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96 96 96 E&A E&A E&A 111/4 111/4 111/4 On On On Replaceability Replaceability Replaceability Peter Peter Peter Singer Singer Singer has has has shown shown shown how how how the the the principle principle principle of of of utility, utility, utility, which which which enjoins enjoins enjoins us us us (roughly) (roughly) (roughly) to to to maximize maximize maximize to to to balance balance balance of of of nonmoral nonmoral nonmoral good good good over over over nonmoral nonmoral nonmoral evil, evil, evil, justifies justifies justifies 'humane' 'humane' 'humane' treatment treatment treatment of of of ani- ani- ani- mals. mals. mals. 1 An An An excellent excellent excellent case case case against against against fac- fac- fac- tory tory tory farming, farming, farming, blood blood blood sports, sports, sports, and and and cur- cur- cur- rent rent rent methods methods methods of of of an an an imal imal imal laboratory laboratory laboratory experimentation experimentation experimentation has has has been been been made made made on on on utilitarian utilitarian utilitarian grounds. grounds. grounds. However, However, However, must must must a utilitarian utilitarian utilitarian be be be opposed opposed opposed to to to all all all exploita- exploita- exploita- tion tion tion of of of animals' animals' animals' lives lives lives for for for human human human pleas- pleas- pleas- u re re re or or or profit? profit? profit? Not Not Not according according according to to to the the the 'replacement 'replacement 'replacement argument,' argument,' argument,' which which which tells tells tells us us us that: that: that: 1. 1. 1. We We We ought ought ought to to to maximize maximize maximize util- util- util- ity ity ity (i.e., (i.e., (i.e., to to to maximize maximize maximize the the the balance balance balance of of of nonmoral nonmoral nonmoral good good good over over over nonmoral nonmoral nonmoral evil). evil). evil). 2. 2. 2. Utility Utility Utility would would would be be be maximized maximized maximized if if if one one one were were were to to to use use use an an an ani- ani- ani- mal mal mal and and and kill kill kill it it it (for (for (for food food food or or or research research research or or or anything anything anything else) else) else) provided provided provided that that that the the the following following following conditions conditions conditions are are are met: met: met: (a)· (a)· (a)· the the the life life life of of of the the the animal animal animal is is is on on on balance balance balance a Iife ife ife worth worth worth living, living, living, (b) (b) (b) the the the animal animal animal otherwise otherwise otherwise would would would have have have no no no life life life at at at all all all (would (would (would not not not exist), exist), exist), (c) (c) (c) the the the sufferi sufferi sufferi ng ng ng of of of the the the animal animal animal and and and those those those close close close to to to it it it as as as a result result result of of of such such such use use use and and and disposal disposal disposal is is is elimi- elimi- elimi- nated nated nated or or or minimized, minimized, minimized, and and and (d) (d) (d) the· the· the· animal animal animal will will will be be be replaced, replaced, replaced, at at at or or or after after after death, death, death, by by by another another another animal animal animal for for for whom whom whom conditions conditions conditions (a), (a), (a), (b), (b), (b), (c), (c), (c), and and and (d) (d) (d) hold. hold. hold. 3. 3. 3. Therefore, Therefore, Therefore, we we we ought ought ought to to to use use use and and and kill kill kill animals animals animals provided provided provided that that that conditions conditions conditions (a) (a) (a) (d) (d) (d) are are are met. met. met. 2 Classical Classical Classical utilita utilita utilita rian rian rian ism ism ism is is is committed committed committed to to to this this this argument. argument. argument. As As As Singer Singer Singer says, says, says, it it it . . rega rega rega rds rds rds sentient sentient sentient beings beings beings as as as valuable valuable valuable only only only in in in so so so far far far as as as they they they ma ma ma ke ke ke possible possible possible the the the exis- exis- exis- tence tence tence of of of intrinsically intrinsically intrinsically valuable valuable valuable experiences experiences experiences like like like pleasure. pleasure. pleasure. It It It is is is as as as if if if sentient sentient sentient beings beings beings are are are receptacles receptacles receptacles of of of something something something valua- valua- valua- ble ble ble and and and it it it does does does not not not matter matter matter if if if a receptacle receptacle receptacle gets gets gets broken, broken, broken, so so so long long long as as as there there there is is is another another another receptacle receptacle receptacle to to to which which which the the the contents contents contents can can can be be be transferred transferred transferred without without without any any any getting getting getting spilt. spilt. spilt. 3 While While While it it it IS IS IS clear clear clear that that that captive captive captive ani- ani- ani- mals mals mals would would would be be be vastly vastly vastly better better better off off off under under under such such such an an an arrangement arrangement arrangement than than than they they they are are are now, now, now, is is is it it it really really really the the the case case case that that that 'hu- 'hu- 'hu- mane' mane' mane' farms farms farms and and and labs labs labs are are are morally morally morally jus- jus- jus- tifiable? tifiable? tifiable? Moreover, Moreover, Moreover, what what what a re re re the the the implications implications implications of of of this this this argument argument argument for for for the the the treatment treatment treatment of of of humans?4 humans?4 humans?4 How How How can can can one one one determine determine determine whether whether whether a normative normative normative ethical ethical ethical theory theory theory has has has gone gone gone too too too fa fa fa r? r? r? Some Some Some brief brief brief remarks remarks remarks about about about the the the nature nature nature of of of ethical ethical ethical justification justification justification must must must be be be made made made before before before these these these questions questions questions can can can be be be answered. answered. answered. The The The major major major metaethical metaethical metaethical theories theories theories have have have different different different implications implications implications about about about the the the precise precise precise kind kind kind of of of justification justification justification normative normative normative ethical ethical ethical claims claims claims can can can have. have. have. According According According to to to natu- natu- natu- ralistic ralistic ralistic and and and nonnaturalistic nonnaturalistic nonnaturalistic metaethical metaethical metaethical theories, theories, theories, ethical ethical ethical claims claims claims are are are factual factual factual assertions assertions assertions which which which can can can in in in principle principle principle be be be shown shown shown true true true or or or false. false. false. (Naturalism (Naturalism (Naturalism implies implies implies that that that ethical ethical ethical language language language users users users believe believe believe there there there are are are natural natural natural ethical ethical ethical prop- prop- prop- erty erty erty instances; instances; instances; nonnaturalism nonnaturalism nonnaturalism implies implies implies that that that ethical ethical ethical language language language users users users believe believe believe there there there are are are nonnatural nonnatural nonnatural ethical ethical ethical property property property instances.) instances.) instances.) Noncognitivist Noncognitivist Noncognitivist metaethical metaethical metaethical theories, theories, theories, on on on the· the· the· other other other hand, hand, hand, imply imply imply that that that ethical ethical ethical claims claims claims are are are not not not (at (at (at all all all or or or merely, merely, merely, depending depending depending on on on the the the type type type of of of noncognitivism) noncognitivism) noncognitivism) factual factual factual and and and thus thus thus are are are neither neither neither true true true nor nor nor false. false. false. Some Some Some of of of these these these major major major theories theories theories are are are much much much more more more plausible plausible plausible than than than others, others, others, of of of course, course, course, but but but it it it would would would go go go beyond beyond beyond the the the scope scope scope of of of this this this paper paper paper to to to discuss discuss discuss thei thei thei r respective respective respective merits. merits. merits. 5 Suffice Suffice Suffice it it it to to to say say say that that that it it it is is is fa fa fa r from from from

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Page 1: E&AE&A 111/4111/4 96 - digitalcommons.calpoly.edu

96 96 96 E&AE&AE&A 111/4111/4111/4

OnOnOn ReplaceabilityReplaceabilityReplaceability

PeterPeterPeter SingerSingerSinger hashashas shownshownshown howhowhow thethethe principleprincipleprinciple ofofof utility,utility,utility, whichwhichwhich enjoinsenjoinsenjoins ususus (roughly)(roughly)(roughly) tototo maximizemaximizemaximize tototo balancebalancebalance ofofof nonmoralnonmoralnonmoral goodgoodgood overoverover nonmoralnonmoralnonmoral evil,evil,evil, justifiesjustifiesjustifies 'humane''humane''humane' treatmenttreatmenttreatment ofofof ani­ani­ani­mals.mals.mals. 111 AnAnAn excellentexcellentexcellent casecasecase againstagainstagainst fac­fac­fac­torytorytory farming,farming,farming, bloodbloodblood sports,sports,sports, andandand cur­cur­cur­rentrentrent methodsmethodsmethods ofofof ananan imalimalimal laboratorylaboratorylaboratory experimentationexperimentationexperimentation hashashas beenbeenbeen mademademade ononon utilitarianutilitarianutilitarian grounds.grounds.grounds. However,However,However, mustmustmust aaa utilitarianutilitarianutilitarian bebebe opposedopposedopposed tototo allallall exploita­exploita­exploita­tiontiontion ofofof animals'animals'animals' livesliveslives forforfor humanhumanhuman pleas­pleas­pleas­uuu rerere ororor profit?profit?profit? NotNotNot accordingaccordingaccording tototo thethethe 'replacement'replacement'replacement argument,'argument,'argument,' whichwhichwhich tellstellstells ususus that:that:that:

1.1.1. WeWeWe oughtoughtought tototo maximizemaximizemaximize util ­util ­util ­ityityity (i.e.,(i.e.,(i.e., tototo maximizemaximizemaximize thethethe balancebalancebalance ofofof nonmoralnonmoralnonmoral goodgoodgood overoverover nonmoralnonmoralnonmoral evil).evil).evil).

2.2.2. UtilityUtilityUtility wouldwouldwould bebebe maximizedmaximizedmaximized ififif oneoneone werewerewere tototo useuseuse ananan ani­ani­ani­malmalmal andandand killkillkill ititit (for(for(for foodfoodfood ororor researchresearchresearch ororor anythinganythinganything else)else)else) providedprovidedprovided thatthatthat thethethe followingfollowingfollowing conditionsconditionsconditions areareare met:met:met:

(a)·(a)·(a)· thethethe lifelifelife ofofof thethethe animalanimalanimal isisis ononon balancebalancebalance aaa IIIifeifeife worthworthworth living,living,living,

(b)(b)(b) thethethe animalanimalanimal otherwiseotherwiseotherwise wouldwouldwould havehavehave nonono lifelifelife atatat allallall (would(would(would notnotnot exist),exist),exist),

(c)(c)(c) thethethe sufferisufferisufferi ngngng ofofof thethethe animalanimalanimal andandand thosethosethose closecloseclose tototo ititit asasas aaa resultresultresult ofofof suchsuchsuch useuseuse andandand disposaldisposaldisposal isisis elimi­elimi­elimi­natednatednated ororor minimized,minimized,minimized, andandand

(d)(d)(d) the·the·the· animalanimalanimal willwillwill bebebe replaced,replaced,replaced, atatat ororor afterafterafter death,death,death, bybyby anotheranotheranother animalanimalanimal forforfor whomwhomwhom conditionsconditionsconditions (a),(a),(a), (b),(b),(b), (c),(c),(c), andandand (d)(d)(d) hold.hold.hold.

