l e a d e r s l ike Bea l

wi l l m o v e f o r w a r d wi th the n e c e s s a r y b u s i n e s s of w a r , d e s p i t e the

w e a k n e s s e s of m e n . The i n t e r dependency C o z z e n s g ives h i s o f f i c e r s

m a k e s t h e m a p p e a r a s r e a l peop le , in sp i t e of being m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s .

John H e r s e y

John H e r s e y w a s bo rn in 1914 in T i e n t s i n , China , w h e r e h is

p a r e n t s w e r e m i s s i o n a r i e s . He r e c e i v e d h i s B, A. d e g r e e a t Yale and

s tud ied a t C a m b r i d g e . He is v e r y c iv ic m i n d e d , and he w o r k s fu l l

t i m e to i m p r o v e t h i s c o u n t r y ' s educa t ion . H e r s e y was appo in t ed M a s t e r 25

of a Yale co l l ege in 1965. He is b a s i c a l l y a m a g a z i n e c o r r e s p o n d e n t ,

a r e p o r t e r who c a r e s f o r h u m a n i t y . He s ays of w r i t i n g , " T r u t h is s a id

23 R o b e r t C. Hea ley , "A Bunch of D i s p o s s e s s e d , " F i f t y Y e a r s of

the A m e r i c a n Novel, ed i ted by H a r o l d C. G a r d i n e r (New York , 1 9 5 T ) ~ p. 268.

24 J a m e s Gould C o z z e n s , G u a r d of Honor (New York , 1948), p. 631.

25 Efchridge and Kopa la , C o n t e m p o r a r y A u t h o r s , XVII-XVIII , 215-216 .

93

o /

t o b e s t r a n g e r t h a n f i c t i o n ; f i c t i o n c a n be s t r o n g e r t h a n t r u t h . 11 ° A

B e l l f o r A d a n o , H e r s e y f s f i r s t n o v e l , w o n t h e P u l i t z e r P r i z e i n 1945 .

H e r s e y s a w c o m b a t a s a f o r e i g n c o r r e s p o n d e n t in b o t h E u r o p e a n d t h e

P a c i f i c a n d h a d w r i t t e n a n u m b e r of n o n - f i c t i o n b o o k s a b o u t w a r b e f o r e

w r i t i n g h i s f i r s t n o v e l . H i r o s h i m a i s p r o b a b l y h i s b e s t k n o w n w o r k .

N o r m a n C o u s i n s s a y s t h a t H e r s e y h a s a c o n v i c t i o n f l t ha t h u m a n v a l u e s ,

h u m a n f e e l i n g s , a n d h u m a n e x p e r i e n c e s a r e t h e b a s i c b u i l d i n g b l o c k s

of w r i t i n g . I f ^

H e r s e y h a s w r i t t e n t h r e e w a r n o v e l s : T h e W a l l i s a b o u t c i v i l i a n

J e w s in t h e W a r s a w g h e t t o ; A B e l l f o r A d a n o d e a l s w i t h A r m y o c c u p a t i o n

f o r c e s in I t a l y a f t e r W o r l d W a r II , a n d T h e W a r L o v e r t r e a t s A m e r i c a n

a v i a t o r s i n E u r o p e d u r i n g t h e S e c o n d W o r l d W a r . T h e W a l l , a l r e a d y

c o m p a r e d t o L e o n U r i s f M i l a 18, i s o n l y i n c i d e n t a l l y r e l a t e d to m i l i t a r y

l e a d e r s h i p . I t s h e r o e s s h o w t h e a t t r i b u t e s of d e d i c a t i o n a n d b r a v e r y ,

c o u p l e d w i t h t h e u n s e l f i s h d e v o t i o n to a c a u s e w h i c h i n s p i r e s m e n to

f o l l o w , t h a t a r e e x p e c t e d in a l l l e a d e r s . But t h e e m p h a s i s of t h e n o v e l

i s o n m a n ' s i n h u m a n i t y to m a n , a n d t h e s u f f e r i n g c o u r a g e of t h e J e w s ,

n o t on t h e l e a d e r s h i p of s p e c i f i c i n d i v i d u a l s . R o b e r t H e a l e y s a y s of t h e

2 6 I b i d . , p . 215 .

N o r m a n C o u s i n s , " J o h n H e r s e y , u S a t u r d a y R e v i e w of L i t e r a t u r e , XXXII I ( M a r c h 4, 1950) , 15. ~~ ~ —

94

b o o k , " T h e Wal l c a n be c o n s i d e r e d t h e f i n e s t A m e r i c a n n o v e l to d a t e

2 8

a b o u t t h e w a r , n bu t f o r t h e p u r p o s e s of t h i s s t u d y , t h e n o v e l i s

u n i m p o r t a n t .

The W a r L o v e r i s m o r e a n a n t i - w a r n o v e l t h a n a n y t h i n g e l s e , bu t

it i s a b o u t m e n a t w a r . H e r s e y , w i t h h i s a w a r e n e s s of h u m a n i s t i c v a l u e s ,

c o n f u s e s p e r s o n a l p r o b l e m s of i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h t he p r o b l e m s of s o c i e t y .

J o n e s and M a i l e r , a s we l ] a s J o s e p h K e l l e r , do m u c h t h e s a m e t h i n g .

T h e p r o t a g o n i s t of t h i s n o v e l , t h e m a n who l o v e s w a r , i s C a p t . B u z z

M a r r o w . He i s a b o m b e r p i l o t , a n d h i s s t o r y is t o l d by h i s c o p i l o t ,

L t . C h a r l e s Bo m a n . The L i e u t e n a n t d e p i c t s M a r r o w a s a.n e x c e l l e n t

p i l o t , a good l e a d e r , a n d a b a d m a n . M a r r o w , t w e n t y - s i x , i s n s h r e w d , 29

a d a p t a b l e , m o o d y ; a n a t u r a l a v i a t o r ; b e l l i c o s e a n d n o i s y . " B o m a n

f i n a l l y r e a l i z e s t h a t h i s p r i m a r y o b j e c t i o n to h i s p i l o t i s t h a t t h e m a n

l o v e s f i g h t i n g b e t t e r t h a n h e l o v e s t h e t h i n g s h e i s s u p p o s e d to be

f i g h t i n g *fo.r.

T h e n o v e l i s s e t in E u r o p e , t h e c r e w s m a k i n g r a i d s on t h e

G e r m a n s f r o m ' a n a i r b a s e in E n g l a n d . T h e n o v e l i s two s t o r i e s , bo th

n a r r a t e d b y L t , B o m a n . Whi le f l y i n g on a r a i d , B o m a n t h i n k s of h i s

t o u r in t h e w a r w i t h M a r r o w . A l t e r n a t i n g s h o r t c h a p t e r s c o n c e r n f i r s t 28

H e a l e y , , !A B u n c h of D i s p o s s e s s e d , 11 p . 269 .

29 J o h n H e r s e y , The W a r L o v e r (New Y o r k , 1959) , p . 174.

95

t h e e v e n t s of t h e r a i d o c c u r r i n g a t t he t i m e , then r e m e m b r a n c e s of

e v e n t s of the p a s t . T h e n a g a i n t h e p r e s e n t s c e n e i s dep ic t ed ; the c h a n g e s

in t i m e and s e t t i n g con t inue to the end of the book, when the r a i d e n d s

in the c r a s h of M a r r o w ' s p l a n e and the dea th of the p i l o t .

M a r r o w ' s good l e a d e r s h i p c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , a s r e c a l l e d by B o m a n ,

a r e m a n y . He k n o w s h i s j ob , and he h a s s u p r e m e c o n f i d e n c e in h i m s e l f .

But t h e s e s a m e a t t r i b u t e s w o r k a g a i n s t h i m a s w e l l . He i s o b s c e n e l y

v a i n abou t h i s own k n o w l e d g e and s k i l l and c a u s e s h i m s e l f to be u n i v e r -

s a l l y h a t e d by b r a g g i n g abou t h i m s e l f . Cap t . M a r r o w i s a c k n o w l e d g e d ,

e v e n by t h o s e who h a t e h i m p e r s o n a l l y , to be a r e a l c o m m a n d e r . He

k n o w s wha t e a c h of h i s c r e w m e n i s s u p p o s e d to be th inking e v e r y

m o m e n t the p l a n e i s in the a i r , and h e c o n s t a n t l y c h e c k s on t h e m . He

t h i n k s a h e a d , a n t i c i p a t i n g t r o u b l e wi th M s k e e n i n t e l l i g e n c e , a n d i s

c r e d i t e d w i th sav ing s e v e r a l l i v e s by h i s a w a r e n e s s . He h a s a n i n f e c t i o u s

e n t h u s i a s m f o r f ly ing a n d f o r e v e r y m i s s i o n ; h i s m e n b e l i e v e t h e i r p i l o t

to be h igh ly p a t r i o t i c . He e n j o y s h i m s e l f so m u c h tha t o t h e r m e n r e s e n t

t h e i r own d i s a p p o i n t m e n t s . Buzz M a r r o w m e t h o d i c a l l y p r e p a r e s e v e r y -

th ing , h i m s e l f , h i s a i r c r a f t , a n d h i s c r e w , w e l l in a d v a n c e , and t h e n

he c h e c k s a n d c h e c k s a g a i n e v e r y d e t a i l .

The C a p t a i n i s to be c o m m e n d e d f o r o t h e r a s s e t s , too . H e i s

c a l m e s t in m o m e n t s of s t r e s s ; h e h a s an u n c a n n y a b i l i t y to th ink c l e a r l y

of m a n y c o m p l e x t h r e a d s of ac t ion ; p o s s e s s i n g a w o n d e r f u l c l a r i t y of

96

m i n d when e x c i t e d and a s p e e d of r e a c t i o n t ha t is i n s t a n t a n e o u s , M a r r o w

c o n t r o l s the p l ane and i t s c r e w in all p h a s e s of t h e i r o p e r a t i o n s , e v e n

d u r i n g o f f - d u t y h o u r s . He h a s an in f in i t e c a p a c i t y f o r w o r k ; h i s

p h y s i c a l t o u g h n e s s and m e n t a l a l e r t n e s s a r e not d i s t u r b e d by i r r e g u l a r .

s c h e d u l e s o r l o s s of s l e e p . He is u n p o p u l a r b e c a u s e he s t e a d i l y b o a s t s

abou t the Mluck1? of h i s p l a n e and h i s own t o u g h n e s s , but m u c h of t h i s

good f o r t u n e and r e a d i n e s s is due to M a r r o w ' s own c a r e f u l p r e p a r a t i o n .

J u s t a s h i s good p o i n t s a r e v e r y w o r t h y , so h i s w e a k n e s s e s a s a

l e a d e r a r e t e r r i b l y s e r i o u s . He d o e s not know the m e a n i n g of l oya l t y ,

to e i t h e r s u b o r d i n a t e o r s u p e r i o r ; h i s a t t i t u d e s and i n t e r e s t s a r e e n t i r e l y

s e l f - c e n t e r e d , and o f t e n s e l f - p r o t e c t i v e . He l a c k s the d ign i ty of s e l f -

deny ing love . M a r r o w ' s c o n v i c t i o n s a r e b a s i c a l l y , s e l f i s h , and t h e r e f o r e

a r e v e r y sha l l ow . He b r a g s abou t h i s s e x u a l e x p l o i t s , but is d i s c o v e r e d

to be ly ing; h i s i n s e c u r i t y is c o v e r e d wi th t a l e s of b r a v a d o , and only h i s

l u s t f u l t a lk r e m a i n s to s e r v e a s a r e m i n d e r of the m a n h o o d he m a n i f e s t s

only by loving w a r .

In t h i s nove l the a u t h o r p r e s e n t s a un ique a t t i t u d e f o r A m e r i c a n

w a r f i c t i o n . M o s t w a r n o v e l i s t s d e p i c t e n l i s t e d m e n e x p r e s s i n g a h a t r e d

f o r m e m b e r s of the o f f i c e r c o r p s . J o h n H e r s e y h a s an o f f i c e r v e h e -

m e n t l y ha t ing a l l s e r g e a n t s and o t h e r e n l i s t e d m e n . When a g g r a v a t e d

by an e n l i s t e d m a n , Cap t . M a r r o w s p e w s out a f a n t a s t i c t o r r e n t of

o b s c e n i t i e s a g a i n s t a l l s e r g e a n t s ; h i s f r e q u e n t t i r a d e s of t h i s n a t u r e

97

c o n s t i t u t e a t h e m e of a b u s e which c l a s s e s n o n c o m s a s w e a k , l a z y ,

c o w a r d l y , i n a d e q u a t e , s h i r k i n g , and i ngen ious only in avo id ing w o r k .

The C a p t a i n v e n t s h i s a n g e r in s i c k e n i n g o u t b u r s t s and in s h a m e f u l

g e n e r a l i t i e s of h a t r e d ; even in m o r e r e a s o n a b l e c o n v e r s a t i o n s M a r r o w

d e r i d e s the e n l i s t e d c r e w m e n a s u n d e r - e d u c a t e d , i n f e r i o r in i n t e l l i g e n c e ,

and l a c k i n g in any f o r m of m e n t a l c a p a c i t y . N a t u r a l l y t h i s p r i v a t e w a r

of M a r r o w ' s a g a i n s t the e n l i s t e d p e r s o n n e l m a k e s l i f e f o r the o t h e r

o f f i c e r s s o m e w h a t l e s s t h a n c o m f o r t a b l e .

Cap t . M a r r o w h a s s t i l l a n o t h e r w e a k n e s s , m o r e s e r i o u s than h i s

b l u s t e r i n g w a y s , and m o r e d a m a g i n g t h a n h i s u n f a i r o p i n i o n s : he h a s a

l u s t f o r p o w e r ; he is t h r i l l ed by dea th ; he is p r o u d of the c a p a c i t y f o r

d e s t r u c t i o n a t h i s c o n t r o l . M a r r o w b r i s t l e s wi th p r i d e b e c a u s e he and

h i s c r e w be long to the m o s t d e s t r u c t i v e g r o u p of m e n in the h i s t o r y of

the w o r l d ; a p p a r e n t l y h i s a p p e t i t e f o r d e s t r u c t i v e n e s s i s i n s a t i a b l e . He

b e g i n s e a c h b o m b r u n wi th a p r i m i t i v e , g u t t u r a l s c r e a m ; it i s no t w o r d s ,

but a howl of d e f i a n c e of d e a t h and de l i gh t in k i l l i ng . His p e r s o n a l

s a t i s f a c t i o n in the p o w e r of k i l l ing c a u s e s h i m to t r y to do e v e r y t h i n g

h i m s e l f ; he c a n n e v e r l e t anyone e l s e be t r u l y in c h a r g e of any th ing .

T h e r e f o r e the m e n u n d e r h i m b e c o m e f r u s t r a t e d and ga in l e s s e x p e r i e n c e

t h a n they shou ld ; t h e i r i n i t i a t i v e i s s t y m i e d by t h e i r p i lo t . And Cap t .

M a r r o w f i n a l l y a l l o w s h i s own h a t r e d to d e s t r o y h i m . The u s e f u l n e s s of

h i s good c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i s i m m e r s e d in the s h a m e of h i s k i l l - c r a z e d

9 ft

p o w e r - l u s t , and he i s s e e n l o s i n g c o n t r o l of h i m s e l f and the p l a n e c r e w

a s the nove l e n d s .

In a n o t h e r of h i s n o v e l s , A B e l l f o r Adano , John H e r s e y d e p i c t s a

v e r y d i f f e r e n t t ype of m a n . I r w i n Shaw b e l i e v e s t h a t H e r s e y w r o t e we l l

abou t f igh t ing in A B e l l f o r Adano , ^ but the book i s r e a l l y not abou t

c o m b a t a t a l l . The s t o r y w a s p u b l i s h e d wh i l e m e n w e r e f i t h t ing in

o r d e r to show tha t m e n of good wi l l c an h e a l the wounds of the w o r l d .

