early christian history

maxieburch.net © 2009

100 - 700 C.E.

Extra ecclesiam nulla salus

Outside the church there is no salvation.

– Cyprian of Carthage (200-258 C.E.)

table of contents

Christianity Becomes a Distinct Faith

Biblical Interpretation in Early Christianity

Threats to Christian Unity

Christianity and the Roman Empire

The Ecumenical Councils: Theology from the Top Down

Christian Monasticism: Theology from the Bottom Up

Early Christian Missions

St. Augustine: A Transitional Figure

Appendix 1 | Historical Rules of Thumb

Appendix 2 | Apostles Creed and Nicene Creed

Appendix 3 | Trinity Diagram

Appendix 4 | Timelines for Early Christianity, Part 1

Appendix 5 | Timelines for Early Christianity, Part 2

Map 1 | Eastern Expansion of the Roman Empire During the Sixth Century

Map 2 | Campaigns of Marcus Aurelius and the Severan Emperors

Map 3 | Roman Empire of Diocletian and Constantine

Map 4 | Greece, the Aegean, and Western Asia Minor

Map 5 | Roman Empire North and West in the “Age of Crisis”

Map 6 | Roman Empire Divided Into Prefectures and Dioceses

page 1

page 5

page 9

page 12

page 17

page 24

page 30

page 34

page 41

page 42

page 43

page 44

page 45

page 47

page 48

page 49

page 50

page 51

page 52

1

christianitybecomesa distinctfaith

2

christianity becomes a distinct faithI. Separation of Christianity from Judaism | 60-150 C.E. (See Map 1. See Timeline: Appendix 4)

Early persecution | Jewish Revolt against Rome and dispersion (66-70 C.E.)...destruction of the temple

in 70 C.E. Christian Church vs. Jewish Synagogue:

General Factors that Separated Christianity from Judaism:

1. Letters of Ignatius of Antioch

2. Christians as “God’s people”

3. Sacred Literature

4. Hierarchy of Leadership

II. An Emerging Faith: Monoepiscopacy, Canonization, Creeds and Apologists

A. Monoepiscopacy

1. Development of Church Hierarchy | 1 Timothy 3

2. Bishop-Ignatius of Antioch’s letters: three fold ministry and the Bishop’s role as the High Priest.

Administration of the Eucharist, position evolved over next three centuries.

Centrality of the Eucharist in early Christian worship.

3

christianity becomes a distinct faith B. The Process of Canonization

Regula Fidei | The “rule of faith”, seen as synonymous with the apostolic faith for interpreting

scripture. Balancing oral tradition and written accounts.

Four criteria for canonization:

1.

2.

3.

4.

C. Creeds: Developed in concert with the regula fidei for teaching and instruction.

Apostles Creed (2nd century) and Nicene Creed (4th century) (See Appendix 2)

4

christianity becomes a distinct faith D. Apologists: (See Map 2)

JewishandRomanpersecutionofChristiansinfirstthreecenturiesmadeChristianitydistinct.

The beginning of the 2nd century witnessed the rise of Christian intellectuals who used both

scriptural and philosophical resources to answer accusations brought against Christianity.

Christian Apologists:

1. Justin Martyr (100-165 C.E.) | Developed the philosophical/theological concept of the Logos.

First Apology (155 C.E.)

2. Irenaeus (140-200 C.E.) | Developed the relationship between the regula fidei and the canon.

Against Heresies (180-185 C.E.)

3. Tertullian (150-225 C.E.) | Developed the concept of trinitas and opposed philosophy

as a means for understanding faith.

Apology (200 C.E.)

Against Marcion (207 C.E.)

5

biblicalinterpretation

in earlychristianity

biblical interpretation in early christianityI. Jewish Hermeneutical Sources

A. Midrash | Rabbinical interpretation of the Torah – “building a fence around the Torah” provides

traditionalinterpretation,firstoralthenwrittentraditionresultsinCommentaries.

B. Commentaries | The Mishnah, the oldest commentary on the Torah.

Composed of 6 volumns and sometimes called the “Oral Torah”. A “gemara” is a rabbinical

commentary on the Mishnah and there are two sources for gemara: Palestinian and Babylonian.

The Talmud is a collection of quotations from the Mishnah and the gemara on those quotations.

There are two Talmuds: Palestinian Talmud, 5th century and Babylonian Talmud, 7th century.