3.3.3. Therefore,Therefore,Therefore, wewewe oughtoughtought tototo useuseuse andandand killkillkill animalsanimalsanimals providedprovidedprovided thatthatthat conditionsconditionsconditions (a)(a)(a) (d)(d)(d) areareare met.met.met. 222

ClassicalClassicalClassical utilitautilitautilita rianrianrian ismismism isisis committedcommittedcommitted tototo thisthisthis argument.argument.argument. AsAsAs SingerSingerSinger says,says,says, ititit

... ... regaregarega rdsrdsrds sentientsentientsentient beingsbeingsbeings asasas valuablevaluablevaluable onlyonlyonly ininin sososo farfarfar asasas

theytheythey mamama kekeke possiblepossiblepossible thethethe exis­exis­exis­tencetencetence ofofof intrinsicallyintrinsicallyintrinsically valuablevaluablevaluable experiencesexperiencesexperiences likelikelike pleasure.pleasure.pleasure. ItItIt isisis asasas ififif sentientsentientsentient beingsbeingsbeings areareare receptaclesreceptaclesreceptacles ofofof somethingsomethingsomething valua­valua­valua­blebleble andandand ititit doesdoesdoes notnotnot mattermattermatter ififif aaa receptaclereceptaclereceptacle getsgetsgets broken,broken,broken, sososo longlonglong asasas theretherethere isisis anotheranotheranother receptaclereceptaclereceptacle tototo whichwhichwhich thethethe contentscontentscontents cancancan bebebe transferredtransferredtransferred withoutwithoutwithout anyanyany gettinggettinggetting spilt.spilt.spilt. 333

WhileWhileWhile ititit ISISIS clearclearclear thatthatthat captivecaptivecaptive ani­ani­ani­malsmalsmals wouldwouldwould bebebe vastlyvastlyvastly betterbetterbetter offoffoff underunderunder suchsuchsuch ananan arrangementarrangementarrangement thanthanthan theytheythey areareare now,now,now, isisis ititit reallyreallyreally thethethe casecasecase thatthatthat 'hu­'hu­'hu­mane'mane'mane' farmsfarmsfarms andandand labslabslabs areareare morallymorallymorally jus­jus­jus­tifiable?tifiable?tifiable? Moreover,Moreover,Moreover, whatwhatwhat aaa rerere thethethe implicationsimplicationsimplications ofofof thisthisthis argumentargumentargument forforfor thethethe treatmenttreatmenttreatment ofofof humans?4humans?4humans?4 HowHowHow cancancan oneoneone determinedeterminedetermine whetherwhetherwhether aaa normativenormativenormative ethicalethicalethical theorytheorytheory hashashas gonegonegone tootootoo fafafa r?r?r? SomeSomeSome briefbriefbrief remarksremarksremarks aboutaboutabout thethethe naturenaturenature ofofof ethicalethicalethical justificationjustificationjustification mustmustmust bebebe mademademade beforebeforebefore thesethesethese questionsquestionsquestions cancancan bebebe answered.answered.answered.

TheTheThe majormajormajor metaethicalmetaethicalmetaethical theoriestheoriestheories havehavehave differentdifferentdifferent implicationsimplicationsimplications aboutaboutabout thethethe precisepreciseprecise kindkindkind ofofof justificationjustificationjustification normativenormativenormative ethicalethicalethical claimsclaimsclaims cancancan have.have.have. AccordingAccordingAccording tototo natu­natu­natu­ralisticralisticralistic andandand nonnaturalisticnonnaturalisticnonnaturalistic metaethicalmetaethicalmetaethical theories,theories,theories, ethicalethicalethical claimsclaimsclaims areareare factualfactualfactual assertionsassertionsassertions whichwhichwhich cancancan ininin principleprincipleprinciple bebebe shownshownshown truetruetrue ororor false.false.false. (Naturalism(Naturalism(Naturalism impliesimpliesimplies thatthatthat ethicalethicalethical languagelanguagelanguage usersusersusers believebelievebelieve theretherethere areareare naturalnaturalnatural ethicalethicalethical prop­prop­prop­ertyertyerty instances;instances;instances; nonnaturalismnonnaturalismnonnaturalism impliesimpliesimplies thatthatthat ethicalethicalethical languagelanguagelanguage usersusersusers believebelievebelieve theretherethere areareare nonnaturalnonnaturalnonnatural ethicalethicalethical propertypropertyproperty instances.)instances.)instances.) NoncognitivistNoncognitivistNoncognitivist metaethicalmetaethicalmetaethical theories,theories,theories, ononon the·the·the· otherotherother hand,hand,hand, implyimplyimply thatthatthat ethicalethicalethical claimsclaimsclaims areareare notnotnot (at(at(at allallall ororor merely,merely,merely, dependingdependingdepending ononon thethethe typetypetype ofofof noncognitivism)noncognitivism)noncognitivism) factualfactualfactual andandand thusthusthus areareare neitherneitherneither truetruetrue nornornor false.false.false. SomeSomeSome ofofof thesethesethese majormajormajor theoriestheoriestheories areareare muchmuchmuch moremoremore plausibleplausibleplausible thanthanthan others,others,others, ofofof course,course,course, butbutbut ititit wouldwouldwould gogogo beyondbeyondbeyond thethethe scopescopescope ofofof thisthisthis paperpaperpaper tototo discussdiscussdiscuss theitheithei rrr respectiverespectiverespective merits.merits.merits. 555

SufficeSufficeSuffice ititit tototo saysaysay thatthatthat ititit isisis fafafa rrr fromfromfrom

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obviousobviousobvious thatthatthat ethicalethicalethical claimsclaimsclaims cancancan bebebe givengivengiven aaa straightforwardstraightforwardstraightforward justification.justification.justification.

ThisThisThis doesdoesdoes notnotnot mean,mean,mean, however,however,however, thatthatthat ititit isisis doubtfuldoubtfuldoubtful thatthatthat theytheythey cancancan bebebe justi­justi­justi­fiedfiedfied atatat all.all.all. EthicalEthicalEthical claimsclaimsclaims cancancan bebebe rationallyrationallyrationally acceptedacceptedaccepted ororor rejectedrejectedrejected eveneveneven ififif noncognitivismnoncognitivismnoncognitivism isisis true.true.true. EthicalEthicalEthical claimsclaimsclaims are.are.are. standardlystandardlystandardly discounteddiscounteddiscounted ififif theytheythey failfailfail tototo bebebe clearlyclearlyclearly thoughtthoughtthought out,out,out, fullyfullyfully informed,informed,informed, andandand impartial.impartial.impartial. (It(It(It isisis crucialcrucialcrucial tototo notenotenote thatthatthat empathyempathyempathy [vividly[vividly[vividly imagin­imagin­imagin­inginging oneselfoneselfoneself ininin another'sanother'sanother's position]position]position] isisis necessarynecessarynecessary forforfor aaa fullyfullyfully informedinformedinformed judg­judg­judg­mentmentment aboutaboutabout mattersmattersmatters thatthatthat concernconcernconcern sen­sen­sen­tienttienttient beings.beings.beings. ItItIt isisis aaa waywayway ofofof gaininggaininggaining highlyhighlyhighly relevantrelevantrelevant informationinformationinformation aboutaboutabout thethethe effectseffectseffects ofofof actionsactionsactions ononon suchsuchsuch beings.beings.beings. OneOneOne mustmustmust ofofof coursecoursecourse empathizeempathizeempathize equallyequallyequally vividlyvividlyvividly withwithwith allallall sentientsentientsentient beingsbeingsbeings whichwhichwhich ananan actionactionaction significantlysignificantlysignificantly concernsconcernsconcerns ififif oneoneone isisis tototo bebebe impartial.)impartial.)impartial.) AllAllAll thethethe majormajormajor metaethicalmetaethicalmetaethical theoriestheoriestheories areareare compatiblecompatiblecompatible withwithwith thesethesethese facts,facts,facts, asasas ofofof coucoucou rserserse theytheythey mustmustmust bebebe ininin orderorderorder tototo havehavehave aaa chancechancechance ofofof beingbeingbeing correct.correct.correct. EvenEvenEven ififif ethicalethicalethical claimsclaimsclaims areareare notnotnot assertionsassertionsassertions aboutaboutabout thethethe instantia­instantia­instantia­tiontiontion ofofof naturalnaturalnatural ororor nonnaturalnonnaturalnonnatural proper­proper­proper­tiestiesties ininin acts,acts,acts, entities,entities,entities, ororor statesstatesstates ofofof affaiaffaiaffai rs,rs,rs, theytheythey aaa rerere mademademade aboutaboutabout acts,acts,acts, entities,entities,entities, ororor statesstatesstates ofofof affairs.affairs.affairs. IfIfIf one'sone'sone's thinthinthin kingkingking isisis muddled,muddled,muddled, ororor ififif oneoneone isisis ignorantignorantignorant ofofof relevantrelevantrelevant facts,facts,facts, ororor ififif oneoneone isisis biasedbiasedbiased andandand thusthusthus selectivelyselectivelyselectively awareawareaware ofofof onlyonlyonly somesomesome ofofof thethethe relevantrelevantrelevant facts,facts,facts, one'sone'sone's claimclaimclaim isisis unjustified:unjustified:unjustified: oneoneone doesdoesdoes notnotnot knowknowknow whatwhatwhat one'sone'sone's claimclaimclaim isisis about.about.about. Thus,Thus,Thus, eveneveneven ififif theretherethere areareare nonono ethicalethicalethical facts,facts,facts, one'sone'sone's ethicalethicalethical judgmentsjudgmentsjudgments cancancan bebebe justifiedjustifiedjustified ififif theytheythey areareare shownshownshown tototo bebebe qual­qual­qual­ifiedifiedified bybyby beingbeingbeing clear,clear,clear, fullyfullyfully informed,informed,informed, andandand impartial.'impartial.'impartial.' ThisThisThis alsoalsoalso appliesappliesapplies tototo setssetssets ofofof ethicalethicalethical claims.claims.claims. TheyTheyThey tootootoo mustmustmust bebebe clear,clear,clear, coherent,coherent,coherent, informed,informed,informed, andandand impartial.impartial.impartial. IfIfIf ananan ethicalethicalethical claimclaimclaim ororor aaa setsetset ofofof ethicalethicalethical claimsclaimsclaims isisis notnotnot qualifiedqualifiedqualified ininin thesethesethese respects,respects,respects, ititit isisis discounted.discounted.discounted.

ThisThisThis methodmethodmethod ofofof justification,'justification,'justification,' whichwhichwhich III willwillwill followfollowfollow R.R.R. B.B.B. BrandtBrandtBrandt ininin callingcallingcalling 'the'the'the qualifiedqualifiedqualified attitudeattitudeattitude method,method,method, '6'6'6 givesgivesgives ususus aaa waywayway ofofof rationallyrationallyrationally arguingarguingarguing aboutaboutabout ethicalethicalethical claims.claims.claims. ItItIt alsoalsoalso explainsexplainsexplains whywhywhy

E&AE&AE&A III/4III/4III/4

qualifiedqualifiedqualified ethicalethicalethical 'intuitions''intuitions''intuitions' areareare thethethe touchstonestouchstonestouchstones ofofof normativenormativenormative ethicalethicalethical theo­theo­theo­ries.ries.ries. WithoutWithoutWithout them,them,them, suchsuchsuch theoriestheoriestheories couldcouldcould neitherneitherneither bebebe formulatedformulatedformulated nornornor tested.tested.tested. TheTheThe qualifiedqualifiedqualified attitudeattitudeattitude methodmethodmethod does,does,does, however,however,however, havehavehave oneoneone difficulty.difficulty.difficulty. ItItIt isisis theoreticallytheoreticallytheoretically possiblepossiblepossible thatthatthat indi­indi­indi­vidualsvidualsviduals withwithwith equallyequallyequally qualifiedqualifiedqualified ethicalethicalethical attitudesattitudesattitudes willwillwill disagree.disagree.disagree. WereWereWere thisthisthis tototo occur,occur,occur, ethicalethicalethical argumentationargumentationargumentation mustmustmust cease.cease.cease. Nevertheless,Nevertheless,Nevertheless, III wouldwouldwould agreeagreeagree withwithwith W.W.W. K.K.K. FrankenaFranFran kenakena thatthatthat suchsuchsuch aaa disagdisagdisag reementreementreement isisis nonono moremoremore thanthanthan aaa theo­theo­theo­reticalreticalretical possibility.possibility.possibility. 777 ItItIt isisis extraordi­extraordi­extraordi­narilynarilynarily difficultdifficultdifficult tototo comecomecome upupup withwithwith ananan ethicalethicalethical disagreementdisagreementdisagreement ininin whichwhichwhich bothbothboth sidessidessides aaa rerere equallyequallyequally qualqualqual ified.ified.ified. FranFranFran ke­ke­ke­na'sna'sna's assertionassertionassertion will,will,will, however,however,however, .be.be.be testedtestedtested laterlaterlater ininin thisthisthis paper.paper.paper. WithWithWith thisthisthis back­back­back­groundgroundground ininin mind,mind,mind, letletlet ususus nownownow returnreturnreturn tototo thethethe replacementreplacementreplacement aaa rgumentrgumentrgument andandand thethethe implicationsimplicationsimplications bybyby whichwhichwhich ititit willwillwill bebebe tested.tested.tested.