The nove l 1 s h e r o , Ma) . Joppo lo , is a n i d e a l i s t , a s he m u s t be to d e a l

31

wi th the p r o b l e m s he l a c e s . Th i s s tudy h a s a l r e a d y c o m m e n t e d on

the i d e a l goa l s of l e a d e r s h i p and h a s shown s e v e r a l e x a m p l e s of i d e a l i s t s

who a r e l e a d e r s . Joppo lo is not a n e x c e p t i o n to t h e s e o t h e r m e n , though

he m a y s e e m l e s s r e a l t h a n l e a d e r s of o t h e r a u t h o r s . A m a n who l o v e s

h u m a n i t y s u f f i c i e n t l y to r e f u s e a w o m a n ' s l ove and d i s o b e y the d i r e c t

o r d e r of a g e n e r a l o f f i c e r , a s M a j . Joppo lo d o e s , i s s o m e w h a t out of

p l a c e in A m e r i c a n f i c t i o n . In h i s f o r e w a r d to A B e l l f o r Adano , J o h n H e r s e y c a l l s M a j .

V i c t o r Joppo lo a good m a n , though w e a k in c e r t a i n h u m a n w a y s . The

a u t h o r s a y s of h i s h e r o :

30 I r w m Shaw, nIf You W r i t e About the W a r , !f S a t u r d a y R e v i e w of

L i t e r a t u r e , XXVIII ( F e b r u a r y 17, 1945), 6.

31 K e l s e y Gui l fo i l , ? !John H e r s e y : F a c t and F i c t i o n , M The E n g l i s h

J o u r n a l , XXXIX ( S e p t e m b e r , 1950), 357.

99

What he did and wha t he w a s riot a b l e to do in Ada.no r e p r e s e n t e d in m i n i a t u r e wha t A m e r i c a can and c a n n o t do in E u r o p e . . . . Only m e n c a n g u a r a n t e e , only the b e h a v i o r of m e n u n d e r p r e s s u r e , only ou r J o p p o l o s . ^

M a j . Joppo lo is the s e n i o r c iv i l a f f a i r s o f f i c e r in the s m a l l I t a l i an

town of Adano . It is h i s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to r e h a b i l i t a t e the town and he lp

the I t a l i a n s r e g a i n c o n t r o l of t h e i r l i v e s in a p r o d u c t i v e m a n n e r a f t e r the

d e s t r u c t i o n of the Second W o r l d W a r . The M a j o r is f o l l o w e d in h i s e f f o r t s

to r e s t o r e the t o w n ' s h e a l t h , food s o u r c e s , and m o r a l e . He d o e s a good

job in a l l a r e a s , even to ob ta in ing a r e p l a c e m e n t f o r the b e l l the G e r m a n s

had t a k e n f r o m the c i ty ha l l ,

In o r d e r to a c c o m p l i s h the m a n y - s i d e d m i s s i o n f a c i n g h i m ,

Joppo lo m u s t b a t t l e d i s e a s e , b u r e a u c r a c y , t he I t a l i a n p e o p l e , and

A m e r i c a n s e r v i c e m e n . He m u s t a l s o win the r e s p e c t of t he l o c a l peop le

and the c o o p e r a t i o n of a d i v e r s e a s s o r t m e n t of p e r s o n s , a l l the whi le

t r y i n g to avo id the p i t f a l l s of A r m y r e g u l a t i o n s and the t y r a n n i c a l a n g e r

of h i s s u p e r i o r , Gen. M a r v i n .

V i c t o r Joppo lo is an A m e r i c a n I t a l i an , abou t t h i r t y - f i v e , wi th

d a r k sk in and a m u s t a c h e . He l oves t r u t h , and s e e k s to c a u s e o t h e r s

to love it, d e s i r e it, and judge by i t . He a l s o l o v e s the I t a l i a n peop l e

m o r e t han h i m s e l f . Joppo lo p r e s e n t s a s t r i k i n g c o n t r a s t to h i s g e n e r a l ,

^ J o h n H e r s e y , A Be l l f o r Adano (New Y o r k , 1944), pp. v - v i .

100

Gen. M a r v i n . M a r v i n i s c a l l e d bad by H e r s e y ; he i s s a i d to be s o m e -

th ing w o r s e t h a n wha t A m e r i c a n t r o o p s h a v e t h r o w n out of I t a ly . The

G e n e r a l b e l l o w s in a f o g h o r n v o i c e , w e a r s s p u r s and c a r r i e s a c a p t u r e d

L u g e r p i s t o l and a r i d i n g c r o p a s he r i d e s in h i s a r m o r e d c a r , and

c o n t i n u a l l y i n s u l t s the I t a l i a n s and d a m a g e s t h e i r p r o p e r t y . M a r v i n

i n s i s t s t he I t a l i a n s a r e in h i s way; t h e i r c a r t s o b s t r u c t h i s p a s s a g e and

w a s t e h i s p r e c i o u s t i m e , and he o r d e r s Joppo lo to k e e p the c a r t s out of

town. Joppo lo k n o w s , of c o u r s e , t h a t t he t o w n s p e o p l e canno t r e b u i l d ,

o r e v e n e x i s t , w i thou t the u s e of the c a r t s , so he q u i e t l y d i s o b e y s the

G e n e r a l .

Joppo lo wins undying r e s p e c t and a d m i r a t i o n f r o m the K a l i a n s ,

f o r he s e r v e s t h e m and t h e n t h a n k s t h e m f o r h e l p i n g . They s e e h i m a s

t r u l y d i f f e r e n t . A m e r i c a n s s e e h i m a s a l i t t l e c r a z y in h i s z e a l to h e l p

t he town of Adano , bu t t h e y m u s t a d m i r e t h e job he is doing . E v e n

e n l i s t e d m e n r e m a r k on the u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e M a j o r h a s f o r the p e o p l e

of Adano and th ink Joppo lo is the b e s t th ing t ha t h a s e v e r h a p p e n e d to the

town. Unl ike s o m e o f f i c e r s , Joppo lo b e l i e v e s t ha t h a p p i n e s s and

d i s c i p l i n e c a n go t o g e t h e r , and he p r o v e s it w i th h i s t r o o p s and wi th the

t o w n s p e o p l e , f o r he is e q u a l l y j u s t w i th bo th g r o u p s . He m a n a g e s , by

c a r e f u l l y p h r a s i n g h i s w o r d s , by m o r a l p r e s s u r e , and by p e r s u a s i o n ,

to m a k e the t r u t h s e e m bo th b e a u t i f u l and n e c e s s a r y .

101

But he is h u m a n , in s p i t e of be ing so v e r y i d e a l i s t i c . His d e s i r e

f o r p o p u l a r i t y is obv ious to e v e r y o n e . He hun t s f o r s i g n s tha t he is

l i ked , and whi le wan t ing a l w a y s to do good, s t i l l the M a j o r is s w a y e d

t o w a r d doing good in s u c h a w a y a s to be p o p u l a r and known by a l l a s

one who does good. He is g e n e r o u s beyond f au l t , but w e a k in w a n t i n g

to be thought g e n e r o u s . The o b j e c t i v e d e t a c h m e n t of a good l e a d e r h a s

e s c a p e d V i c t o r Joppo lo . But a b o v e a l l is J o p p o l o ' s s i n c e r e w i s h t h a t

e v e r y o n e be happy and have a s m u c h a s he w a n t s of w h a t he w a n t s

w i thou t h u r t i n g o t h e r s .

T h i s n o v e l i s t , John H e r s e y , h a s b e e n c o n d e m n e d f o r w r i t i n g

books which a r e t r a c t s , s o c i a l i s t i c a p p e a l s f o r love , but no t n o v e l s .

His c h a r a c t e r s a r e c r i t i c i z e d a s be ing too e x t r e m e to be r e a l , too

i d e a l i s t i c to be h u m a n . He is e v e n s a i d by s o m e c r i t i c s not to u n d e r -

s t a n d the h u m a n i t y of wh ich he w r i t e s . It i s t r u e t h a t he t e n d s to

p r e a c h in h i s w a r n o v e l s ; he c e r t a i n l y is a d v o c a t i n g a p o l i c y , not

o b s e r v i n g a f a c t , but H e r s e y c o m m i t s h i m s e l f , h i s n o v e l s , and h i s

l e a d e r s to a love f o r m a n k i n d . While the l e a d e r s m a y be d r a w n a s

m o r e o r l e s s t han m e r e h u m a n s , t h e y a r e d e p i c t e d a s be ing e i t h e r

good o r bad p r i m a r i l y b e c a u s e t hey p o s s e s s o r l a ck a love f o r t h e i r

f e l l o w m a n . T h e r e f o r e the chief f a u l t of H e r s e y ' s c o n c e p t of l e a d e r -

sh ip i s t ha t it is p e r h a p s i n c o m p l e t e , though p r o p e r l y m o t i v a t e d .

102

J o s e p h H e l l e r

E v e r y c o l l e g e E n g l i s h i n s t r u c t o r is thought to be p l ann ing to

w r i t e a novel ; e v e r y m a g a z i n e j o u r n a l i s t is s u p p o s e d to be doing the

s a m e . J o s e p h H e l l e r , E n g l i s h i n s t r u c t o r and m a g a z i n e w r i t e r , w a s

no e x c e p t i o n ; C a t c h - 2 2 is h i s f i r s t nove l . H e l l e r w a s b o r n in B r o o k l y n

in 1923, r e c e i v e d h is B. A. d e g r e e f r o m New York U n i v e r s i t y , h i s

M. A. d e g r e e f r o m C o l u m b i a , and w a s a F u l b r i g h t S c h o l a r at O x f o r d .

He s e r v e d a s a l i e u t e n a n t in the A i r F o r c e d u r i n g W o r l d W a r II. H e l l e r

c l a i m s tha t a s a n o v e l i s t he w a s i n f l u e n c e d by J a m e s J o n e s and N o r m a n

M a i l e r ; " I put off w r i t i n g m y own (novel) f o r e ight y e a r s b e c a u s e of

t h e m .

C a t c h - 2 2 i s a w o r k of o r i g i n a l h u m o r ; the book is l ike c e r t a i n

a b s u r d i s t p l a y s ; it m i g h t be c a l l e d " b l a c k h u m o r , " f o r it is h u m o r and

h o r r o r i n t e r t w i n e d . The n o v e l ' s m e s s a g e is p e r s e v e r a n c e and s u r v i v a l ;

i t s t h e m e is f r u s t r a t i o n . The p r o t a g o n i s t of the s t o r y is C a p t . Y o s s a r i a n ,

who is d r a w n a s a n a n t i - h e r o a m o n g n o n - h e r o e s . Y o s s a r i a n i s a r a t i o n a l

m a n , thought c r a z y by s e n i o r o f f i c e r s , who is d e v o t e d to r e a s o n and

c o n s i d e r s h i m s e l f the on ly s a n e m a n in a w o r l d gone m a d . The C a p t a i n ' s

d o c t o r s a y s of h i m , " T h a t c r a z y b a s t a r d m a y be the only s a n e one l e f t .

3 3 E t h r i d g e , C o n t e m p o r a r y A u t h o r s , VII-VIII , 2 3 7 - 2 3 8 .

3 4 J o s e p h H e l l e r , C a t c h - 2 2 (New Y o r k , 1955), p. 114.

103

It i s t h i s s t r a n g e s a n e / i n s a n e q u a l i t y of Cap t . Y o s s a r i a n wh ich so

i m p r e s s e s the r e a d e r . His a d a p t a b i l i t y and r e a s o n i n g m a k e h i m an

a d m i r a b l e m a n .

The s t o r y i s abou t an A m e r i c a n b o m b e r g r o u p of the Second

W o r l d W a r , s t a t i o n e d on the M e d i t a r r a n e a n i s l a n d of P i a n o s a . The

b o m b e r c r e w s have b e e n on the i s l a n d , and f ly ing b o m b i n g m i s s i o n s ,

a v e r y long wh i l e . T h e r e s e e m s to be no p o s s i b l e e s c a p e f o r t h e m

f r o m the w a r b e c a u s e of C a t c h - 2 2 , wh ich is a r e g u l a t i o n n e v e r s e e n but

f i r m l y b e l i e v e d by a l l . C a t c h - 2 2 s a y s tha t w h a t e v e r the A i r F o r c e , o r

i t s s e n i o r o f f i c e r s , w a n t s to do is a l l r i g h t . By the a u t h o r i t y of C a t c h - 2 2

t h e co lone l c o m m a n d i n g Cap t . Y o s s a r i a n ' s un i t c o n t i n u e s to i n c r e a s e

the n u m b e r of m i s s i o n s a m a n is r e q u i r e d to f ly b e f o r e he m a y be

r o t a t e d out of the w a r zone . He d o e s t h i s to add to h i s own g l o r y in

o r d e r t ha t he m i g h t be p r o m o t e d m o r e qu i ck ly .

P r o m o t i o n i s m a d e the so le goal of p r o f e s s i o n a l o f f i c e r s by H e l l e r .

C r i t i c Vance R a m s e y s t a t e s t ha t " a s p i r a t i o n wi th in the s y s t e m wi th no

e x a m i n a t i o n of ends h a s b e c o m e an end in i t s e l f ; it h a s b e c o m e a s u b s t i -

t u t e f o r m e a n i n g f u l l i f e . 1 , 3 5 Col . K o r n e x p l a i n s the d e s i r e f o r p r o m o t i o n

to Y o s s a r i a n . He s a y s , "What e l s e have we got to do? E v e r y o n e t e a c h e s

us to a s p i r e to h i g h e r t h i n g s . A g e n e r a l is h i g h e r t h a n a c o l o n e l . . . so

3 5 Vance R a m s e y , " H e l l e r ' s C a t c h - 2 2 , " Seven C o n t e m p o r a r y

A u t h o r s , ed i t ed by T h o m a s B. W h i t b r e a d (Aust in , 1966), p. 112.

104

w e ' r e b o t h a s p i r i n g . n*^b C o l . K o r n i s t y p i c a l of t h e o f f i c e r s of t h e

n o v e l . None a r e w o r t h y l e a d e r s ; a l l b u t Y o s s a r i a n a r e e i t h e r c o r r u p t

o r m e n t a l l y d e r a n g e d in s o m e r e s p e c t . A n o t h e r w r i t e r , S h i m o n

W i n c e l b e r g , v e r y a p t l y s u m m a r i z e s t h e l e a d e r s of H e l l e r ' s n o v e l in

s a y i n g t h a t t h i s a u t h o r h a s c r e a t e d n p r e p o s t e r o u s ( s o m e t i m e s t o o

p r e p o s t e r o u s ) c o l o n e l s a n d g e n e r a l s , a g a l l e r y of c h i l d i s h , s e n i l e , v a i n ,

37

m a l i c i o u s , f r i g h t e n e d i n c o m p e t e n t s . , ! Y o s s a r i a n i s a d m i r e d n o t

b e c a u s e h e i s a good l e a d e r , b u t b e c a u s e h e a l o n e i s a r a t i o n a l m a n .

H e l l e r i s a d v o c a t i n g a n end to w a r , b e c a u s e of t h e m a l i c i o u s e v i l of

t h o s e m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s w h o w a g e w a r . H i s g o a l i s p r a i s e w o r t h y , bu t

h i s i m a g e of m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s i s h a r d l y r a t i o n a l o r f a i r . H i s c o n c e p t

of m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s h i p i s a s u n b a l a n c e d a s a r e t h e c h a r a c t e r s h e

p i c t u r e s . i

T h e s e t h r e e w a r n o v e l i s t s , H e l l e r , K e r s e y , a n d C o z z e n s , h a v e

g i v e n t o t h e w o r l d of f i c t i o n a b r o a d v i e w of m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s . H e r s e y ' s

M a j . J o p p o l o i s a s u n r e a l a s H e l l e r ' s C o L K o r n , f o r a d i f f e r e n t r e a s o n .