Hermeneutic to Homeletic: Dual Contents of Biblical Commentary

Halakah (way of life) | Laws and practices for Jewish life created from the ongoing interpretive

process to understand the heart and intent of the Torah, Mishnah, and Talmud.

Aggadah(narrative)|Rabbinicalcommentarythatusesstoriesandotherillustrationstofillout

the unexplained parts of scripture.

C. Jesus’ Midrash | Jesus struggled mightily with the Pharisees, because he was trained in their

tradition, but he disagreed with their Midrash. Jesus offered an alternative Midrash:

Matthew 5:17- 7:28

6

biblical interpretation in early christianityII. Two Schools of Christian Hermeneutical Thought: Alexandria and Antioch (See Map 1)

Alexandrian Tradition | Allegorical Method

Antiochene Tradition | Historical/Literal Method

A. Alexandrian Theological Tradition:

Origen (185-253 C.E.)

Background: “Father of Biblical Criticism”, studied in Alexandria at the Museum.

Educated in classical curriculum: arithmetic, music, theory, astronomy, geometry and grammar.

Four Stages of Grammar:

1 | Criticism of Text

2 | Oral Reading

3 | Exposition and Exegesis

4 | Judgment

Works: Hexapla (six parallel columns): Apologetic to Judaism

View of Scripture:

1 | All necessary truths for life were found in the Bible

2 | The Bible was authoritative because God was the author

3 | The text, not the authors, was the Bible’s locus of inspiration and authority

7

biblical interpretation in early christianity B. Antiochean Theological Tradition

John Chrysostom (347-407 C.E.)

Background: Nicknamed “golden mouth”, John was a great expository preacher. From the school

at Antioch he received a classical education in preparation for a career in law but turned to the study

of scripture under the instruction of Diodore of Tarsus. John dedicated himself to a monastic life,

memorized the New Testament, and was a deacon and priest in Antioch. In 397 C.E., he was appointed

Bishop of Constantinople and was involved in numerous controversies.

Works: Homilies

View of Scripture: Two basic principles

1 | Condescension

2 | Accuracy

•Metaphors for the Bible: Treasure, ark, well and medicine cabinet

Interpretive Method:

1 | Study the Historical Context

2|Detailtheflowandlogicoftheargument

3 | Move towards exhortation

8

9

threatsto christian

unity

threats to christian unityIn the second century, the church dealt with several challenges to its unity. Persecution threatened

Christians with death if they refused to submit to the demands of the empire, but there were also internal

threats to the new faith. Some of these threats were doctrinal in nature challenging orthodox church teaching,

others were schismatic in nature undermining the church’s unity.

I. Gnosticism | gnosis = secret knowledge A variety of 1st and 2nd century writings and leaders. Gnosticism thrived in the rich, pluralistic,

religiousenvironmentofthesefirstcenturiesandinfiltratedChristiancommunities.

Five Points of Gnostic Teaching:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Marcion(85-160C.E.)ChristianGnosticwhosewritingsinfluencedthecanonizationofscripture.

10

threats to christian unityII. Montanists, c.170 C.E. | “The New Prophecy” (See Map 2) Montanus and two assistants: Priscilla and Maximilla

Three Basic Teachings:

1.

2.

3.

III. Novationists, c.250 C.E. | “Church Discipline” Novatian: Leader in Roman Church

Four Basic Teachings:

1.

2.

3.

4.

11

12

christianity and the roman empire

christianity and the roman empireI. Changing Fortunes of the Church (See Map 3)

A. Consequences of Constantine’s connection to Christianity created a paradoxical relationship

with the church.

1. Hosios of Cordova

2. in hoc signo vinces

3. Pontifex Maximus and Christian Disciple

4. Church Patron and Defender

B. Implications for the Church

End of persecution and favored status as the religion of the empire. Concessions made to the church:

1.

2.

3.

13

christianity and the roman empireII. Early Christian Political Theory

The church’s new relationship with the Roman Empire eventually forced church leaders to interpret

the political status of Christianity as the new religion of the empire. These interpretations and sentiments

varied among church leaders.

Three Early Christian Political Thinkers:

A. Eusebius of Caesarea (260-339 C.E.)

Christian advisor for the eastern empire. When the capitol of the empire was moved to Constantinople

(330 C.E.), Eusebius became a close advisor of Constantine. He transcribed copies of the scriptures

to be used by churches in the new capitol.

