early english literature course

7/28/2019 early English Literature course

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English Literature

Introductive course

The British Isles and their first inhabitants

It is very well known that the British Isles and their Western Continental positioning date back to prehistor

times. Actually, the Isles lay on a trait route which connected the Mediterranean Civilization and the NortRight along this sea-route, somewhere between 3000 and 2000 B.C. came the first inhabitants of the Britis

Isles, namely the Iberians. The Iberians were a small, dark, long-headed race belonging to the New Stone Ag

and they left their monuments in Cornwall, Ireland and along the coast of Wales and Scotland. Later on, aft

the year 2000 B.C. a new race of Alpine Stock related to the Iberians entered the country and inhabited thEast Coast. They were familiar with the use and working of bronze. This new race and the Iberians merg

and are likely to have built the Stonehenge complex somewhere by the year 1000 B.C. The next to popula

the British Isles were the Celts, a race of tall, fair-haired, war-like invaders. They entered Britain around 70

B.C., coming probably from the upper Germany and spreading as far abroad as Spain and Asia. They came Britain in 3 waves:

- the 1st - the Goidels- the 2nd - the Brithons

- the 3rd - the Belgae

They mingled with the Iberians and simultaneously imposed their tribal organization. At the same time, thclose relationship of Britain to Gaul caught the attention of the Romans and, as a consequence, there follow

2 invasions by Caesar in the years 55 and 54 B.C., invasions which were not conquests proper, as the actu

conquest of Britain began only in 43 A.D. The most serious opposition that the Romans encountered in th

South of Britain was the revolt of the Iceni led by Queen Boadicea (budik) in the year 60 A.D., which was temporary victory as the Romans struck back and defeated her army one year later. The Roman occupatio

lasted for nearly 400 years, precisely up to the year 407 which marks the departure of the Romans. After thathe Isles were left to the Celts again; besides them there were also the waves of Goth and Vandal invaderAlmost at the same time, the Scots and the Picts continuously attacked Britain. The Brithons asked for he

from the Continent and got it from the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes. They came in AD. 449 and the

never left again. This is probably one of the most important events in the history of England, event whimade it possible for the English History to exist. The Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes were Germanic trib

and together with their families and their determination in fighting for land they also brought on to the Briti

Isles their mythology. Indeed, the Anglo-Saxons were heathen. They populated their world with a lot

fantastic creatures who had to be responsible for everything their primitive mind couldn't find a convenieexplanation to.

Woden - the God of War - was their supreme deity

Thor - was the God of Thunder Freya - was the Goddess of Love and Fertility

Tiu - was the God of Darkness

The week days preserve in their names remnants of heathen beliefs. But the Gods were subject to the terribdecisions of the powerful Goddess of Fate - Wyrd (see Macbeth's witches).

A very important event after the Anglo-Saxons got settled was their conversion to Christianity, which beg

in the year 597 with Augustin coming from Rome. So they ceased to be heathen...

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The literature before the Anglo-Saxons

Just as anywhere else in the world, culture and, within culture, literature were the prerogative of priests. Th

Druids - this was the name of the priests - were a blend of wizards, priests, teachers and rune readers whrefused to disclose their knowledge to those who were not initiated. Other literary voices would be the bard

who used to celebrate in songs the feats of their clansmen. At first, they retold legends in prose, but later o

the most dramatic passages started to be cast in verses because this made them easier to remember and recitThe oldest literary records in literature belong to the Irish epic and they are 2 cycles of poetry:

- The Cycle of Ulster - having as a main hero Conchobar, who has an unusual prisoner, Cuchula

who is endowed with supernatural powers

- The Cycle of Munster - having as heroes Finn and his son Ossian, a singer These 2 cycles are worth mentioning and remembering as they lend their thematic component to much lat

remarkable English authors such as Oscar Wilde, G.B.Shaw, Robert Burns, Walter Scott, R.L.Stevenson.

After the year 407, when the Romans withdrew their troops by the Emperor Constantine, there is a period

almost complete blank of information. The only written record that survived was a literary work written bthe monk Gildas concerning the ruin of Britain.

The Anglo-Saxon literature

Most English poetry in the early Anglo-Saxon period is associated with 2 important facts: either the stori

are brought over by the invading tribes from their Germanic homes, or they show interest in Bible stories,

Christianity and Christian values. Because literature in that period was recorded in manuscript, t

preservation of documents was only a matter of chance. Our knowledge of Anglo-Saxon poetry depends ongroups of manuscripts:

- the manuscripts collected by Sir Robert Cotton, which now exist at the British Museum

- The Exeter Book, given to the Exeter Cathedral- The Vercelli Book, found near Milan in 1822

- the manuscripts which are now at Oxford in the Bodleian Library

The truth is that no poems can be traced back before the 13th century and, even then, most of what surviv

is religious verse because, being kept in monasteries, it had better chance of preservation.

The literary material contained in these 4 groups of manuscripts may be organised in 3 large categories:

- anonymous Old English Poetry- attributed Old English poetry

- Old English prose

1. Anonymous Old English poetry

Although recorded in the 9th and 10th centuries, the anonymous Old English poetry must have becomposed earlier or at least it motifs and themes must have been in circulation prior to its recording. Th

initial form of the poems is something we cannot be sure about, because the interpolators added what the

considered more suitable, including personal commentaries, heathen or Christian beliefs and sometimes mor

principles. Concerning the form of Anglo-Saxon poetry, we notice that there is no rhyme and a ve

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frequently used device is the syntactic parallelism, along with the use of various epithets.

