e ect of curing conditions on strength and durability of...

Scientia Iranica A (2017) 24(2), 576{583

Sharif University of TechnologyScientia Iranica

Transactions A: Civil Engineeringwww.scientiairanica.com

Research Note

E�ect of curing conditions on strength and durability ofhigh-performance concrete

F. Canpolata,b;� and T.R. Naikb

a. Yildiz Technical University, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Department of Civil Engineering, Davutpasa Campus, Istanbul, Turkey34220.

b. UWM Center for By-Products Utilization, Department of Civil Engineering and Mechanics, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee,P.O. Box 784, Milwaukee, WI 53201, USA.

Received 14 November 2014; received in revised form 6 October 2015; accepted 23 February 2016

KEYWORDSCompressive strength;Curing;Fly ash;High-performanceconcrete;Sulfate resistance;Temperature.

Abstract. This paper describes the e�ects of variable curing temperatures on compressivestrength and sulfate resistance of high-strength, high-performance concrete. Two di�erentconcrete mixtures were proportioned to attain the 56-day compressive strength of about70 MPa upon moist-curing. One mixture contained more quantity of ASTM Class C yash than the other one. For each mixture, one set of specimens was cured in a standardmoist-curing room at 23�C and 100% relative humidity; another set of specimens wassealed in plastic bags and cured in an elevated, Variable-Temperature Curing Environment(VTCE). The average temperature of the VTCE oscillated between about 30�C and 41�Conce per day. This study revealed that the VTCE-cured concrete did not signi�cantlyexhibit di�erent compressive strength or ability to resist sulfates attack compared to thestandard moist-cured specimens. Thus, it was concluded, based on the results of thisresearch, that additional e�ort to stabilize higher curing-temperatures would be necessaryfor �eld-cured concrete.© 2017 Sharif University of Technology. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Concrete is a porous solid that is created by combiningfour basic materials: cementitious binder, aggregates,admixtures, and water. The ability of concrete toperform in the desired manner is primarily dependentupon the proportions of these four materials along withthe temperature and time during curing.

This research project was directed towards con-crete strength and the ability of the concrete to resistundesirable sulfate expansion. Many studies wereconducted regarding this issue. However, most of thesereported studies were conducted in a controlled envi-

*. Corresponding author. Tel.: +90 (212) 383-5241;Fax: +90 (212) 383-5133E-mail addresses: [email protected] (F. Canpolat);[email protected] (T.R. Naik)

ronment (room temperature, 23�C, and 100% relativehumidity). Therefore, they may not accurately re ectthe performance of concrete placed and cured in avariable curing temperature of an outdoor environmentduring summer months.

Of all the factors having a direct in uence onthe performance of concrete, curing temperature isprobably the most uncontrollable. Concrete cured at ahigher summer temperature will gain strength initiallyat a faster rate than identical concrete cured at a lowertemperature.

Though strength is gained faster at higher tem-peratures at an early age, such concretes will exhibitlower long-term strength than concrete cured at lowertemperatures at an early age under controlled condi-tions (23�1�C) [1]. For normal-strength concrete withthe 28-day compressive strength of 40 MPa or less, highcuring temperatures accelerate the cement hydration

F. Canpolat and T.R. Naik/Scientia Iranica, Transactions A: Civil Engineering 24 (2017) 576{583 577

reaction, while lower curing temperatures will retardthe hydration reaction. In fact, when the temperaturewas increased by about 7�C, the hydration reactionrate was reported to increase by 100% [2]. Elevatedcuring temperatures a�ect hardened concrete in twoways. First, at the microscopic level, Calcium-Silicate-Hydrate (C-S-H) crystals grow quickly, although theyare thin, long, and wide. These long, wide crystals arecomparatively large, but do not occupy all the availablepore space within the concrete matrix. Second, theelevated curing temperatures usually prompt a greaterwater loss due to evaporation, leaving unhydratedcementitious particles in the concrete matrix, as wellas the voids which are created by the evaporated waterand are not yet �lled with C-S-H crystals. Therefore,the concrete cured at higher temperatures tends toexhibit a more porous microstructure. This leads tolower long-term concrete strength and decreases theability of the concrete to resist penetration of harmfulsubstances such as sulfate-bearing water, for examplein the marine environment. So, even if desired strengthlevels are achieved, porosity alone may prove to bea source of a serious challenge to durability issue inconcrete structures constructed under a hot-weathercuring condition.