WeWeWe willwillwill beginbeginbegin bybyby consideringconsideringconsidering aaa veryveryvery seriousseriousserious implicationimplicationimplication ofofof thethethe replacementreplacementreplacement argument:argument:argument: ififif animalsanimalsanimals areareare replaceable,replaceable,replaceable, sososo areareare humanhumanhuman beingsbeingsbeings withwithwith comparablecomparablecomparable characteristicscharacteristicscharacteristics ininin likelikelike cir­cir­cir­cumstances.cumstances.cumstances. III willwillwill notnotnot hereherehere repeatrepeatrepeat thethethe extensiveextensiveextensive argumentationargumentationargumentation bybyby phi­phi­phi­losopherslosopherslosophers forforfor thethethe conclusionconclusionconclusion thatthatthat preferentialpreferentialpreferential treatmenttreatmenttreatment forforfor humanshumanshumans whowhowho differdifferdiffer ininin nonono relevantrelevantrelevant respectsrespectsrespects fromfromfrom animalsanimalsanimals cannotcannotcannot bebebe justifiedjustifiedjustified andandand isisis ininin factfactfact speciesistspeciesistspeciesist (hence(hence(hence notnotnot impartial).impartial).impartial). ManyManyMany attemptsattemptsattempts havehavehave beenbeenbeen mademademade tototo jus­jus­jus­tifytifytify suchsuchsuch preferentialpreferentialpreferential treatment,treatment,treatment, butbutbut ininin mymymy judgmentjudgmentjudgment nonenonenone hashashas succeeded.succeeded.succeeded. 888

IfIfIf conditionsconditionsconditions (a)(a)(a) --- (d)(d)(d) cancancan bebebe satis­satis­satis­fiedfiedfied bybyby morons,morons,morons, stockingstockingstocking andandand usingusingusing themthemthem forforfor foodfoodfood ororor experimentationexperimentationexperimentation isisis nonono moremoremore ororor lesslessless reprehensiblereprehensiblereprehensible thanthanthan doingdoingdoing sososo withwithwith animals.animals.animals. Thus,Thus,Thus, ififif thethethe ethicalethicalethical beliefbeliefbelief "Morons"Morons"Morons shouldshouldshould notnotnot bebebe raised,raised,raised, mademademade intointointo stewstewstew ororor usedusedused asasas lablablab sub­sub­sub­jects,jects,jects, thenthenthen replaced,replaced,replaced, butbutbut ititit isisis permis­permis­permis­siblesiblesible tototo treattreattreat animalsanimalsanimals ininin thisthisthis waywayway sososo longlonglong asasas utilityutilityutility isisis maximized"maximized"maximized" isisis shownshownshown tototo bebebe unjustifiedunjustifiedunjustified (unqualified),(unqualified),(unqualified), oneoneone isisis leftleftleft tototo discarddiscarddiscard halfhalfhalf ofofof thisthisthis conjunc­conjunc­conjunc­tion.tion.tion.

MostMostMost individualsindividualsindividuals facingfacingfacing thisthth isis choicechoicechoice

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wouldwouldwould revisereviserevise theirtheirtheir beliefsbeliefsbeliefs aboutaboutabout thethethe treatmenttreatmenttreatment ofofof animalsanimalsanimals ratherratherrather thanthanthan optoptopt forforfor moronmoronmoron stocking.stocking.stocking. III believebelievebelieve suchsuchsuch aaa choicechoicechoice tototo bebebe veyveyvey reasonable.reasonable.reasonable. IfIfIf oneoneone fullyfullyfully considersconsidersconsiders thethethe moronmoronmoron stockingstockingstocking scenascenascena rioriorio inainaina cleacleaclea r,r,r, empathetic,empathetic,empathetic, impartialimpartialimpartial way,way,way, III findfindfind ititit hardhardhard tototo seeseesee howhowhow oneoneone cancancan acceptacceptaccept it.it.it. Unfortu­Unfortu­Unfortu­nately,nately,nately, somesomesome philosophersphilosophersphilosophers dododo notnotnot findfindfind ititit sososo hardhardhard tototo seeseesee andandand appearappearappear tototo bebebe willingwillingwilling tototo acceptacceptaccept suchsuchsuch aaa scenario.scenario.scenario. PeterPeterPeter SingerSingerSinger hashashas (courageously(courageously(courageously ororor outrageously,outrageously,outrageously, dependingdependingdepending ... ononon one'sone'sone's viewpoint)viewpoint)viewpoint) takentakentaken thisthisthis position.position.position. HeHeHe suggestssuggestssuggests thatthatthat ififif thethethe replacementreplacementreplacement argu­argu­argu­mentmentment cannotcannotcannot bebebe defeateddefeateddefeated "it"it"it isisis ourourour attitudesattitudesattitudes tototo mentallymentallymentally defectivedefectivedefective humanhumanhuman beingsbeingsbeings thatthatthat areareare ininin needneedneed ofofof reconsider'"reconsider'"reconsider'" ation:"ation:"ation:" 999

ThisThisThis involvesinvolvesinvolves holdingholdingholding thatthatthat mentalmentalmental defectivesdefectivesdefectives dododo notnotnot havehavehave aaa rightrightright tototo life,life,life, andandand thereforethereforetherefore mightmightmight bebebe killedkilledkilled forforfor food--iffood--iffood--if wewewe

... shouldshouldshould developdevelopdevelop aaa tastetastetaste forforfor humanhumanhuman flesh--orflesh--orflesh--or (and(and(and thisthisthis reallyreallyreally mightmightmight appealappealappeal tototo somesomesome people)people)people) forforfor thethethe purposepurposepurpose ofofof sci­sci­sci­entificentificentific experimentation.experimentation.experimentation. 101010

SingerSingerSinger seemsseemsseems ininin nonono waywayway horrifiedhorrifiedhorrified bybyby thisthisthis prospect.prospect.prospect. ElsewhereElsewhereElsewhere hehehe sayssayssays thatthatthat eveneveneven nondefectivenondefectivenondefective humanhumanhuman infantsinfantsinfants "are"are"are asasas replaceablereplaceablereplaceable asasas merelymerelymerely consciousconsciousconscious ananan imals.imals.imals. "11"11"11 WhatWhatWhat cancancan oneoneone saysaysay tototo aaa philosopherphilosopherphilosopher likelikelike SingerSingerSinger whowhowho isisis willingwillingwilling tototo makemakemake hishishis ethicalethicalethical belbelbel iefsiefsiefs consistentconsistentconsistent andandand impartialimpartialimpartial bybyby applyingapplyingapplying thethethe replace­replace­replace­abilityabilityability principleprincipleprinciple ininin thisthisthis nonspeciesistnonspeciesistnonspeciesist way?way?way?

OneOneOne couldcouldcould trytrytry tototo argueargueargue thatthatthat Sing­Sing­Sing­er'ser'ser's position,position,position, thoughthoughthough apparentlyapparentlyapparently impartial,impartial,impartial, isisis notnotnot sufficientlysufficientlysufficiently clearclearclear ororor wellwellwell informed.informed.informed. SuchSuchSuch aaa responseresponseresponse tototo SingerSingerSinger wouldwouldwould bebebe veryveryvery difficultdifficultdifficult tototo makemakemake outoutout andandand III amamam loatheloatheloathe tototo trytrytry ititit here.here.here. III preferpreferprefer tototo developdevelopdevelop anotheranotheranother objectionobjectionobjection tototo thethethe replacementreplacementreplacement argumentargumentargument whichwhichwhich III dododo notnotnot thinkthinkthink SingerSingerSinger cancancan successfullysuccessfullysuccessfully coucoucou nter,nter,nter, ananan objectionobjectionobjection whwhwh ichichich wiwiwi IIIIII havehavehave thethethe indirectindirectindirect resultresultresult ofofof rejectingrejectingrejecting thethethe replacementreplacementreplacement argumentargumentargument forforfor defectivedefectivedefective humans.humans.humans. BeforeBeforeBefore proceedingproceedingproceeding withwithwith thisthisthis newnewnew objection,objection,objection, however,however,however, letletlet ititit bebebe

notednotednoted thatthatthat thosethosethose who,who,who, unlikeunlikeunlike Singer,Singer,Singer, dododo notnotnot acceptacceptaccept thethethe replaceabilityreplaceabilityreplaceability ofofof defectivedefectivedefective humanshumanshumans mustmustmust replacementreplacementreplacement argument.argument.argument.

rejectrejectreject thethethe

TheTheThe nextnextnext objectionobjectionobjection replacementreplacementreplacement argumentargumentargument asasas

isisis this.this.this. ititit standsstandsstands

TheTheThe hashashas

ananan implicationimplicationimplication whichwhichwhich wouldwouldwould horrifyhorrifyhorrify Singer.Singer.Singer. ItItIt appliesappliesapplies tototo anyanyany sentientsentientsentient creatucreatucreatu rerere forforfor whomwhomwhom conditionsconditionsconditions (a)(a)(a) (d)(d)(d) areareare satisfied.satisfied.satisfied. ItItIt followsfollowsfollows thatthatthat eveneveneven normalnormalnormal humanshumanshumans areareare replaceable,replaceable,replaceable, sososo longlonglong asasas utilityutilityutility isisis maximized.maximized.maximized. AsAsAs SingerSingerSinger says,says,says, "Situations"Situations"Situations ininin whichwhichwhich thethethe argumentargumentargument wouldwouldwould applyapplyapply tototo humanshumanshumans mightmightmight notnotnot bebebe common,common,common, butbutbut theytheythey couldcouldcould occur."12occur."12occur."12 EvenEvenEven thosethosethose whowhowho areareare willingwillingwilling tototo acceptacceptaccept thethethe raising,raising,raising, eating,eating,eating, etc.,etc.,etc., andandand replacementreplacementreplacement ofofof defectivedefectivedefective humans,humans,humans, balbalbal kkk atatat thethethe notionnotionnotion thatthatthat normalnormalnormal nonde­nonde­nonde­fectivefectivefective humanshumanshumans areareare ininin thethethe samesamesame boat.boat.boat. OneOneOne whowhowho isisis disturbeddisturbeddisturbed bybyby thisthisthis implica­implica­implica­tiontiontion mustmustmust eihereihereiher rejectrejectreject thethethe replacementreplacementreplacement argumentargumentargument wholly,wholly,wholly, i.e.,i.e.,i.e., forforfor animalsanimalsanimals andandand defectivedefectivedefective humanshumanshumans asasas wellwellwell asasas normalnormalnormal humans,humans,humans, ororor optoptopt tototo restrictrestrictrestrict thethethe replacementreplacementreplacement argumentargumentargument ininin suchsuchsuch aaa waywayway thatthatthat ititit cannotcannotcannot applyapplyapply tototo normalnormalnormal humans.humans.humans. SinceSinceSince classicalclassicalclassical utilitarianismutilitarianismutilitarianism leadsleadsleads tototo thethethe replacementreplacementreplacement argument,argument,argument, eithereithereither choicechoicechoice impliesimpliesimplies itsitsits rejectionrejectionrejection asasas well.well.well.