K o r n i s t o o s t u p i d a n d e v i l ; J o p p o l o i s t o o good to b e t r u e . H o v / e v e r ,

C o L R o s s , of G u a r d of H o n o r , i s m a d e v e r y r e a l . He i s a m a n w h o

h a p p e n s t o b e a n o f f i c e r . B u t t h o u g h a m i l i t a r y l e a d e r , R o s s h a s t h e 36

H e l l e r , C a t c h - 2 2 , p . 4 3 5 .

37 S h i m o n W i n c e l b e r g , n A D e a d l y S e r i o u s L u n a c y , n On C o n t e m -

p o r a r y L i t e r a t u r e , e d i t e d b y R i c h a r d K o s t e l a n e t z (New Y o r k , 1964) , p . 389 .

105

s t r e n g t h s and w e a k n e s s e s of a m a n . Of the t h r e e a u t h o r s only C o z z e n s

i s o b j e c t i v e , and only h i s l e a d e r s a r e s e e n to be a c c u r a t e c h a r a c t e r i -

z a t i o n s of r e a l m e n and l e a d e r s .

C H A P T E R V

WOUK AND M I C H E N E R

The f i n a l two n o v e l i s t s to be d i s c u s s e d , H e r m a n Wouk and J a m e s

M i c h e n e r , p r o v i d e a n a t u r a l t r a n s i t i o n to the conc lud ing r e m a r k s of

t h i s s tudy . E a c h of t h e s e w r i t e r s is by n a t u r e a c o n s e r v a t i v e ; the books

of t h e s e a u t h o r s t end to s u p p o r t the m i l i t a r y s y s t e m and to a f f i r m the

v a l u e s e s t a b l i s h e d by t ha t s y s t e m . Wouk and M i c h e n e r do not v / r i t e f o r

s h o c k e f f e c t ; t hey do not d e p i c t l e a d e r s a t the e x t r e m e s of the qua l i t y

s c a l e ; t hey do not a t t e m p t to r e m a k e s o c i e t y in t h e i r n o v e l s . Both m e n

a r e i nc l ined to be s y m p a t h e t i c wi th the m i l i t a r y s y s t e m , whi le a p p r e c i -

a t ing the d i f f i c u l t i e s of the l e a d e r s who w o r k wi th in t ha t s y s t e m . T h e s e

two w a r n o v e l i s t s a r e m o r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of m o d e r n A m e r i c a n w r i t e r s

of w a r than a r e t h o s e who c o n d e m n the m i l i t a r y and i t s l e a d e r s . T h e i r

a t t i t u d e s have not a t t r a c t e d the p u b l i c i t y g iven to the n o v e l i s t s who

d e s p a i r , but they v e r b a l i z e t r a d i t i o n a l c o n c e p t s wh ich a r e m o r e t r u l y

t y p i c a l of the w r i t e r s of w a r nove l s d u r i n g the f o r t i e s and f i f t i e s . They

a r e t y p i c a l b e c a u s e m o r e w a r n o v e l i s t s s u p p o r t the s y s t e m t h a n c o n d e m n

i t .

106

107

H e r m a n Wouk

A s a 1934 g r a d u a t e of C o l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y , a n e x - r a d i o g a g - w r i t e r ,

a n d e x - N a v y l i e u t e n a n t ( 1 9 4 2 - 1 9 4 6 ) , H e r m a n Wouk is a t y p i c a l p r o d u c t

of h i s s o c i e t y . He w a s b o r n in t h e B r o n x in 1915, r a i s e d b y h i s n e w l y

n a t i o n a l i z e d R u s s i a n f a m i l y to be a d e v o u t a n d o r t h o d o x J e w , a n d s t u d i e d

c o m p a r a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e a n d p h i l o s o p h y a t C o l u m b i a . ^ He w a s p r o a b l y

c h i e f l y i n f l u e n c e d b y two m e n , h i s g r a n d f a t h e r , w h o w a s a R a b b i , a n d a

2

C o l u m b i a p h i l o s o p h e r , P r o f e s s o r I r w i n E d m a n . H i s c e n t r a l t h e m e ,

r e s p o n s i b l e a c t i o n , m a y b e a t t r i b u t e d to t h e s e i n f l u e n c e s . Wouk i s c r i t i -

c i z e d f o r b e i n g too w i l l i n g t o a c c e p t t h e s t a t u s quo , bu t h e ha,s h a d a good

a n d s u c c e s s f u l l i f e in t he p r e s e n t s o c i e t y a n d c a n n o t b e b l a m e d f o r no t

d i s l i k i n g t h a t w h i c h h a s b e e n good to h i m . Wouk i s c u r r e n t l y s a i d to be

w r i t i n g a " h u g e n o v e l a b o u t a f a m i l y w i t h s o n s in c o m b a t in E u r o p e a n d 3

t h e P a c i f i c d u r i n g W o r l d W a r II. n In h i s w a r n o v e l , T h e C a i n e M u t i n y ,

Wouk d e c l a r e s n h i s b e l i e f in d e c e n c y - - in l a n g u a g e a s v /e l l a s d e e d s , 4

h o n o r , d i s c i p l i n e , a u t h o r i t y , h a l l o w e d i n s t i t u t i o n s l i k e t h e U. S. N a v y , n

He i s c e r t a i n l y a g a i n s t r e b e l l i o n , a t l e a s t p a r t l y b e c a u s e of h i s t i m e

^ J a m e s M. E t h r i d g e , e d i t o r , C o n t e m p o r a r y A u t h o r s , V - V I ( D e t r o i t , 1963) , 4 6 8 .

2 " T h e Wouk M u t i n y , " T i m e , JLXVI ( S e p t e m b e r 5, 1955) , 50 .

p . 2.

4

3 " I ! v e Got a Q u e s t i o n , " T h i s W e e k M a g a z i n e ( A p r i l 14, 1968) ,

' T h e Wouk M u t i n y , " p . 48 .

108

spen t a s a n a v a l o f f i c e r . The a u t h o r is quo ted a s s ay ing t ha t t he Navy

w a s the g r e a t e s t e x p e r i e n c e of h i s l i f e ; it was t h e r e t ha t he l e a r n e d the

5

m o s t abou t peop l e and about h i s c o u n t r y .

Wouk a c h i e v e d the r a n k of l i e u t e n a n t , j u n i o r g r a d e , d u r i n g h i s

s e r v i c e in the Navy, L ike the o f f i c e r s of h i s nove l , he s e r v e d a b o a r d

d e s t r o y e r - m i n e s w e e p e r s . Jo in ing the Navy in D e c e m b e r of 1941, he

s e r v e d on sh ip a s a s s i s t a n t c o m m u n i c a t i o n s o f f i c e r , c o m m u n i c a t i o n s

o f f i c e r , f i r s t l i e u t e n a n t , n a v i g a t o r , and e x e c u t i v e o f f i c e r . He had b e e n

r e c o m m e n d e d to be p r o m o t e d to c a p t a i n when the sh ip s a n k in a typhoon

n e a r Ok inawa . ^ Wouk ' s p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e s in the Navy a r e m u c h

l i ke t h o s e of two c h a r a c t e r s in h i s nove l , E n s . Ke i th and L t . K e e f e r .

Ke i th had the s a m e a s s i g n m e n t s on sh ip a s Wouk, and Wouk, l ike K e e f e r ,

w a s pu l l ed f r o m the s e a in 1945 c lu t ch ing the d r a f t of h i s f i r s t n o v e l .

Both Wouk and h i s c h a r a c t e r K e e f e r a r e t r a d i t i o n a l r e a l i s t s who a d m i r e

C h a r l e s D i c k e n s , Vice A d m . Hewle t t , a Naval A c a d e m y l e c t u r e r , s a y s

t h a t The C a i n e Mut iny is " a n a m a z i n g y a r n b e a u t i f u l l y to ld by a m o s t 7

g i f t e d n o v e l i s t who knows s o m e of the u n p l e a s a n t s i de of n a v a l l i f e . n

5 I b i d . , p . 52.

6 Ibid.

7 Vice A d m i r a l .L. Hewle t t Thebaud , ,f L e a d e r sh ip and A u t h o r i t y , n

S e l e c t e d R e a d i n g s in L e a d e r s h i p , e d i t e d by C o m m a n d e r M a l c o l m E . Wolfe and C a p t a i n F . J . Mulho l l and (Annapo l i s , I960) , p. 119.

109

The C a m e Mut iny is Wouk ' s b e s t and m o s t s u c c e s s f u l book. In

the f i r s t f i ve y e a r s of p u b l i c a t i o n it so ld o v e r f i ve m i l l i o n c o p i e s in

s e v e n t e e n l a n g u a g e s , m o r e t h a n any nove l e x c e p t Gone With the Wind.

Both a B r o a d w a y p l ay and a m o v i e h a v e b e e n m a d e f r o m the s t o r y , and '

t he novel won the P u l i t z e r P r i z e in 1952. J o h n F r e d e r i c b e l i e v e s the

n o v e l to be Wouk ' s b e s t b e c a u s e it is h i s l e a s t m o r a l i s t i c w o r k ; i t is a

s t o r y of the e t e r n a l p r o b l e m of w a r , t he w a r t i m e c o n f l i c t of i nd iv idua l

l i b e r t y and t o t a l i t a r i a n a u t h o r i t y . The n o v e l i s s i m p l e and d i r e c t ; t he

p lo t is c o m p l e t e , but the " e x c e l l e n c e of The C a i n e Mut iny l i e s in the

8 viv id r e a l i t y of the c h a r a c t e r s . " The book d e a l s w i th t h e h u m a n

9

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r the a c t i o n s of o t h e r s . ' T h i s i s , of c o u r s e , t he job

of the m i l i t a r y l e a d e r . "Bo th a t the t i m e of i t s a p p e a r a n c e and a f t e r w a r d , H e r m a n Wouk ' s

10

The Ca ine Mut iny w a s r e p e a t e d l y a t t a c k e d f o r i t s c o n f o r m i s t p r o p a g a n d a . "

P a r t of the r e a s o n f o r t h i s c r i t i c i s m is in W o u k ' s s h i f t in a t t i t u d e a t t he

end of the n o v e l . T h i s c h a n g e is e v i d e n c e d by the a u t h o r ' s c h a n g e f r o m

a n e m p h a s i s on the i n t e g r i t y of the i nd iv idua l to a b l a n d a c c e p t a n c e of t h e

8 F r e d e r i c I. C a r p e n t e r , " H e r m a n Wouk and t h e W i s d o m of

D i s i l l u s i o n , " The E n g l i s h J o u r n a l , XLY ( J a n u a r y , 1956), 4 .

9 John T. F r e d e r i c k , " F i c t i o n of W o r l d W a r II, " C o l l e g e E n g l i s h ,

XVII ( N o v e m b e r , 1955), 452. * ~

J o h n W. A l d r i d g e , In S e a r c h of H e r e s y (New York , 1956), p. 123. " " —

no

obl iga t ion of the ind iv idua l to a d j u s t to the m i l i t a r y s y s t e m . The m a t u -

r i t y of th i s nove l " c o n s i s t s of a w i l l i n g n e s s b l ind ly to fo l low a u t h o r i t y

w h e r e v e r it m a y l e a d . This sh i f t n e a r the end of the s t o r y to a

d e f e n s e of Queeg is a w e a k n e s s in the nove l , but it does d i s p l a y the

c o n s e r v a t i v e v a l u e s of Wouk. C r i t i c B. R. M c E l d e r r y , c o m m e n t i n g on

The Ca ine Mut iny, s a y s tha t c o m m a n d should not be a b s o l u t e b e c a u s e

12

" the U. S. Navy w a s not bu i l t by c o m m a n d , but by l e a d e r s h i p . n

The Ca ine Mut iny is the stcfry of the l i f e , love , and n a v a l c a r e e r

of E n s . Wil l ie Ke i th . But Ke i th is not v e r y i m p o r t a n t to th i s s tudy; it

is the o f f i c e r s Kei th w o r k s wi th a b o a r d the Ca ine , a d e s t r o y e r - m i n e s w e e p e r

in the P a c i f i c , who exhib i t the p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n of the l e a d e r s h i p c o n c e p t s

of the a u t h o r . Capt . Queeg in p a r t i c u l a r w i l l f o r m the b a s i s f o r the

c o n c l u s i o n s d r a w n about Wouk ' s a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s h i p .

The obvious f a u l t s of Queeg , p lus the c o m m e n t s of m e n about the qua l i t y of Q u e e g ' s c o m m a n d m e t h o d s , fo

a s Wouk f e e l s it should be . The

r m a v e r y de f in i t e p i c t u r e of l e a d e r s h i p

thoughts and opin ions of a t l e a s t t h r e e

o t h e r o f f i c e r s a s s o c i a t e d wi th the): Ca ine a r e w o r t h y of note . Lt . T o m

K e e f e r is a r e s e r v i s t b u s y w r i t i n

an i n t e l l e c t u a l , and in s o m e r e s p

11

g h i s f i r s t nove l whi le on ship; he is

iects the v i l l a i n of the s t o r y . L t . S tephen

W, J , Stuckey, The P u l i t z e r P r i z e Novels ( N o r m a n , O k l a h o m a , 1966), pp, 163-164 .

12 B. R, M c E l d e r r y , J r . , " T h e C o n s e r v a t i v e a s Nove l i s t :

H e r m a n Wouk, " A r i z o n a Q u a r t e r l y , XV ( S u m m e r , 1959), 131.

I l l

M a r y k is a s e a m a n b o r n and b r e d ; he is a r e s e r v e o f f i c e r bu t h o p e s to

m a k e a c a r e e r of the Navy. JLt. B a r n e y G r e e n w a l d is a f i g h t e r p i l o t

and a l a w y e r and d e f e n d s M a r y k a t t h e c o u r t - m a r t i a l a f t e r M a r y k

r e l i e v e s Queeg of h i s c o m m a n d .

L t . C o m d r . P h i l i p F r a n c i s Queeg d o e s no t b e c o m e u n s t a b l e b e c a u s e

of the s t r e s s of c o m m a n d a s c a p t a i n of the m i n e s w e e p e r C a m e ; he h a s

n e v e r b e e n e i t h e r a s t a b l e m a n , a good o f f i c e r , o r a c a p a b l e l e a d e r .

The m u t i n y i s , of c o u r s e , a g a i n s t C a p t . Queeg , not a g a i n s t t he Navy.

The nove l i s Queeg 1 s s t o r y , t o ld by E n s . K e i t h . Queeg " d r a m a t i z e d

e x a m p l e s of the m o s t od ious and c o n t e m p t i b l e p r o s t i t u t i o n of a u t h o r i t y

by a s o - c a l l e d o f f i c e r of t h e Navy. In Queeg you wi l l s e e p r e c i s e l y

13 w h a t a n o f f i c e r shou ld not be and n e v e r do. n " C a p t a i n Queeg a l s o

m a n i f e s t s a p r o f e s s i o n a l i n c o m p e t e n c e t h a t w i l l p r o b a b l y r e m a i n

14

u n p a r a l l e l e d in o r out of f i c t i o n . ,f Cap t . Queeg , c o n t r a s t e d w i t h

o t h e r Navy l e a d e r s , b e c o m e s a p e r f e c t n e g a t i v e e x a m p l e of m i l i t a r y

l e a d e r s h i p in a c t i o n . Wouk m a k e s of h i m a c l a s s i c m a n , one who d o e s

e v e r y t h i n g w r o n g in l e a d e r s h i p , a f a u l t y l e a d e r who h a s no s i ng l e w o r t h y

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c .