This poetry falls into 4 main classes:

- didactic elegies: "The Wanderer" - a lament on the "ubi sunt" theme, a very popular theme lateon in Medieval and even later times; "The Seafarer", "The Rhyming Poem"

- lyrical poems: "The Wife's Lament" - a love poem and one of the very few Old English poem

where a woman is a main character; "The Husband's Message", "The Ruin", "Deor's Lament"- heroic legends: "Widsith" - poem that provides the historical foundations of Germanic hero

poetry; "Waldhere", "The Fight of Finnsburh", "Beowulf"

- historical songs: "The Battle of Brunanburh", "The Battle of Maldon"

"Beowulf" is the best known heroic legend and also the earliest surviving heroic poem in any moder

European language. The poem has come down to us in a single manuscript which was damaged and bad

destroyed during the fire in 1731 at the Cotton Library. Although the manuscript dates from the 10th centurthe poem was probably composed in the 8th century and deals with events from the 6th century, before th

migration of the Germanic tribes to Britain. The poem was composed and performed orally by the Englis

bards spending their time at the courts of kings. Beowulf's polished verse and reflective allusive developme

suggests that it is part of a rich poetic tradition. "Beowulf" contains 3182 verses organized into 43 par bearing Latin figures, this division being a random one since it doesn't follow the content but the number

parchment papers. In point of structure the poem is divided in 2 large sections connected by the omnipresemain hero, Beowulf. In the 1st part, young Beowulf fights with a monster and then with the monster's moth

and he succeeds in defeating and killing them both. In the second part, the old Beowulf, after a dignified reig

of over 50 years, dies in his last fight against a dragon which plagues his people.Literary features of Beowulf

The narrative is interrupted by several digressions such as various historical information, ceremon

descriptions, genealogies, elaborate speeches and heroic songs which reveal much about the world Beowu

lives in. Clearly, "Beowulf" is an epic of the heroic age which takes us back to Homer's Iliad and odysseThe ideals of the age were: grave courtesy towards men of rank, the generosity of the rulers, the loyalty of th

vassals, thirst for fame acquired by means of exploit, interest in genealogies and together with it pride in

noble heredity. Character treatment in "Beowulf" is very scarce. Even Beowulf is never properly presented aa modern character would be. Almost the same epithets (bold, wise) and metaphors (warrior famou

worthiest warrior) are applied to the main hero. But then this should be suggestive of the fact that legenda

heroes were quite familiar to the audience, they didn't really need much presentation as they mostly identifiethemselves by means of their exploits. In conclusion, we may state that the value of the poem consists in t

mixture of pagan elements and a few later Christian interpolations, a mixture that resulted into a particul

blend of heroic idealism and somber fatalism specific of Germanic peoples.

2. Attributed Old English poetry

In the year 597, a monk, actually a Catholic missionary, named Augustine was sent to Britain by PopGregory the Great in order to convert the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity. This event had a strong impact on th

literary productions of the time, whichclearly reflect this turn of consciousness from pagan to Christia

Therefore, the attributed Old English poetry is of Christian essence and it draws its major themes and motifrom the Bible.

Caedmon - the legend goes that an illiterate monk who had once been a cowherd had a marvelous dream

which he was urged to sing about the beginning of the created beings. The story follows that Caedmon to

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Hilda, who was an abbess, about the dream and she asked the monks to read passages from the Bible t

Caedmon so that he might compose verses. There are several religious poems dating from the 7th centu

which were attributed to Caedmon as their authors remain unknown. We refer to these poems as "tCaedmonian Cycle" and among these we shall quote: Daniel, Exodus, Judith. These 3 poems are versifie

accounts of the respective Biblical episodes.

Cynewulf - he lived at the turn of the 9th century and led a legendary life as he is said to have been

minstrel who turned to religion and became Bishop of Wincester. He is the only poet who signed his works b

means of acrostic, namely the runic letters of his name were woven in the lines of the poem. Christ, Elen(Eileen), the Fates of the Apostoles and Juliana are all signed in this way and they are also a testimony of

new style that Cynewulf created within Anglo-Saxon poetry, namely a versified record of the Saints' live

moving beyond Biblical paraphrase into the didactic and the mystical. "The Dream of the Rod" is al

attributed to Cynewulf and it is quite remarkable being among the oldest Anglo-Saxon poems which make uof the dream convention. The dreamer tells that he saw Christ's cross which uttered a story about its origin

the forest, its removal to be made a cross, its horror at its role and its determination to fulfill God's will.

3. Old English prose

Truth be told, the Old English prose does not bear comparison with the poetry of the same period, in th

way that most prose works were not meant to be read as literature but rather as prose of utility. This does nmean however that later English works could not draw their substance from these early beginnings. It is als

important to mention that a great part of the prose writings were composed in Latin or sometimes le

successfully translated from Latin.

Aldhelm - he was a Bishop of Sherborne and one of the most learned men in Europe at the time and h

prose ("Riddles", "Letters") is written in an elaborate style, in an ornate Latin.

Venerable Bede (Beda) - is the most preeminent personality of his time. His life was humble but he enjoye

an outstanding greatness of mind. He was brought up in a monastery and he spent the years of maturity in th

library of the monastery where he acquired an immense volume of knowledge in various fields: grammamusic, theology, history, mathematics, astronomy, physics, versification and rhetoric. Bede wrote in Latin

various religious themes, commenting on the scriptures and the lives of the saints. He wrote an encycloped

of sciences called "De Natura Rerum" but his masterpiece is "Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum" (Th

Ecclesiastical History of the English People). Bede provides an account of the history of the church England, but besides that, this is the first reliable account on historical events starting with Julius Caesar

attacks on Britain. Sometimes legend mixes with history but this does not harm the account. Bede is the fir

who wrote about Caedmon's legendary biography. He also translated the Gospel of Saint John into AnglSaxon and there is also a reference of a poem by him written in his Northumbrian vernacular. Having enjoye

a special training in grammar and rhetoric, his sentences show logical composition and a style marked b

clarity and immediacy.

Alfred the Great - he is one of the truly great figures in English history. He was a soldier, strategist, schola

educator and state administrator. It seems that the hard times he was living in urged him to do a vast savin

and illuminating work for his people. He became a king very young (22), he succeeded in defeating th

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Danes, providing thus quite a secure climate for civilizing through education. Thus, he gathered some learn

men at his port and he set up schools for his people. Himself he committed to writing. Much of his work

translation, but he was still a guiding spirit. He collected religious maxims in his "Hanboc" which translated then from Latin into Anglo-Saxon. He is also famous for the "Code of Laws". He is the first perso

in history who sensed that it is not ideal to translate word for word but rather meaning for meaning. In order

give a manual of moral and cultural instruction to the clergy, Alfred translated the "Pastoral Care" of PopGregory the Great.

