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Visualizing design history: an analytical approach

Abstract

This project is about imaging complexity. It harnesses designs intrinsic capacity

for giving visual form to concepts and relations, using graphic design to

interrogate its own history. There are two main threads to this research. The first is

a critique of the construction of design history. It uses Philip MeggssA History of

Graphic Design and Steven Heller and Elinor Pettits Graphic Design Time Line:

A Century of Design Milestones as examples of the problems and limitations in

historical writing about design. The second thread represents graphic design

history in diagrammatic form, laying the groundwork for alternate ways of

surveying the field. The research does not seek to supplant the written historical

survey but rather to suggest complementary, design-based strategies. My approach

is a speculative one, grounded in design experimentation. By recourse to external

analogiesthe ideas of the homunculus, the ancient continent of Pangea, and Mr

Becks London Underground mapI employ inventive and imaginative

approaches to visualise the web of forces and events that is design history. I

approach this task not as a historian but as a designer seeking new applications for

design thinking while making knowledge about design available in new ways.

Keywords: graphic design history, envisioning, information design, timeline

design

1. Introduction

1.1 Multiple graphic design history perspectives

The creation of design history has been challenged by a number of writers, who

have argued that it is far from an objective or neutral enterprise. For example,

Clive Dilnot argues that design historians place too much emphasis on the

individual designer, instead of adopting a socio-historical approach, examining

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design activity against its economic and cultural context.1 Adrian Forty sees the

writing of design history pejoratively, as an activity steeped in connoisseurship,

the goal of which is to erect a canon of the great authors of designed form.. For

Fry, canonisation and connoisseurship reveal an ideological understanding of the

nature of design, playing a hegemonic role in the unfolding contemporary design

culture.2 He argues that it serves to hide the social, political and economic

implications of design practices behind an ahistorical discourse that deals with

only one aspect of a design object's being, its physical appearance, masking issues

like commodification and class division.

Connoisseurship leaves the design object marooned in a realm of pure aesthetics,

with no acknowledgement of the forces of production and consumption that come

into play in its development. Like connoisseurship, canonisation presupposes a

hierarchy of design objects and designers. Those included become the established

canon of design history. However, this group of designers and design works,

accounts for only a tiny fraction of all the design entities created in history. As Fry

asks, What of all the other designed objects ... which evolve and are used but are

excluded from such a history? What of the relation between validated design and

the popular taste?3 For Dick Hebdige it is necessary, though much harder, to

simultaneously consider the nature of design objects, and the design practices and

institutional structures created in relation to the network of social relationships, in

which design objects arise and exist.4.

1.2 Design knowledge capability

Historians have attempted to record the history of graphic design from very

different focuses, and as discussed above, more effort is required to extend its

breadth and depth, just like various maps, which do not contradict, but

complement one another. Taken together they can provide a more complete

account of the terrain, than when taken alone. Along with graphic design

1 Clive Dilnot, The State of Design History: part 1:Mapping the field, in Margolin, Victor ed.,Design Discourse, University ofChicago Press, Chicago, 1989, pp.213-2322 Tony Fry,Design History Australia: a source text in methods and resources, Sydney, Hale & Iremonger and the Power

Institute of Fine Arts, 1988, pp. 52-543 Tony Fry,Design History Australia: a source text in metho125ds and resources, Sydney, Hale & Iremonger and the Power Institute of Fine Arts, 1988,p. 27.4 Dick Hebdige, Object as Image: the Italian Motor Scooter inHiding in the Light, Routledge, London, 1988, pp. 77-115

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historiography, the knowledge of graphic design history has been encapsulated

through text, and restricted to scholastic works; (although some publications claim

themselves as graphic design history, they are more like monographs or

biographies). This demarcation divides graphic design history from practical

design, and places the attention on linear narration.

But as a hermeneutic or interpretive method, visualization has rarely been applied

to the field of graphic design history, although graphic design is, itself, focused on

the development and delivery of visual messages. Recently, some articles have

suggested that visualization works in stages. Bruce Archer contends that Design

research is systematic inquiry, whose goal is knowledge of, or in the embodiment

of, configuration, composition, structure, purpose, value and meaning in

man-made things and systems.5

This includes an understanding of design

capacity as the generative basis of human agency, as well as allowing humans to

participate in the ongoing genesis of creation. Basic design capacity is alsoinclusive, integrative and emergent; an analogue state from which categories of

design ,inquiry and action can be dissected. Subsequent research has developed

this assumption, recognizing that design knowledge may apply to a broader field.