C a p t . Queeg r e l i e v e d Cap t . de Y r i e s s a s C, O. of the m i n e s w e e p e r

C a i n e . Cap t . de Y r i e s s w a s a big , f l a b b y m a n w i t h a v o i c e of i r o n

13 Thebaud , " L e a d e r s h i p and A u t h o r i t y , H p, 119.

14 S tuckey , The P u l i t z e r P r i z e N o v e l s , p . 159.

112

a u t h o r i t y and a c r e a s e d " o l d - y o u n g " f a c e . He w a s a c a s u a l m a n who

r a n a s h i p wh ich w a s s loppy in a p p e a r a n c e , but e x c e l l e n t in p e r f o r m a n c e .

His c r e w h a t e d the s h i p and t h e i r job, but h e l d the C a p t a i n in h igh r e s p e c t .

Cap t . de V r i e s s u n d e r s t o o d the s y m p a t h y of the d o w n t r o d d e n f o r e a c h

o t h e r and i g n o r e d the m u m b l i n g of h i s c r e w and j u n i o r o f f i c e r s a s long

a s it did no t i n t e r f e r e wi th t h e i r j o b s . The C a p t a i n knew t h a t Lt . K e e f e r

b e l i e v e d the Navy to be "a m a s t e r p l a n d e s i g n e d by g e n i u s e s f o r e x e c u t i o n

15

by i d io t s , " but he s a i d no th ing to K e e f e r a s long a s the L i e u t e n a n t did

h is w o r k . F a i r n e s s w a s the b a s i s f o r e v e r y t h i n g de V r i e s s did, and h i s

t r e a t m e n t of h i s c r e w c a u s e d t h e m to s u p p o r t h i m wi th a m a x i m u m e f f o r t .

The C a p t a i n k n e w the p e t t y o f f i c e r s r a n the sh ip and to ld t h e m so; t h e r e -

f o r e t h e y did a good job f o r h i m . Al l Cap t . de V r i e s s c a r e d a b o u t w a s

r e s u l t s .

W h e r e a s u n d e r De V r i e s s the Ca ine r a n a t r u e c o u r s e , f i g u r a t i v e l y

s p e a k i n g , u n d e r Capt . Queeg the old sh ip s t e a m e d in c i r c l e s , f i g u r a -

t i v e l y and l i t e r a l l y . One of the e a r l i e s t i n d i c a t i o n s of Q u e e g ' s i n e p t n e s s

i s s e e n when he b e c o m e s so invo lved l e c t u r i n g a s a i l o r on a m i n o r m a t t e r

t h a t he a l l o w s h i s sh ip to r u n in a c i r c l e , cu t t ing the towl ine of the t a r g e t

the s h i p h a s in tow. Queeg b e l i e v e s t h e r e a r e f o u r w a y s of doing th ings

a b o a r d a Navy sh ip . They a r e the r i g h t way , the w r o n g way , t h e Navy

way , and the C a p t a i n ' s w a y . Only the l a t t e r i s a c c e p t a b l e to Queeg . 15

H e r m a n Wouk, The Ca ine Mut iny (New Y o r k , 1951), p . 116.

113

Al though he is no t an e x a m p l e , the C a p t a i n t e l l s h i s o f f i c e r s t ha t on ly

e x c e l l e n t p e r f o r m a n c e is s t a n d a r d on h i s sh ip , and s u b - s t a n d a r d

p e r f o r m a n c e wi l l not be p e r m i t t e d to e x i s t . His g o a l s a r e w o r t h y but

m o s t u n r e a l i s t i c . Unde r h i s c o m m a n d no th ing m a y be a s s u m e d to be

so u n l e s s he s a y s it i s so , r e g a r d l e s s of p a s t e x p e r i e n c e , Navy r e g u -

l a t i o n s , o r l a w s of n a t u r e .

Cap t . Q u e e g ' s m a n i a f o r p e r f e c t i o n c a u s e s h i m to o r d e r tha t no

m i s t a k e s be m a d e ; he s t a t e s t ha t he h a s no i n t e n t i o n of e v e r m a k i n g a

m i s t a k e and wi l l not t o l e r a t e any e r r o r s c o m m i t t e d by a n y o n e e l s e .

S h o r t l y a f t e r d e l i v e r i n g t h i s po l i t e u l t i m a t u m , Queeg m i s h a n d l e s h i s s

s h i p in such a m a n n e r a s to c a u s e i t to c o l l i d e with a n o t h e r sh ip , and

t hen he s t e e r s the c r a f t onto a m u d b a n k . When the i n c i d e n t is r e s o l v e d ,

he d o e s not r e p o r t it and is r e p r i m a n d e d by a s u p e r i o r o f f i c e r , a c a p t a i n .

In a l a t e r c o n v e r s a t i o n wi th one of h i s s h i p ' s o f f i c e r s Queeg u s e s p r e c i s e l y

t h e s a m e w o r d s to c h a s t i s e a l i e u t e n a n t a s t h o s e w i th w h i c h the C a p t a i n .

h a d b e r a t e d Queeg h i m s e l f . Q u e e g f s obv ious t e n s i o n a t hav ing to d e f e n d

h i m s e l f i s r e l i e v e d by u p b r a i d i n g a j u n i o r o f f i c e r .

The l i s t of l e a d e r s h i p e r r o r s p e r p e t r a t e d by Queeg is e n d l e s s .

He buys the l i q u o r r a t i o n of a l l t he Ca ine 1 s o f f i c e r s and h a s a l l t he

l i q u o r s t o r e d in h i s s t a t e r o o m to s e n d h o m e l a t e r in a cra, te bu i l t by an

e n l i s t e d m a n . In doing so he not only b r e a k s n a v a l r e g u l a t i o n s but a l s o

he i g n o r e s c o m m o n c o u r t e s y . Th i s i s but one e x a m p l e of the t h i n g s

114

Cap t . Que eg does to u s e h i s l e a d e r s h i p p o s i t i o n to h i s own p e r s o n a l

a d v a n t a g e . When he d o e s wha t o t h e r s canno t do, b e c a u s e he a s Cap ta in

can m a k e h i s own r u l e s , he b r e a k s the c a r d i n a l r u l e of m i l i t a r y l e a d e r -

sh ip . Al l m e m b e r s of the c r e w a r e f r e q u e n t l y p u n i s h e d b e c a u s e a f e w

p e r s o n s a t t e m p t to fo l low the C a p t a i n ' s poo r e x a m p l e . Queeg f i r m l y

b e l i e v e s t h a t r a n k h a s i t s p r i v i l e g e s , and tha t e n l i s t e d m e n shou ld l e a r n

to do a s the o f f i c e r s s ay , no t a s t hey do.

N e e d l e s s to s a y , t he j u n i o r o f f i c e r s and m e m b e r s of the c r e w

r e s e n t the C a p t a i n ' s b e h a v i o r . T h e s e s e v e r a l s u b o r d i n a t e s of Queeg

m a k e s ly a t t e m p t s to t h w a r t the u n f a i r t r e a t m e n t of the C. O. Queeg

b e g i n s t ak ing h i s m e a l s in h i s cab in , s e l d o m l eav ing the s t a t e r o o m f o r

any r e a s o n . Once a s a i l o r , when a s k e d by E n s . Ke i th why a n o t h e r

o f f i c e r had a c t e d in a p a r t i c u l a r m a n n e r , r e p l i e d , " S i r , d o n ' t a s k m e

why o f f i c e r s do any th ing . You w o u l d n ' t l ike m y a n s w e r . F o r m u c h

the s a m e r e a s o n no one a s k s Queeg why he s e e m s to be h a u n t e d by a

p e r s e c u t i o n c o m p l e x and h i d e s in h i s q u a r t e r s ; e a c h one knows he would

no t l ike the a n s w e r . But Queeg c o n t i n u e s to i s s u e u n r e a l i s t i c and

u n u s u a l l y s e v e r e o r d e r s , and the c r e w c o n t i n u e s to do a s l i t t l e a s

p o s s i b l e to h u m o r the s t r a n g e m o o d s of the C a p t a i n .

The i n c i d e n t s w h i c h l e a d up to the m u t i n y i t se l f a r e a l l o v e r t a c t s

of i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y on t he p a r t of Queeg , a c t s no ted by a l l

1 6 lb id. , p . 264

115

o f f i c e r s and c r e w , but e s p e c i a l l y by L,t. M a r y k , the e x e c u t i v e o f f i c e r

who t a k e s c o m m a n d of the sh ip and a r b i t r a r i l y r e l i e v e s Cap t . Queeg .

When the s h i p is a s s i g n e d t h e m i s s i o n of l e a d i n g a g r o u p of l and ing

c r a f t to the b e a c h of a n e n e m y - h e l d i s l a n d , Queeg r e m a i n s on the

s e a w a r d s ide of the sh ip , out of s igh t of t h e h o s t i l e s h o r e . When a s k e d

wha t to do, t he C a p t a i n t e l l s E n s . Ke i th to do w h a t e v e r he p l e a s e s . The

c o w a r d l y a c t of Q u e e g ' s in n e v e r e x p o s i n g h i m s e l f to the b e a c h is

d i s c u s s e d by a l l the o f f i c e r s , wi th a c e r t a i n r e v u l s i o n , and is no ted by

a l l the c r e w . The c r e w b e g i n s to r e f e r to Queeg a s "Old Y e l l o w s t a i n , n

f o r he o r d e r s a ye l l ow dye m a r k e r t h r o w n o v e r f o r the fo l l owing b o a t s

to gu ide on and t h e n h u r r i e s the sh ip a w a y f r o m the s h o r e . E v e r y o n e

i s , of c o u r s e , qu i t e a n x i o u s to l e a v e the C a i n e , so o r d e r s to l e a v e the

s h i p a r e v e r y i m p o r t a n t . An e n s i g n r e c e i v e s s u c h o r d e r s , but the

t r a n s f e r o r d e r s a r e c o n c e a l e d by Queeg , f o r no known r e a s o n , un t i l

a v i s i t o r f r o m a n o t h e r sh ip m e n t i o n s t h e m and the s e c r e t is out .

Queeg does m o r e t h i n g s wh ich a r e l e s s p l a u s i b l e a s t he c r u i s e

goes on. He f o r b i d s t he o f f i c e r s to s l e e p d u r i n g the day , a l t h o u g h t hey

o f t e n w o r k t h r o u g h m o s t of the n igh t and h a v e no d u t i e s in t h e d a y t i m e .

He o r d e r s a s a i l o r c o u r t - m a r t i a l e d f o r a m i n o r o f f e n s e ; t he o f f i c e r s of

the c o u r t g ive the s a i l o r a m e a n i n g l e s s p u n i s h m e n t t h a t i s a d i r e c t

i n s u l t to Queeg . Queeg o p p o s e s the s h i p ' s p e r s o n n e l in a s t r a n g e and

i r a s c i b l e m a n n e r . He t u r n s off t he f r e s h w a t e r , b a n s c o f f e e , b a n s

116

m o v i e s , m a k e s e n d l e s s d e m a n d s f o r u s e l e s s w r i t t e n r e p o r t s , and c a l l s

c o u n t l e s s c o n f e r e n c e s f o r no r e a s o n a t s t r a n g e h o u r s of the n igh t . Once

a s e s s i o n i n v e s t i g a t i n g a b u r n e d out c o f f e e p o t k e e p s a l l o f f i c e r s s i t t i n g

a t a t a b l e f o r f o r t y - e i g h t h o u r s s t r a i g h t .

The s t r a w b e r r y i n c i d e n t f i n a l l y s e n d s Queeg beyond a n y l i m i t of

r a t i o n a l b e h a v i o r . Some f r o z e n s t r a w b e r r i e s a r e s t o l e n , and the

C a p t a i n w e a v e s in h i s m i n d a f a n t a s t i c e x p l a n a t i o n f o r the t h e f t . He

d r e a m s up a n i l l i c i t key , and he d e v o t e s a l l t he t i m e of e v e r y o n e on the

sh ip to a n e e d l e s s s e a r c h f o r a n o n - e x i s t e n t k e y . E v e n w h e n two e y e -

w i t n e s s e s to the t h e f t of the s t r a w b e r r i e s r e p o r t t he t r u t h of t he m a t t e r ,

Queeg c l i n g s to h i s own f a n t a s y and i g n o r e s a l l f a c t and t r u t h in con t inu ing

the f a n t a s t i c s e a r c h b r o u g h t abou t by a f e w q u a r t s of s t r a w b e r r i e s . No

though t o r a c t i o n , no e x p l a n a t i o n o r s t a t e m e n t of the C a p t a i n d u r i n g the

e n t i r e i n c i d e n t c a n in any w a y be c o n s t r u e d a s r a t i o n a l , and m u c h of

w h a t i s done and s a i d i s v e r y h a r m f u l . T h i s o c c u r r e n c e c a u s e s L t .

M a r y k to c o n s i d e r m o r e s e r i o u s l y T o m R e e f e r 1 s c o n t e n t i o n t h a t t he

C a p t a i n i s i n s a n e . M a r y k a g a i n s t u d i e s the Navy r e g u l a t i o n p e r t a i n i n g

to t he r e l i e f of the C. O. a t s e a by a s u b o r d i n a t e in e x t r a o r d i n a r y

c i r c u m s t a n c e s .

F i n a l l y Cap t . Queeg m a k e s t he f a t a l e r r o r ; h i s b e h a v i o r on the

b r i d g e d u r i n g a typhoon is not only i r r a t i o n a l and s t r a n g e , but i t a c t u a l l y

e n d a n g e r s t he sh ip and h e r m e n . Queeg b e c o m e s so e x c i t e d d u r i n g the

117

s t o r m tha t he o r d e r s an o f f i c e r be low w h e n he n e e d s h i m on deck ; he

o r d e r s a l e f t t u r n w h e n only a s t r a i g h t c o u r s e w i l l s a v e t h e sh ip , and

L,t. M a r y k r e l i e v e s h i m of h i s c o m m a n d b e f o r e he c a p s i z e s the v e s s e l .

When the C a m e is a g a i n s a i l i ng c a l m s e a s , and t h e r e i s no l o n g e r any

d a n g e r , Cap t . Queeg a p p e a r s to r e g a i n c o n t r o l of h i m s e l f and b e h a v e in

a l e s s e r r a t i c m a n n e r . But the d a m a g e is done ; the c u l m i n a t i o n of a l l

h i s bad l e a d e r s h i p h a s r e s u l t e d in a f o r m of m u t i n y by the o f f i c e r s and

c r e w of the C a i n e .

At Lt. M a r y k ' s c o u r t - m a r t i a l i t is r e a l l y Cap t . Queeg who is on

t r i a l , f o r h i s i n s a n e b e h a v i o r is M a r y k ' s only d e f e n s e . Q u e e g ' s s tup id ,

v i c i o u s , c o w a r d l y , and i n c o m p e t e n t l e a d e r s h i p h a s c a u s e d h i s own c r e w

to h a t e and d i s t r u s t h i m , but if t he c o u r t b e l i e v e s h i m s a n e , t h e n a l l h i s

a c t i o n s a r e j u s t i f i a b l e in the e y e s of the Navy, f o r he i s the c a p t a i n of

t h e sh ip . D u r i n g the t r i a l p s y c h o l o g i s t s who had e x a m i n e d Queeg t e s t i f y

t h a t he i s t r o u b l e d by h i s s h o r t s t a t u r e , h i s low s t and ing in h i s c l a s s a t

t h e Nava l A c a d e m y , and m a n y u n f a v o r a b l e , a g g r a v a t i n g f a c t o r s of h i s

ch i ldhood and p e r s o n a l l i f e . Al l of t h e s e p r o b l e m s have g iven P h i l i p

Queeg a m a s s i v e s e n s e of i n f e r i o r i t y , w h i c h is m a n i f e s t e d , by h i s s t r i v i n g

f o r p e r f e c t i o n , h i s u n r e a s o n a b l e s t u b b o r n e s s , and h i s i r r i t a t i n g h a b i t of

n e r v o u s l y r o l l i n g two s t e e l ba l l b e a r i n g s in h is l e f t hand . The e x t r e m e

s t r e s s of c o m m a n d have m a d e Q u e e g ' s p r o b l e m s d a n g e r o u s . The c o u r t

118

o b s e r v e s t h a t s t r e s s i s l i k e l y to c a u s e a l o s s of e f f i c i e n c y , a n d e v e n

t h o u g h t h i s i s n o t s u p p o s e d t o h a p p e n t o c o m m a n d i n g o f f i c e r s , " t h e y ' r e

1 7

h u m a n , t o o .