Previous records of the most important historical events had been kept at various monasteries. It w

Alfred's idea to bring all dates into a chronicle which was to become a valuable document. "The Anglo-SaxoChronicle" was written by various men. There were several manuscripts kept in different locations, 7 of the

reached our days and they were conventionally marked with the first 7 capital letters of the alphabet; the fir

entries are short and matter of fact (objective). They record facts as far back as Julius Caesar's attack on t

Welsh. The manuscripts continue after Alfred's death , one of them introducing the last entry in the year 115when Henry the 2nd ascended the throne. These manuscripts mark a great improvement in style in the 11

century. "The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" is not only a valuable historical document but also a remarkable pro

work as well, rising from utilitarian to literary work. Besides dramatic descriptions, it includes legends lik

the story of Cynewulf and also war songs and popular songs like the one about William the Conquerorgreed. It is also important that except for the Irish chronicles and one other chronicle in Russia, the Angl

Saxon Chronicle is the only one written in vernacular (popular dialect). This chronicle also contains evolutioof the English language from Old to Middle English. After Alfred's death, much of his work was ruined by t

Danish invaders, but cultural life was revived by the work of several church men of whom two stand apar

AElfric and Wulfstan.

AElfric - was a pupil of the monastery school at Winchester and later became a teacher in an Abbey. He w

a fine scholar with knowledge in rhetoric. Following Cicero's ideas in his "De oratore", AElfric believed tothat the 3 functions of any piece of writing were:

- teaching - docere

- giving pleasure - delectare- moving the feelings - movere

AElfric made good use of his knowledge is rhetoric by writing both for uneducated and for learned peopl

addressing them in their appropriate manner. As for any learner or any scholar, Latin was for AElfric thlanguage of the learned but his primary urge was that of a teacher and that is why he wrote in the language

the people, to be understood by them in order to reach his purpose of instructing the. He wrote 2 books

Homilies, each with 40 sermons translated from Latin but in free interpretation. The language of the sermon

is not bookish (livresc) so it could be understood by everybody. Then he translated the Saints' Liveconcentrating on themes which could be easily narrated. Despite his use of literary devices belonging to O

English Poetry (alliteration and antithesis) he is the first writer to have consciously achieved a sufficient sk

in literary prose style. As mentioned before, he was primarily a teacher and this is why he wrote a grammfollowed by a Latin-English vocabulary, attempting thus to extend common knowledge in both languages.

Very interesting is also his manual for the study of the Latin language composed as a set of simple dialogu

(between a teacher and a monk, a teacher and a shepherd, a teacher and a ploughman, a teacher andfisherman) are of interest for us today, because of the vivid details they offer on the daily life at the tim

However, for AElfric these dialogues were means to a very important end, namely the teaching of the Lat

language to boys in a monastic school.

AElfric is also remembered for translating the first seven books of the Old Testament in carefully balance

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sentences marked by Germanic rhythm. Although his work is mainly ecclesiastical in conception an

achievement, we certainly say that he is the first to have consciously written prose.

Wulfstan – He was AElfric’s friend and also Archbishop of York. For AElfric he wrote some of his Pastor

Letters. He also tried to write Homilies, but he couldn’t surpass his friend in skill. His most famous piece

writing is the Sermon to the English delivered in 1014. In point of language, Wulfstan uses alliteration an parallelism but his writings have indeed a lively force and passionate eloquence. He truly announced the en

of his world, that of the Anglo-Saxons, and yes, a new world was to emerge after, the Middle Ages.

Medieval English Literature

1. Historical considerations

At the end of the 10 th century, the Danish invasions became organized on a curious economic basis – th

Danegeld – namely a demand for payment as a condition for withdrawal. In the year 1018 Canute (a.k.

Cnut) became king of England but also of Norway and Denmark. So everything looked as if England were fall under Scandinavian influence. However, because of the fact that the social structure of the Scandinavi

peoples was still tribal and consequently inadequate to form the basis of an Empire, and also because tnewly obtained unity relied too much on one person, when Cnut died the Old English line was restore

Edward the Confessor who followed to the throne had grown up in Normandy and this is the way the Norma

influence started to penetrate the island. When Edward died, the family of Godwin were able to take controver England and Harold, the eldest son of Godwin, became a king. However, William the Duke

Normandy also claimed the crown and thus everything ended up in the famous battle of Hastings (106

fought in Octobre. William was proclaimed king and he was crowned at Westminster. Within only a fe

years, the whole land of the country was in the hands of William the Conqueror, point at which we can assethat feudalism is fully established in England.

What happened in the years to follow was that, in point of language, after the Norman Conquest, the Anglo

Saxon continued to be the language of the conquered people. French was the language of the privilegeconquerors and Latin was the language of church and of many literary productions. Soon enough, Fren

affected English in point of sound, pronunciation of words, but also in point of grammatical structure. Thu

many endings started to sound alike – leveling process. As far as vocabulary is concerned, the basic wostock (fundamental) vas little affected, while synonymy flourished. Thus the Germanic and the Norman term

coexisted (to desire – to wish , to begin – to commence).

Anyway, starting with the Norman Conquest, the process of Old English developing into what is calle

Middle English began too and ended in the 15th century, when the Renaissance began.

A. Anglo-Norman Literature (1100-1340)

Generally speaking, the written literature of the time was aristocratic in character and very much influenc

by the Medieval poetry of the trouveres ( trubaduri). This contrast interests can be seen in the treatment courtly love and also of women who, this time, played the central part.

The literature of this period is represented by two major genres: poetry and prose, plus a hybrid species th

is verse narrative.

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A.1. Anglo-Norman Poetry

In its turn, this can be subdivided into: attributed, anonymous and popular poetry.

A.1.1. Attributed Anglo-Norman Poetry

- “Brut” – this is a translation in verse form of a chronicle called “Historia Regnum Britanniae” bMonmouth. This piece of work had been first translated from Latin into Anglo-Norman and it was calle

“Romain de Brut”. The translator (Wace) included in his translations a few Arthurian stories coming fro

different sources. Round the year 1200, a priest translated “Romain de Brut” into English but he didn preserve the initial prose from. By means of this translation appeared within the English language the fir

Arthurian legends.

- “Ormulum” by Orm – poem written by a monk around the year 1200 and intended as a translation in

English verse of the gospels read in the Mass during the whole year.