SingerSingerSinger chooseschooseschooses tototo replacereplacereplace classicalclassicalclassical utilitarianismutilitarianismutilitarianism withwithwith anotheranotheranother versionversionversion ofofof utilitarianismutilitarianismutilitarianism whichwhichwhich hehehe believesbelievesbelieves allowsallowsallows himhimhim tototo restrictrestrictrestrict thethethe replacementreplacementreplacement argu­argu­argu­ment.ment.ment. HeHeHe firstfirstfirst rejectsrejectsrejects aaa temptingtemptingtempting nonclassical-utilitarianismnonclassical-utilitarianismnonclassical-utilitarianism solutionsolutionsolution tototo thethethe problem,problem,problem, 'the'the'the priorpriorprior existenceexistenceexistence view,'view,'view,' accordingaccordingaccording tototo whichwhichwhich thethethe princi­princi­princi­plepleple ofofof utilityutilityutility appliesappliesapplies onlyonlyonly tototo beingsbeingsbeings alreadyalreadyalready ininin existence.existence.existence. 131313 AlthoughAlthoughAlthough ononon suchsuchsuch aaa viewviewview utilityutilityutility couldcouldcould obviouslyobviouslyobviously nevernevernever bebebe maximizedmaximizedmaximized bybyby replacementreplacementreplacement ofofof sentientsentientsentient beings,beings,beings, ititit isisis impossibleimpossibleimpossible tototo avoidavoidavoid thethethe conclusionconclusionconclusion thatthatthat thethethe solutionsolutionsolution isisis arbitraryarbitraryarbitrary asasas wellwellwell asasas contrarycontrarycontrary tototo thethethe spiritspiritspirit ofofof utilitarianism.utilitarianism.utilitarianism. ToToTo saysaysay thatthatthat thethethe principleprincipleprinciple ofofof utilityutilityutility doesdoesdoes notnotnot eveneveneven applyapplyapply tototo thosethosethose unbornunbornunborn isisis tototo openopenopen aaa hornets'hornets'hornets' nestnestnest ofofof difficulties.difficulties.difficulties. TheTheThe dif­dif­dif­ficultyficultyficulty whichwhichwhich troublestroublestroubles SingerSingerSinger isisis thethethe

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implicationimplicationimplication thatthatthat ititit wouldwouldwould notnotnot bebebe wrongwrongwrong knowinglyknowinglyknowingly tototo conceiveconceiveconceive aaa childchildchild whosewhosewhose physicalphysicalphysical defectsdefectsdefects wouldwouldwould condemncondemncondemn ititit tototo aaa briefbriefbrief lifelifelife ofofof wretchedwretchedwretched suffering.suffering.suffering. 141414

wouldwouldwould putputput thethethe criticismcriticismcriticism moremoremore gener­gener­gener­ally.ally.ally. AAA viewviewview whichwhichwhich impliesimpliesimplies thatthatthat futurefuturefuture generationsgenerationsgenerations simplysimplysimply dododo notnotnot countcountcount ininin theirtheirtheir ownownown rightrightright (i.e.,(i.e.,(i.e., thatthatthat wewewe shouldshouldshould considerconsiderconsider themthemthem onlyonlyonly insofarinsofarinsofar asasas theytheythey wouldwouldwould affectaffectaffect thosethosethose nownownow existing)existing)existing) clashesclashesclashes withwithwith ourourour qualifiedqualifiedqualified ethicalethicalethical intu­intu­intu­itions.itions.itions. ClassicalClassicalClassical utilitarianism,utilitarianism,utilitarianism, whichwhichwhich bidsbidsbids ususus maximizemaximizemaximize thethethe balancebalancebalance ofofof totaltotaltotal utilityutilityutility overoverover disutility,disutility,disutility, quitequitequite properlyproperlyproperly doesdoesdoes extendextendextend thethethe principleprincipleprinciple ofofof utilityutilityutility tototo thosethosethose whowhowho dododo notnotnot yetyetyet exist.exist.exist. InsteadInsteadInstead ofofof acceptingacceptingaccepting thethethe priorpriorprior exexex istenceistenceistence view,view,view, SingerSingerSinger chooseschooseschooses tototo adoptadoptadopt aaa utilitarian­utilitarian­utilitarian­ismismism which,which,which, likelikelike classical·classical·classical· utilitarianism,utilitarianism,utilitarianism, doesdoesdoes notnotnot restrictrestrictrestrict thethethe princpleprincpleprincple ofofof util­util­util­ityityity tototo thosethosethose whowhowho alreadyalreadyalready exist.exist.exist. ThisThisThis viewviewview isisis 'preference'preference'preference utilitarianism.'utilitarianism.'utilitarianism.' AccordingAccordingAccording tototo it,it,it, utilityutilityutility isisis directlydirectlydirectly assignedassignedassigned tototo thethethe preferencespreferencespreferences ofofof beingsbeingsbeings affectedaffectedaffected bybyby actions,actions,actions, notnotnot merelymerelymerely tototo theirtheirtheir statesstatesstates ofofof consciousness.consciousness.consciousness. KillingKillingKilling aaa beingbeingbeing whichwhichwhich hashashas aaa preferencepreferencepreference tototo continuecontinuecontinue livinglivingliving creates,creates,creates, otherotherother thingsthingsthings beingbeingbeing equal,equal,equal, moremoremore disutilitydisutilitydisutility thanthanthan kill­kill­kill­inginging aaa beingbeingbeing whichwhichwhich hashashas nonono suchsuchsuch pref­pref­pref­erence.erence.erence.

ItItIt follows,follows,follows, SingerSingerSinger believes,believes,believes, thatthatthat ononon preferencepreferencepreference utilitarianismutilitarianismutilitarianism aaa livinglivingliving beingbeingbeing whowhowho prefersprefersprefers tototo livelivelive willwillwill bebebe favoredfavoredfavored overoverover itsitsits merelymerelymerely potentialpotentialpotential replacement,replacement,replacement, whichwhichwhich cancancan havehavehave nonono preferencepreferencepreference forforfor lifelifelife sincesincesince ititit doesdoesdoes notnotnot yetyetyet exist.exist.exist. 1s1s1s ThisThisThis isisis sososo eveneveneven ififif thethethe beingbeingbeing isisis painlesslypainlesslypainlessly killedkilledkilled allallall unsuspectingunsuspectingunsuspecting ininin itsitsits sleep:sleep:sleep: eveneveneven ininin thatthatthat case,case,case, aaa preferencepreferencepreference hashashas beenbeenbeen extinguished.extinguished.extinguished. TheTheThe totaltotaltotal amountamountamount ofofof happinesshappinesshappiness ororor satisfaction,satisfaction,satisfaction, etc.,etc.,etc., includingincludingincluding thatthatthat whichwhichwhich aaa replacementreplacementreplacement wouldwouldwould have,have,have, isisis stillstillstill takentakentaken intointointo account:account:account: ititit isisis thethethe existingexistingexisting being'sbeing'sbeing's preferencepreferencepreference tototo livelivelive whichwhichwhich tipstipstips thethethe scalesscalesscales ininin itsitsits favor.favor.favor. However,However,However, ififif ananan existingexistingexisting beingbeingbeing hashashas nonono preferencepreferencepreference forforfor continuedcontinuedcontinued life,life,life, itsitsits demisedemisedemise willwillwill notnotnot cre­cre­cre­<;It"<;It"<;It" extraextraextra disutility,disutility,disutility, IfIfIf ititit WQuidWQuidWQuid notnotnot otherwIseotherwIseotherwIse havehavehave beenbeenbeen alive,alive,alive, hashashas livedlivedlived aaa pleasantpleasantpleasant life,life,life, hashashas hadhadhad itsitsits sufferingsufferingsuffering

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andandand whatwhatwhat sufferingsufferingsuffering othersothersothers undergoundergoundergo ononon itsitsits accountaccountaccount minimized,minimized,minimized, andandand willwillwill bebebe replacereplacereplace bybyby anotheranotheranother beibeibei ngngng whowhowho wouwouwou IdIdId livelivelive andandand diediedie underunderunder thethethe samesamesame condi­condi­condi­tions,tions,tions, nonono preferencepreferencepreference utilitarianutilitarianutilitarian objec­objec­objec­tiontiontion would,would,would, believesbelievesbelieves Singer,Singer,Singer, bebebe made.made.made. WhatWhatWhat beings,beings,beings, accordingaccordingaccording tototo Singer,Singer,Singer, cancancan havehavehave pleasantpleasantpleasant livesliveslives yetyetyet notnotnot preferpreferprefer tototo live?live?live? BeingsBeingsBeings whowhowho havehavehave nonono conceptconceptconcept ofofof self:self:self: 'merely'merely'merely conscious'conscious'conscious' beibeibei ngs.ngs.ngs. ThoseThoseThose whowhowho cancancan havehavehave aaa preferencepreferencepreference forforfor continuedcontinuedcontinued lifelifelife mustmustmust bebebe self-conscious.self-conscious.self-conscious. Indeed,Indeed,Indeed, SingerSingerSinger apparentlyapparentlyapparently takestakestakes self­self­self­consciousnessconsciousnessconsciousness tototo bebebe sufficientsufficientsufficient asasas wellwellwell asasas necessarynecessarynecessary forforfor suchsuchsuch aaa preference.preference.preference. HeHeHe ddd rawsrawsraws thethethe followifollowifollowi ngngng implimplimpl icationicationication forforfor preferencepreferencepreference utilitarianism:utilitarianism:utilitarianism:

Self-consciousSelf-consciousSelf-conscious beingsbeingsbeings thereforethereforetherefore areareare notnotnot meremeremere receptaclesreceptaclesreceptacles forforfor containingcontainingcontaining aaa certaincertaincertain quantityquantityquantity ofofof pleasupleasupleasu re,re,re, andandand aaa rerere notnotnot replace­replace­replace­ableableable nonself-consciousnonself-consciousnonself-conscious beingsbeingsbeings areareare replaceable.replaceable.replaceable. 161616

TheTheThe replacementreplacementreplacement argumentargumentargument isisis accord­accord­accord­inglyinglyingly restrictedrestrictedrestricted tototo beingsbeingsbeings whowhowho areareare notnotnot self-conself-conself-con sciousciousciou s,s,s, aaa classclassclass whwhwh ichichich exclexclexcl udesudesudes normalnormalnormal humans.humans.humans. IIInnn thisthisthis waywayway SiSiSi ngerngernger believesbelievesbelieves hehehe hashashas avoidedavoidedavoided ananan unaccepta­unaccepta­unaccepta­blebleble consequenceconsequenceconsequence ofofof thethethe orginalorginalorginal replacementreplacementreplacement argument.argument.argument.

However,However,However, seriousseriousserious problemsproblemsproblems afflictafflictafflict thisthisthis attemptattemptattempt simultaneouslysimultaneouslysimultaneously tototo savesavesave andandand restrictrestrictrestrict thethethe replacementreplacementreplacement aaa rgu­rgu­rgu­ment.ment.ment. FiFiFi rst,rst,rst, letletlet ususus forforfor thethethe momentmomentmoment notnotnot questionquestionquestion thethethe assumptionassumptionassumption thatthatthat self-consciousself-consciousself-conscious beingsbeingsbeings areareare irreplaceableirreplaceableirreplaceable ononon preferencepreferencepreference utilitarianism.utilitarianism.utilitarianism. NowNowNow letletlet ususus askaskask ififif theretherethere areareare anyanyany consciousconsciousconscious beingsbeingsbeings whowhowho areareare 'merely'r'merely'r'merely'r conscious,conscious,conscious, withwithwith nonono conceptconceptconcept whateverwhateverwhatever ofofof self.self.self. CertainlyCertainlyCertainly manymanymany severelyseverelyseverely defectivedefectivedefective humanshumanshumans showshowshow signssignssigns ofofof self-conscious­self-conscious­self-conscious­ness.ness.ness. TheyTheyThey performperformperform actions,actions,actions, havehavehave goals,goals,goals, showshowshow nonono tendencytendencytendency tototo confuseconfuseconfuse themselvesthemselvesthemselves withwithwith table-legs,table-legs,table-legs, etc.etc.etc. Mon­Mon­Mon­keys,keys,keys, apes,apes,apes, dogs,dogs,dogs, cats,cats,cats, horses,horses,horses, pigs,pigs,pigs, sheep,sheep,sheep, etc.,etc.,etc., likewiselikewiselikewise exhibitexhibitexhibit behaviorbehaviorbehavior whichwhichwhich wouldwouldwould bebebe hardhardhard tototo explainexplainexplain with­with­with­outoutout thethethe postupostupostu lationlationlation ofofof self-conscious­self-conscious­self-conscious­ness,ness,ness, EvenEvenEven chickenschickenschickens seemseemseem tototo be,be,be, howeverhoweverhowever dimly,.dimly,.dimly,. awareawareaware ofofof themselves.themselves.themselves. TheyTheyThey tootootoo havehavehave nonono tendencytendencytendency tototo confuseconfuseconfuse