Ecclesiastical History

Political Theory (Cultural Model)

RomanstateandthechurchwerebothordainedbyGodtocooperateincreatingaunifiedcivilization.

The Emperor was God’s “vice-regent” with the bishops and therefore he took the title “Bishop

in Externals”. Unity of Church/State was God’s plan from the beginning and was now realized

under Constantine.

14

BISHOP

CHURCH STATE

EMPERORONE CHrISTIANCIVIlIzATION

christianity and the roman empireII. Early Christian Political Theory

Three Early Christian Political Thinkers:

B. Ambrose of Milan (339-397 C.E.)

Bishop, pastor and counselor to three Roman emperors. He made use of imperial politics to advance

Nicene Christianity against Arianism, but viewed the emperor as a son of the church and therefore

“the emperor is within the church and not above it”. Matters of faith were the business of the church,

not the palace. Ambrose never forgot the memory of the martyrs.

Political Theory (Biblical Model) “Body of Christ”

15

CHURCH

BISHOPEMPEROR

STATE

EMPERORBISHOP

THE BODY OF CHrIST(Ephesians 4)

christianity and the roman empireII. Early Christian Political Theory

Three Early Christian Political Thinkers:

C. Hosios of Cordova (256-357 C.E.)

Political Theory: Separate but Equal

Doctrine of the Two Swords

Both church and state are ordained by God, but they represented two autonomous spheres

of power (spiritual and temporal); therefore, they should stay out of each others’ affairs.

16

BISHOP

CHURCHSPIRITUAL

STATETEMPORAL

EMPERORBODY OF CHrISTSEPArATE BUT EQUAl

17

the ecumenical councils:theology fromthe top down

the ecumenical councils: theology from the top downThefirstsevenecumenicalcouncilsrepresentedthosecouncilsoftheearlychurchthatboththeCatholic

Church and Orthodox Church acknowledged as establishing doctrine and practice for the church.

These councils were all held in the eastern half of the empire, the bishops and the emperors called them,

the majority of bishops were from the eastern part of the empire and their decisions carried both theological

andpoliticalramificationsforthechurch.(See Map 4)

Shift from Hebraic to Hellenistic Thought for Theology: The theological language of the councils represented

a shift from the symbolism, concepts and language of Hebraic thought to the language, concepts, and symbols

of the Hellenistic world. Translating the gospel message into the language of another culture was their attempt

to answer philosophical and theological questions with greater precision. (See Appendix 3- Trinity Diagram)

Hilary of Poitiers: “God is one, but He is not alone”.

[P-F] | 325 C.E., Council of Nicea: Equality of Essence

P-SS} F | 381 C.E., Council of Constantinople: Equality of Natures

P-SS} F | 431 C.E., Council of Ephesus: relationship of the Natures

P-SS} F | 451 C.E., Council of Chalcedon: Union of Two Natures, One Person

18

TRINITY

SON(F)FATHER(P) HOLY SPIRIT(SS)

HUMANITY DIVINITY

the ecumenical councils: theology from the top downI. Nicea, 325 C.E. | P/F - Equality of Essence Issue: Nature of the Son’s relationship to the Father and the full humanity and divinity of Jesus

as the Christ.

POSITIONS rEJECTED:

A. Monarchianists | Two Types:

1. Modalists or Sabellianism

2. Adoptionists

B. Ebionitism

Jewish sect believed that Jesus was fully human but not divine.

POSITIONS DEBATED AT COUNCIl:

Arius (Arianism)

Presbyter of Alexandria said that Jesus “the logos” was not eternal, subordinate to Father

and therefore Jesus was heteroousias.

Athanasius

Assistant to Bishop of Alexandria focused on the soteriological implications of Arius’ views.

John 1:1 | Son is eternal, uncreated, preexistent, coequal with the Father and therefore

Jesus was homoousias. (not one iota)

19

the ecumenical councils: theology from the top down result: Arius was condemned at Nicea and by the Emperor. “Athanasian Creed” and “Nicene Creed”

POlITICAl CONSEQUENCES:

1.

2.

II. Constantinople, 381 C.E. | F - Equality of the Natures Issue: How are the human and divine natures of Christ related?