Chris Rust raises the topic that design has a special ability to embody ideas and

knowledge, in the form of artefacts, which affords us access to tacit knowledge6,

while stimulating employment of ones own tacit knowledge to form new ideas7.

Design is animated by purpose. Those served by a particular design activity are

the ones who bring purpose to that activity. The means and ends of design activity

are brought to life through the desires and needs of those who are being served by

that design activity. When todays graphic design historians become more aware

of what they are writing and representing, design knowledge should be applied to

reveal the real status of graphic design, together with new possibilities.

5 Bruce Archer, A View of the Nature of the Design Research,Design: Science: Method, R. Jacques, J. A. Powell, eds.Guilford, Surrey: IPC Business Press Ltd., 1981, pp. 3047. L. Bruce Archer gave this definition at the Portsmouth DRSconference.6 Tacit knowledge is a concept which was formalised by Michael Polanyi. Polanyi believed that creative acts are shot-through orcharged with strong personal feelings and commitments. Arguing against the then dominant position that science was somehowvalue-free, he sought to bring into creative tension a concern with reasoned and critical interrogation with other, more ' tacit',

forms of knowing. The classic statement of tacit knowledge is in Michael Polanyi,Personal Knowledge. Towards a Post CriticalPhilosophy, London, Routledge, 19587 Chris Rust,Design Enquiry: Tacit Knowledge and Invention in Science, Sheffield Hallam University, Art and Design Research

Centre working paper, 8 July 2003

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1.3 Envisioning information

Visual presentation can clarify complex relations, increasing the density, range

and number of informational dimensions that can be represented simultaneously

on one plane, or as a linked sequence of information fields; it can also

demonstrate causality and elevate key content to its primary position. The process

of clarifying the visual may also clarify the analysis of the data itself. These, of

course, are the basic principles of information design, as advanced by Edward.

"Escaping this flatland," he wrote, "is the essential task of envisioning

information, for all the interesting worlds that we seek to understand are

inevitably and happily multivariate in nature."8

For Tufte, appropriate strategies

of visual display have the capacity to enhance the viewer's consideration of

information, reveal the implicit meaning of information, and emphase its more

important aspects and inherent implications.

Tuftes groundbreaking writing on the potential of information design have a clear

relevance to my project.According to Tufte, the designer has an important role in

the presentation and configuration of data, so that it exists in a form that is

meaningful to end users. In seeking to visualise design history, I have come to

understand many of the conceptual complexities, paradoxes and ideological

agendas driving not only the construction of history, but also the conception of

time. I seek to demonstrate this through the presentation of multivariate data in a

single representation and through a sequence of diagrams.

1.4 Reading deference

While looking at the same sign, two people will approach it with similar common

sense, but also with group experience. At the same time, there are differences in

their configuring, based on the individuals dissimilar backgrounds, personal

experiences and idiosyncrasies. Jacques Derrida explains how meaning is

communicated in difference; the "meaning" being always deferred and the

presence never actually being present. Signifiers attain significance only by their

differences from one another9. Derrida also interprets the French verb differer to

8 R. Edward Tufte,Envisioning Information, Connecticut, Graphics Press, 1990, p. 129 Jacques Derrida, Writing and Difference, Alan Bass trans, Chicago U.P., 1978, p. 263

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mean both to differ and to defer,10 creating meaning in various contexts. This

description indicates how differently we may experience the same data, and this is

natural as well as essential. I refer here to the meaning of difference in forming

my concern for graphic design history. Most graphic design history is actually

the history of graphic design objects. When graphic design history is presented

differently, it is because the design works chosen are different. On the other hand,

the design works may be the same, while the interpretation is different. In this

research, we go one step further; we look at the same collection, from two

different publications of significant graphic design historians, reconstructing the

design works and activities from the perspective of the signified11

. These design

works have been accessed intertextually via different audiences, in time, space

and personal experience. This notion of intertextuality originally came from

Roland Barthes, whose unforgettable announcement on 'the death of the author'

and 'the birth of the reader', declared that 'a text's unity lies not in its origin but in

its destination'12. Consequently, all literary works have been "rewrites"; the

concept of intertextuality reminds us that each text exists in relation to others. In

fact, texts may owe more to other texts, than to their own makers, providing much

the same, visual presentation/representation, constructed and re-constructed, by

author and viewers.