A.1.2. Anonymous Anglo-Norman Poetry

- “Poema Morale” – a religious didactic poem which represents a step further from the popular balla by being a versified rhymed poem.

- ‘Cursor Mundi” –a poem of about 30.000 lines, written for didactic purposes and retelling in verform some of the most significant stories of the Bible as well as other moral and religious tales.

- “The Owl and the Nightingale” – is worth mentioning as it introduces a new literary species broug

over from the Continent and called the literary debate (allegory). It is an allegorical poem displayinthematically a series of opposition: new vs. old, contemplative vs. active life, austerity vs. hedonism

A.1.3. Popular Anglo-Norman Poetry

- “The Cuckoo Song” – having a popular theme, that is the joy of spring’s returne.

- “The Song of the Husbandman” – belongs to a different type of lyrics, namely the social satire.

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…..up to the 14th century, the Old English Verse Narrative,

which gradually got replaced by the Verse Romance, transition which can be first seen in the French wor“Chanson de Roland”, a French heroic poem but also an early romance.

Very much resembling this special sort of poem, the English have “The Battle of Brunanburh” and “Th

Battle of Maldon”. From France, more exactly from Provence, a new literary form, the lyric poetry wdeveloped by the so-called “troubadours”. It was a special kind of poetry, a romantic one, combini

adventure with sentiment, this combination becoming later on a convention, namely the courtly lo

convention. The conception of courtly love was a conventionalization of the attitude of the high-placed feudservant to his lord’s wife.

A very popular French romancer in the 12 th century was Chretien de Troyes, who specialized in t

psychology of courtly-love. His only romance translated into English was “Iwain and Gawain”, a story abo

two of King Arthur’s knights. Actually, the Arthurian stories developed tremendously, the whole subjemater centering around the following main themes: Arthur’s life, the lives of Lancelot and Gawain, the Ho

Grail and the Percival legend, the story of Tristram and Iseult, a story which is older than the Arthurian cyc

but was attached to it.

A. 2.2. The Allegorical Romance

This literary species imposed itself throughout Europe by means of the famous “Le Roman de le Rose”,

literary piece written in the 13th century. Its first part was written by Guillaume de Lorris and its second pa

by Jean de Meung. This work was partly translated in English by Chaucer. Another highly accomplishallegorical romance is “The Pearl”, wriiten in rhyme and alliteration and making use of the Drea

convention. Thematically it belongs to religious poetry.

A. 3. The Anglo-Norman Prose

A. 3. 1. The Chroniclers

- William of Malmesbury – Gesta Rerum Anglorum

- Matthew Paris – Chronica Majora

- Walter Map – De Nugis Curialium (Of Courtiers’ Trifles)- Geoffrey of Monmouth – Historia Regnum Britanniae

A. 3. 2. The Religious Prose

- The Katherine Group – which describes the lives of saints Katherine, Margaret and Julianna

- The Ancren Riwle (The Anchoresses’ Rule) – a piece of work sprinkled with proverbs and realist

details

A. 3. 3. The Philosophical Prose

During the Middle Ages philosophical thinking was the prerogative of clergymen. The major philosophic

dispute was between the nominalists and the realists. The nominalists upheld that universals had no existen

beyond our minds since names were no more than signs of out thoughts. The realists, on the other han

supported the idea that universals had a reality independent of our minds and were prior to individuals or th

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behind of only Wat Tyler and his companions, all the rebels were ruthlessly destroyed and punishin

expeditions swept out Kent and Essex. These peasants’ risings in 1381 had a great impact on the poet

productions at the time. Several pieces of work deriving their subject matter from the events of the uprisinare: “The Land of Cockaygne”, “Vox Clamantis”, “The Vision of William concerning Piers the Plowman”.

We may say that out of this agitated 2nd half of the 14th century, the English |Literature extracted its ve

essence, literally laying its foundations. The genres of the medieval literature enjoyed high artistic expressioin the creations of writers who announced the English Renaissance.

C. 1. The 14th Century Poetry

- The Land of Cockaygne – is the account of a joyous life lived in plenty in a utopist land, a land th

appears in the dreams of a hard-working peasant. We may assume that Wat Tyler’s men cherishdreams of at least a decent life on their own land while merrily reciting the verses of this poem.

- John Gower – was a rich land owner from Kent. He had been carefully educated in mediev

theology, but he also had some ideas about the new humanistic culture of Italy. He wrote his poem

in all the 3 languages in use at his time: English, French and Latin.- Mirror de l’Homme – was written in Middle French and it is a versified sermon of about 30.0

lines on virtues, vices and repentance.- Vox Clamantis – it is an eye-witness account of the Peasants’ Risings. The peasants had burn

down his property in Kent and Gower himself narrowly escaped their fury. In his poem he paralle

the peasants to mad animals. In analyzing the causes that lead to the uprising, he says that the clergthe lords and the peasants were all sinners.

- Confesio Amantis – written in English – didactic, allegorical poem in the form of a dialog

between the poet and Genius (the priest of Venus) on Love that inevitably leads to the 7 sins of Ma

- William Langland – is assumed to be the author of “The Vision of William concerning Piers tPlowman” – also allegorical poem. It makes use of the medieval convention of visions and it is

fact a series of allegories, the characters representing not people but abstract notions like Trut

Vice, Conscious, etc. The topic of the poem is as follows: during his sleep, the poet sees a field fuof people (or so it seems). The 7 deadly sins (Pride, Luxury, Envy, Wrath, Avarice, Gluttony, Sloth

are being convinced to repent by Reason. They start to journey in search of Truth, but they don

know the way. It is at this moment that Piers the Plowman first appears on the scene. He symbolizthe common man who knows that Truth lies in his work. Piers promises them that he will guide the

to Truth, but only after he has finished working his land. All the characters start to help him, an

those who do not are disciplined by Hunger. Truth tries to excuse all the characters in front of Pier

telling him at the same time that those who do well shall find salvation and those who do evil shanot. The poet wakes up, because of the argument that follows and he remarks that actually the goo

deeds are the way to Truth.

B. 2. The 14th Century Prose

- Sir John Mnadeville – “The Voyages and travels of Syr John Mandeville” – this was a piece thenjoyed great popularity in the Middle Ages. It is sometimes sad that the author never existed, an

the book was only a translation from French Literature. The narrative takes the reader far away fro

England to Greece, Turkey, Cyprus, Babylon, Jerusalem, India, etc. It is a very interesting pro

because it mixes mockery with reality so that it can distinguish between educated and non-educat

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readers.