POSITION rEJECTED:

Docetism

POSITIONS DEBATED:

Apollinarius | leader in Laodicea

An extreme reaction to Arianism led to this view. Jesus was not fully human as we are (not a creature),

he only “appeared to be”. He lacked a human mind because his mind was the divine logos and the logos

cannotactuallybecomeflesh.

Basil the Great | Bishop of Caesarea (one of the Cappadocian Fathers)

Argued for the soteriological implications of Apollinarius’ views. “Whatever was not assumed,

was not healed”.

result: ApollinariuswascondemnedandConstantinopleaffirmedthatJesuswasfullyGod,fullyMan…

for the time being.

20

the ecumenical councils: theology from the top downIII. Ephesus, 431 C.E. | F - relationship of the Natures Issue:HowwerethetwonaturesofChrist,humananddivine,tobedefined?Wouldtheemphasisbeon

integration of the natures or the distinction of the natures in one person?

POSITIONS DEBATED:

Nestorius | Bishop of Constantinople, represented the Antiochian School

The Antiochian School emphasized the distinct natures, but had to explain how there was a unity in terms

of a moral conjunction or merging of the wills. Sounded like two persons not one.

Cyril of Alexandria | Bishop of Alexandria, represented the Alexandrian School

The Alexandrian School emphasized the integration of the natures in one person, but had to explain

how the natures were distinct. Sounded like the humanity got lost in the divinity.

12 Anathemas and 12 Counter-Anathemas: Politics at Ephesus

Two councils were actually convened

result: 433 C. E., Formula of Union

21

HD

DH

the ecumenical councils: theology from the top downIV. Chalcedon, 451 C.E. | F - Understanding the Union of Two Natures in One Person Issue:Furtherdefinedhowthetwonaturescouldcoexistinoneperson.

POSITIONS DEBATED:

Eutyches | Archimandrite in Constantinople

Took the Cyril interpretation to the extreme of “a drop of honey in the ocean”.

leo I | Bishop of Rome

Condemned Eutyches in a Tome that held together the humanity and divinity of Christ in one person

without losing the distinction of the natures.

result:

ChalcedoniandefinitionpreservedthetwonaturesofChristinonepersonwiththesamesubstance

as the Father, fully God and fully Man, the two natures not abolished by the union.

Four Qualifiers:

1.

2.

3.

4.

Implications of Chalcedon: “Issues are not resolved, they are confined.”

1.

2.

3.

4.

22

the ecumenical councils: theology from the top downPolitical Implications of Ecumenical Councils:

1. Nicean Theology:

Kingdom of Father = Kingdom of the Son _________________ __________________ The State The Church

2. Arian Theology:

Kingdom of Father - The State _______________________________ Kingdom of the Son - The Church

23

24

christian monasticism:theology fromthe bottom up

christian monasticism: theology from the bottom upI. Appeared in the 3rd Century (See Maps 2 and 3)

Characteristics:

1.

2.

3.

4.

II. Sentiment to Symbolism: Martyrdom to Monastic Ideal Thepowerofsentimentsinanyageisreflectedinanumberofsymbolicways.Oneofthemostpowerful

sentiments in the early church involved the issue of living as a true disciple. Dying for one’s faith under

persecutions became the highest expression of discipleship. This sentiment was symbolized by

martyrdom. Gradually as the persecutions ceased in the 4th century, MARTyRDOM AS THE SyMBOL

OF TRUE DISCIPLESHIP WAS REPLACED By MONASTICISM. The sentiment of total commitment was no longer

a martyr’s death but rather a decision to separate oneself from the world in order to live an ascetic,

detached life in communion with God.

THE MONK REPLACED THE MARTyR IN THE 4TH AND 5TH CENTURIES AS THE SyMBOL OF CHRISTIANITy’S

HIGHEST VIRTUES.ThesentimentsofmartyrdomthatreflectedChristianengagement with the world

in the midst of persecution were replaced by monastic sentiments emphasizing disengagement from

the world as the true sign of Christian discipleship.

25

christian monasticism: theology from the bottom upIII. Two Types of Monasticism

A. Eremitic (Hermits)

B. Cenobitic (Common Life)

IV. Significant Monastic Figures

A. St. Anthony of Egypt (270-356 C.E.) | Eremetic Monasticism

Egyptian Christian, born to a wealthy family. Heard sermon on Matt. 19, the rich young ruler,

and took it literally. Sold all he had and left the city for the desert to live an ascetic life.