It i s d e c i d e d t h a t C a p t . Q u e e g i s d e f i n i t e l y a v e r y d i s t u r b e d m a n

w h o c o m p e n s a t e s f o r h i s m e n t a l p r o b l e m s , b u t who c a n n o t a d j u s t t o

t h e m in s u c h a w a y a s t o b e a s a t i s f a c t o r y l e a d e r . H i s c o n c e p t of

r e a l i t y i s p r o v e n to b e t o t a l l y d i s t o r t e d . A t t h e t r i a l Q u e e g s h o u t s t h a t

in t h e f i f t e e n m o n t h s a b o a r d t h e C a i n e h e h a d n o t m a d e a s i n g l e m i s t a k e ;

h e f u r t h e r t e s t i f i e s t h a t f a c t s p r e s e n t e d t o t h e c o u r t , f a c t s h e h a d

e a r l i e r c o n c e d e d a s t r u e , a r e l i e s . Q u e e g i s s e e n l e a v i n g t h e c o u r t -

r o o m a s h e w a s o f t e n s e e n in t h e w h e e l h o u s e , in o b v i o u s d i s t r e s s , w i t h

h e a d down , s h o u l d e r s h u n c h e d , f e e t s c u r r y i n g , a n d t h e b a l l s r o l l i n g in

h i s f i n g e r s .

A s t h e t r i a l e n d s t h e p r o s e c u t i n g a t t o r n e y a d m i t s t h a t Q u e e g i s

n o t a g o o d o f f i c e r a n d t h a t h i s t e r m a b o a r d t h e C a i n e " w a s a n u n h a p p y

m e s s of b a d j u d g m e n t a n d p o o r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . L t . M a r y k i s

a c q u i t t e d . At a p a r t y a f t e r t h e t r i a l M a r y k ' s d e f e n s e a t t o r n e y , L t .

G r e e n w a l d , p r o c l a i m s t h a t t h e d e c i s i o n i s w r o n g ; h e s a y s M a r y k i s g u i l t y

b e c a u s e e v e n t h o u g h Q u e e g i s a p o o r , s a d m a n , he h a s d e f e n d e d h i s

c o u n t r y a s a r e g u l a r o f f i c e r a n d h e d e s e r v e s to b e h a v e a s h e p l e a s e s

w h i l e in c o m m a n d . A s t h o u g h to p r o v e t h a t c o m m a n d s t r e s s c a n u n n e r v e

1 7 I b i d . , p . 4 7 8 . 1 8 I b i d . , p . 5 0 8 .

119

the b e s t of o f f i c e r s , Wouk l a t e r h a s L t . T o m K e e f e r j u m p f r o m t h e

s h i p w h e n it is s t r u c k by d a n g e r o u s m i n e s ; K e e f e r i s c a p t a i n of the Ca ine

a t t h i s t i m e . Wil l ie Ke i th a c t s in a coo l and h e r o i c m a n n e r and t a k e s

c o m m a n d of the sh ip .

H e r m a n Wouk t e l l s a g r i p p i n g s t o r y of c o m m a n d and l e a d e r s h i p

b a s e d on h i s own k n o w l e d g e of the Navy a n d t h e p e c u l i a r i t i e s of m e n .

His c h a r a c t e r s a r e r e a l , and the v iv id i m a g e of Cap t , Queeg l i v e s in

the m i n d of the r e a d e r . It i s t h i s r e a l i t y of a bad l e a d e r wh ich so s h a r p l y

d e f i n e s the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s Wouk b e l i e v e s n e c e s s a r y in a good l e a d e r .

The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w h i c h Queeg l a c k s - - s e l f - c o n t r o l , f a i r n e s s , c o m p e t e n t

i n t e l l i g e n c e , and c a l m c o u r a g e when e x c i t e d - - a r e the a t t r i b u t e s m o s t

d e s i r a b l e in a m a n hold ing a p o s i t i o n of l e a d e r s h i p . In o r d e r to so t r u l y

p o r t r a y m e n wi th and wi thou t s u c h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of l e a d e r s h i p , t he

a u t h o r a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y h a s e x p e r i e n c e d bo th good and bad l e a d e r s

d u r i n g h is n a v a l c a r e e r .

J a m e s A. M i c h e n e r

J a m e s M i c h e n e r , b o r n in 1907 in New York Ci ty , h a s s t u d i e d

w i d e l y both in t h i s c o u n t r y and in E u r o p e , He r e c e i v e d h i s A, B. d e g r e e

f r o m S w a r t h m o r e C o l l e g e and h i s A. M. d e g r e e f r o m C o l o r a d o S ta te

C o l l e g e of E d u c a t i o n . He h a s t r a v e l e d a l l o v e r the w o r l d and is b e s t

known a s a w r i t e r of o t h e r c o u n t r i e s . In t h e y e a r s 1944-1946 , he w a s

a n a v a l h i s t o r i a n in the P a c i f i c ; s i n c e the w a r he h a s b e e n p r o f e s s o r ,

120

19

e d i t o r , and a u t h o r , Two of h i s m a n y books a r e c o n s i d e r e d to be

w a r n o v e l s . T a l e s of the South P a c i f i c w a s g r a n t e d the P u l i t z e r P r i z e

in 1948; The B r i d g e s a t T o k o - H i c o n c e r n s the K o r e a n C o n f l i c t . The

d e c i s i o n to l i f t the ban on s h o r t s t o r y c o l l e c t i o n s and g ive the P u l i t z e r

P r i z e to T a l e s of the South P a c i f i c w a s not p o p u l a r wi th a l l c r i t i c s . In

w r i t i n g abou t t he P u l i t z e r P r i z e n o v e l s W. J . S tuckey s a y s of M i c h e n e r 1 s

book, n T h e e x a m p l e s of bad w r i t i n g a r e a l m o s t i n e x h a u s t a b l e . M S tuckey

c o m m e n t s t h a t n M i c h e n e r f s s t y l e i s a t a s t e l e s s m i x t u r e of c an t , c l i che 1 s, 20

and coy v u l g a r i t i e s . ,T" T a l e s of the South P a c i f i c i s not t r u l y a c o l -

l e c t i o n of u n r e l a t e d s h o r t s t o r i e s ; n e i t h e r i s i t e x a c t l y a u n i f i e d s t o r y .

It i s a g r o u p of t a l e s abou t m e n in the n a v a l s e r v c e s w h o m the n a r r a t o r ,

p r o b a b l y M i c h e n e r , m e e t s a s he t r a v e l s abou t the P a c i f i c d u r i n g W o r l d

War II. T h e s e a r e s t o r i e s of p e o p l e c a u g h t up in w a r ; s o m e a r e l e a d e r s ,

bu t m o s t a r e no t . H o w e v e r , t he a u t h o r ? s a f f i r m a t i v e a t t i t u d e t o w a r d

m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s i s v e r y c l e a r .

M i c h e n e r d e p i c t s no a n i m o s i t y b e t w e e n o f f i c e r s and e n l i s t e d m e n ,

n o r i s t h e r e a n y r e a l f r i c t i o n shown b e t w e e n r e g u l a r s and r e s e r v i s t s .

R a t h e r a l l s e r v i c e m e n a r e s e e n u n i t e d in a f r a t e r n i t y of s e r v i c e , a s

b r o t h e r s in a c a u s e . S e n i o r o f f i c e r s a r e p o r t r a y e d a s h a r s h f o r a 19

E t h r i d g e , e d i t o r , C o n t e m p o r a r y A u t h o r s , V-VI , 469 .

20 Stuckey , The P u l i t z e r P r i z e Nove l s , p. 143.

121

r e a s o n , but a lways w i se . Jun io r o f f i c e r s a r e seen a s c o u r a g e o u s , if

s o m e t i m e s r e c k l e s s and the en l i s t ed m e n a r e inva r i ab ly invent ive and

loyal . The w r i t e r 1 s concept of the o f f i c e r c l a s s is not un fa i r , s imp ly

somewha t r o m a n t i c . He s ays that being an o f f i c e r does not k e e p a

m a n f r o m gett ing into* t r o u b l e . One o l d - t i m e r , an o f f i c e r , d r inks so

much that he b r e a k s into an o f f i c e r s 1 club to s t ea l whiskey; he is not

c o u r t - m a r t i a l e d , jus t shipped home, quie t ly . The en l i s t ed m e n h e a r

about it, and m o s t of t h e m f e e l s o r r y f o r h im. Troops buy s o u v e n i r s

f r o m a na t ive woman when o r d e r e d not to, and no one ge ts v e r y exci ted .

T h e r e is d i sp layed in the book a sympa the t i c under s tanding on the p a r t

of a l m o s t eve ryone .

B r a v e young m e n a r e s een in e v e r y s t o r y of the book, and a l l of

t h e s e m e n a r e a d m i r a b l e f o r t h e i r s p i r i t and the ded ica t ion to duty

which they exempl i fy . Jut. Tony F r y d e m a n d s that he be a l lowed to

r e s c u e a c iv i l ian c o a s t w a t c h e r . A d m i r a l K e s t e r says of F r y , n I t f s

21

tha t g o - t o - h e l l s p i r i t you l ike , n A m a r i n e pi lot c i r c l e s a r a f t to

defend a downed f l y e r f r o m the enemy. When the r a f t beg ins d r i f t i ng

t oward a hos t i l e s h o r e , the pi lot t o s s e s down his only p a r a c h u t e f o r

the m a n in the r a f t to use a s a s ea ancho r ; the m a r i n e g a m b l e s that he

wil l not be shot down and need the p a r a c h u t e . A m a r i n e l i eu tenan t

21 . . . . J a m e s A. M i c h e n e r , T a l e s of the South P a c i f i c (New York, 1946),

p. 83.

122

b a t t l e s h i s c o n s c i e n c e and l o v e s a n a t i v e g i r l , but l e a v e s h e r to m o v e

on wi th h i s u n i t . A c o n s t r u c t i o n b a t t a l i o n c o m m a n d e r d e f i e s a l l the

l a w s of n a t u r e to p u s h h i s m e n to bu i ld an a i r f i e l d in a s h o r t p e r i o d of

t i m e . B e c a u s e he c h o o s e s h i s m e n c a r e f u l l y and t r u s t s t h e m fu l ly ,

and b e c a u s e h i s p e r s o n a l e x a m p l e i n s p i r e s the m e n to do f a n t a s t i c

a m o u n t s of l a b o r , the a i r f i e l d is f i n i s h e d in the s p e c i f i e d t i m e . Such

m e n a r e t y p i c a l of l e a d e r s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by M i c h e n e r , in t h i s and o t h e r

b o o k s .

The B r i d g e s a t T o k o - H i is the s t o r y of n a v a l a v i a t i o n off t he r o c k y

s h o r e s of K o r e a in 1953. The m e n , o f f i c e r and e n l i s t e d , who m a n the

s h i p s , j e t s , and h e l i c o p t e r s of the Navy a r e s e e n a s b r a v e , i n t e l l i g e n t ,

t e c h n i c a l l y s k i l l e d c o m p o n e n t s of a h u m a n m a c h i n e wh ich e f f i c i e n t l y

d e f e n d s a n e c e s s a r y c a u s e . Two o f f i c e r s in p a r t i c u l a r a r e no ted in

t h i s s t o r y abou t Navy c a r r i e r j e t s b o m b i n g s t r a t e g i c e n e m y b r i d g e s .

A d m i r a l G e o r g e T a r r a n t is a p r o f e s s i o n a l l e a d e r who h a s fough t in two

w a r s . Lit. H a r r y B r u b a k e r is a r e s e r v e p i lo t who is s o m e w h a t r e s e n t f u l

b e c a u s e he w a s c a l l e d to a c t i v e du ty . M i c h e n e r u s e s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p

b e t w e e n B r u b a k e r and T a r r a n t to po in t out the d e v o t i o n of a p r o f e s s i o n a l

l e a d e r to h i s c a u s e and to the m e n who s u p p o r t h i m in s e r v i n g the m i s s i o n

of t ha t c a u s e .

A d m . T a r r a n t is a t a l l , l o n e l y m a n wi th a s o u r , s h a r p f a c e . He

is known a s a t y r a n t , but m e n who s e r v e wi th h i m f o r g e t h i s t y r a n n y and

123

r e m e m b e r o n l y h i s f a n t a s t i c s k i l l in o p e r a t i n g a t a s k f o r c e . T a r r a n t ,

a p r o f e s s i o n a l m i l i t a r y m a n , u n d e r s t a n d s w a r q u i t e w e l l . A s a f a t h e r

h e h a s g i v e n t w o s o n s to w a r ; a s a n o f f i c e r h e h a s e n d a n g e r e d t h e

p r o m o t i o n of h i s c a r e e r b y i n s i s t i n g t h a t h i s c o u n t r y m a i n t a i n t h e r i g h t

w e a p o n s to b e r e a d y f o r w a r . T h e A d m i r a l i s s e e n s k i l l f u l l y m o v i n g

h i s t a s k f o r c e c r i t i c a l l y c l o s e to s h o r e t o s a v e a d o w n e d p i l o t a n d

t a c t f u l l y t h a n k i n g h i s m e n w h o do a s u p e r b j o b of l a n d i n g a i r c r a f t a n d

f l y i n g p l a n e s . He s u p p o r t s h i s m e n w h e n t h e y g e t e n t a n g l e d in a r i o t

on t h e d o c k b e c a u s e , h e t h i n k s to h i m s e l f , " I ' d h a t e to s e e t h e d a y w h e n

22

m e n a r e a f r a i d to m i x i t up f o r p r e t t y g i r l s . " H i s p a t e r n a l f e e l i n g s

a r e d i s p l a y e d a g a i n w h e n h e v i s i t s w i t h t h e w i f e of one of h i s p i l o t s a n d

g i v e s h e r s a g e a d v i c e a b o u t m e n a n d w a r .

L,t. B r u b a k e r m a t u r e s f r o m a r e b e l t o one w h o u n d e r s t a n d s

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . He c o m e s to k n o w t h a t s o m e j o b s a m a n c a n n o t d e l e g a t e

to a n y o n e . He r e a l i z e s t h a t w h a t k e e p s t h e N a v y s y s t e m w o r k i n g i s t h e

f a c t t h a t a m a n ' s c o n s c i e n c e r e m i n d s h i m t h a t o t h e r m e n a r e a l s o

a f r a i d , y e t s t i l l t h e m e n t a c k l e t h e d i r t y j o b s . So B r u b a k e r s a c r i f i c e s

h i m s e l f f o r t h e m i s s i o n , s p u r r e d on b y t h e e x a m p l e of h i s f l i g h t l e a d e r .

T h e L i e u t e n a n t p r o v i d e s t h e s a m e s o r t of e x a m p l e of l o y a l t y w h e n on

l i b e r t y in J a p a n he l e a v e s h i s v i s i t i n g w i f e a n d c h i l d r e n to go to t o w n

22 J a m e s A . M i c h e n e r , T h e B r i d g e s a t T o k o - R i (New Y o r k , 1953) ,

p . 58.

124

and get two s a i l o r s out of j a i l , j u s t b e c a u s e they a r e h i s m e n , and

they ca l l on h i m f o r he lp .