C. 3. The Chivalrous Romance

- Sir Gawain and the Green Knight – is a poem of about 2500 lines which was found in Sir Robe

Cotton’s library together with other pieces of writing. We still do not know for sure its author, butis written in Chaucer’s style. The poem interests us by its way of treating an Arthurian story and b

the way in which the Chivalrous Romance attains here its highest status because afterwards it begin

to decay. Gawain is the main hero and he is an exponent of knightly virtue, courage and curtsy, all which will be lost in the next stage of social development. We encounter in this poem typic

motives of knightly romance such as: exploits, honor, love, miraculous happenings and witchcra

The poem had a symmetrical structure which is mainly based on contrast and this is why we mig

say that it also touches allegory.

GEOFFREY CHAUCER (?1340-1400)

- pure English language (of the people)- realistic, ironic description of the age

- photographer of realityHe is the first poet whose name rightfully asserts one of the highest positions in English literature. He was th

promoter of realistic humanism, the artisan of the English literary language and the creator of a new ver

form which was decisive for the development of English Poetry. His natural genius and the circumstances his life joined together to the success of this poet. He was born around 1340 in a rich family with connection

to the Court. He studied at Cambridge and Oxford and because he was a handsome and accomplished ma

his father was able to find him a position as page to Elizabeth, the wife of the Duke of Clarence (he was t

son of the king). Chaucer was also favored by another protector, the Duke of Lancaster, another son of thking (Edward III). In the year 1359 Chaucer took part in a military expedition of the Hundred Years’ W

against France and he was taken prisoner. Soon enough he was released as the king paid the ransom. In 136

he became a valet for the king’s chamber and he married one of the Queen’s maids. During the followinyears, he was sent as an ambassador on diplomatic missions, mainly to Italy. There he got acquainted with th

works of Dante, Boccaccio and he even met Petrarc. Back in England, he occupied various administrativ

positions. Due to the torments at the political level at the time, the house of Lancaster lost position anChaucer himself was also dismissed. This was the time when he wrote a lot. When the house of Lancaster w

restored, he got his position back and in 1394 he was granted an annual rate of 20 pounds and a barrel

wine. In 1399 things changed politically but to Chaucer’s advantage. However, he was very old so he boug

a house at Westminster, where he soon died. He is buried at Westminster Abbey in what we know today “The Poets’ Corner”. His knowledge covered numerous fields: history, mythology, literature, astrolog

astronomy, medicine, theology and philosophy. He read a lot, mainly from Latin literature and thus he al

believed like Bacon that experience and authority are the two main sources of knowledge and understandinHis literary career is conventionally divided into 3 main periods:

1. The French period

2. The Italian period3. The English period

1. The French Period – lasting up to 1372

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As any educated man of his time, Chaucer spoke French as well as English. The French poetry at the time

marked by an emphasis on form rather than on content, so Chaucer’s works now are in this spirit. He write

during this period a series of “complaints” and also he partially translates “Le Roman de le Rose”. In thtranslation the reader may trace the shift from courtly to bourgeois tradition. All the conventions are ther

courtly love, dream allegory, the garden convention and the rose. During the same period he wrote at th

request of the court a poem of circumstance, namely “The Book of the Duchess”. It is an elegy written whethe wife of the Duke died and it is marked by the same allegory convention. This first period only served

shape a literary language and the forms of poetry which will later be accomplished.

2. The Italian Period (1372-1384)

In 1372, Chaucer visited Genova, Tisa and Florence and then Milan. Dante had died 50 years before but h

spirit was still alive and Chaucer could learn from him what real poetry was all about. From Boccaccio, hlearned the art of story telling and from Petrarc, whom he met for certain, he learned how to polish his sen

of form. In 1372, he wrote “The Parliament of Fowls”. Although he made use of allegory and the drea

convention, he enriched the poem with personal observations on human nature. The poem consists of th

argument between the noble and the plain birds, which stands for the two attitudes towards love: on the onhand, courtly love, and on the other hand, the kind of love we find in fabliaus. Because both types of love a

treated by Chaucer with irony we may assumed that he favored neither of the two.- “The House of Fame” – 3 parts, the last part being unfinished. This writing shows great influen

from Dante.

- “Troylus and Cryseide” – marks a new step in Chaucer’s artistry, announcing him as a master character drawing. It is the first great realistic work of Chaucer, which was a traditional romant

theme within the chivalrous romance but which modifies its very essence.

- “The Legend of Good Women” – returns to allegory and it is inspired by Ovid, Vergil an

Boccaccio. This is the first poem written in “Heroic couplets”, which will be later used “Canterbury Tales”.

3. The English Period (1384-1400)

After experimenting with the language and the verse form in the French manner and after assimilating thnotions of humanism and realism from the works of Italian writers, Chaucer reached his literary maturity an

was ready to write his masterpiece: “The Canterbury Tales”. He started from a highly credible literary pretex

that of the yearly pilgrimage to the tomb of Thomas-a-Backett, this being one of the rare occasions in whic

people of different class and position were naturally brought together. The author carefully planned tconstruction of his work. Thus, we are introduced to the theme, setting, time and characters by a prologu

The 29 pilgrims, the author included, start from the Tabard Inn and, in order not to get bored on their way

the tomb, the inn-keeper, whose name is Harry Bailey, suggests that each pilgrim should tell two stories otheir way back on the promise that the best story-teller will get a good dinner on the others’ expense at the

turn. According to this proposal, approximately 120 stories should have been told, but Chaucer never got

finish his work and only wrote 24 stories, with 4 being unfinished. Actually they are unfinished either becauthe author didn’t get to finish them, of because the inn-keeper interrupted them for being too unbecomin

Chaucer did not invent himself the story within the frame device, which may be traced back to Egypt an

India, even many centuries before Christ. Chaucer had used this device in “The Legend of Good Women” to

He didn’t invent one of the 24 stories, the sources varying from the Bible and the works of classical authors

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century, they were known in the14th century and popular in the 15 th, while the 16th and 17th centuries record

none.