His monastic ideal had two motivations:

1.

2.

Athanasius wrote the biography of Anthony that popularized monasticism in the western empire

over the next three centuries.

26

christian monasticism: theology from the bottom upIV. Significant Monastic Figures

B. Basil of Caesarea (330-379 C.E.) | Bishop of Caesarea

Employed the cenobitic style but wanted to create a Christian/Platonists spiritual brotherhood.

“Do not cut off the contemplative life from society”. His monastic community combined family ties

with service to others outside the community. Established monasteries within cities as well as without.

The idea was to overthrow the evil in the world not escape from it, to make Christianity a social creed.

Characteristics:

C. Jerome (345-420 C.E.) | Biblical Scholar and Monk

Born in Dalmatia, he thought of himself as a Roman (Latin) Christian. Struggled with his love

for classical thinkers versus the Bible alone. Led an extreme ascetic movement among the aristocratic

class in Rome. Wrote biblical commentaries and translated the works of Origen.

Contributions to Western Monasticism:

1. The Vulgate

2. Against Jovian

27

christian monasticism: theology from the bottom upIV. Significant Monastic Figures

D. Benedict of Nursia (480-550 C.E.) | Bishop of Caesarea

Founded a monastery at Monte Cassino, Italy. The Benedictine (Black Monk) monastic tradition and rule

became the standard for western monasticism in the 9th century. Benedict was practical in his

approach to monasticism avoiding the extremes of asceticism and anchorite traditions. He wrote the

Benedictine rule – an organization rulebook for his monastery.

Offices/Hours of Monastic Community:

Psalm 119:164, 62 | “Seven times a day will I praise thee” and “I will awake at midnight

to confess thee”. The ancient world divided the day into 12 parts or hours from sunrise to sunset.

Lauds | Means “the praises” and is the church’s morning prayer at sunrise.

Prime|Means“thefirsthour”accordingtotheancientwayofdividingthedayandisrecited

at 7:00 am.

Terce, Sext, None | Latin for 3rd, 6th and 9th hours in the ancient way and refers to the “little hours”

of 9:00 am, noon and 3:00 pm.

Vespers | The church’s evening prayer recited at sunset.

Compline | Recited after sunset just before the monks retire for the night.

Matins|Themidnightofficeofprayer.

Lauds and Vespers are the most important hours of prayer as they begin and end each day as Opus Dei.

Later these seven hours were connected in verse to the last hours of Christ’s life:

At Matins bound, at Prime reviled, Condemned to death at Terce Nailed to the cross at Sext, at Nones His blessed side they pierce. They take Him down at Vesper-tide, In grace at Compline lay: Who thenceforth bids His Church observe Her Sevenfold hours always.

Characteristics:

Life ordered in three daily routines | Orare et laborare

1.

2.

3. lectio divina

28

christian monasticism: theology from the bottom upIV. Significant Monastic Figures

E. St. radegund (518-587 C.E.)

12 year old daughter of a Thuringian King kidnapped and married by the Frankish King Clothar I.

Clothar was a nominal Christian with seven wives and numerous concubines. Radegund was a Frankish

Queen when she converted to Catholicism and dedicated herself to the care of the poor and

the release of prisoners. She established a leper hospital. Eventually she left Clothar after he

murdered her brother and took the vows of a nun. She established her own monastery at Poitiers,

paid for by Clothar.

Characteristics:

29

30

early christianmissions

early christian missionsI. Early Centers of Christian Influence | 50-300 C.E. (See Maps 1, 2, 5 and 6)

A. Paul’s Missionary Journeys | Antioch and Jerusalem

ASIA MINOR: Cappadocia, Galatia, Asia, Bithynia

GREECE: Thrace, Macedonia, Achaia

ITALy: Rome

B. Expansion into North Africa

Through Alexandria, Egypt to Tunis and Algeria

C. Northern Europe

France (Gaul) and Britain (Roman/British Christianity and later Celtic Christianity)

II. Mission Strategy Shifts | 4th Century

Change in status of Christianity under Constantine opened Christian missions to Western Roman Empire.

Shift from Pauline strategy of establishing urban churches with the converts made by the public preaching

of the gospel to converting chieftains (kings) and thereby their followers.

Two Cultural Symbols: Tribe (Nation) and Chief (King)

The identity of the tribe was connected to the person of the chief as the symbolic head of the people.