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themselvesthemselvesthemselves withwithwith thethethe restrestrest ofofof thethethe world.world.world. Furthermore,Furthermore,Furthermore, eveneveneven thethethe infantinfantinfant membersmembersmembers ofofof thesethesethese speciesspeciesspecies exhibitexhibitexhibit suchsuchsuch signs.signs.signs. ThoughThoughThough SingerSingerSinger isisis predictablypredictablypredictably notnotnot atatat allallall distudistudistu rbedrbedrbed bybyby thethethe exclexclexcl usionusionusion ofofof aduaduadu ItItIt monkeys,monkeys,monkeys, apes,apes,apes, andandand otherotherother 'higher''higher''higher' animalsanimalsanimals fromfromfrom thethethe classclassclass tototo whichwhichwhich thethethe replacementreplacementreplacement argumentargumentargument applies,applies,applies, hehehe con­con­con­tinuestinuestinues tototo thinkthinkthink thatthatthat manymanymany sentientsentientsentient beingsbeingsbeings willwillwill notnotnot bebebe excludedexcludedexcluded (e.g.,(e.g.,(e.g., normalnormalnormal asasas wellwellwell asasas defectivedefectivedefective humanhumanhuman infants,infants,infants, probablyprobablyprobably chickens,·chickens,·chickens,· andandand cer­cer­cer­tainlytainlytainly animalsanimalsanimals lowerlowerlower on·on·on· thethethe evolution­evolution­evolution­aryaryary scalescalescale thanthanthan chickens).chickens).chickens). 171717 ItItIt isisis highlyhighlyhighly doubtfuldoubtfuldoubtful thatthatthat allallall thesethesethese beingsbeingsbeings cancancan bebebe mademademade outoutout tototo lacklacklack self-con­self-con­self-con­sciousnesssciousnesssciousness ofofof anyanyany kind.kind.kind. ClamsClamsClams andandand oystersoystersoysters maymaymay notnotnot bebebe self-conscious,self-conscious,self-conscious, butbutbut thethethe replacementreplacementreplacement argumentargumentargument wouldwouldwould loseloselose mostmostmost ofofof itsitsits pointpointpoint ififif ititit werewerewere restrictedrestrictedrestricted tototo them.them.them. (Although(Although(Although tasty,tasty,tasty, theytheythey mamama kekeke poorpoorpoor experimentalexperimentalexperimental subjects.subjects.subjects. )))

PerhapsPerhapsPerhaps SingerSingerSinger wouldwouldwould replyreplyreply thatthatthat althoughalthoughalthough babiesbabiesbabies andandand chickenschickenschickens coucoucou ldldld bebebe saidsaidsaid tototo bebebe self-conscious,self-conscious,self-conscious, theytheythey areareare notnotnot self-consciousself-consciousself-conscious enoughenoughenough tototo havehavehave aaa pref­pref­pref­erenceerenceerence forforfor continuedcontinuedcontinued life.life.life. (He(He(He wouldwouldwould thenthenthen havehavehave tototo taketaketake self-consciousnessself-consciousnessself-consciousness asasas suchsuchsuch tototo bebebe merelymerelymerely necessarynecessarynecessary forforfor thethethe preferencepreferencepreference forforfor continuedcontinuedcontinued life.)life.)life.) ButButBut ononon whatwhatwhat groundsgroundsgrounds areareare wewewe tototo declaredeclaredeclare thatthatthat aaa babybabybaby ororor chickenchickenchicken hashashas nonono preferencepreferencepreference forforfor continuedcontinuedcontinued life?life?life? WhatWhatWhat isisis 'life''life''life' butbutbut aaa seriesseriesseries ofofof experiencesexperiencesexperiences andandand whatwhatwhat isisis aaa preferencepreferencepreference forforfor continuedcontinuedcontinued lifelifelife butbutbut thethethe desidesidesi rerere forforfor moremoremore experiences?experiences?experiences? IsIsIs notnotnot thethethe seekingseekingseeking ofofof pleasurepleasurepleasure andandand thethethe avoidanceavoidanceavoidance ofofof pain,pain,pain, cleacleaclea rlyrlyrly exhibitedexhibitedexhibited bybyby thethethe beingsbeingsbeings ininin question,question,question, sufficientsufficientsufficient evidenceevidenceevidence forforfor thethethe desiredesiredesire tototo continuecontinuecontinue living?living?living? IfIfIf SingerSingerSinger wisheswisheswishes tototo claimclaimclaim thatthatthat suchsuchsuch behaviorbehaviorbehavior isisis instinctiveinstinctiveinstinctive onlyonlyonly hehehe wouldwouldwould findfindfind himselfhimselfhimself atatat oddsoddsodds withwithwith manymanymany currentcurrentcurrent theoriststheoriststheorists aboutaboutabout animalanimalanimal behav­behav­behav­ior.ior.ior. WhyWhyWhy insistinsistinsist thatthatthat aaa babybabybaby ororor kittenkittenkitten whowhowho seeksseeksseeks warmth,warmth,warmth, food,food,food, andandand compan­compan­compan­ionship,ionship,ionship, cannotcannotcannot preferpreferprefer tototo continuecontinuecontinue liv­liv­liv­ing?ing?ing?

TheTheThe answeransweranswer isisis thatthatthat SingerSingerSinger appearsappearsappears tototo bebebe thinkingthinkingthinking thatthatthat ananan animalanimalanimal ororor humanhumanhuman whowhowho prefersprefersprefers tototo livelivelive mustmustmust havehavehave

aaa veryveryvery sophsophsoph isticatedisticatedisticated conceptionconceptionconception ofofof itself.itself.itself. ItItIt mustmustmust conceiveconceiveconceive ofofof itselfitselfitself asasas "a"a"a distinctdistinctdistinct entityentityentity withwithwith aaa possiblepossiblepossible futufutufutu rerere existence.existence.existence. "18"18"18 IfIfIf ititit hashashas aaa moremoremore impov­impov­impov­erishederishederished conceptionconceptionconception ofofof itselfitselfitself ititit "can­"can­"can­not,"not,"not," asasas hehehe putsputsputs it,it,it, "have"have"have aaa prefer­prefer­prefer­enceenceence aboutaboutabout itsitsits ownownown futufutufutu rerere existence."19existence."19existence."19 ButButBut tototo demanddemanddemand thisthisthis degreedegreedegree ofofof sophisticationsophisticationsophistication isisis surelysurelysurely unwarranted.unwarranted.unwarranted. III suspectsuspectsuspect thatthatthat thisthisthis demanddemanddemand hashashas itsitsits originoriginorigin ininin Singer'sSinger'sSinger's uncriticaluncriticaluncritical acceptanceacceptanceacceptance ofofof aaa faultyfaultyfaulty infer­infer­infer­enceenceence bybyby MichaelMichaelMichael Tooley,Tooley,Tooley, aaa philosopherphilosopherphilosopher whosewhosewhose viewsviewsviews ononon self-consciousnessself-consciousnessself-consciousness SingerSingerSinger usesusesuses tototo supportsupportsupport preferencepreferencepreference utilitarianism.utilitarianism.utilitarianism. 202020 TooleyTooleyTooley arguesarguesargues thatthatthat

1.1.1.� OneOneOne cancancan havehavehave aaa rightrightright tototo lifelifelife onlyonlyonly ififif oneoneone isisis capablecapablecapable ofofof desiringdesiringdesiring life.life.life.

2.2.2.� OneOneOne cancancan bebebe capablecapablecapable ofofof desiringdesiringdesiring lifelifelife onlyonlyonly ififif oneoneone hashashas aaa conceptconceptconcept ofofof life.life.life.

3.3.3.� TheTheThe kindkindkind ofofof lifelifelife isisis questionquestionquestion isisis beingbeingbeing aaa continuingcontinuingcontinuing sub­sub­sub­jectjectject ofofof experiencesexperiencesexperiences andandand otherotherother mentalmentalmental states.states.states.

4.4.4.� ThereforeThereforeTherefore oneoneone cancancan havehavehave aaa rightrightright tototo lifelifelife onlyonlyonly ififif oneoneone hashashas aaa conceptconceptconcept ofofof beibeibei ngngng aaa con­con­con­tinuingtinuingtinuing subjectsubjectsubject ofofof experi­experi­experi­encesencesences andandand otherotherother mentalmentalmental states.states.states. 212121

TheTheThe inferenceinferenceinference tototo (3),(3),(3), asasas W.W.W. S.S.S. PluharPluharPluhar hashashas pointedpointedpointed out,22out,22out,22 commitscommitscommits thethethe inten­inten­inten­tionaltionaltional fallacy.fallacy.fallacy. OneOneOne cancancan desiredesiredesire lifelifelife withoutwithoutwithout thinkingthinkingthinking ofofof ititit ininin thesethesethese highlyhighlyhighly sophisticatedsophisticatedsophisticated termstermsterms justjustjust asasas oneoneone cancancan desiredesiredesire tototo meetmeetmeet ArchibaldArchibaldArchibald CoxCoxCox withoutwithoutwithout thinkingthinkingthinking ofofof himhimhim asasas aaa HarvardHarvardHarvard lawlawlaw pro­pro­pro­fessor.fessor.fessor. ThereThereThere isisis thereforethereforetherefore nonono reasonreasonreason tototo denydenydeny thatthatthat sentientsentientsentient beingsbeingsbeings whowhowho behave.behave.behave. asasas ififif theytheythey preferpreferprefer tototo livelivelive dododo preferpreferprefer tototo live.live.live. TheTheThe replacementreplacementreplacement argumentargumentargument asasas restrictedrestrictedrestricted bybyby SingerSingerSinger appearsappearsappears tototo bebebe vastlyvastlyvastly moremoremore restrictedrestrictedrestricted thanthanthan hehehe believesbelievesbelieves andandand thusthusthus looseslooseslooses itsitsits pointpointpoint ......

Now,Now,Now, however,however,however, ananan even·moreeven·moreeven·more seri ­seri ­seri­ousousous objectionobjectionobjection cancancan bebebe raised.raised.raised. TheTheThe firstfirstfirst objectionobjectionobjection tototo thethethe preferencepreferencepreference utilit ­utilit ­utilit­arianarianarian versionversionversion ofofof thethethe replacementreplacementreplacement argu­argu­argu­ment,ment,ment, justjustjust spelledspelledspelled outoutout above,above,above, diddiddid notnotnot

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challengechallengechallenge thethethe assumptionassumptionassumption thatthatthat prefer­prefer­prefer­enceenceence utilitarianismutilitarianismutilitarianism wouldwouldwould implyimplyimply thatthatthat self-consciousself-consciousself-conscious beingsbeingsbeings areareare irreplace­irreplace­irreplace­able.able.able. WeWeWe sawsawsaw thatthatthat thethethe argument,argument,argument, givengivengiven thisthisthis assumption,assumption,assumption, applapplappl iesiesies tototo veryveryvery fewfewfew sentientsentientsentient creatucreatucreatu res.res.res. AAA muchmuchmuch moremoremore seriousseriousserious problemproblemproblem arisesarisesarises forforfor SingerSingerSinger whenwhenwhen wewewe examineexamineexamine thisthisthis assumption.assumption.assumption. ItItIt tututu rnsrnsrns outoutout tototo bebebe simplysimplysimply falsefalsefalse thatthatthat preferencepreferencepreference utilitarianismutilitarianismutilitarianism impliesimpliesimplies thethethe irreplaceabilityirreplaceabilityirreplaceability ofofof self-consciousself-consciousself-conscious beibeibei ngs.ngs.ngs.

TheTheThe problemproblemproblem isisis this.this.this. TheTheThe replace­replace­replace­mentmentment forforfor thethethe painlessly,painlessly,painlessly, fearlesslyfearlesslyfearlessly dispatcheddispatcheddispatched self-consciousself-consciousself-conscious beingbeingbeing alsoalsoalso hashashas aaa preferencepreferencepreference forforfor continuedcontinuedcontinued life.life.life. ItItIt isisis notnotnot differentdifferentdifferent ininin ththth isisis respectrespectrespect fromfromfrom itsitsits predecessor.predecessor.predecessor. IfIfIf thethethe newnewnew prefer­prefer­prefer­enceenceence andandand thethethe oldoldold preferencepreferencepreference aaa rerere equalequalequal ininin strength,strength,strength, theytheythey mustmustmust bebebe assignedassignedassigned thethethe samesamesame utility;utility;utility; therefore,therefore,therefore, preferencepreferencepreference utilitarianismutilitarianismutilitarianism doesdoesdoes notnotnot favorfavorfavor thethethe replaceereplaceereplacee overoverover thethethe replacerreplacerreplacer regregregaaa rdlessrdlessrdless ofofof whetherwhetherwhether thethethe formerformerformer isisis self-con­self-con­self-con­scious.scious.scious.