2 Visualizing design History--metaphor and critical analysis

Historians idiosyncrasies appear in their narrations of design history legends. It is

true that we all see the world through our own eyes, and from our own

perspectives. Sometimes, however, we miss seeing something, even though it

exists, because we do not fully comprehend, or even ignore it. The masses are

educated to believe what they have been told, and discount the things they are

ignorant of. The following section discusses and visualizes the historical

perspectives, both conscious and unconscious, used by our two writers, illustrating

how the conventions and ideology of historical writing challenge the prescribed

narrative system of weltanschauung.

10 Jacques Derrida, Writing and Difference, Alan Bass trans, Chicago U.P., 1978, p. 25511 Roland Barthes, Annette Lavers trans. ,Mythologies,New York, Hill and Wang, 1972, pp. 114-11512 Roland Barthes,Image-Music-Text, London: Fontana, 1977, p. 148

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Meggs A History of Graphic Design and Hellers Graphic design timeline: a

century of design milestones are summarized here, in order to allow visualization

of this prejudice. The data was entered into an Excel data base. The purpose of

this design project is not to represent all of graphic design history, but to promote

the capacity of visual information to reconfigure and restructure the history of

graphic design. Basically, all of the data (referred to as entries) were collected

from these two books. Nearly all of the entries in Meggs book were included. For

the sake of simplicity, in this experimental stage, only those shown in Meggs

graphic design timeline were collected into the data.All entries were classified into

five main categories: early developments, design publication, design practice,

design events and design technology. Two obvious problems are evident in this

assertion.

First, following the logic in his writing, graphic design history is unintentionally

represented through his Western, cultural ethnocentrism. Sumeria, Egypt and

China are discussed only as touchstones for the fountainheads of Western culture,

or to fill a vacuum before focusing on European graphic design history. The

Sumerians invented writing in 3200 BC; the Egyptians wrote on the Rosetta Stone

in AD 197. Since they gave no account of Western development, they disappeared

from the history of graphic design. This tendency was obviously inherited from

the historiographic convention in the history of art.

Of the more than 200 countries in the world, only 29 were referred to (Actually,

17 of these 29 countries were mentioned less than 5 times in the 5000 years

history.), although Meggs traced some ancient connections, and Heller referred to

some Japanese graphic designs., However, perhaps the historiography of graphic

design history was obversely dominated by the Western Bourgeoisie, mostly male

and white. Their exclusions and inclusions, in graphic design history, illuminated

this specific primary hegemony.

2.1 Pangea: the connection and shifting in graphic design

A series of figures present the two main shifting and connecting phenomena found

in graphic design history. These transitions have similar intersections to Pangea,

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which was a hypothetical protocontinent as part of his theory ofcontinental drift13.

The relative positions of the continents, at any time, are determined by

paleomagnetic measurements. The direction of the field informs us of the distance

to the magnetic pole. Magnetic anomalies on the sea floor can also provide a

history of the opening of the ocean, which explains the original relationship and

connection of the continents, under the impact of different factors, such as

climate, the vagarious distribution of living species and the topography of these

disjunct continents. We found the evolution of graphic design history to be highly

relevant to the history of western civilization. By adapting Pangea as a conceptual

metaphor, the visual connecting and assembling of Pangea can be interpreted as

being similar to how graphic design historians were driven by the corresponding

descriptions of the civilization process.

It is apparent that many other analogies may be drawn from this series of

figures(Figure 1). Looking at these continental transitions from a dominant

Western point of view, the figures may also reveal the economic, political, and

technological development within these shifting powers. Since ancient times,

China, Egypt and the Middle East have had a congenital, geographical connection,

coalescing as the Pangea equivalent in early graphic design history. The

continents then began to drift and coalesce into another Gondwanaland with

Europe and America, after the Enlightenment and the Industrial Revolution.

In the aftermath of World War II, design history clung to Europe as the primary

site of cultural invention, having experienced drastic shifts 14 . Recently,

industrialization and commerce have gradually moved the centre of power to

North America, from machines to digital technology, all of the famous designers

and design companies have settled in America, with the majority of design

historians focusing on the largest capitalist country in the world.