The Chief or King was the one who brought order out of chaos and was the ideal of the tribal

(national) myth.

It could be argued that the Christian missionary efforts of the 4th-6th centuries saved the church and what

remained of Roman society from destruction when the western Roman Empire collapsed under Barbarian

invasions in the 5th century.

31

early christian missionsIII. Christianity Goes West | 300-600 C.E.

A. Gothic Tribes

Ufilas (311-383 C.E.) Cappadocian mother and Gothic father. Ordained bishop of the Goths in 341 C.E.

and spent 40 years traveling among the Gothic tribes. Translated the Bible into Goth and spread Arian

Christianity among the Goths. Goths remained Arian Christians until the 5th century.

Visigoths, Ostrogoths and Vandals were Arian Christians. They opposed Rome but honored the church.

B. Ireland | Celtic Christianity and Monasticism

St. Patrick (389-461 C.E.)

Background: Christianity was introduced to Roman Britain sometime in the 4th century

but it is not certain how.

Armagh: Headquarters for converting the local king. Patrick established Celtic Christianity with

an Episcopal form of government but not centered in the diocese but rather in the monastery where

the head was not the bishop but rather the abbot.

Characteristics:

•Monasteryasacenterforeducation

•GreenMartyrdom

•CreationasaSacrament

• Lessfocusonrulesmorefocusoncommunitylife

• Nocensorshiponlearning

• WanderingMonks–Peregrini pro Christo

• ReformofIrishculture

32

early christian missionsIII. Christianity Goes West | 300-600 C.E. C. Scotland and Celtic Monasticism

Columba (521-597 C.E.) | Apostle to Scotland

[Crimthann/fox; called Columcille/dove of the church; Romanized to Columba]

Background: Born to wealthy Irish family, he followed in the footsteps of Patrick becoming a monk

and established monasteries at Durrow and Kells in Ireland. Supposedly his love of books got him

in trouble. One account records that he fought a battle over a contested manuscript in which hundreds

were killed. As a result he was banished from Ireland in 563. Others say that he left Ireland to follow

the call of Christ to Scotland. For whatever reason, he left.

Scotland:

D. Anglo/Saxon England

Aiden (died 651 C.E.) & Cuthbert (634 - 687 C.E.) | lindisfarne (land by the Lindis)

Background: Aiden arrived from Iona in 635 C.E. with 12 other monks at the request of King Oswald

and they established their monastic community on Lindisfarne. From there they evangelized

the Anglo-Saxon population of Northumbria, introduced Celtic Christian traditions and established two

monasteries at Melrose and Jedburgh.

By 664 C.E., the struggle for ecclesiastical dominance between Lindisfarne (Celtic Tradition)

and Canterbury (Roman Tradition) had reached a head. At the Council of Whitby, called by King Osway,

the Celtic contingent was led by Bishop Colman of Lindisfarne and supported by Hilda, abbess of

the doublehouse at Whitby. The Roman delegation was represented by Bishop Wilfred of york.

After much debate over the dating of Easter and proper haircuts for monks, the Celtic contingent was

forced by King Osway to concede to the authority of Rome and adopt Roman practices.

Coleman’s Irish followers and 30 English monks left Lindisfarne for Iona rather than submit.

The leadership of Lindisfarne passed to Cuthbert, an Anglo-Saxon monk trained in the Celtic tradition

at Melrose.

Cuthbert led the monastic community with integrity and grace and assisted them in complete

compliance with the Roman rites. He was best known for his holy lifestyle and his desire to commune

with God as a hermit in the tradition of the Desert Fathers. The famous Lindisfarne Gospels,

dedicated to Cuthbert, were started in 687 C.E. and completed in 698 C.E.

33

34

st. augustine:a transitional figure

st. augustine: a transitional figureIntroduction (See Map 2) AugustineisatransitionalfigureinthathestoodatthatpivotalmomentwhentheRomanEmpireand

the classical world it represented were waning and the seeds of the soon to emerge medieval world were being

planted. Augustine’s Confessions tell us of the classical world that is dying and what will be lost. Augustine’s

thought and theology created the bridge that connected the classical and medieval worlds, a bridge that future

generations of thinkers were compelled to cross in order to dialogue with this North African bishop.

Both medieval scholasticism and 16th century Protestantism were indebted to the work of Augustine.