J a m e s M i c h e n e r o b v i o u s l y s u p p o r t s the m i l i t a r y s y s t e m and the

m e n who s e r v e tha t s y s t e m . His a d m i r a t i o n and r e s p e c t f o r t h e s e m e n ,

p r o b a b l y g r o w i n g out of h i s own Navy s e r v i c e and c e r t a i n l y s t r e n g t h e n e d

by h is own p a t r i o t i s m , is b e s t s u m m a r i z e d in the w o r d s of A d m . T a r r a n t

when he a s k s , th ink ing of h i s s a i l o r s and o f f i c e r s , "Why is A m e r i c a

23

l u c k y enough to have such m e n ? 11 The a u t h o r i m p l i e s t h a t t h e s e m e n

a r e the n a t u r a l p r o d u c t s of a f r e e na t ion b l e s s e d wi th the d e d i c a t i o n and

i n s p i r e d l e a d e r s h i p of m e n who s e r v e duty , h o n o r , and c o u n t r y .

J a m e s M i c h e n e r and H e r m a n Wouk a r e bo th ex - nava l o f f i c e r s .

They h a v e e x p r e s s e d , d i r e c t l y and t h r o u g h t h e i r n o v e l s , a h igh r e g a r d

f o r the Navy and i t s l e a d e r s . In e v e r y r e s p e c t t h e i r n o v e l s j u s t i f y t he

Navy s y s t e m . E a c h of t h e s e w r i t e r s h a s by p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e ga ined

a knowledge of Navy o f f i c e r s and p e t t y o f f i c e r s wh ich h a s l ed h i m to

b e l i e v e t ha t m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s a r e w o r t h y m e n doing a d i f f i c u l t and

i m p o r t a n t job . Wouk and M i c h e n e r a r e p a t r i o t i c w r i t e r s w h o s e n o v e l s

p r e s e n t the a u t h o r s 5 obv ious p r i d e in the Navy and the m e n who s e r v e

in tha t o r g a n i z a t i o n .

^ I b i d . , p. 106.

C H A P T E R VI

CONCLUSION

Th i s s tudy of the c o n c e p t s of l e a d e r s h i p e x p r e s s e d by m o d e r n

A m e r i c a n n o v e l i s t s t h r o u g h the a t t i t u d e s of m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s in n o v e l s

of the f o r t i e s and f i f t i e s can b e s t be conc luded wi th an o v e r a l l v i ew of

the t e n n o v e l i s t s and e i g h t e e n n o v e l s d i s c u s s e d . It w i l l not s u r p r i s e

a n y r e a d e r to l e a r n t h a t t h e s e w r i t e r s s h a r e m a n y c o m m o n i n t e r e s t s ,

and tha t a l l the n o v e l s a r e found to be s i m i l a r in m a n y r e s p e c t s . Of

c o u r s e any g r o u p of books t r e a t i n g m e m b e r s of a l ike p r o f e s s i o n

d u r i n g a s i ng l e p e r i o d of t i m e wi l l be m u c h a l i ke in m a n y r e s p e c t s , and

the i d e a s of any g r o u p of m e n b o r n in the s a m e c o u n t r y in the f i r s t t h r e e

d e c a d e s of a c e n t u r y wi l l t e n d to f i t into a p a t t e r n f o r m e d by t h e i r

c u l t u r e , s o c i e t y , and e d u c a t i o n . It is i m p l i e d t h r o u g h o u t t h i s t h e s i s

t h a t t h e r e i s a c o m m o n t h e m e of l e a d e r s h i p in the r e p r e s e n t a t i v e

n o v e l s s e l e c t e d f o r e v a l u a t i o n . The u n d e r l y i n g c a u s e s of the f o r m and

s t y l e of t h i s l e a d e r s h i p c o n c e p t a r e to be found in the b a c k g r o u n d of the

a u t h o r s .

Al l of t h e s e w r i t e r s , S ty ron , J o n e s , C o z z e n s , Wouk, M a i l e r , U r i s ,

H e r s e y , H e l l e r , Shaw, and M i c h e n e r , s h a r e d s e v e r a l c o m m o n e x p e r i -

e n c e s b e f o r e w r i t i n g t h e i r w a r n o v e l s . They a l l w e r e b o r n and e d u c a t e d

125

126

e a s t of t h e M i s s i s s i p p i R i v e r , t h e r e b y e x p e r i e n c i n g t h e c u l t u r e of t h e

l a r g e l y m e t r o p o l i t a n E a s t e r n S e a b o a r d of t h i s n a t i o n . A l l t h e w r i t e r s

h a v e h a d s o m e f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n b e y o n d h i g h s c h o o l in t h e f i e l d of t h e

h u m a n i t i e s ; e a c h of t h e m h a s w r i t t e n s o m e t h i n g o t h e r t h a n a w a r n o v e l .

Bu t m o s t i m p o r t a n t of a l l i s t h e i r s h a r e d e x p e r i e n c e of s e r v i c e in t h e

m i l i t a r y f o r c e s of t h i s n a t i o n d u r i n g t h e S e c o n d W o r l d W a r . T h e t e n

m e n s e r v e d w i t h f o u r d i f f e r e n t b r a n c h e s of t h e m i l i t a r y ; t h e i r j o b s w i t h

t h e a r m e d f o r c e s v a r i e d , bu t t h e y e a c h o b s e r v e d l e a d e r s w i t h a l i k e

f o r m of t r a i n i n g in a c t i o n in t h e s a m e w a r a g a i n s t c o m m o n e n e m i e s .

Shaw, U r i s , J o n e s , a n d M a i l e r w e r e e n l i s t e d i n f a n t r y m e n . S t y r o n ,

Wouk, C o z z e n s , a n d H e l l e r w e r e o f f i c e r s ; M i c h e n e r a n d H e r s e y w e r e

p r i m a r i l y j o u r n a l i s t s w o r k i n g w i t h o f f i c e r s . B u t e a c h m a n v i e w e d c o m b a t

u n d e r t h e l e a d e r s h i p of p r o f e s s i o n a l s o l d i e r s a n d c i t i z e n - s o l d i e r s a l i k e .

T h e N a v y , M a r i n e C o r p s , A r m y , a n d A i r F o r c e o f f i c e r s a n d

n o n c o m s w i t h w h o m t h e a u t h o r s s e r v e d w e r e a l l t r a i n e d a s l e a d e r s

u n d e r t h e t r a d i t i o n a l p r e c e p t s of l e a d e r s h i p d e v e l o p e d in t h i s c o u n t r y T s

m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e s d u r i n g t h e p a s t two c e n t u r i e s . H i s t o r i c a l l y t h e a t t r i -

b u t e s of good l e a d e r s h i p a r e b a s e d on t h e i d e a s of l o y a l t y , d u t y , a n d

h o n o r f o s t e r e d b y t h e S t o i c s a n d o t h e r c l a s s i c p h i l o s o p h e r s w h o h a v e

l a r g e l y i n f l u e n c e d t h e c u l t u r e of t he W e s t e r n w o r l d . T h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

of a good l e a d e r a r e . t h e v e r y o n e s o u t l i n e d in t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r of t h i s

s t u d y . T h e s e s a m e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of l e a d e r s h i p a r e t h e a t t r i b u t e s

127

obse rved , by the w r i t e r s d u r i n g t h e i r m i ] i t a r y s e r v i c e , and g iven by the

w r i t e r s to the c h a r a c t e r s in t h e i r n o v e l s who a r e good l e a d e r s . The

l a c k of t h e s e v e r y s a m e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s is t he f l aw in s u c h c h a r a c t e r s

a s M a i l e r ' s Gen. C u m m i n g s , H e r s e y ' s C a p t . M a r r o w , Wouk ' s Cap t .

Queeg , J o n e s ' Cap t . H o l m e s , H e l l e r ' s Col . Korn , and S h a w ' s Cap t .

Co lc lough .

E a c h of the w r i t e r s d i s c u s s e d h a s w r i t t e n of m e n in the b r a n c h of

t h e s e r v i c e in wh ich he s e r v e d . U r i s and S ty ron d e p i c t t he M a r i n e

C o r p s ; Shaw, J o n e s , and M a i l e r w r i t e of the A r m y ; C o z z e n s , H e r s e y ,

a n d H e l l e r p i c t u r e A i r F o r c e o f f i c e r s ; and Wouk and M i c h e n e r p o r t r a y

the Navy s y s t e m . One of the n o v e l i s t s who w r o t e of m o r e t h a n one

s e r v i c e , L e o n U r i s , w r o t e h i s f i r s t w a r nove l about the s e r v i c e in which

he s e r v e d ; he w r o t e f i r s t of t h e M a r i n e C o r p s in B a t t l e C r y . John

H e r s e y , a s a w a r c o r r e s p o n d e n t , had o p p o r t u n i t y to o b s e r v e both the

A r m y and t h e A i r F o r c e and h a s c o m m e n t e d on both s e r v i c e s in h i s

n o v e l s A B e l l f o r Ada no and The W a r L o v e r . E a c h a u t h o r h a s i n c l u d e d

s o m e o b v i o u s l y a u t o c i o g r a p h i c a l i n c i d e n t o r c h a r a c t e r in h i s s t o r y .

M i c h e n e r h a s a s n a r r a t o r in T a l e s of the South P a c i f i c an o f f i c e r m u c h

l i ke he h i m s e l f w a s a s a t r a v e l i n g h i s t o r i a n f o r the Navy.

M a i l e r and U r i s d e p i c t s q u a d s of the s a m e type a s t h o s e to w h i c h

they t h e m s e l v e s w e r e a s s i g n e d . J o n e s w r i t e s of an A r m y b o x e r in

Hawa i i , and he w a s a c t u a l l y s u c h a m a n . C o z z e n s p l a c e s Cap t . H i c k s

128

i n G u a r d of Honor a s doing the s a m e s o r t of job, and having a b a c k -

g round s i m i l a r to tha t of the au t ho r whi le he w a s in the Ai r F o r c e . Wouk

c r e a t e s Lt . T o m K e e f e r , the nove l i s t in The Caine Mutiny who j u m p s

into the s ea f r o m a d e s t r o y e r - m i n e s w e e p e r c a r r y i n g the d r a f t of h is

f i r s t novel ; Wouk did the s a m e th ing . H e l l e r could be Capt . Y o s s a r i a n ,

the r a t i o n a l m a n in C a t c h - 2 2 ; Shaw m a y be s e e n in M i c h a e l W h i t a c r e ,

the New York i n t e l l e c t u a l in The Young L ions . W i l l i a m Styron is i den -

t i f i e d wi th Lt . C u l v e r of The Long M a r c h ; S tyron h i m s e l f t r a i n e d a t the

s a m e b a s e v /here the s t o r y of the nove l la t a k e s p l a c e . The h u m a n i t a r i a n

i n t e r e s t s of John H e r s e y m o t i v a t e M a j . Joppolo of A Bell f o r Adano and

Lt . B o m a n in The War L o v e r .

A v e r y s t r o n g ind ica t ion of the a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l n a t u r e of each

w a r novel s tud ied is that s even of the t en a u t h o r s w r o t e w a r n o v e l s a s

t h e i r f i r s t nove l s . Only Styron , Wouk, and C o z z e n s w r o t e o t h e r nove l s

b e f o r e t h e i r s t o r i e s of w a r , and each of t h e s e t h r e e m e n para l le l* t h e i r

own m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e v e r y c l o s e l y in t h e i r w o r k s . It is i n t e r e s t i n g to

note tha t wi th only two excep t i ons w r i t e r s who s e r v e d a s o f f i c e r s d i s p l a y

a m o r e a f f i r m a t i v e a t t i t ude t o w a r d m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s than do w r i t e r s who

a r e e x - e n l i s t e d m e n . H e l l e r , an A i r F o r c e o f f i c e r , d i s l i k e s m i l i t a r y

o f f i c e r s , but Wouk, C o z z e n s , M i c h e n e r , H e r s e y , and S ty ron a l l p i c t u r e

o f f i c e r s who a r e e f f e c t i v e l e a d e r s and f ine m e n . U r i s , an e n l i s t e d

129

m a r i n e , shows an obvious r e s p e c t f o r a l l m a r i n e l e a d e r s , but J o n e s ,

M a i l e r , and Shaw p o r t r a y t he m a j o r i t y of o f f i c e r s a s be ing c o r r u p t .

It is a p o p u l a r c o n c e p t i o n t h a t m o s t w a r n o v e l s d e p i c t the

i nd iv idua l a t w a r a g a i n s t t h e a u t h o r i t a r i a n t y r a n n y of a m i l i t a r y s y s t e m .

War n o v e l i s t s a r e o f t e n though t of a s g e n e r a l l y . roman t i c i z ing the r o l e

of the e n l i s t e d m a n and d e m e a n i n g m e n t a l l y i n f e r i o r l e a d e r s who c o n t r o l

only by f e a r of r a n k . M o s t c o m m o n l y v / r i t e r s of the w a r a r e c o n s i d e r e d

to b e l i t t l e p r o f e s s i o n a l m i l i t a r y m e n a s p e r s o n s too s tup id o r too l a z y to

m a k e a c a r e e r in a h igh ly c o m p e t i t i v e c i v i l i a n s o c i e t y . T h e s e a t t i t u d e s

would s e e m to be n a t u r a l f o r w r i t e r s who s e r v e d in t he m i l i t a r y b e c a u s e

of the c o u n t r y ' s c a l l to duty a n d not by c h o i c e , m e n who p r o b a b l y w e r e

i n t e l l e c t u a l l y s u p e r i o r to m a n y who he ld a h i g h e r r a n k t h a n they . The

op in ions m e n t i o n e d above , if v a l i d in f a c t , would t e n d to i n d i c a t e t ha t

t he c o n c e p t i o n of m i l i t a r y l e a d e r ^ in w a r nove l s is not a v e r y a c c u r a t e

one . Th i s s tudy i n d i c a t e s t h a t such is not the c a s e .

Th i s t h e s i s , an e v a l u a t i o n of t e n w a r n o v e l i s t s and t h e i r e i g h t e e n

w a r n o v e l s , m a i n t a i n s t h a t of the e i g h t e e n w o r k s only s ix a r e books of

d e s p a i r wh ich would a g r e e in tone wi th the i dea v o i c e d by a s o l d i e r

in one of John H e r s e y f s s h o r t s t o r i e s , J o e , the s o l d i e r , e x p r e s s e s

the e n l i s t e d m a n ' s u n i v e r s a l c o m p l a i n t in s a y i n g , n T h e y ' v e m a d e

t h i s in to a t w o - m a n a r m y . . . . An o f f i c e r ' s a r m y and an e n l i s t e d

m a n ' s a r m y . . # [ they] e a t in d i f f e r e n t p o t s , b a t h e in d i f f e r e n t

130

p o t s , a n d p e e in d i f f e r e n t p o t s . , f l T h i s " t w o - m a n a r m y " i s m o s t

v i v i d l y d r a m a t i z e d b y N o r m a n M a i l e r in T h e N a k e d a n d t h e D e a d ,

J o s e p h H e l l e r in C a t c h - 2 2 , J o h n H e r s e y in T h e W a r L o v e r , a n d J a m e s

J o n e s in h i s t h r e e n o v e l s : F r o m H e r e to E t e r n i t y , T h e P i s t o l , a n d

T h e T h i n R e d L i n e . Bu t e v e n t h e s e w r i t e r s d e p i c t good l e a d e r s in

t h e i r s t o r i e s , d e s p i t e t h e i r e m p h a s i s on t h e b a t t l e b e t w e e n * t h e d o w n -

t r o d d e n t r o o p e r s a n d t h e l o r d l y o f f i c e r s a n d N. C. O. f s . M a i l e r c r e a t e s

Sg t . C r o f t ; J o n e s h a s Sgt . W a r d e n ; H e l l e r h a s C a p t . Y o s s a r i a n ; a n d

H e r s e y w r i t e s of L t . B o m a n , w h o l o v e s p e o p l e .