13 Pangea supposedly covered about half the Earth, and was completely surrounded by a world ocean, called Panthalassa. Late inthe Triassic Period (248206 million years ago), Pangea began to break apart. Its segments, Laurasia (composed of all the

present-day northern continents) and Gondwana (the present-day southern continents) gradually receded, resulting in theformation of the Atlantic Ocean.14 Stuart Hall, What Is This 'Black' in Black Popular Culture? in Gina Gent,Black Popular Culture, Seattle, Bay Press, 1992,

pp. 21-23,

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Figure 1, The Design Pangea: the power shifts and focuses in graphic design

2.2 Homunculus: the focus of graphic design history

There is another figure that presents the hegemony of graphic design history.

Homunculus can be called a body map (Figure 2), sometimes thought of as the

little man inside the head. The sensory homunculus in human beings has a very

large face, tongue and fingertips. Such maps of animals and humans are created

by recording the electrical activity in the neurons of the sensory cortex15, resulting

from tactile stimulation of the skin. This figure is conceptualized from

Homunculus, showing the volume of each continents design output, without

relating to its geographical size. Relative importance has been presented as the

number of design activities referenced in the two primary graphic design history

publications mentioned earlier. Figure 3 illustrates the shifts in focus of graphic

design history. According to the data collected from design history publications of

Meggs and Heller, more than half of the design activities addressed took place in

America, with Europe being the next largest, and Africa, South America,

Australia, and even Canada, being almost negligible. Consequently, the dilemma

of who speaks involves issues of access to those people in the world who are

automatically excluded.

15 Peggy Walker, Mapping the Homunculus,03/07/04,

http://www.accessexcellence.org/AE/AEC/AEF/1994/walker_mapping.html (10 July, 2004)

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Figure 2 Dubin, Mark,Images of the homunculus, 2003, www.dubinweb.com/

brain/3.html, (July, 2004)

Figure 3, The homunculus map of graphic design history

3 Reconfiguring: The simultaneity and complexity of graphic design history

Henry Beck produced his first London Underground Map sketch in 1931(Figure

4). The distances between stations are arranged at more or less uniform intervals,

a strategy more typically employed in the representation of time, rather than

space. Connections, as Beck observed, were the things. 16 The London

Underground map is commonly held up, by designers and cartographers, as

possessing a visual logic and clarity that makes it easy to interpret and

comprehend. We can form a new understanding of this map, using it as a

conceptual metaphor, to elucidate a timeline of graphic design history. Basically,

this visual form of information design can be seen as a diagram, map, chart or

guide. Whatever it is named, however, the primary issue is to substitute

connections and relationships under the sequence and time flow of a linear

timeline.

16 Janin Hadlaw, The London Underground Map: Imagining Modern Time and Space,Design Issues 19 no1 Wint, 2003, pp.

25-35

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Figure 4 Harry Beck, The first card folder of the London underground Map, in

Garland, Ken, Mr. Beck's Underground Map, Harrow Weald, Capital Transport,

1994, p. 20

This conceptual development ends up with the basic concept of the London

Underground Map. Proper classification of the large number of data included in

graphic design history becomes the essential task. All the entries used in this final

prototype came from the data mentioned earlier in this paper. Being aware of the

timeline as a historical representation, time consciousness was the basis of this

design so it could represent diverse relationships between individual historical

sequences, as well as meeting peoples expectations of time, thus expanding the

simple linear concept (Figure 5).

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Figure 5 Mapping graphic design history: reconfiguring the simultaneity and

complexity (partial in 1990-2000).

Figure 6 New interpretation of graphic design timeline (partial detail in

1990-1991)

The prototype shown in Figure 6 is a part detail from the timeline. There are two

fixed elements in the basic scheme of the timeline: they are the scales of time,

represented by the horizontal lines from left to right, and the design activities

which are set at 90 degrees to the horizontal timescales. There are also floating

elements between these fixed timelines, entries of design technology

development, as well as sub-connections, which may be understood as different

journeys within the graphic design history. To emphasise the interactivity between

design technology, design theory and design activities, the entries of design

technology development are shown separately from the fixed timelines, floating

years behind the year in which they were actually developed. The other floating

elements are sub-connections, or multiple connections, whose relationships were

drawn from the different perspectives of graphic design history, such as design

canons, design movements and specific design technologies (Figure 7, 8). Viewers

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may use their favorite design works as floating elements and sub-connections.