PerhapsPerhapsPerhaps SingerSingerSinger wouldwouldwould trytrytry tototo avoidavoidavoid thisthisthis (for(for(for hishishis purposes,purposes,purposes, disastrous)disastrous)disastrous) implicationimplicationimplication bybyby arguingarguingarguing thatthatthat aaa beingbeingbeing whichwhichwhich doesdoesdoes notnotnot yetyetyet existexistexist (the.(the.(the. repla­repla­repla­cer)cer)cer) cannotcannotcannot havehavehave anyanyany preferences.preferences.preferences. AllAllAll suchsuchsuch preferences,preferences,preferences, hehehe mightmightmight say,say,say, areareare potentialpotentialpotential only.only.only. ThereThereThere isisis evidenceevidenceevidence thatthatthat SingerSingerSinger wouldwouldwould replyreplyreply ininin thatthatthat way.way.way. HeHeHe arguesarguesargues thatthatthat ... normalnormalnormal infantsinfantsinfants areareare replaceablereplaceablereplaceable becausebecausebecause theytheythey asasas yetyetyet havehavehave nonono preferencepreferencepreference tototo continuecontinuecontinue living:living:living:

PotentialPotentialPotential self-consciousnessself-consciousnessself-consciousness isisis notnotnot enough,enough,enough, forforfor aaa potentiallypotentiallypotentially self-consciousself-consciousself-conscious beingbeingbeing hashashas nevernevernever desireddesireddesired tototo gogogo ononon living.living.living. 232323

Similarly,Similarly,Similarly, ananan asasas yetyetyet nonexistentnonexistentnonexistent beingbeingbeing hashashas nonono actualactualactual preferencepreferencepreference forforfor continuedcontinuedcontinued life.life.life. Thus,Thus,Thus, SingerSingerSinger couldcouldcould reply,reply,reply, pref­pref­pref­erenceerenceerence utilitarianismutilitarianismutilitarianism doesdoesdoes indeedindeedindeed favorfavorfavor thethethe existentexistentexistent beingbeingbeing withwithwith aaa preferencepreferencepreference tototo continuecontinuecontinue livinglivingliving ovel'ovel'ovel' anyanyany nonexis­nonexis­nonexis­tenttenttent replacement.replacement.replacement.

However,However,However, thisthisthis linelineline ofofof replyreplyreply isisis actuallyactuallyactually closedclosedclosed tototo Singer,Singer,Singer, becausebecausebecause ititit presupposespresupposespresupposes ananan amalgamamalgamamalgam ofofof preferencepreferencepreference

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utilitarianismutilitarianismutilitarianism withwithwith aaa viewviewview hehehe rejects:rejects:rejects: thethethe priorpriorprior existenceexistenceexistence view.view.view. TheTheThe readerreaderreader willwillwill recallrecallrecall thatthatthat ininin seekingseekingseeking tototo renderrenderrender thethethe replacementreplacementreplacement argumentargumentargument inapplicableinapplicableinapplicable tototo normal,normal,normal, self-consciousself-consciousself-conscious humanshumanshumans hehehe rejectedrejectedrejected thethethe priorpriorprior existenceexistenceexistence viewviewview (which(which(which doesdoesdoes notnotnot assignassignassign utilityutilityutility tototo thethethe statesstatesstates ofofof mind,mind,mind, etc.,etc.,etc., ofofof nonexistentnonexistentnonexistent beings)beings)beings) ininin favorfavorfavor ofofof preferencepreferencepreference utilita­utilita­utilita­rianism.rianism.rianism. 242424 TheTheThe priorpriorprior existenceexistenceexistence viewviewview waswaswas rejectedrejectedrejected becausebecausebecause ititit diddiddid notnotnot implyimplyimply thethethe wrongnesswrongnesswrongness ofofof deliberatelydeliberatelydeliberately conceiv­conceiv­conceiv­inginging ananan incurablyincurablyincurably andandand painfullypainfullypainfully deformeddeformeddeformed childchildchild whowhowho wouldwouldwould diediedie before·before·before· hishishis secondsecondsecond bibibi rthday.rthday.rthday. SupposeSupposeSuppose thatthatthat thethethe child'schild'schild's mindmindmind isisis unimpaired.unimpaired.unimpaired. WeWeWe wouldwouldwould thenthenthen thinkthinkthink ititit probableprobableprobable thatthatthat hehehe wouldwouldwould developdevelopdevelop aaa preferencepreferencepreference forforfor nonex­nonex­nonex­istence.istence.istence. YetYetYet suchsuchsuch aaa preferencepreferencepreference wouldwouldwould simplysimplysimply notnotnot countcountcount ififif SingerSingerSinger werewerewere tototo trytrytry tototo escapeescapeescape thethethe disastrousdisastrousdisastrous implicationimplicationimplication ininin thethethe waywayway III havehavehave suggested.suggested.suggested. Thus,Thus,Thus, hishishis viewviewview wouldwouldwould bebebe subjectsubjectsubject tototo thethethe samesamesame objectionobjectionobjection asasas thethethe viewviewview hehehe hashashas rejectedrejectedrejected ...

IfIfIf SingerSingerSinger werewerewere tototo replyreplyreply thatthatthat hehehe wouldwouldwould taketaketake thethethe miserymiserymisery ofofof thethethe childchildchild intointointo accountaccountaccount andandand thusthusthus condemncondemncondemn itsitsits deliberatedeliberatedeliberate conception,conception,conception, thenthenthen hehehe oughtoughtought tototo taketaketake itsitsits potentialpotentialpotential preferencespreferencespreferences intointointo accountaccountaccount asasas well.well.well. ItsItsIts miserymiserymisery isisis alsoalsoalso merelymerelymerely potential,potential,potential, afterafterafter all.all.all. AndAndAnd ininin thatthatthat casecasecase thethethe preferencespreferencespreferences whichwhichwhich anyanyany nonexistentnonexistentnonexistent beingbeingbeing willwillwill havehavehave oughtoughtought tototo bebebe takentakentaken intointointo account.account.account. Thus,Thus,Thus, thethethe originaloriginaloriginal objectionobjectionobjection reemerges:reemerges:reemerges: prefer­prefer­prefer­enceenceence utilitarianismutilitarianismutilitarianism doesdoesdoes notnotnot favorfavorfavor thethethe self-consciousself-consciousself-conscious replaceereplaceereplacee overoverover itsitsits self­self­self­consciousconsciousconscious replacerreplacerreplacer ififif wewewe cancancan expectexpectexpect thethethe replacer'sreplacer'sreplacer's preferencepreferencepreference tototo livelivelive tototo bebebe atatat leastleastleast asasas strongstrongstrong asasas thethethe replacee's.25replacee's.25replacee's.25 III seeseesee nonono waywayway ininin whichwhichwhich SingerSingerSinger cancancan consistentlyconsistentlyconsist avoid thisently avoidavoid thisthis objection.objection.objection.

WeWeWe havehavehave seenseenseen thatthatthat whenwhenwhen thethethe assumptionassumptionassumption thatthatthat preferencepreferencepreference utilitarian­utilitarian­utilitarian­ismismism impliesimpliesimplies thethethe irreplaceabilityirreplaceabilityirreplaceability ofofof self-consciousself-consciousself-conscious beingsbeingsbeings isisis notnotnot ques­ques­ques­tioned,tioned,tioned, thethethe replacementreplacementreplacement argumentargumentargument appliesappliesapplies tototo hardlyhardlyhardly anyanyany beingsbeingsbeings atatat all.all.all. WhenWhenWhen thethethe assumptionassumptionassumption isisis questioned,questioned,questioned, thethethe argumentargumentargument appliesappliesapplies tototo allallall sentientsentientsentient beings.beings.beings. BothBothBoth alternativesalternativesalternatives areareare

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unacceptableunacceptableunacceptable tototo Singer.Singer.Singer. Therefore,Therefore,Therefore, hishishis attemptattemptattempt tototo restrictrestrictrestrict thethethe replacementreplacementreplacement argumentargumentargument tototo nonself-consciousnonself-consciousnonself-conscious animalsanimalsanimals andandand humanshumanshumans hashashas thoroughlythoroughlythoroughly defeateddefeateddefeated itself.itself.itself.

InInIn thethethe absenceabsenceabsence ofofof anyanyany otherotherother plausi­plausi­plausi­blebleble newnewnew utilitarianutilitarianutilitarian versionversionversion ofofof thethethe replacementreplacementreplacement argumentargumentargument whichwhichwhich wouldwouldwould avoidavoidavoid thethethe aboveaboveabove entanglements,entanglements,entanglements, oneoneone isisis entitledentitledentitled tototo concludeconcludeconclude thatthatthat thethethe replace­replace­replace­mentmentment argumentargumentargument doesdoesdoes indeedindeedindeed applyapplyapply eveneveneven tototo normalnormalnormal humans.humans.humans. ThereforeThereforeTherefore eithereithereither thethethe replacementreplacementreplacement argument,argument,argument, andandand utilita­utilita­utilita­rianism,rianism,rianism, mustmustmust bebebe rejected,rejected,rejected, ororor thethethe implicationimplicationimplication mustmustmust bebebe accepted.accepted.accepted. ItItIt isisis nownownow timetimetime tototo presspresspress thethethe argumentargumentargument fromfromfrom moralmoralmoral consistencyconsistencyconsistency ononon proponentsproponentsproponents ofofof thethethe replacementreplacementreplacement argument.argument.argument. AnyoneAnyoneAnyone who,who,who, ononon careful,careful,careful, clear,clear,clear, impartialimpartialimpartial reflection,reflection,reflection, believesbelievesbelieves thatthatthat ititit isisis wrongwrongwrong tototo create,create,create, 'humanely''humanely''humanely' use,use,use, thenthenthen replacereplacereplace normalnormalnormal humans,humans,humans, willwillwill havehavehave tototo rejectrejectreject thethethe replacementreplacementreplacement argumentargumentargument forforfor otherotherother sen­sen­sen­tienttienttient beingsbeingsbeings asasas well.well.well. TheTheThe principleprincipleprinciple ofofof utilityutilityutility mustmustmust thenthenthen bebebe rejectedrejectedrejected asasas thethethe only·'only·'only·' basicbasicbasic moralmoralmoral principle.principle.principle.

Suppose,Suppose,Suppose, ononon thethethe otherotherother hand,hand,hand, thatthatthat somesomesome utilitariansutilitariansutilitarians decidedecidedecide notnotnot tototo agreeagreeagree withwithwith Singer'sSinger'sSinger's claimclaimclaim thatthatthat

IfIfIf wewewe thinkthinkthink ofofof aaa livinglivingliving creaturecreaturecreature asasas aaa self-consciousself-consciousself-conscious iii ndividndividndivid ual,ual,ual, leadingleadingleading itsitsits ownownown lifelifelife andandand withwithwith aaa desiredesiredesire tototo gogogo ononon living,living,living, thethethe replaceabilityreplaceabilityreplaceability argumentargumentargument holdsholdsholds IIIittleittleittle appeal.appeal.appeal. 262626

ItItIt isisis entientienti relyrelyrely possiblepossiblepossible thatthatthat somesomesome wouwouwou IdIdId preferpreferprefer tototo acceptacceptaccept thethethe replaceabilityreplaceabilityreplaceability ofofof normalnormalnormal humanshumanshumans ratherratherrather thatthatthat tototo rejectrejectreject thethethe replacementreplacementreplacement argumentargumentargument andandand utilita­utilita­utilita­rianism.rianism.rianism. TheyTheyThey wouldwouldwould probablyprobablyprobably argueargueargue thatthatthat theytheythey aaa rerere notnotnot impressedimpressedimpressed bybyby ananan appealappealappeal tototo ethicalethicalethical intuitions,intuitions,intuitions, thatthatthat justjustjust asasas theytheythey dododo notnotnot shyshyshy fromfromfrom thethethe thesisthesisthesis thatthatthat defectivedefectivedefective humanshumanshumans aaa rerere replaceable,replaceable,replaceable, theytheythey areareare willingwillingwilling tototo acceptacceptaccept thethethe replace­replace­replace­abilityabilityability ofofof humanshumanshumans likelikelike themselves.themselves.themselves. "Why,""Why,""Why," theytheythey mightmightmight say,say,say, "should"should"should wewewe abandonabandonabandon utilitarianismutilitarianismutilitarianism ratherratherrather thanthanthan abandonabandonabandon ananan ethicalethicalethical intuition?"intuition?"intuition?" CanCanCan oneoneone ,'easonably,'easonably,'easonably countercountercounter suchsuchsuch aaa draco­draco­draco­nianniannian moralmoralmoral consistency?consistency?consistency?