High-Performance Concrete (HPC) has becomean attractive option compared to normal-strength con-crete. HPC is a specialized concrete designed toprovide several bene�ts in the construction of concretestructures. HPC o�ers high strength, better durabilityproperties, and good construction. High strength isone of the important attributes of HPC [3].

The advancement of High-Strength Concrete(HSC) has a�ected nearly every area of concreteconstruction. Since high-strength concrete (higherthan 40 MPa at the 28-day age [4]) is now generallyreadily obtainable, the application of HSC as a viableconstruction material is now well accepted. However,if HSC is to be the construction material for usein any condition, then other properties must also beachieved in addition to the strength [5]. Some ofthese properties include, but are not limited to, thefollowing: resistance to expansion caused by sulfate andalkali-silica reaction, low permeability to air and water,resistance to cycles of freezing and thawing, as well aschloride-ion penetration.

HSC, with high durability, is sometimes re-ferred to as High-Performance Concrete (HPC). Un-like normal-strength concretes, high-strength concretesmust almost always employ supplementary cementi-tious materials, chemical admixtures, and improvedmixture proportioning, and handling/placement tech-niques. HSC is believed to be a more \sensitive"material than traditional normal-strength concrete [6].Therefore, additional care must be exercised for suchconcretes in mixture proportioning and construction,

often leading to increased costs. Despite these costs,HSC has proved to be a very economical option forcertain structural elements such as columns for high-rise buildings [7-9].

The �rst uses of HPC in the 1970s were indoorapplications, mainly in columns in high-rise buildings,which are not subjected to a particularly severe envi-ronment. Outdoor applications of HPC date back tothe late 1980s and early 1990s, which means that notenough time has passed to fully assess the real servicelife of HPC structures under outdoor conditions. But,based on the experience with ordinary concrete, onecan assume that HPC is more durable than ordinaryconcrete. Indeed, the experience gained with ordinaryconcrete has shown that concrete durability is governedby concrete permeability and the harshness of theenvironment [5,10].

Permeability dictates the rate at which aggres-sive agents penetrate into the concrete, leading tovarious types of undesirable physical and/or chemicalreactions. The aggressive agents include gases (CO2,SOx, and NOx) and liquids (acid rain, salt-bearingwater, sea water, sulfate-bearing water, snow and icewater, and river or lake owing water). The primaryvariables in uencing concrete permeability are waterto cementitious materials ratio, quantities of supple-mentary cementitious materials, grading and size ofaggregates, compaction of concrete, and curing [5,11].

Seawater is not a particularly harsh environmentfor plain concrete, but such a marine environmentcan be very harmful to reinforced concrete due to themultiplicity of aggression that it can face. Marineconcrete structure is widely concerned about long-termserviceability. It is well known that the destructionof concrete structure in marine environment is mainlydue to sulfate attack and the corrosion of steel underchloride attack [12]. In a marine environment, aconcrete structure is mainly subjected to four typesof aggressive factors [13]. They are as follows:

1. Chemical factors related to the presence of variousions dissolved in the seawater or transported in thewet air;

2. Geometrical factors related to the uctuation of thesea level, waves, tides, storms, and other similarfactors;

3. Physical forces such as freezing and thawing, scal-ing, wetting and drying, abrasion, and other similarfactors;

4. Mechanical factors such as the kinetic action of thewaves and the erosion caused by sand [11].

Most sea waters are more or less the samein composition, containing about 3.5% soluble salts(chlorides and sulfates) by mass. The pH of seawa-ter varies from 7.5 to 8.4, averaging about 8.2 [11].