Constant features of ballads are:- anonymous, oral, collective, short.

- they have a narrative kernel that subordinates them to the epic genre. T

- the story evolves towards a climax- there is always a dialogue which provides the dramatic character of the ballad.

- it deals with primal emotions, vital human problems and relations

- the vocabulary is simple- nature is always a background and a ballad almost always contains gnomic verses (proverbs).

According to their motifs and themes, ballads can be:

1. of domestic relations – dealing with elopements, husbands who are exiled, brothers ans siste

quarrelling, cruel step-mothers or mothers-in-law, faithless servants, etc. Examples: “CleSaunders”, “Cruel Brother”, “Cruel Mother”, “The Douglas Tragedy”

2. of love and death – “Glasgerion”, “Childe Waters”

3. historical – describing the wars between England and Scotland before their union. Ex.: “Gude

“Wallace”, “Chevy Chase”4. of superstition – where the main character is subjected to tests and quests like in Mediev

Romances. Thus on his way he encounters fairy-lands, witches, elves, all of them helping him bwitchcraft. Ex.: “Thomas the Rhymer”, “Clerk Saunders”

5. of outlawry – (haiducie) – of these, those centered around the figure of Robin Hood are the be

known. The Robin Hood ballads must have been composed before the 15 th century, because threflect the people’s fight against the feudal, Norman conquerors. The hero is a yeo-m

(razes)namely a class hero and not a historical figure and there is no evidence if he ever existed.

14 ballads survive in manuscripts and are dated before 1600. Around the year 1400, the “Geste of Rob

Hood” was compiled, this being a poem which attempted at bringing the entire Robin Hood materitogether.

.1. 2. The Medieval Drama

- the mysteries – they were liturgical drama based on stories from the Bible, which developed inseveral series of connected dialogue divided into acts and scenes and starting with the Creation whi

ending with the Doom’s Day. We have 5 cycles of mysteries:

1. the Cornish cycle

2. the York cycle3. the Wakefield cycle

4. the Coventry cycle

5. the Chester cycleOut of these, only the Cornish cycle is written in the dialect of the people in Cornwall while the other

are written in standard Middle English.

- the miracles – deal with the lives and deeds of Christian Saints and martyrs, for ex. Saint GeorgePassion, Mary Magdalene’s Passion

- the moralities – unlike the miracles which developed from the Biblical stories read in church, t

moralities developed from the pulpit sermon (predica de amvon). They retain the didactic charact

of the sermon. The characters were personified abstractions, virtues and vices fighting for the huma

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soul. The most popular 15th century moralities was “Everyman”, which was printed in 1529. It ha

been composed in the previous century and it was of Dutch origin. What happens is that God ca

Death and sends it to take away the Man. When Man encounters Death, he tries to get rid of it and cries and begs for mercy. Death agrees to leave and come back in 12 years time, allowing Man

find a companion ready to join him when Death comes. Consequently, Man asks Fellowshi

Beauty, Strength, Knowledge, Discretion (bagare de seama, precautie), Good Deeds and 5 Wi(senses) to accompany him but all refuse, except Knowledge which stands by every man till the la

moment and Good Deeds, which follows him beyond the grave. “Everyman” is important because

provides a resourceful motif for future works as Candide – Voltaire or Eugen Ionescu’s “The KingDying”.

- the interludes – they were comic plays or farces related in content to fabliaus, which often provid

their source of inspiration. The characters were townspeople, peasants, priests who cursed ea

other, quarreled and fought on the scene amusing the audience. The interludes contained elements social realism, being closer to reality that the moralities. Actually the comedy of manner (moravur

extracts its essence in the interludes.

2. The 15th Century Cultivated Literature

Sir Thomas Malory (1395-1471) – was a nobleman who, among others, participated in the Hundred Year

War ending the War of the Roses. He belonged to the house of the Duke of Warwick and represented hcounty in Parliament. He lived during an insecure period when kings were made and killed so it is no wond

that he was imprisoned without reason and during his 20 years of detention he wrote his only work, Mor

D’Arthur, which he finished one year before his death. This is the first English novel written in prose. Malor

collected the chivalrous romances of the Arthurian cycle in a single book which became thus the equivalent an entire library. Out of dispersed romances, he created a story centered upon the figure of the legendary kin

Arthur. Being discontented with the crisis undergone by his contemporary society, he turned to the pa

idealizing it. His work is an elegy mourning over the decay of knighthood. In 1485, William Caxton chothis novel for printing, a fact which emphasizes the idea that the novel interested the contemporary society.

The printing in England

Although the nobility was involved in endless wars and the merchants were busy consolidating the

economic power, both merchants and nobility were far more literate than their ancestors had been. The clergwere content with copying manuscripts because they were not interested in producing books for a larg

reading public.

In 1455, in Mainz, Johann Guttenberg published the Bible, the first printing in the history of Europeculture. In 1471 while visiting Cow, William Caxton, who was the administrator of an English commerci

association, saw for the first time a printing press. In 1474 he printed several not so important works and

1476 when he returned from Flanders he set his own printing press in Westminster Abbey. In 1478 he printeChaucer’s Canterbury Tales and The Parliament Of Fowls and in 1485 Malory’s Morte D’Arthur. Only

copies of this edition have been preserved till nowadays. Caxton died in 1491, but he had succeeded

printing 80 books during a very short period of time. Naturally, the first books printed by him in England we

mainly of a leisure type, to fill the needs of his reading audience. His later endeavor proved of paramou

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importance. He opened a way which since his time has been standing large and free for books to get to the

readers in order to divert, instruct and refine.

The Elizabethan Drama (1563-1642)

In England, the conflict between the native and the Roman drama resulted in the triumph of the formunlike in France. What the Elizabethans took over from the Roman drama was the practice of dividing the

plays into 5 acts, several themes and a better sense of form. The classical influence brought a new conceptio

of the difference between tragedy and comedy. It actually helped to raise the level of comic dialogue an

comic situation above that of the interlude. Among the most frequently used themes was the Roman theme omistaken identity, taken over from Plautus.