I r w i n Shaw, in T h e Young L i o n s , d e p i c t s t h e m i l i t a r y s y s t e m in

a b a d l i g h t i n i t i a l l y , bu t c r i t i c s c l a s s t h e n o v e l a s a f f i r m a t i v e b e c a u s e

h o p e i s s e e n in W h i t a c r e a n d C a p t , G r e e n . T h e o t h e r n o v e l s s t u d i e d

c e r t a i n l y c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d to b e ' a f f i r m a t i v e in n a t u r e . T h e y t e n d to

s u p p o r t t h e m i l i t a r y s y s t e m s o u t l i n e d a n d to c o n s i d e r t h e l e a d e r s a s

w o r t h y m e n . S t y r o n a n d U r i s l i k e t h e M a r i n e C o r p s ; Wouk a n d

M i c h e n e r a d m i r e N a v y l e a d e r s ; C o z z e n s a n d H e r s e y r e s p e c t t h e i r

h e r o e s .

T h e b a s i s of t h e c o n t e n t i o n t h a t t h e p o p u l a r c o n c e p t i o n t h a t a l l

w a r n o v e l s c e n s u r e m i l i t a r y s y s t e m s a n d m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s i s i n c o r r e c t ,

i s f o u n d in t h e c h a r a c t e r s a n d p l o t s of t h e n o v e l s t h e m s e l v e s . If a w a r

1 J o h n H e r s e y , n J o e i s H o m e Now, 11 H e r e to S t ay (New Y o r k ,

1963) , p . 96. ' . "

131

n o v e l i s t d i s a p p r o v e s c o m p l e t e l y of t h e m i l i t a r y , it w o u l d s e e m t h a t h e

w o u l d h a v e a l l e n l i s t e d m e n h a t i n g b o t h t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d i t s l e a d e r s .

T h e w r i t e r ' s c o n d e m n a t i o n , to b e c o m p l e t e , w o u l d r e q u i r e t h a t a l l

l e a d e r s b e e v i l ; l o g i c a l l y a f a i r o f f i c e r o r N. C. O. who t r e a t e d h i s m e n

j u s t l y w o u l d w e a k e n t h e a u t h o r ' s a r g u m e n t t h a t p r o f e s s i o n a l m i l i t a r y

l e a d e r s a r e a s c o n t e m p t i b l e a s t h e s y s t e m t h e y s e r v e . Y e t J a m e s J o n e s

c r e a t e s F i r s t S e r g e a n t M i l t W a r d e n . W a r d e n i s a j u s t a n d r e s p o n s i b l e

l e a d e r , o n e w h o i s l o y a l t o h i s u n i t a n d h i s t r o o p s a n d i s r e s p e c t e d b y

t h e m . H i s f a u l t s a r e p e r s o n a l f a u l t s ; a s a l e a d e r h e h a s no p e e r . E v e n

F i e l d - M a r s h a l M o n t g o m e r y w o u l d b e p r o u d to h a v e a m a n s u c h a s W a r d e n

in h i s c o m m a n d . W a r d e n i s no t o n l y a n e x c e l l e n t l e a d e r a n d a h e r o i c

i n d i v i d u a l , a c t i n g in a s y s t e m J a m e s J o n e s i s s u p p o s e d to h a t e , b u t

f u r t h e r t h e S e r g e a n t l o v e s t h a t s y s t e m , t h e A r m y . P v t . P r e w i t t , t h e

n o v e l 1 s p r o t a g o n i s t w h o h a s r e c e i v e d o n l y u n j u s t m i s e r y f r o m t h e A r m y ,

a l s o l o v e s t h e A r m y a n d a d m i r e s Sgt . W a r d e n . B o t h m e n r e p e a t e d l y

v o i c e t h e i r d e v o t i o n to t h e s e r v i c e . If t h e good l e a d e r of F r o m H e r e to

E t e r n i t y , Sgt . W a r d e n , c a n so o b v i o u s l y a b h o r t he b a d l e a d e r , C a p t .

H o l m e s , W a r d e n c a n n o t b e e v i l . If t h e d o w n t r o d d e n , P r e w i t t , c a n s t i l l

a d m i r e t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n w h i c h g i v e s a u t h o r i t y to a C a p t . H o l m e s , s u r e l y

t h e a u t h o r c a n n o t i n t e n d t o d i s p l a y a c o n d e m n a t i o n of t h e A r m y a s a

w h o l e .

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J o n e s is no t t he on ly a u t h o r w h o s e a s s u m e d h a t r e d of t he mi l i t a ry -

i s incons i s t en t : . N o r m a n M a i l e r h a s a t l e a s t two m e n wi th s o m e

a d m i r a b l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s who a r e l e a d e r s in The Naked and t he Dead .

Sgt . C r o f t is a good l e a d e r and a m a n of s o m e p e r s o n a l i n t e g r i t y .

L t . Col . T a l l , the b a t t a l i o n c o m m a n d e r l e a d i n g " C " C o m p a n y , is shown

to b e t a l e n t e d a s a l e a d e r and g e n e r a l l y w o r t h y of t he t r u s t p l a c e d in

h i m . The m o t i v e s of t h e s e two m e n a r e p e r h a p s l e s s t h a n w o r t h y ,

b e i n g a l u s t f o r p o w e r , a c o n s u m i n g a m b i t i o n , but do b a s e m o t i v a t i o n s

of i n d i v i d u a l s n e c e s s a r i l y i n d i c a t e t h a t t he o r g a n i z a t i o n w i t h i n w h i c h

t h e s e m e n o p e r a t e is b a d ? Both J o s e p h H e l l e r in C a t c h - 2 2 and J o h n

H e r s e y in The W a r L o v e r i m p l y t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s a r e ev i l , bu t t h e s e

l e s s t h a n w o r t h y m e n a r e no t t he e n t i r e A r m y A i r C o r p s . It is g r a n t e d

t h a t M a i l e r ' s A r m y and H e l l e r ' s A i r F o r c e n e e d to be p u r g e d , but

n o t h i n g is w i thou t valxie s i m p l y b e c a u s e it i s no t p e r f e c t .

M o s t o f t e n t he p o o r l e a d e r s of the n o v e l s a r e m e n in c o m m a n d ,

a n d t he w o r t h y l e a d e r s a r e s u b o r d i n a t e s . But it i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e

p o o r e x a m p l e s of l e a d e r s h i p a r e p l a c e d in h igh p o s i t i o n s by t he n o v e l i s t s

in o r d e r t h a t t he c o n t r a s t w i t h t h e i r d e s e r v i n g j u n i o r s m i g h t be m o r e

v i v i d . Gen . M a r v i n of A Be l l f o r A d a n o a p p e a r s w o r s e b e c a u s e he i s

c o m p a r e d wi th M a j . J o p p o l o . E n s . K e i t h v i e w s Cap t . Queeg of t he

Ca-ine w o r k i n g b e s i d e L t . M a r y k , a n d Queeg s e e m s m o r e u n f a i r t h a n if

he w e r e s e e n a l o n e . Sgt. W a r d e n a n d Cap t . H o l m e s c o n t r o l t he s a m e

133

c o m p a n y f r o m the s a m e o f f i c e ; if H o l m e s had a f i r s t s e r g e a n t a s l ax a s

h i m s e l f , the f a u l t s of the C a p t a i n would not be so g l a r i n g . Shaw in The

Young L ions shows W h i t a c r e and Cap t . G r e e n l iv ing , wh i l e t he l e s s

e f f e c t i v e l e a d e r s die o r p a s s into ob l iv ion , and G r e e n ' s c o n f i d e n c e and

devo t i on m a k e a s t r o n g i m p r e s s i o n b e c a u s e the r e a d e r r e m e m b e r s t he

t y r a n n y of Cap t . Co lc lough .

St i l l a n o t h e r f a c t o r s u p p o r t i n g the v i ew tha t a m a j o r i t y of w a r

w r i t e r s b e l i e v e t h e r e i s v a l u e in the m i l i t a r y s y s t e m is s e e n in the

c h a r a c t e r d e v e l o p m e n t of m a n y p e r s o n s in s e v e r a l n o v e l s . At the end

of the book,Wouk 1 s E n s . Ke i th h a s b e c o m e a m a n t h r o u g h the r i g o r s of

s e r v i c e u n d e r Queeg and the good e x a m p l e s s e t by Lt , M a r y k ; he r e g a r d s

the Navy wi th a f f e c t i o n a s he l e a v e s h i s sh ip . M i c h a e l W h i t a c r e in The

Young L ions h a s s e e n f r i e n d s d ie n e e d l e s s l y , but he is s e e n a t the end

a s a n en l igh t ened ind iv idua l , f e e l i n g t h a t s o c i e t y wi l l ga in f r o m the

s a c r i f i c e of N o a h ' s d e a t h . H e r s e y ' s L t . B o m a n m a t u r e s wh i l e f ly ing

w i th Cap t . M a r r o w , and f i n a l l y B o m a n p i t i e s M a r r o w , but the l i e u t e n a n t

d o e s not ha t e the s e r v i c e . C o z z e n s ' Gen. Nicho ls of G u a r d of Honor i s

a h igh ly a d m i r a b l e c h a r a c t e r who h a s a c h i e v e d h i s w o r t h y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

a s a m i l i t a r y l e a d e r ; the s y s t e m f o s t e r i n g such a m a n m u s t be e q u a l l y

w o r t h w h i l e .

W i l l i a m S t y r o n in The Long M a r c h p r o b a b l y b e s t e x p l a i n s t h e be l i e f

wh ich t h i s t h e s i s c o n t e n d s i s he ld by m a n y w a r n o v e l i s t s . S ty ron does

134

not l ike w a r ; n e i t h e r d o e s he d e s i r e t h a t a l l m e n be p u l l e d f r o m t h e i r

f a m i l i e s to t r a i n f o r c o m b a t . 1A. C u l v e r w a n t s to w a l k in C e n t r a l

P a r k , not s u f f e r t h r o u g h a t r a i n i n g m a r c h . But S ty ron s e e m s to say

t h a t if w a r is n e c e s s a r y , t h e n a m i l i t a r y s y s t e m is r e q u i r e d , and in

such a s y s t e m m e n of Col . T e m p l e t o n ' s i lk a r e a n e c e s s i t y . As L t .

C u l v e r w a t c h e s Cap t . M a n n i x s t r u g g l e wi th the Co lone l and M a r i n e

C o r p s t r a i n i n g m e t h o d s , C u l v e r r e a l i z e s t h a t in t h i s age s t r u g g l e s a g a i n s t

a u t h o r i t a r i a n s y s t e m s a r e o b s o l e t e ; c o l o n e l s and t h e i r o r g a n i z a t i o n s m u s t

be a c c e p t e d , no t a s b e t t e r t h a n any a l t e r n a t i v e , but a s n e c e s s a r y in the

p r e s e n t .

It i s , t hen , t he c o n s i d e r e d c o n c l u s i o n of th i s s tudy t h a t a n o v e r a l l

v i e w of the m o d e r n A m e r i c a n w a r n o v e l s s e l e c t e d f o r t h i s t h e s i s i nd i -

c a t e s t ha t t h e c o n c e p t of l e a d e r s h i p in t h e s e n o v e l s i s a c c u r a t e , w h e n

t h a t c o n c e p t is v i e w e d in t h e l igh t of the p r i n c i p l e s of l e a d e r s h i p

a d v o c a t e d by m i l i t a r y w r i t e r s on t h e s u b j e c t of l e a d e r s h i p . The l e a d e r s

of L e o n U r i s a r e d r a w n a s too r o m a n t i c , but f o r b a l a n c e the o f f i c e r s of

J a m e s J o n e s a r e w o r s e t h a n t h o s e found in r e a l i t y . T h u s w h e n t h e c h a r -

a c t e r s of the n o v e l s a r e c o n s i d e r e d a s a who le , it is b e l i e v e d t h a t the

c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of the m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s of t h e f o r t i e s and f i f t i e s i s t r u e

to l i f e . When t h e s e s e v e r a l c h a r a c t e r s of t h e s e l e c t e d n o v e l s who hold

l e a d e r s h i p p o s i t i o n s a r e c o m p a r e d to a c t u a l m e n , t h e y a r e s e e n to h a v e

s o m e v i r t u e s and s o m e f a u l t s , a s do a l l m e n . The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a

125

good l e a d e r , w h i c h a r e ou t l i ned in the f i r s t c h a p t e r of t h i s t h e s i s , a r e

found in m a n y of t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s , and the bad l e a d e r s d e p i c t e d by the

n o v e l i s t s s t u d i e d s u f f e r f r o m the l a c k of t h e s e s a m e a t t r i b u t e s .

E x a m p l e s of m e n in the n o v e l s who p o s s e s s l e a d e r s h i p v i r t u e s

o r who f a i l a s l e a d e r s b e c a u s e t hey do no t p o s s e s s t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s a r e

m y r i a d . Wouk ' s L t . M a r y k i s k n o w l e d g e a b l e a s a s e a m a n . S t y r o n ' s

Col . T e m p l e t o n h a s d ign i ty and is d e d i c a t e d to duty . Ur i s ' Col .

Hux ley is l oya l , h a s p r i d e in h i s t r o o p s and h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n , and i s

c o m p l e t e l y f a i r in a l l h i s d e c i s i o n s . C o z z e n s 1 Gen, B e a l is an i n d e -

p e n d e n t m a n who d i s p l a y s good c h a r a c t e r and m u c h s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e .

J o n e s ' Sgt. W a r d e n is flexible, be ing c a p a b l e of both though t and a c t i o n ,

and he exh ib i t s a s e n s e of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . H e r s e y ' s L t . B o m a n h a s the

p e r s o n a l i n t e g r i t y wh ich Cap t . M a r r o w l a c k s . W o u k ' s Cap t . Queeg

l a c k s c o m m o n s e n s e and s e l f - c o n t r o l . H e r s e y ' s Gen. M a r v i n h a s a

s e l f - c e n t e r e d a t t i t u d e and a t o t a l d i s r e g a r d f o r the r i g h t s of o t h e r s .

In v i e w of t h e s e f a c t s , t he c o n c l u s i o n of th i s s tudy is t h a t t h e a t t i t u d e

of t h e w r i t e r s t o w a r d the l e a d e r s of the n o v e l s s t u d i e d i s r e a l i s t i c .

T h i s p r a c t i c a l a t t i t u d e of the n o v e l i s t s h a s c a u s e d t h e m to c r e a t e

c h a r a c t e r s who s u c c e e d o r f a i l a s l e a d e r s by u t i l i z i n g o r i g n o r i n g the

p r i n c i p l e s of l e a d e r s h i p e s t a b l i s h e d by p r o f e s s i o n a l m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s ,

and t h e r e f o r e trie c h a r a c t e r s of the n o v e l s w e l l r e p r e s e n t a c t u a l l e a d e r s

of t h e i r p e r i o d .

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

A a r o n s , E d w a r d S. , He l l to E t e r n i t y , G r e e n w i c h , C o n n . , F a w c e t t P u b l i c a t i o n s , Inc. , I 960 .

A l d r i d g e , John ¥ . , A f t e r the L o s t G e n e r a t i o n , New York , M c G r a w -Hil l Book C o m p a n y , Inc . , 1951.

, e d i t o r , C r i t i q u e s and E s s a y s on M o d e r n F i c t i o n ; 1920-1951 , New York , The R o n a l d P r e s s C o m p a n y , 1952.

, In S e a r c h of H e r s e y , New York , M c G r a w - H i l l Book C o m p a n y , Inc. , 1956.

T i m e to M u r d e r and C r e a t e : The C o n t e m p o r a r y Novel in C r i s i s , New York , David M c K a y C o m p a n y , Inc . , 1966.

Auden , W. H. , e d i t o r , The P o r t a b l e G r e e k R e a d e r , New York , The Viking P r e s s , 1.967.

B l u e m e l , C. S. , W a r , P o l i t i c s , and In san i t y , D e n v e r , The "World P r e s s , Inc . , 1948.