578 F. Canpolat and T.R. Naik/Scientia Iranica, Transactions A: Civil Engineering 24 (2017) 576{583

Concrete exposed to seawater may deteriorate fromthe combined e�ects of the following chemical andphysical processes [14]: sulfate attack; leaching of lime(primarily and easily dissolvable calcium hydroxide)from the concrete; alkali-aggregate expansion; scalingand/or salt crystallization from alternate wetting anddrying; freezing and thawing; corrosion of embeddedreinforcing or pre-stressing steel; and erosion andabrasion from waves. Attack by most of these processescan be slowed by reducing the permeability of concrete.Low permeability helps keep aggressive chemicals outof the concrete, slows leaching of soluble materialssuch as lime, and limits the depth of carbonation,thereby protecting the reinforcing steel better fromcorrosion [14].

Marine concrete can be classi�ed according totheir exposure zones: submerged, splash, and atmo-spheric. The submerged zone is continuously coveredby seawater, the splash zone is subject to continuouswetting and drying, and the atmospheric zone is abovethe splash zone and subject to occasional seawaterspray [14]. Concrete in the submerged zone is notas vulnerable as concrete in the other two zones.Deterioration in any of these zones tends to make theconcrete more porous and weak, making the concretesusceptible to more deterioration. Cracks, spalls,mortar erosion, and corrosion stains are the earlyvisible signs of deterioration [14].

Seawater can be very harmful to reinforced con-crete, because once the chloride ions reach reinforcingsteel and steel corrosion occurs, it can result in arapid spalling of the cover concrete. Consequently, itbecomes easier for the chloride ions to reach the secondlevel of reinforcing steel, etc. By specifying a verydense, impervious concrete and placing it correctly,and by increasing the thickness of the concrete cover,the corrosion of the steel can be either inhibited ordelayed [13].

The compressive strength of high-strength high-performance concrete depends upon an e�cient andjudicious use of Other Cementitious Materials (OCM).These materials augment the chemical reactions pro-duced by the portland cement and water. The resultfrom OCM reactions is a tight, densely packed concretematrix, which produces a strong bond between theaggregates and the cementitious binder. The moste�ective OCM, capable of producing signi�cantly im-proved microstructure and compressive strength of theconcrete, is silica fume. Experiments have shownthat silica fume used as a replacement for portlandcement at a level of about 10% seems to give opti-mum strength [15,16]. Unfortunately, silica fume isexpensive and presents di�culties in traditional mixingand �nishing techniques exacting added costs [17,18].While the bene�ts of silica fume are fairly well known,they are often misunderstood. With regard to the

usual porosity-strength relationship for plain concrete,a reduction in porosity cannot be directly correlatedwith the silica fume use. This is because porosity is astronger function of the water-cementitious materialsratio [19]. Other sources [17,20] speci�cally indicatethat water needed to achieve adequate workability maybe the single most signi�cant trouble area in high-strength concrete production. Therefore, the amountof water added to a concrete mixture is critical andmust be carefully determined if one is to make use ofthe important bene�ts of the silica fume.

One of the more common methods of attainingimproved strength concrete economically is to add yash to concrete mixtures. Fly ash is favorable foruse in high-strength concrete, with or without silicafume, for reasons other than economics. As y ash isadded to the concrete mixture, slump increases [21,22].Therefore, y ash in silica-fume concrete also enhancesworkability while contributing to improved compressivestrength development. High-calcium y ash (ASTMC 618 designation Class C) is cementitious as wellas pozzolanic. Therefore, it is able to supplementthe performance of portland cement and combineit with calcium hydroxide, an important ingredientcontributing to the hydration reaction. Studies haveindicated that compressive strength values increase inmixtures containing Class C y ash [5,23-26]. Atcement replacement levels exceeding 45%, Class C yash may be responsible for reductions in very early-age compressive strength value. While y ash increasesworkability of high-strength concrete with or withoutsilica fume, the use of a High-Range Water-ReducingAdmixture (HRWRA) is still indispensable for suchconcretes with silica fume. Fly ash was used to improvestrength and durability of such concrete mixtures.