The first figure of importance in Elizabethan drama is John Lily. His novel, “Euphues and the Anatomy

Wit” – followed by its sequel “Euphues and his England” – contributed with a new feeling for the beauty

language and influenced even the speech of the court (Euphuistic style). William Shakespeare, in his fir period of creations particularly “Love’s Labour’s Lost” used Lily’s artificial and extravagant style. All in a

Lily wrote 8 plays, greatly affected by Latin drama. These plays are permeated with songs designed for cho boys who acted in Lily’s plays. Most of Lily’s followers, Shakespeare included, imitated his example an

wrote lyrics for their plays.

In 1576, James Burbage built the first English playhouse called The Theatre. All the companies professional actors began at that moment to settle down in permanent theaters which were now built ju

outside the walls of London. Consequently, with regular theatres and professional actors eager to play the

came a number of university men who wrote for the stage. We call them “The University Wits”.

1. Thomas Kyd – a very important playwright of whose life little is known. He cultivated a popular type

melodrama filled with revenge, insanity, blood-shed, also known as the “tragedy of blood”. This type

tragedy was actually inspired by Seneca. His plays are mainly a succession of high speeches, designed not be read, but to be spoken aloud by elocutionists His masterpiece is “The Spanish Tragedy’, one of the mo

popular in Elizabethan Age (1590). “The Spanish Tragedy” was filled with blood-shed and the audience we

quite fond of watching such scenes on the stage. In point of plot, it strikingly resembles “Hamlet” and Kyd usually accredited with writing the lost early version on which Shakespeare’s tragedy is based. The Traged

of Blood usually shows the ghost of a murdered man asking for revenge. At the end of the play virtually a

the main characters are killed. Two other plays belonging to Shakespeare resemble the Tragedy of Bloo

“Julius Caesar” and “Titus Andronicus”.

2. George Peele – a better poet than a dramatist, and this is how he managed to infuse lyric beauty into

plays. The subject of “David and Bethsabe” recalls the material in miracle plays, but the spirit of the play half pagan. “The Old Wives’ Tale”, which anticipated such comedies as “A Midsummer Night’s Dream

actually looks like a nursery tale.

3. Robert Greene – he may be regarded the founder of romantic comedies, a genre in which Shakespea

excelled. Greene knew Shakespeare and was extremely jealous of him. In his plays, Greene used many pastor

themes, which he had used before in prose romances. His best known plays are: “Friar Bacon and Fri

Bungay” and a history play called “The Scottish History of James IV”. Apparently, Greene was the first

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employ the Elizabethan motif of a woman who, disguised as a page, runs to the forest to avoid some kind

persecution. These parts of women were played by men however.

4. Christopher Marlowe – was the ablest of the university wits. He was born in the same year

Shakespeare (1564) and he was the son of a shoe-maker, but a rich man at the time observed the boy’s unusu

ability with words and sent him to Cambridge where he graduated at the age of 19. Unfortunately, he was killein a tavern fight in 1593, at 29. His first play, “Tamburlaine”, in 2 parts, was produced with great success

1587. This play marked a great advance over anything that had been previously written in English, both in poi

of literary quality and in dramatic effectiveness. With “Tamburlaine” (who was an Asian soldier, contemporawith Chaucer), Marlowe introduced to the stage a typical Elizabethan hero. Marlowe’s second play, “Doct

Faustus” is still one of the most powerful of the Elizabethan tragedies and a worthy anticipation of Goethe

Faust. In general, the leading figures in Marlowe’s plays embody the lust for power in some form. Thu

Tamburlaine desires to conquer the world, Faustus sells his soul to the devil for a life of power and pleasurBarabas in “The Jew of Malta” embodies the love of money. However, Marlowe also wrote a play, name

“Edward II” which brings to the front the opposite type of character, namely a weak king. This play influence

Shakespeare’s “Richard II”. With his entire work, Marlowe raised two dramatic types: tragedy and history to

high level and paved the way for such plays as Shakespeare’s “Macbeth” and “Henry IV”.

5. Ben Jonson – 1573-1637 – was one of the most learned men of his days. A classicist in essence, he triewith little success, to give the drama definite literary aims and standards. Jonson was however a classicist rath

by temperament than according to his reverence for antiquity. In his “Discoveries” he wrote: “Nothing is mo

ridiculous than to make an author a dictator, as the schools have done with Aristotle… Let Aristotle and othehave their dues; but if we can make further discoveries of truth and fitness (appropriacy) than they, why are w

envied.” Finally, Jonson observed the classical rule of unities but he did not limit his actions to one plot as ca

be seen in ”Volpone”. Jonson also wrote 2 classical tragedies: “Sejanus” and “Catiline”, which unfortunate

were failures on the stage because while Shakespeare treated Romans as Elizabethans, Jonson tried hard picture them as they really were. Jonson’s best work was done in comedy where he proved his facades of real

and satirist. In his first important comedy “Every man in his humor” – 1598 – (a play in which Shakespear

played) he confessed his intentions of correcting the manners and morals of his contemporaries. In the sequel this play – Every man out of his humor – Johnson defines humor, which actually means predisposition an

confessed that he intended to exaggerate some of the characteristics of some of his characters in order to mak

them look ridiculous and correct some social faults. Jonson’s comedies of manner are very different froShakespeare’s romantic comedies but they bear some resemblance to the “Falstaff” scenes in Henry IV.

6. Beaumont and Fletcher – Francis Beaumont and John Fletcher are the most famous drama

collaborators of all times. Both were accomplished poets and skillful playwrights. Their plays have gretechnical merits and effective scenes, but they lack consistent characterization. They both sacrificed truth an

consistency (consecventa) for the sake of immediate effectiveness. In their plays we see the first signs of th

decay of the Elizabethan drama. “Philaster” and “The Maid’s Tragedy” set a new dramatic fashion, that of tdramatic romance. It has been noted that Beaumont and Fletcher’s plays resembled the plays of Shakespeare

final moments of creation. It may well be that watching their popularity Shakespeare was tempted to abando

tragedy and adopt comedy.

William Shakespeare

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………………………………………………………….