This timeline map can be seen simultaneously as a macro map, exhibiting the

whole in an orderly way with neutrally fixed timelines and particular

sub-connections. At the same time, each sub-connection may be extracted in a

micro interpretation, and arranged in a single legend for a micro graphic design

history reading.

Figure 7 Cross-relationship of the paths of design canons (partial)

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Figure 7 Cross-relationship of the paths of nations (partial)

4. Conclusion and Future Study

The graphic design publications, reviewed in this research, represent important

general conventions in graphic design history. These selections also allow us to

reflect on their limitations, which are restrictive in both their publication language

and distribution. They do not however, present a worldwide view of design

history, especially not of domestic graphic design history. English is undoubtedly

the dominant language of global communication, affecting and reflecting the

viewpoints and perspectives of the largest territory in graphic design history.

Consequently, using English as a vehicle of expression and communication, as

well as the fact that the majority of research material is in English, can be seen as

representing and reproducing cultural imperialistic behaviour, reflecting the power

of the hegemony. This is represented by Western, liberal-minded academics

writing about what is considered an "intellectual commodity" in their cultural

context.17 We might even say that English is a major colonial-cultural language,

and the historiographies of design research are based on the ideology of

17 John Tomlinson, Cultural Imperialism, John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1991.p. 14

Monica Andino 7/6/13 11:22 PM

Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.75 ch,Hanging: 1.66 ch

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hegemony. The history we have been exposed to has pandered to the narrow

perspectives, intentions and customs of its authors. Although it may be unrealistic

to expect absolute truth in history, it is not unreasonable to look for an alternative

angle, from which to configure our past, and provide hope for a broader audience

in the future.

Graphic design offers new ways to explore the organisation of knowledge. The

experimental scheme of timeline design demonstrates that graphic design has the

latent capacity to be a way to strengthen and construct knowledge at different

levels.This research endeavours to expand the references and interpretative

frameworks surrounding design history by offering a critique of prevailing

methods, and by understandings and reflecting on significant specialist writings.

Indeed, certain preoccupations and limitations are present in any graphic design

history perspective, so it is important that we appreciate the contributions made by

the historians we have focused on. The canonized perspective of Graphic Design

History was questioned by Martha Scotford.18

Philip Meggs responded to

Scotford by admitting that the dangers of a canon should be acknowledged,

however, there are risks in repudiating canonical figures whose philosophies or

works had seminal or pivotal impact upon the evolution of graphic design. To

repudiate seminal works, or for designers to avoid a canon - with the repudiation

based on nationalistic, ethnic, political, or gender issues separate from the

evolution of graphic design and its cultural role - is an equal danger.19 Rick

Poynor believes that a canon can provide a common body of knowledge, a shared

basis for judgment and a starting point for discussion.20 It exposes us to essential

material we might otherwise overlook, and helps set the agenda. It is one more

approach in accessing and understanding graphic design history; one more step

towards understanding our past and magnifying the potential of graphic design.

Historical studies are valuable in that they bring forth an energetic and able

direction which enables designers to find their place in a research environment, and

18Martha Scotford, Is There A Canon of Graphic design History?, in Steven Heller and Marie Fenimore,Marie Fenimore (Ed.), Design Culture: an anthology of writing from the AIGA Journal of Graphic Design,New York, Allworth Press and American Institute of Graphic Arts, 1997, pp. 218-227.

19 Philip B. Meggs, Is A Design History Canon Really Dangerous?, in Steven Heller and Marie Fenimore,Marie Fenimore (Ed.), Design Culture: an anthology of writing from the AIGA Journal of Graphic Design,New York, Allworth Press and American Institute of Graphic Arts, 1997, pp. 228-229

20Rick Poynor, Optic Nerve: Canon Fodder, Print, Vol. 56, No. 3, 2002, pp. 180-1.

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to develop a creative calling. In this way, graphic design can make a difference in

the world.

The history we have been exposed to has pandered to the narrow perspectives,

intentions and customs of its authors. Although it may be unrealistic to expect

absolute truth in history, it is not unreasonable to look for an alternative angle,

from which to configure our past, and provide hope for a broader audience in the

future.

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