Sulfate attack on concrete can manifest itselfthrough two distinct forms [10]. First, sulfate ingressmay prompt concrete to undergo deleterious expan-sions, causing cracking or spalling. Second, sulfates cancause a progressive loss of mass and loss of strength ofconcrete. Whichever of these two deterioration pro-cesses is prevalent under a given set of circumstancesdepends upon the concentration and source of thesulfate ions. Calcium hydroxide and alumina-bearingphases of hydrated portland cement are particularlyvulnerable to attack by sulfate ions. If the tricalciumaluminate content of the portland cement is greaterthan 8%, the hydration reaction may cause the de-velopment of an expansive form of sulfate [11]. Thissubstance is known as ettringite fC3A + 3 CaSO4 !ettringiteg. Ettringite is a crystalline structure capableof swelling with the absorption of water.

It is well known and accepted that inclusion ofClass F y ash in concrete would increase the resistanceof concrete to sulfate attack [27]. Based on extensivemicroscopic investigation of blended cement pastes


containing several y ashes, Mehta [28] reported thatirrespective of the calcium content, it is the amountof reactive alumina contributed by a y ash (from thedissolution of the aluminosilicate glass and hydrationof crystalline compounds, such as C3A and C4A3S),which controls the presence of the minerals highlyvulnerable to sulfate attack. Mehta [29] also foundthat some high-calcium y ashes formed ettringite asa product of hydration. As a result, such y ashmay experience the expansion and strength loss dueto sulfate exposure. Similar results, with regard tosulfate resistance of Class C y ash in concrete, wereobtained by Manz and McCarthy [30]. The increaseof y ash replacement in concrete clearly reduces thechloride penetration, chloride penetration coe�cient,and steel corrosion in concrete [12].

2. Experimental program

The scope of this study involves two types of HPCmixtures: \production-grade (P)" and \experimental-grade (E)" HPC mixtures. A concrete mixture withproven capability to achieve strengths in excess of 70MPa (10000 psi) was used as the control mixture, theproduction-grade mixture (Mixture 10P). In addition,a more cost-e�ective, experimental-grade concrete mix-ture (Mixture 10E) was also produced and tested.

2.1. MaterialsASTM C 150 Type I portland cement was used in thisinvestigation. The �ne aggregate used was naturalsand. A crushed limestone with nominal maximumsize of 19 mm was used as the coarse aggregate.ASTM C 618 Class C y ash and ASTM C 1240 silicafume were used as mineral admixtures. ASTM C 494High-Range Water-Reducing Admixture (HRWRA)was used. ASTM C 494 retarding admixture wasused to permit placement and �nishing of the concretemixtures.

2.2. Mixture proportionsThe proportions and fresh properties of the HPCmixtures used for this study are presented in Table 1.The concrete mixtures were proportioned to have the56-day compressive strength of 69 MPa. Mixture10P contained approximately 15% y ash by mass ofcementitious materials (cement + y ash), and Mixture10E contained 40% y ash. Slump values of theconcrete mixtures exceeded 200 mm.

2.3. Preparation of test specimensFrom each concrete mixture, 100 mm � 200 mm cylin-drical specimens were cast for compressive strengthmeasurement. The specimens for sulfate-resistancetest were 100 mm � 75 mm � 400 mm prisms. Allspecimens were cast in accordance with ASTM C192 [31].

Table 1. Mixture proportions and fresh properties ofconcrete.

Mixture number 10P 10ECement (kg/m3) 387 298Fly ash, class C (kg/m3) 71 201Water (kg/m3) 142 154Sand, SSD (kg/m3) 737 715

Crushed stone, 19 mmmax., SSD (kg/m3)

1010 1029

HRWRA (L/m3) 2.79 2.83Retarding admixture (L/m3) 0.89 0.93w=c 0.37 0.52w=cm 0.31 0.31Slump (mm) 216 241Air content (%) 5.0 2.4Density (kg/m3) 2350 2400

2.4. Curing of specimensAfter casting, all the molded specimens were coveredwith plastic sheets to minimize moisture loss due toevaporation. After 24 � 8 hours, the specimens weredemolded and transferred to a standard moist-curingroom or a specially-designed curing unit.