When he arrived in London he became an actor in the company of James Burbage, the man who had createthe theatre. Shakespeare remained with the company even when the theatre was torn down and rebuilt as th

famous “The Globe”. Shakespeare was also a skilled business man and he invested the money he earned in re

estate in Stratford. At the time of his death he owned the best house in town, which was considerable. Hfortune was partly derived from writing, partly from acting and partly from the shares which he owned in th

Globe. As an actor he was not as great as Moliere for instance, and we may infer this from the minor parts w

know he played: Adam (As you like it), the Ghost (Hamlet) and in Johnson’s Every man in his humor. H

experience as an actor must have taught him the secrets of the theatre as nothing else could have done. Thdates both of composition and of production of Shakespeare’s plays are often uncertain. Less than half of h

plays were printed during his lifetime and most of these were printed without his approval. Two friends

Shakespeare: Heminge and Condell published his plays after his death in 1623 and this volume is known

“The First Folio”.

Shakespeare’s Work:

Most critics divide Shakespeare’s creation into 4 periods:

1. The Period of Imitation and Experiments (1590-1594)2. The Period of Histories and Comedies (1595-1600)

3. The Period of Tragedies and Satiric Comedies (1601-1608)

4. The Period of Dramatic Romances (1609-1611)

In each of these periods Shakespeare did not limit himself to a single dramatic form, but he attempted to have

taste of all genres.

1. The Period of Imitation and Experiments – in this period he wrote:

- Titus Andronicus – a tragedy of blood in the style of Kyd

- the 3 Henry the VI plays – Shakespeare is said to have collaborated with Marlowe in writing these 3- Richard the II – a play that reveals Marlowe

- King John – an adaptation of an old history play

To this period also belong 3 early comedies:

- Love’s Labour’s Lost – influenced by Lily’s euphuistic style- The Comedy of Errors – an adaptation of a Latin play

- The Two Gentlemen of Verona – a romantic comedy in the style of Robert Greene

We need to note that Shakespeare as a writer matured slowly. By 1593, when Marlowe died, Shakespeare hwritten nothing comparable to “Doctor Faustus”. However, he showed a much wider range of interest th

Marlowe.

2. The Period of Histories and Comedies – Shakespeare attained an almost complete mastery of dramatechnique and revealed growth in dramatic power. To this period belong:

- Romeo and Juliet

- Julius Caesar

Both of these foreshadowing the great tragedies of the third period. To this second period also belong th

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English history plays:

- Richard III – which reminds us of Marlowe again

- Henry VVery interesting are the two parts of Henry IV which bring out the intriguing comic character Falstaff. T

comedies in this period are the following:

- The Taming of the Shrew- The Merry Wives of Winsor – both farces. The other comedies are romantic ones:

- A Midsummer Night’s Dream

- The Merchant of Venice – which brings forth the figure of Shylock and the very complex plotWe need to say here that Shakespeare never attempted high comedy of the type Moliere wrote. In his play

comedy is always mingled with romance like in As You Like It, The 12 th Night and Much Ado About Nothin

which also belong to this period. It has also been suggested that Shakespeare’s comedies are not realistic o

satiric as Jonson’s, they represent no attempt to reform the world or to picture life as it is. The setting is alwaysome far-off place, the characters always suffer for love, they go through mistaken identity or through a lot

disguises. What the characters do is seldom the result of what they are as in high-comedy, but they are alway

delightful by their being not very authentic.

3. Period of Tragedies and Satiric Comedies – It marks something of a break in Shakespeare’s developmen

He abandoned the history play, apparently because he realized that history is not a type of drama but ondramatic material. Actually, Shakespeare had started to treat his historical material as tragedy with Juliu

Caesar. All the comedies of this period are gloomy:

- All’s Well that Ends Well- Measure for Measure

The best work he did in this period is in tragedy. The four greatest of his tragedies come apparently in th

following order:

- Hamlet- Othello

- King Lear

- Macbeth. To these another tragedy is sometimes added:- Anthony and Cleopatra

Hamlet makes the strongest appeal to our kind but structurally it is inferior to Othello, which technically is

perfect play. King Lear is perhaps the most powerful of them all but it presents difficulty when it is staged. Sdoes Anthony and Cleopatra with its perpetual changes of scenes in general. The Shakespearean tragedy seem

more permanent in its appeal than the comedy. The plots and setting of tragedies are, as far from being realist

as those of comedies but are treated more realistically than tragedies. Although the number of characters

large, the interest of the audience is centered upon one, just as in Marlowe’s plays and unlike the Shakespeareacomedies where two figures divide out interests. The tragic figures in tragedies are people of rank just as wi

Sofocle’s and with Racine’s. They are never middle-class as with Henrik Ibsen. In the tragedies character

destiny. The story always includes the main events that lead up to the tragic catastrophe. Shakespearetragedies resemble in many ways the plays of his contemporaries and it is probable that the Elizabethans didn

see much difference between Hamlet and Tamburlaine. Today we know that the main difference lies

Shakespeare’s treatment of character. It is true that he gave his audience the thrills they were expecting: lovrevenge, insanity, ghosts, and yet managed by the manner of characterization to rise a melodramatic plot to th

level of tragedy.

4. The Period of Dramatic Romances – resembles the plays of Beaumont and Fletcher:

- Cymbeline

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- The Winter’s Tale

- The Tempest

These 3 plays are superior to Shakespeare’s earlier comedies, due to the characterization but they reveal a loof technical skill, perhaps a growing indifference towards the needs of the audience. In The Tempe

Shakespeare seems to be writing for himself rather than for his audience. Nevertheless, The Tempest, which

generally regarded as his last play, is an impressive conclusion to the work of the greatest of British dramatists

Contemporary views

Despite his popularity, during his lifetime few people saw Shakespeare as being superior to Greene or Fletch

for instance. Shakespeare reached his lowest point during Restoration when French and classical literary idea

were in vogue. He gradually rose and later on the English and German romantic writers were the first wh

claimed Shakespeare’s supremacy among world poets. Shakespearean criticism developed only over the 50 60 last years, during which Shakespeare’s work came to be thoroughly analyzed. After the death of Shakespea

and Beaumont, the drama rapidly declined under the reign of James I (1603-1625), the Puritans became hosti

to the theatre which was seen as an instrument of the corrupt court. In September 1642 the Parliament closed t

London theatres and they remained closed until the Restoration in 1660 when Charles II came to the thronThe greatest dramatic period in the history of the world had come to an end but not before it had given u

Shakespeare’s incomparable masterpieces and a considerable number of other plays that are important in framand literature.

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