In fact this Bishop of Hippo’s collected works helped shape the psyche of western civilization from the time

after the fall of Rome to the Enlightenment.

In a sense Augustine’s Confessionswastheforerunnerofthemodernpsyche,thefirstpersontowriteas“I”.

He revealed the hidden inner life with all its complexity, wonders and duplicity.

I. Biography: Confessions | “Theology as Biography” • Born in 354 C.E. in Thagaste, North Africa

•Mother:Monica

•Father:Patricius

•SchooledinCarthageinclassicalstudies

•TaughtrhetoricinThagaste,CarthageandMilan

•Lifecharacterizedbyadesperatesearchfortruthabouthimself,God,theworldetc.

Tried several philosophies before converting to Christianity.

• Hismother,AmbroseofMilanandtheLife of St. Anthonyweremajorinfluences.

• Convertedatage32.

•Ordainedapriestin391C.E.,servedinmonasteryatHippoandwaselected

Bishop of Hippo in 395 C.E.

35

st. augustine: a transitional figureII. Theological Controversies A. Pelagianism (Soteriology)

Pelagius was a British monk trained in law. His concern was the moral laxity he found among Christians

and the widespread excuse for moral laxity being that they are not on the same level of spirituality

as monks or priests. The excuse was “I can’t help it, this is just he way I am”. Pelagius sought to

formulate an understanding of God’s law and salvation that placed moral responsibility on the

shoulders of the average Christian. God being just would not give us laws that we were not capable

offulfilling.Godwouldnotdemandanoughtthatwewerenotabletodo.Byputtingthepower

of moral/spiritual transformation back in the hands of people, Augustine asserted that Pelagius

undermined the biblical understanding of law and made Christ’s atonement an empty work.

1. Natural State of Humanity

Pelagius:

Augustine:

2. Fall

Pelagius:

[no need for infant baptism]

Augustine:

[need for infant baptism]

36

st. augustine: a transitional figureII. Theological Controversies A. Pelagianism (Soteriology)

3. Will

Pelagius:

Augustine: Two Conditions of the Will

•BeforetheFall,Posse non peccare

•AftertheFall,Non posse non peccare

4. Sin

Pelagius: We are sinners because we sin.

Augustine: We sin because we are sinners.

5. Grace

Pelagius: Grace is a natural endowment of will and intellect given to us by God in order for us

to obey God’s just laws.

Augustine: God must grant us grace that is outside of our own efforts because we are

non posse non peccare. We cannot will to love God on our own. Salvation is from beginning to end

a work of God’s grace.

37

st. augustine: a transitional figureII. Theological Controversies B. Donatism (Ecclesiology)

A schismatic movement in North Africa led by Bishop Donatus of Carthage. This group split from

the Catholic Church over the issue of purity and the implications of purity for the sacraments.

During the Diocletian persecution of the church some bishops and priests who renounced Christ

and turned over the scriptures to be burned. After the persecution some of these men were

reinstated. The Donatists objected to their reinstatement.

Issues:

1.

2.

3.

4.

Augustine’s Arguments:

1. Parable of the wheat and tares | There is no visibly pure church. There is a visible

and invisible church.

2. Difference between ex opere operato and ex opere operantis.

result:

Augustine supported the state’s persecution of the Donatists because to be schismatic was to be

a heretic. Donatism broke the unity of the church.

38

st. augustine: a transitional figureIII. Political Theory | The City of God Inthefirstdecadeofthe5thcentury,Romewasfailinginitsattemptstoholdbackthebarbarianinvasion.

The Vandals were in North Africa assaulting Carthage and other cities. Many were saying that Rome could

only be saved by returning to the old gods and old ways.

Augustine wrote the City of God to refute this pagan argument and to present his overarching

understanding of the role of history and human institutions in the larger plans and purposes of God.

Arguments | There are Two Cities

1. the City of Man

2. the City of God

TheloveofselfandthethingsoftheworldcharacterizedthefirstcityandtheloveofGod

characterized the second city. These two loves created two kinds of human society. Ultimately God

was working in and through history to bring about his plan of salvation using imperfect people

and institutions.

1. City of Man | Human Governments

Destined to fail because they were not eternal and were based upon and directed toward falsely

directed love, self not God. These institutions were capable of serving the purposes of order

andjusticetoalimiteddegreebutcouldneverfulfilltheplansofGod.Theycouldcontrol

the effects of sin but never eradicate it. They could only achieve relative peace and relative order

at best.