III believebelievebelieve oneoneone can,can,can, bybyby appealingappealingappealing tototo aaa pragmaticpragmaticpragmatic versionversionversion ofofof thethethe argumentargumentargument fromfromfrom moralmoralmoral consistency.consistency.consistency. TheTheThe principleprincipleprinciple ofofof utilityutilityutility isisis itselfitselfitself arrivedarrivedarrived atatat bybyby appealappealappeal tototo ethicalethicalethical intuitions.intuitions.intuitions. VariousVariousVarious versionsversionsversions ofofof utilitarianismutilitarianismutilitarianism areareare likewiselikewiselikewise acceptedacceptedaccepted ororor rejectedrejectedrejected bybyby utilitariansutilitariansutilitarians bybyby suchsuchsuch appeals.appeals.appeals. ForForFor example,example,example, SingerSingerSinger rejectsrejectsrejects thethethe priorpriorprior existenceexistenceexistence viewviewview becausebecausebecause ititit hashashas ananan implicationimplicationimplication "we"we"we wouldwouldwould thinkthinkthink...... .wrong;"27.wrong;"27.wrong;"27 similarly,similarly,similarly, hehehe raisesraisesraises doubtsdoubtsdoubts aboutaboutabout classicalclassicalclassical utilitarianismutilitarianismutilitarianism ononon thethethe groundsgroundsgrounds thatthatthat "all"all"all thisthisthis is,is,is, again,again,again, veryveryvery muchmuchmuch atatat oddsoddsodds withwithwith ourourour ordinaryordinaryordinary moralmoralmoral convictions.convictions.convictions. "28"28"28 Moreover,Moreover,Moreover, utilitariansutilitariansutilitarians havehavehave devoteddevoteddevoted aaa goodgoodgood dealdealdeal ofofof effortefforteffort tototo thethethe tasktasktask ofofof showingshowingshowing somesomesome versionversionversion ofofof utilitarianismutilitarianismutilitarianism consistentconsistentconsistent withwithwith standardstandardstandard intuitionsintuitionsintuitions aboutaboutabout lying,lying,lying, promisepromisepromise keep­keep­keep­ing,ing,ing, andandand punishmentpunishmentpunishment ofofof thethethe innocent.innocent.innocent. MyMyMy pointpointpoint hereherehere isisis notnotnot merelymerelymerely tototo chargechargecharge anyanyany utilitariansutilitariansutilitarians whowhowho acceptacceptaccept thethethe impli­impli­impli­cationscationscations ofofof thethethe replacementreplacementreplacement argumentargumentargument withwithwith inconsistency.inconsistency.inconsistency. III believebelievebelieve theytheythey areareare entirelyentirelyentirely rightrightright tototo appealappealappeal tototo ethicalethicalethical intuitionsintuitionsintuitions atatat thesethesethese crucialcrucialcrucial points.points.points. TheyTheyThey areareare alsoalsoalso rightrightright tototo insistinsistinsist thatthatthat thethethe intuitionsintuitionsintuitions appealedappealedappealed tototo bebebe qualified.qualified.qualified. AsAsAs mentionedmentionedmentioned earlier,earlier,earlier, withoutwithoutwithout suchsuchsuch appealsappealsappeals ethicalethicalethical theoriestheoriestheories cancancan neitherneitherneither bebebe formulatedformulatedformulated nornornor tested.tested.tested. TheseTheseThese reflec­reflec­reflec­tionstionstions dododo howeverhoweverhowever suggestsuggestsuggest thatthatthat aaa util­util­util­itarianitarianitarian whowhowho reliesreliesrelies ononon clear,clear,clear, informed,informed,informed, impartialimpartialimpartial ethicalethicalethical intuitionsintuitionsintuitions ininin tryingtryingtrying tototo formulateformulateformulate hishishis theorytheorytheory butbutbut whowhowho rejectsrejectsrejects themthemthem whenwhenwhen theytheythey runrunrun countercountercounter tototo hishishis theorytheorytheory isisis guiltyguiltyguilty ofofof aaa pragmatic,pragmatic,pragmatic, ififif notnotnot formal,formal,formal, inconsistency.inconsistency.inconsistency. (If(If(If aaa utilita­utilita­utilita­rianrianrian cancancan showshowshow thatthatthat thethethe ethicalethicalethical intui­intui­intui­tiontiontion thatthatthat ititit isisis wrongwrongwrong tototo create,create,create, use,use,use, andandand replacereplacereplace aaa normalnormalnormal humanhumanhuman beingbeingbeing isisis notnotnot qualifiedqualifiedqualified ininin thethethe aboveaboveabove respects,respects,respects, hehehe isisis notnotnot guiltyguiltyguilty ofofof thisthisthis charge.charge.charge. How­How­How­ever,ever,ever, nonono suchsuchsuch thingthingthing hashashas beenbeenbeen shown.)shown.)shown.)

IfIfIf thenthenthen thethethe principleprincipleprinciple ofofof utilityutilityutility is,is,is, afterafterafter carefulcarefulcareful moralmoralmoral reflection,reflection,reflection, notnotnot takentakentaken tototo bebebe thethethe onlyonlyonly basicbasicbasic moralmoralmoral prin­prin­prin­ciple,ciple,ciple, wewewe mustmustmust looklooklook forforfor ananan additionaladditionaladditional principleprincipleprinciple (and(and(and thusthusthus tototo aaa deontologicaldeontologicaldeontological theory)theory)theory) whichwhichwhich do.esdo.esdo.es squaresquaresquare withwithwith quali­quali­quali­fiedfiedfied ethicalethicalethical intuitionsintuitionsintuitions concerningconcerningconcerning replaceability.replaceability.replaceability. ToToTo formulateformulateformulate andandand thenthenthen

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defenddefenddefend suchsuchsuch aaa principleprincipleprinciple isisis nonono easyeasyeasy task.task.task. III willwillwill hereherehere confineconfineconfine myselfmyselfmyself tototo somesomesome briefbriefbrief remarksremarksremarks ononon thisthisthis subject.subject.subject. TomTomTom ReganReganRegan hashashas beenbeenbeen tryingtryingtrying tototo formu­formu­formu­latelatelate suchsuchsuch aaa principleprincipleprinciple ininin hishishis recentrecentrecent writings,writings,writings, andandand thethethe resultsresultsresults areareare veryveryvery suggestive.suggestive.suggestive. Briefly,Briefly,Briefly, hehehe aaa rguesrguesrgues thatthatthat ififif sentientsentientsentient (or(or(or nonnonnon sentient)sentient)sentient) beingsbeingsbeings havehavehave basicbasicbasic rights,rights,rights, theytheythey havehavehave thosethosethose rightsrightsrights becausebecausebecause theytheythey areareare inherentlyinherentlyinherently valuable.valuable.valuable. HeHeHe spellsspellsspells outoutout thethethe "most"most"most noteworthynoteworthynoteworthy features"features"features" ofofof inherentinherentinherent valuevaluevalue asasas follows:follows:follows:

1.1.1.� IfIfIf anyanyany givengivengiven beingbeingbeing (x)(x)(x) hashashas inherentinherentinherent value,value,value, thenthenthen x'sx'sx's hhhaaavvv iiinnnggg valvalval uuueee ofofof ttt hishishis kinkinkindisdisdis logicallylogicallylogically independentindependentindependent ofofof anyanyany otherotherother being'sbeing'sbeing's happeninghappeninghappening tototo taketaketake ananan interestinterestinterest ininin ororor oth­oth­oth­erwiseerwiseerwise valuingvaluingvaluing x.x.x.

2.2.2.� X'sX'sX's havinghavinghaving inherentinherentinherent valuevaluevalue makesmakesmakes ititit improperimproperimproper (a(a(a signsignsign ofofof disrespect)disrespect)disrespect) tototo treattreattreat xxx asasas thoughthoughthough ititit hadhadhad valuevaluevalue onlyonlyonly asasas aaa meansmeansmeans (i.(i.(i. e.,e.,e., onlyonlyonly ififif andandand onlyonlyonly sososo longlonglong asasas ititit answersanswersanswers another'sanother'sanother's needs,needs,needs, etc.).etc.).etc.).

3.3.3.� BecauseBecauseBecause x'sx'sx's havinghavinghaving inher­inher­inher­ententent valuevaluevalue underliesunderliesunderlies thethethe obligationobligationobligation tototo treattreattreat xxx withwithwith respect,respect,respect, andandand sincesincesince some­some­some­thing'sthing'sthing's beingbeingbeing good-of-its­good-of-its­good-of-its­kindkindkind isisis notnotnot aaa plausibleplausibleplausible basisbasisbasis ononon whichwhichwhich tototo foundfoundfound thisthisthis obligation,obligation,obligation, x'sx'sx's beingbeingbeing good-of-its-kindgood-of-its-kindgood-of-its-kind isisis logicallylogicallylogically distinctdistinctdistinct fromfromfrom x'sx'sx's havinghavinghaving inherent·inherent·inherent· value.value.value. 292929

Regan'sRegan'sRegan's 'criterion'criterion'criterion ofofof inherentinherentinherent val­val­val­ue'ue'ue' doesdoesdoes seemseemseem tototo captucaptucaptu rerere thethethe convic­convic­convic­tiontiontion thatthatthat stocking,stocking,stocking, eatingeatingeating ororor experi­experi­experi­mentingmentingmenting on,on,on, andandand thenthenthen replacireplacireplaci ngngng aaa sentientsentientsentient creaturecreaturecreature withwithwith anotheranotheranother justjustjust likelikelike ititit andandand withwithwith thethethe samesamesame fate,fate,fate, isisis tototo treattreattreat ititit asasas instrumentallyinstrumentallyinstrumentally valuable.valuable.valuable. IfIfIf thethethe beingbeingbeing isisis ininin factfactfact inherentlyinherentlyinherently valua-valua-valua-

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ble,ble,ble, suchsuchsuch useuseuse seemsseemsseems wrongwrongwrong III eveneveneven ififif precautionsprecautionsprecautions havehavehave beenbeenbeen takentakentaken tototo makemakemake thethethe beingbeingbeing asasas happyhappyhappy asasas possible.possible.possible. However,However,However, III dododo believebelievebelieve ReganReganRegan errserrserrs ininin stipulatingstipulatingstipulating thatthatthat ititit isisis treatmenttreatmenttreatment ofofof ananan inherentlyinherentlyinherently valuablevaluablevaluable beingbeingbeing asasas aaa meansmeansmeans onlyonlyonly thatthatthat isisis improper.improper.improper. UnderUnderUnder thethethe conditionsconditionsconditions ofofof thethethe replacementreplacementreplacement argu­argu­argu­ment,ment,ment, sentientsentientsentient beibeibei ngsngsngs aaa rerere notnotnot treatedtreatedtreated asasas meansmeansmeans only:only:only: theirtheirtheir well-beingwell-beingwell-being isisis takentakentaken intointointo accountaccountaccount ininin thethethe attemptattemptattempt tototo maximizemaximizemaximize thethethe balancebalancebalance ofofof inherentinherentinherent non­non­non­moralmoralmoral valuevaluevalue overoverover disvalue.disvalue.disvalue. (Current(Current(Current treatmenttreatmenttreatment ofofof animals,animals,animals, bybyby contrast,contrast,contrast, comescomescomes veryveryvery closecloseclose tototo treatmenttreatmenttreatment ofofof themthemthem asasas meansmeansmeans only.)only.)only.) OnOnOn thethethe otherotherother hand,hand,hand, ititit isisis clearclearclear thatthatthat stocking,stocking,stocking, using,using,using, dis­dis­dis­posingposingposing of,of,of, andandand replacingreplacingreplacing sentientsentientsentient cre­cre­cre­atures,atures,atures, howeverhoweverhowever benevolentlybenevolentlybenevolently thisthisthis isisis done,done,done, isisis tototo treattreattreat themthemthem primarilyprimarilyprimarily asasas means.means.means. ThereforeThereforeTherefore I'I'I' wouldwouldwould suggestsuggestsuggest amendingamendingamending Regan'sRegan'sRegan's featurefeaturefeature (2)(2)(2) asasas fol­fol­fol­lows:lows:lows: ...

2.2.2.� X'sX'sX's havinghavinghaving inherentinherentinherent valuevaluevalue makesmakesmakes ititit improperimproperimproper (a(a(a signsignsign ofofof disrespect)disrespect)disrespect) tototo treattreattreat xxx asasas thoughthoughthough ititit hadhadhad valvalval ueueue prima­prima­prima­rilyrilyrily asasas aaa means.means.means.