B r a c h e r , F r e d e r i c k , The Nove l s of J a m e s Gould C o z z e n s , New York , H a r c o u r t , B r a c e , and C o m p a n y , 1959.

B r e i t , H a r v e y , The W r i t e r O b s e r v e d , New York , The W o r l d P u b l i s h i n g C o m p a n y , 1956.

Cowley , M a l c o l m , e d i t o r , W r i t e r s a t Work , New York , The Viking P r e s s , 1957.

C o z z e n s , J a m e s Gould, G u a r d of H o n o r , New York , H a r c o u r t , B r a c e , and Wor ld , Inc. , 1948.

E i s i n g e r , C h e s t e r E . , F i c t i o n of the F o r t i e s , C h i c a g o , The U n i v e r s i t y of Ch icago P r e s s , 1963.

F a u l k n e r , W i l l i a m , S o l d i e r ' s P a y , New York , The New A m e r i c a n

L i b r a r y , 1926. 136

137

G e i s m a r , M a x w e l l , A m e r i c a n M o d e r n s , New York , Hi l l and Wang , 1958.

H e r s e y , J o h n , A Be l l f o r A d a n o , New Y o r k , B a n t a m B o o k s , Inc . , 1944.

, H e r e to S tay , New York , B a n t a m B o o k s , Inc . , 1963.

, The Wal l , New Y o r k , P o c k e t B o o k s , Inc . , 1953.

, The W a r L o v e r , New Y o r k , B a n t a m B o o k s , Inc . , 1959.

H e l l e r , J o s e p h , Ca tch - 2 2 , New Y o r k , D e l l P u b l i s h i n g Co. , Inc . , 1961.

H i g h e t , G i l b e r t , The C l a s s i c a l T r a d i t i o n , New Y o r k , O x f o r d Univers i ty-P r e s s , 1965.

Hu l l , H e l e n , e d i t o r , The W r i t e r ' s Book.. New Y o r k , H a r p e r and B r o t h e r s , 1950. ~~

H y m a n , S t an ley E. , S t a n d a r d s : A C h r o n i c l e of Books in O u r T i m e , New Y o r k , H o r i z o n P r e s s , 1966.

J a n o w i t z , M o r r i s , The P r o f e s s i o n a l S o l d i e r , G l e n c o e , I l l i n o i s , The F r e e P r e s s of G l e n c o e , I l l i n o i s , I960.

J o n e s , J a m e s , F r o m Fie r e to E t e r n i t y , New Y o r k , S ignet B o o k s , I n c . ,

1951. - - -

, The P i s t o l , New Y o r k , C h a r l e s S c r i b n e r ' s Sons , 1958.

, The Th in Red L i n e , New Y o r k , C h a r l e s S c r i b n e r ' s Sons , 1962.

K o s t e l a n e t z , R i c h a r d , e d i t o r , On C o n t e m p o r a r y L i t e r a t u r e , New York , Avon B o o k s , 1964.

L a s c h , C h r i s t o p h e r , The New R a d i c a l i s m in A m e r i c a , New York , A l f r e d A. Knopf , 1965.

L e c k i e , R o b e r t , The M a r c h to G l o r y , C l e v e l a n d , T h e W o r l d P u b -l i s h i n g C o m p a n y , I960.

, M a r i n e s , New York , B a n t a m Books , Inc . , 1957.

138

L o v e t t e , A d m i r a l Lelar id P . , N a v a l C u s t o m s T r a d i t i o n s a n d U s a g e , A n n a p o l i s , Uni ted S t a t e s N a v a l I n s t i t u t e , 1959.

Ludwig , J a c k , R e c e n t A m e r i c a n N o v e l i s t s , M i n n e a p o l i s , U n i v e r s i t y of M i n n e s o t a P r e s s , 1962.

M a i l e r , N o r m a n , The Naked and the Dead , New Y o r k , Signet B o o k s , Inc . , 1948.

M a n u a l f o r C o u r t s - M a r t i a l , W a s h i n g t o n , U. S. G o v e r n m e n t P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1951.

M a r c h , W i l l i a m , C o m p a n y K, New York , S a g a m o r e P r e s s , Inc . , 1933.

M a s o n , F . v a n Wyek , e d i t o r , A m e r i c a n M e n a t A r m s , New Y o r k , P o c k e t B o o k s , Inc . , 1964.

M c C l o u g h r y , E. J . K i n g s t o n , The Direc t ion , of W a r , London , J o n a t h a n C a p e , 1955.

M e i e r , N o r m a n C. , M i l i t a r y P s y c h o l o g y , New Y o r k , H a r p e r and B r o t h e r s , 1943.

M i c h e n e r , J a m e s A. , The B r i d g e s a t T o k o - R i , New Y o r k , B a n t a m B o o k s , Inc . , 1953.

, T a l e s of the South P a c i f i c , New Y o r k , B a n t a m B o o k s , Inc . , 1946.

M i l l g a t e , M i c h a e l , A m e r i c a n Soc ia l F i c t i o n , E d i n b u r g h , O l i v e r and Boyd, 1964.

M o n t g o m e r y , F i e l d - M a r s h a l G. P . , The P a t h to L e a d e r s h i p , New Y o r k , P u t n a m ' s Sons , 1961.

M o o r e , H a r r y T. , e d i t o r , C o n t e m p o r a r y M o d e r n N o v e l i s t s , C a r b o n d a l e , 111. , S o u t h e r n I l l i n o i s U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1964.

P e n n i n g t o n , L. A. a n d o t h e r s , The P s y c h o l o g y of M i l i t a r y L e a d e r s h i p , New Y o r k , P r e n t i c e - H a l l , Inc . , 1943.

Shaw, I r w i n , The Young L i o n s , New York , The M o d e r n L i b r a r y , 1948.

S h e r r o d , R o b e r t , H i s t o r y of M a r i n e C o r p s A v i a t i o n in W o r l d W a r II, W a s h i n g t o n , C o m b a t F o r c e s P r e s s , 1952.

139

Stuck ey , W. J . , The P u l i t z e r P r i z e N o v e l s , N o r m a n , O k l a h o m a , U n i v e r s i t y of O k l a h o m a P r e s s , 1966.

S t y r o n , W i l l i a m , The l o n g M a r c h , New York , V in tage B o o k s , R a n d o m H o u s e , Inc . , 1952.

T h o m a s , G e n e r a l G. C. a n d o t h e r s , The M a r i n e O f f i c e r ' s Gu ide , A n n a p o l i s , Un i t ed S t a t e s Nava l I n s t i t u t e , 1956.

U r i s , L e o n , The A n g r y H i l l s , New Y o r k , S ignet Books , Inc . , 1955.

, A r m a g e d d o n , New York , Dell P u b l i s h i n g Co. , Inc . , 1963.

, Ba t t l e C r y , New Y o r k , B a n t a m B o o k s , Inc . , 1953.

, Mi la 18, New Y o r k , B a n t a m Books , Inc . , 1961.

W h i t b r e a d , T h o m a s B. , e d i t o r , Seven C o n t e m p o r a r y A u t h o r s , A u s t i n , U n i v e r s i t y of T e x a s P r e s s , 1966.

Wol fe , C o m m a n d e r M a l c o l m E . a n d C a p t a i n F . J . Mu lho l l and , e d i t o r s , S e l e c t e d R e a d i n g s in L e a d e r s h i p , A n n a p o l i s , Un i t ed S t a t e s Nava l I n s t i t u t e , I960.

Wouk, H e r m a n , The C a i n e Mut iny , New Y o r k , De l l P u b l i s h i n g Co. , Inc . , 1951.

A r t i c l e s

A d a m s , R i c h a r d P . , "A Second Look a t F r o m H e r e to E t e r n i t y , " C o l l e g e E n g l i s h , XVII ( J a n u a r y , 1956), 205-210.

A l b r e c h t , W. P . , " W a r and F r a t e r n i t y : A Study of Some R e c e n t

A m e r i c a n W a r N o v e l s , " New M e x i c o Q u a r t e r l y , XXI ( W i n t e r , 1951), 461-474. \

Angof f , C h a r l e s , " J o h n H e r s e y ' s Ghe t to , " The A m e r i c a n M e r c u r y , LXX (May, 1950), 623-631.

B a u m b a c h , J o n a t h a n , " P a r a d i s e L o s t : The N o v e l s of W i l l i a m S t y r o n , " South A t l a n t i c Q u a r t e r l y , LXI1I (Sp r ing , 1964), 207-217.

B e c k e r , S tephen , " W h a t ' s Wrong With the A m e r i c a n N o v e l ? " , A m e r i c a n S c h o l a r , XXIV (Au tumn, 1955), 4 6 4 - 5 0 3 .

140

B r a c h e r , F r e d e r i c k , , r J a . m e s G o u l d C o z z e n s : H u m a n i s t , 11 C r i t i q u e , I ( W i n t e r , 1958), 1 0 - 2 9 .

, MOf Youth a n d A g e : J a m e s G o u l d C o z z e n s , " P a c i f i c S p e c t a t o r , V ( W i n t e r , 1951), 4 8 - 6 2 .

B r o w n e , J a m e s R. , " D i s t o r t i o n of T h e C a i n e M u t i n y , ff C o l l e g e E n g l i s h , XVII ( J a n u a r y , 1956), 216-218.

B r y a n t , J e r r y H . , f l T h e H o p e f u l S t o i c i s m of W i l l i a m S t y r o n , " Sou th A t l a n t i c Q u a r t e r l y , L X I I ( A u t u m n , 1963), 5 3 9 - 5 5 0 .

B u r r e s s , L e e A . J r . , " J a m e s J o n e s on F o l k l o r e a n d B a l l a d , " C o l l e g e E n g l i s h , XXI ( D e c e m b e r , 1959) , 161-165.

C a r p e n t e r , F r e d e r i c I. , " H e r m a n Wouk a n d t h e W i s d o m of D i s -i l l u s i o n , 11 T h e E n g l i s h J o u r n a l , X L V ( J a n u a r y , 1956), 1 - 6 .

C o o k , B r u c e A . , " M a i l e r , t h e T e m p t a t i o n to P o w e r , " R e n a s c e n c e , XIV ( S u m m e r , 1962), 2 0 6 - 2 1 5 , 222 .

C o u s i n s , N o r m a n , " J o h n H e r s e y , " S a t u r d a y R e v i e w of L i t e r a t u r e , XXXIII ( M a r c h 4, 1950), 15-16. ~ ~ — — —

C o w l e y , M a l c o l m , " A m e r i c a n N o v e l s S i n c e t h e W a r , " T h e N e w R e p u b l i c , C X X I X ( D e c e m b e r , 1953), 16-18. ~

C o x e , L o u i s O. , " C o m m e n t s o n C o z z e n s : A H i g h P l a c e , " C r i t i q u e , I ( W i n t e r , 1958) , 48 -51 .

, " T h e C o m p l e x W o r l d of J a m e s G o u l d C o z z e n s , " A m e r i c a n . L i t e r a t u r e , XXVII ( M a y , 1955) , 157-171.

D a v i s , R o b e r t G. , " S t y r o n a n d t h e S t u d e n t s , " C r i t i q u e , III, ( S u m m e r , I960) , 3 7 - 4 6 . ' _

D e c t e r , M i d g e , " P o p u l a r J e w s , " C o m m e n t a r y , XXXII ( O c t o b e r , 1961), 3 5 8 - 3 6 0 . ~ ~

D e v o t o , B e r n a r d , " T h e E d i t o r ' s E a s y C h a i r , " H a r p e r ' s M a g a z i n e , C L X C V I I I ( F e b r u a r y , 1949), 7 2 - 7 3 .

D u g g a n , F r a n c i s X. , " F a c t s a n d A l l M e n ' s F i c t i o n , " T h o u g h t , XXXIII ( W i n t e r , 1 9 5 3 - 5 9 ) , 604- 616.

141

E i s i n g e r , C h e s t e r E . , " T h e A m e r i c a n W a r Novel : An A f f i r m i n g F l a m e , " P a c i f i c S p e c t a t o r , IX ( S u m m e r , 1955), 2 7 2 - 2 8 7 .

, " T h e Voice of A g r e s s i v e A r i s t o c r a c y , " Midway , XVIII (Spr ing , 1964), 100-123,

F e n t o n , C h a r l e s A. , " W i l l i a m S ty ron a n d t h e Age of the Slob, " South A t l a n t i c Q u a r t e r l y , L IX (Au tumn , I960), 4 6 9 - 4 7 6 .

, " T h e W r i t e r s Who C a m e Out of the W a r , " S a t u r d a y R e v i e w , CXXXV ( S e p t e m b e r 3, 1956), 5 - 7 , 24.

F e r g u s son , F r a n c i s , " T h r e e N o v e l s , " P e r s p e c t i v e s USA, VI ( W i n t e r , 1954), 3 0 - 4 4 .

F i e d l e r , L e s l i e A. , " J a m e s J o n e s ' D e a d - E n d Young W e r t h e r : The B u m a s A m e r i c a n C u l t u r e H e r o , " C o m m e n t a r y , XII ( S e p t e m b e r , 1951), 3 0 - 4 4 .

F i s c h e r , J o h n , , 'The E d i t o r ' s E a s y C h a i r , " H a r p e r ' s M a g a z i n e , C C X V ( S e p t e m b e r , 1957), 14-20.

F i t c h , R o b e r t E. , " L a M y s t i q u e de l a M e r d e , " The New R e p u b l i c , CXXXV ( S e p t e m b e r ; 3, 1956), 17-18. ~~~

F o w l e r , A l a s t a i r , " I s o l a t i o n a n d I t s D i s c o n t e n t s , " T w e n t i e t h C e n t u r y L i t e r a t u r e , VI ( Ju ly , I960), 51-64.

F r e d e r i c k , John T. , " F i c t i o n of W o r l d W a r II, " C o l l e g e E n g l i s h , XVII ( N o v e m b e r , 1955), 451-458.

F r i e d m a n , Me lv in J . , " W i l l i a m S ty ron : An I n t e r i m A p p r a i s a l , " The E n g l i s h J o u r n a l , L ( M a r c h , 1961), 149-158, 192.

G e i s m a r , M a x w e l l , " T h e Age of Wouk, " Na t ion , CLXXXI ( N o v e m b e r 5, 1955), 3 9 9 - 4 0 0 .

, " E x p e r i m e n t in G e n o c i d e , " S a t u r d a y R e v i e w of L i t e r a t u r e , XXXIII ( M a r c h 4, 1950), 14.

G l i c k s b e r g , C h a r l e s I. , " N o r m a n M a i l e r : The A n g r y Young N o v e l i s t in A m e r i c a , " W i s c o n s i n S tud ies in C o n t e m p o r a r y L i t e r a t u r e , I ( W i n t e r , 1 9 6 0 ) 7 2 ^ 3 4 -

, " R a c i a l A t t i t u d e s in F r o m H e r e to E t e r n i t y , " P h y l o n , XIV ( F o u r t h Q u a r t e r , 1953), 3 8 4 - 3 8 9 .

142

G o l d s t o n e , H e r b e r t , " T h e N o v e l s of N o r m a n M a i l e r , 11 T h e E n g l i s h J o u r n a l , X L V ( M a r c h , 1956) , 113-121.

G r i f f i t h , B e n W. J r . , " R e a r R a n k R o b i n H o o d , J a m e s J o n e s ' F o l k H e r o , " G e o r g i a R e v i e w , X {Spr ing , 1956), 4 1 - 4 6 .

" T h e G r o u p N o u n , " T i m e , L X V I ( S e p t e m b e r 19, 1955), 58 .

G u i l f o i l , K e l s e y , " J o h n H e r s e y : F a c t a n d F i c t i o n , " T h e E n g l i s h J o u r n a l , XXXIX ( S e p t e m b e r , 1950), 3 5 5 - 3 6 0 .

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