Two types of curing environments were used toprovide the necessary insight into the developmentof hardened HPC properties as a function of curingtemperature. The �rst environment was the standardmoist-curing in a moist room maintained at 23 �1�C temperature and 100% relative humidity. Thesecond curing environment was an elevated Variable-Temperature Curing Environment (VTCE) to simulatehot-weather curing conditions. The average temper-ature of the VTCE was raised from about 30�C to41�C in 8 hours and lowered from 41�C to 30�C in16 hours, completing one cycle each day (Figure 1).The concrete specimens were wrapped and sealed in aplastic bag before placing them in the VTCE chamberin order to minimize moisture loss due to evaporation.The relative humidity of the VTCE chamber was foundto vary between 35 and 85%.

Figure 1. Recorded temperature for VTCE.


2.5. Testing of specimensFor each concrete mixture and curing environment,the compressive strength was determined for threecylinders (total 21 cylinders) at 3, 7, 28, 56, 91,182, and 365 days of age in accordance with ASTMC 39. Upon obtaining the desired compressive-strengthlevel of 69 MPa, prism specimens were immersed ina 10% sodium sulfate solution. The sulfate-resistancetest specimens were tested for the change in dynamicmodulus of elasticity to determine the soundness ofconcrete (ASTM C88). The sulfate-resistance testcontinued for a period of 420 days.

3. Test results and discussion

3.1. Compressive StrengthCompression test results of Mixtures 10P and 10Eare presented in Figure 2 and Table 2. Mixture 10Pexceeded the target 56-day compressive strength of70 MPa. Both the normal moist-curing environmentand VTCE did not produce signi�cant di�erences instrength gains for Mixture 10P over the early curingperiod of 91 days. Beyond the 91-day age, the moist-cured 10P specimens showed almost constant strengthwith age, and the VTCE-cured 10P specimens showeda reduction in strength with age possibly due todesiccation of concrete. Accordingly, the coe�cient ofvariation for 10P mixes was 3%, and the maximum co-

Figure 2. Compressive strength of concrete mixtures.

Table 2. Compressive strength of concrete mixtures(MPa).

Age(days)

10Pmoistcured

10PVTCEcured

10Emoistcured

10EVTCEcured

3 52.5 47.8 32.6 34.17 53.7 58.0 43.7 50.928 73.3 72.7 67.4 63.056 72.8 77.6 65.8 58.491 82.1 83.1 77.2 67.6182 78.6 70.7 77.6 63.7365 78.3 68.7 83.3 55.2

e�cient of variations for 10E mixes was 5%. Accordingto ACI 214 (Standards of Concrete Control) [32], a 5%maximum coe�cient of variation is considered \fair"for laboratory trial batches. Values in excess of 5% areconsidered \poor".

Mixture 10E reached the 56-day strength of66 MPa after moist curing and 58 MPa after curingin the VTCE. Moist-cured 10E specimens continuedto gain strength with age, while the VTCE-cured 10Especimens showed a reduction in strength beyond the91-day age.

If the relative humidity of the air surrounding thespecimens in the VTCE had been 100%, the long-termstrength of VTCE-cured 10P and 10E specimens mighthave been higher. Based on the strength results of themoist-cured specimens and the VTCE-cured specimensat the early age of up to about three months, it maybe said that the elevated, variable curing temperaturedid not a�ect the compressive strength of concretenoticeably.

3.2. Sulfate resistanceFundamental longitudinal frequencies of each concretespecimen were recorded at predetermined intervals perASTM C215 [33]. These data were used to computeany change in dynamic modulus of the concrete occur-ring over the test period. Fundamental longitudinalfrequencies of each concrete in Figure 3 and Table 3present test results pertaining to the change in dynamicmodulus versus the time of sulfate exposure. Anincrease in dynamic modulus implies an improvementin microstructure of the concrete. After storage inthe sodium sulfate solution, both the moist-curedspecimens and the VTCE-cured specimens showedconsiderable increase in the dynamic modulus. Studyof Shah et al. [34] showed that nanoindentation alongwith imaging is a powerful technique to determinethe mechanical properties of di�erent phases of micro-and nano-structure of cement paste. Young's modulusof unhydrated cement particles and C-S-H gel wasdetermined by Shah et al. Using the imaging capabilityof the nanoindenter tip made it possible to position

Figure 3. Change in dynamic modulus of concrete due toexposure to sulfate solution.