MuchMuchMuch workworkwork remainsremainsremains tototo bebebe donedonedone ononon thethethe criterioncriterioncriterion ofofof inherentinherentinherent value,value,value, asasas ReganReganRegan isisis thethethe fififi rstrstrst tototo say.say.say. 303030 How­How­How­ever,ever,ever, ififif thethethe reasoningreasoningreasoning ininin thethethe earlierearlierearlier partpartpart ofofof mymymy paperpaperpaper isisis correct,correct,correct, andandand thethethe replacementreplacementreplacement argumentargumentargument mustmustmust indeedindeedindeed bebebe rejectedrejectedrejected forforfor humanshumanshumans andandand animals,animals,animals, thethethe formulationformulationformulation andandand testingtestingtesting ofofof thisthisthis ororor somesomesome otherotherother principleprincipleprinciple asasas partpartpart ofofof aaa deontolo­deontolo­deontolo­gicalgicalgical theorytheorytheory isisis thethethe nextnextnext orderorderorder ofofof business.business.business.

EvelynEvelynEvelyn B.B.B. PluharPluharPluhar�

PennsylvaniaPennsylvaniaPennsylvania StateStateState University,University,University,� FayetteFayetteFayette CampusCampusCampus�

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NOTESNOTESNOTES

PeterPeterPeter Singer,Singer,Singer, AnimalAnimalAnimal LiberationLiberationLiberation� (New(New(New York:York:York: AvonAvonAvon Books)'Books),Books), 1975.1975.1975.

222 TheTheThe statementstatementstatement ofofof thethethe secondsecondsecond prem­prem­prem­�iseiseise ofofof thisthisthis argumentargumentargument isisis takentakentaken fromfromfrom� EthicsEthicsEthics &&& Animals,Animals,Animals, 333 (1),(1),(1), MarchMarchMarch 1982,1982,1982,� p.p.p. 2,2,2, withwithwith oneoneone alteration:alteration:alteration: conditionconditioncondition (c)(c)(c) hashashas beenbeenbeen addedaddedadded ininin orderorderorder tototo meetmeetmeet thethethe requirementrequirementrequirement thatthatthat utilityutilityutility bebebe maxim­maxim­maxim­izedizedized bybyby animalanimalanimal exploitation.exploitation.exploitation.

333 PeterPeterPeter Singer,Singer,Singer, "Killing"Killing"Killing HumansHumansHumans andandand� KillingKillingKilling Animals,Animals,Animals, """ Inquiry,Inquiry,Inquiry, 22,22,22, nos.nos.nos.� 1-2,1-2,1-2, SummerSummerSummer 1979,1979,1979, p.p.p. 149.149.149. SeeSeeSee alsoalsoalso� hishishis essay,essay,essay, "Animals"Animals"Animals andandand thethethe ValueValueValue ofofof� Life,"Life,"Life," ininin TomTomTom Regan,Regan,Regan, ed.,ed.,ed., MattersMattersMatters ofofof� LifeLifeLife andandand DeathDeathDeath (New(New(New York:York:York: RandomRandomRandom� House),House),House), 1980,1980,1980, p.p.p. 249.249.249.�

444 III amamam followifollowifollowi ngngng thethethe rac­rac­convenconvenconven ientientient ppp rac­ticeticetice ofofof abbreviatingabbreviatingabbreviating 'human'human'human animal'animal'animal' asasas 'human''human''human' andandand 'nonhuman'nonhuman'nonhuman animal'animal'animal' asasas 'an­'an­'an­imal.'imal.'imal.' ThisThisThis terminologyterminologyterminology isisis notnotnot meantmeantmeant tototo begbegbeg anyanyany questionsquestionsquestions aboutaboutabout thethethe moralmoralmoral statusstatusstatus ofofof animals.animals.animals.

555 ForForFor excellentexcellentexcellent discussiondiscussiondiscussion ofofof thethethe prosprospros andandand consconscons ofofof importantimportantimportant metaethmetaethmetaeth icalicalical theoriestheoriestheories seeseesee R.R.R. B.B.B. Brandt,Brandt,Brandt, EthicalEthicalEthical TheoryTheoryTheory (Englewood(Englewood(Englewood Cliffs:Cliffs:Cliffs: Prentice­Prentice­Prentice­Hall),Hall),Hall), 1959,1959,1959, W.W.W. K.K.K. Frankena,Frankena,Frankena, EthicsEthicsEthics (Englewood(Englewood(Englewood Cliffs:Cliffs:Cliffs: Prentice-Hall),Prentice-Hall),Prentice-Hall), 1973,1973,1973, andandand J.J.J. L.L.L. Mackie,Mackie,Mackie, EthicsEthicsEthics (Lon­(Lon­(Lon­don:don:don: CoxCoxCox andandand WymanWymanWyman Ltd.),Ltd.),Ltd.), 1977.1977.1977.

666 R.R.R. B.B.B. Brandt,Brandt,Brandt, op.op.op. cit.,cit.,cit., ChapterChapterChapter 10.10.10.

777 W.W.W. K.K.K. Frankena,Ethics,Frankena,Ethics,Frankena,Ethics, op.op.op. cit.,cit.,cit., p.p.p. "1."1."1.

888 SeeSeeSee mymymy "Must"Must"Must ananan OpponentOpponentOpponent ofofof Ani­Ani­Ani­malmalmal RightsRightsRights alsoalsoalso bebebe ananan OpponentOpponentOpponent ofofof HumanHumanHuman Rights?",Rights?",Rights?", Inquiry,Inquiry,Inquiry, 24,24,24, 1981,1981,1981, pp.pp.pp. 229-41.229-41.229-41.

999 Singer,Singer,Singer, "Animals"Animals"Animals andandand thethethe ValueValueValue ofofof� Life,"Life,"Life," op.op.op. cit.,cit.,cit., p.p.p. 251.251.251.�

101010 Ibid.,Ibid.,Ibid., p.p.p. 245.245.245.

104104104

111111 Singer,Singer,Singer, "Killing"Killing"Killing HumansHumansHumans andandand KillingKillingKilling Animals,"Animals,"Animals," op.op.op. cit.,cit.,cit., p.p.p. 153.153.153.

121212 Singer,Singer,Singer, "Animals"Animals"Animals andandand thethethe ValueValueValue ofofof Life,"Life,"Life," op.op.op. cit.,cit.,cit., p.p.p. 250.250.250. AlthoughAlthoughAlthough hehehe isisis thinkingthinkingthinking primarilyprimarilyprimarily ofofof defectivedefectivedefective humanshumanshumans here,here,here, thethethe samesamesame appliesappliesapplies tototo thosethosethose whowhowho areareare normal.normal.normal.

131313 Singer,Singer,Singer, "Killing"Killing"Killing HumansHumansHumans andandand KillingKillingKilling Animals,"Animals,"Animals," op.op.op. cit.,cit.,cit., pp.pp.pp. 148-150.148-150.148-150.

141414 IIIbid.,bid.,bid., p.p.p. 148.148.148.

111 555 IIIbid.,bid.,bid., p.p.p. 111525252 ...

161616 IIIbid.bid.bid.

171717 IIIbid.,bid.,bid., p.p.p. 153.153.153.

181818 Singer,Singer,Singer, "Animals"Animals"Animals andandand thethethe ValueValueValue ofofof Life,"Life,"Life," op.op.op. cit.,cit.,cit., p.p.p. 238.238.238.

191919 Ibid.Ibid.Ibid.

202020 Ibid.,Ibid.,Ibid., pp.pp.pp. 239-240,239-240,239-240, andandand "Killing"Killing"Killing HumansHumansHumans andandand KillingKillingKilling Animals,"Animals,"Animals," op.op.op. cit.,cit.,cit., p.p.p. 151.151.151.

212121 MichaelMichaelMichael Tooley,TooleyTooley ,, "Abortion"Abortion"Abortion andandand Infanticide,"Infanticide,"Infanticide," ininin M.M.M. Cohen,Cohen,Cohen, T.T.T. Nagel,Nagel,Nagel, andandand T.T.T. ScanScanScan Ion,Ion,Ion, eds.,eds.,eds., TheTheThe RightsRightsRights andandand WrongsWrongsWrongs ofofof AbortionAbortionAbortion (P(P(P ririri ncetonncetonnceton ::: P~incetonP~incetonP~inceton U.U.U. Press),Press),Press), 1974,1974,1974, pp.pp.pp. 60-62.60-62.60-62.

222222 WernerWernerWerner S.S.S. Pluhar,Pluhar,Pluhar, "Abortion"Abortion"Abortion andandand SimpleSimpleSimple Consciousness,:"Consciousness,:"Consciousness,:" JournalJournalJournal ofofof Philosophy,Philosophy,Philosophy, LXXIVLXXIVLXXIV (3),(3),(3), MarchMarchMarch 1977,1977,1977, ppp ...... 162.162.162.

232323 SeeSeeSee hishishis "Killing"Killing"Killing HumansHumansHumans andandand KillingKillingKilling Animals,"Animals,"Animals," op.op.op. cit.,cit.,cit., p.p.p. 153.153.153.

242424 SeeSeeSee above,above,above, pp.pp.pp. 98-99.98-99.98-99.

252525 MichaelMichaelMichael LockwoodLockwoodLockwood makesmakesmakes thisthisthis pointpointpoint ininin hishishis "Singer"Singer"Singer ononon KillingKillingKilling andandand thethethe PreferencePreferencePreference forforfor Life,Life,Life, """ Inquiry,Inquiry,Inquiry, 222222 (1-2),(1-2),(1-2), SummerSummerSummer 1979,1979,1979, p.p.p. 159,159,159, whenwhenwhen hehehe arguesarguesargues thatthatthat preferencepreferencepreference utilitarianismutilitarianismutilitarianism

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105105105

cannotcannotcannot bebebe usedusedused tototo decidedecidedecide thethethe issueissueissue betweenbetweenbetween aaa pregnantpregnantpregnant womanwomanwoman ......... andandand thethethe childchildchild whowhowho wouldwouldwould livelivelive onlyonlyonly atatat thethethe costcostcost

...ofofof herherher death.death.death.

262626 Singer,Singer,Singer, "Killing"Killing"Killing HumansHumansHumans andandand KillingKillingKilling Animals,"Animals,"Animals," op.op.op. cit.,cit.,cit., p.p.p. 151.151.151.

222 777 IIIbid.,bid.,bid., ppp ... 148148148 ...

282828 Singer,Singer,Singer, "Animals"Animals"Animals andandand thethethe .Value.Value.Value ofofof Life,"Life,"Life," op.op.op. cit.,cit.,cit., p.p.p. 249.249.249.

292929 TomTomTom Regan,Regan,Regan, "An"An"An ExaminationExaminationExamination andandand

E&AE&AE&A 111/4111/4111/4

DefenseDefenseDefense ofofof oneoneone ArgumentArgumentArgument ConcerningConcerningConcerning AnimalAnimalAnimal Rights,"Rights,"Rights," Inquiry,Inquiry,Inquiry, 222222 (1-2),(1-2),(1-2), SummerSummerSummer 1979,1979,1979, p.p.p. 206.206.206. SeeSeeSee alsoalsoalso hishishis "The"The"The NatureNatureNature andandand PossibilityPossibilityPossibility ofofof ananan EnviEnviEnvi ronmentalronmentalronmental Ethic,Ethic,Ethic, """ EnvironmentalEnvironmentalEnvironmental Ethics,Ethics,Ethics, 3,3,3, SpringSpringSpring 1981,1981,1981, pp.pp.pp. 30-32.30-32.30-32.

3D3D3D III exploreexploreexplore thethethe problemsproblemsproblems facingfacingfacing thisthisthis criterioncriterioncriterion andandand thethethe typetypetype ofofof justificationjustificationjustification ititit cancancan andandand cannotcannotcannot bebebe givengivengiven ininin mymymy "The"The"The JustificationJustificationJustification ofofof ananan EnvironmentalEnvironmentalEnvironmental Ethic,"Ethic,"Ethic," forthcomingforthcomingforthcoming ininin EnvironmentalEnvironmentalEnvironmental Ethics.Ethics.Ethics.


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