2. City of God | The Church

Not the embodiment of the City of God, but rather the anticipation of it because the church

was affected by sin and therefore was not perfect but was the society in which God’s grace was

atwork.Thechurchwastheshadowofaredeemedhumansocietythatwouldbethefinal

outcome of God’s purposes in salvation.

39

40

appendixes

appendix one | historical rules of thumb1. Actual history is simultaneous but we study it in fragments and therefore it is important to recognize

transition. Not this and then that, but rather, this to that.

2. Most of history is the history of the unintended.

3. Never beg the question by assuming that history is inevitable.

4. Historianswritehistory…becarefulaboutusingcategoriescreatedbyhistorianslike“DarkAges”.

There was no “Golden Age” in anybody’s history either, only the nostalgia about it.

5. While searching for the facts of history pay close attention to the sentiments and symbols that motivated

and shaped people’s world view.

6. Important Question: What was it possible for the people of a particular time to have believed?

Not what we wished they believed, or want them to believe.

Process for Historical Study: Always trying to move beyond description to analysis.

•Observations

•Questions

•Research

•Analysis

41

appendix twoapostles creed (late first, early second century)I believe in God, the Father Almighty,

the Maker of heaven and earth,

and in Jesus Christ, His only Son, our Lord:

Who was conceived by the Holy Ghost,

born of the virgin Mary,

suffered under Pontius Pilate,

was crucified, dead, and buried;

He descended into hell.

The third day He arose again from the dead;

He ascended into heaven,

and sits at the right hand of God the Father Almighty;

from thence He shall come to judge the quick and the dead.

I believe in the Holy Ghost;

the holy catholic church;

the communion of saints;

the forgiveness of sins;

the resurrection of the body;

and the life everlasting.

the nicene creed (374 C.E.)I believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of heaven and earth, and of all things visible and invisible.

And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only-begotten Son of God, begotten of the Father before all worlds;

God of God, Light of Light, very God of very God; begotten, not made, being of one substance with the Father,

by whom all things were made.

Who, for us men and for our salvation, came down from heaven, and was incarnate by the Holy Spirit

of the virgin Mary, and was made man; and was crucified also for us under Pontius Pilate; He suffered

and was buried; and the third day He rose again, according to the Scriptures; and ascended into heaven,

and sits on the right hand of the Father; and He shall come again, with glory, to judge the quick and the dead;

whose kingdom shall have no end.

And I believe in the Holy Ghost, the Lord and Giver of Life; who proceeds from the Father;

who with the Father and the Son together is worshipped and glorified; who spoke by the prophets.

And I believe in one holy catholic and apostolic Church. I acknowledge one baptism for the remission of sins;

and I look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world to come.

42

appendix three | trinity diagram

43

appendix four | timelines, part one

44

Destruction of Jerusalem

Death of PaulDeath of Stephen

Death of Jesus

20 40 600 80 100

Birth of Jesus

age of jesus and the apostles

Nero

MontanusMarcion

ConstantineDiocletianDecius

Clement ofAlexandria

CyprianIrenaeusPolycarpOrigenTertullianJustinIgnatius

150 200100 250 300

age of catholic christianity

Muritorian Canon

Trajan

Gnosticism Crisis

appendix five | timelines, part two

45

Justinian

Council of Chalcedon

300 400 500 600

BasilAthanasius Augustine

Jerome

Council of Nicea

Ambrose Leo BenedictGregorythe GreatAnthony

age of the christian roman empire

Sack of Rome Fall of RomeBaptism of ClovisConversion of Constantine

Theodosius

BonifaceAugustine to England

Charlemagne

Ulfilas

LombardsHuns

Fall of Rome Battle of Tours

Gregorythe Great

300 800700600500400

early middle agesEurope is Christianized

St. PatrickBaptism of Clovis

Conquerors of RomeGoths

Iconoclastic Controversy

46

maps

map one | eastern expansion of roman empire during the sixth century

47

map two | campaigns of marcus aurelius and the severan emperors

48

map three | roman empire of diocletian and constantine

49

50

map four | greece, the aegean, and western asia minor

51

map five | roman empire north and west in the “age of crisis”

52

map six | roman empire divided into prefectures and dioceses