Table 3. Change in dynamic modulus of concrete due toexposure to sulfate solution.

Age(days)

10Pmoistcured(%)

10PVTCEcured(%)

10Emoistcured(%)

10EVTCEcured(%)

7 101.68 102.52 103.63 106.7314 102.94 103.44 105.59 107.721 103.54 104.13 106.41 108.7128 103.97 105.08 107.26 109.0756 105.25 106.77 109.17 110.6991 106.56 107.74 110.8 112.22105 107.17 108.19 111.18 113.04140 107.57 108.58 111.64 113.29182 107.92 108.93 111.92 113.97273 108.56 109.06 112.2 114.12420 108.63 109.94 112.06 114.55

the indenter exactly in the narrow region of InterfacialTransition Zone (ITZ) and perform nanoindentation todetermine the local mechanical properties directly. Itwas found that the paste in the ITZ has, in general, alower Young's modulus [34].

Moist-cured specimens of both 10P and 10E mix-tures recorded somewhat lower values of the increase inthe dynamic modulus than their VTCE-cured counter-parts. The behavior of these specimens indicates thatexposure to severe sulfate solutions would not resultin the internal deterioration of this class of concrete, atleast over the 420-day test period. It is, therefore, likelythat the 70 MPa concrete tested was not susceptible tothe formation of expansive ettringite as a result of theexposure to the sulfate solution.

4. Conclusions

Substantial di�erences in strength-gain behavior andlong-term strengths between moist-cured specimensand VTCE-cured specimens were expected in theevaluation of curing temperature e�ects. The absenceof these di�erences in this research indicates thate�orts to stabilize curing temperatures may not benecessary to attain approximate moist-cured specimenstrengths for concrete cured under summer-weathervariable temperatures.

Specimen measurements involving changes in dy-namic modulus were analyzed to illustrate the e�ects ofsulfate attack and for di�erences in behavior betweenmoist-cured specimens and VTCE-cured specimens.The e�ect of curing was insigni�cant on the sulfateresistance of the HPC mixtures tested in this inves-tigation. The absence of any considerable di�erentialbehavior between identical concretes cured in di�erent

environments substantiates the conclusion that e�ortsto maintain normal curing temperatures are probablynecessary to attain moist-cured levels of sulfate resis-tance for concrete cured under variable temperaturesas long as moisture loss is minimized.

Acknowledgments

The UWM Center for By-Products Utilization was es-tablished in 1988 with a generous grant from DairylandPower Cooperative, La Crosse, Wisc.; Madison Gasand Electric Company, Madison, Wisc.; National Min-erals Corporation, St. Paul, Minn.; Northern StatesPower Company, Eau Claire, Wisc.; We Energies,Milwaukee, Wisc.; Wisconsin Power and Light Com-pany, Madison, Wisc.; and, Wisconsin Public ServiceCorporation, Green Bay, Wisc. Their �nancial supportand additional grant and support from ManitowocPublic Utilities, Manitowoc, Wisc. are gratefullyacknowledged.

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Biographies

Fethullah Canpolat is an Assistant Professor inYildiz Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey. He spe-cializes in Materials of Sustainable Construction andConcrete Technology. He is a Former Post-DoctoralResearch Associate at UWM Center for By-ProductsUtilization, in the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee,


where he was involved with research on the use ofrecyclable materials such as coal combustion products,cement kiln dust, limestone quarry �nes, and foundryindustry silica-dust in cement-based materials, such asconcrete.

Tarun R Naik, FACI, is an Emeritus Professor ofStructural Engineering at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee and Former Research Professor and Aca-

demic Program Director of the UWM Center for By-Products Utilization. He was a member of ACI'sBoard Advisory Committee on Sustainable Develop-ment; and ACI Committees 123, Research and CurrentDevelopments; 214, Evaluation of Results of TestsUsed to Determine the Strength of Concrete; 229,Controlled Low-Strength Materials; 232, Fly Ash andNatural Pozzolans in Concrete; and 555, Concrete withRecycled Materials.

e ect of curing conditions on strength and durability of...

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