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Early Life Development of Toxicokinetic Pathways: Framework Case Examples and Implications for Safety Assessment
Gary Ginsberg Connecticut Department of Public Health
Conflict of Interest Statement
Some of the research presented was funded by USEPA/NCEA and USEPA/OCHP
No personal or institutional COIs What is presented is my own perspective and does
not represent the views or policy of the CT DPH
Toxicokinetics: Compare Internal Doses Across Species or People
TK–what the body does to the chemical vs. TD–what the chemical does to the body TK–kinetics (rate) of processes chemical fate
– Absorption–how rapidly and completely absorbed across g.i. tract, skin or lungs
– Distribution–where will chemical concentrate Central compartment vs tissues/fat Ability to cross placenta or BBB
– Metabolism–clearance but could lead to more toxicity – Excretion–clearance-urine, feces, exhaled, breast milk
Determine media best for biomonitoring
Reasons for Differing TK in Early Life
Prenatal–3 forms of exposure – Parent compound from maternal system – Metabolites from maternal system – Metabolites from fetal system
Fetal CYPs different than adult CYPs (e.g., 3A7) 3-MC in C57/DBA backcrosses
– Greatest risk if fetus is Ahr+ and mother is AHr-
Early Postnatal – Rate of intake per body weight higher – GI absorption may be enhanced (e.g., Pb) – Distribution altered
Less body fat BBB immature, more access to CNS
– Many CYPs immature, low expression – Urinary excretion – slower, less blood flow to kidney – Glucuronidation immature, sulfation may predominate
Overview of Children’s Developmental Features that can Affect TKDevelopmental Feature Relevant Age
PeriodTK Implications
Body Composition: Lower lipid content Greater water content
Birth through 3months
Less partitioning and retention oflipid soluble chemicals; larger Vdfor water soluble chemicals
Larger liver wt/body wt Birth - 6 yrs butlargest diffs. in1st 2 yrs
Greater opportunity for hepaticextraction and metabolic clearance;however, also greater potential foractivation to toxic metabolites
Immature EnzymeFunction Phase I reactions Phase II reactions
Birth -1 year butlargest diffs. infirst 2 months
Slower metabolic clearance ofmany drugs and environmentalchemicals; less metabolic activationbut also less removal of activatedmetabolites
Larger brain wt/bwt;Greater blood flow toCNS; higher BBBpermeability
Birth - 6 yrs butlargest diffs.first 2 yrs
Greater CNS exposure, particularlyfor water soluble chemicals whichare normally impeded by BBB
Immature RenalFunction
Birth - 2 months Slower elimination of renallycleared chemicals / metabolites
Limited Serum ProteinBinding Capacity
Birth - 3 months Potential for greater amount of freetoxicant and more extensivedistribution
Caveat: Altered Enzymes Not Always Altered Kinetics
Flow limited rather than capacity limited metabolism Overlapping enzymes Other physiological and metabolic differences that
can compensate
PBTK Modeling Simulate ADME based upon
– Known physiologic constants Blood flows, organ sizes, body weight
– Chemical-specific properties g.i. absorption rate Partition coefficients
– blood:air, liver:blood, fat:blood Plasma protein binding Metabolic rate constants Urinary excretion rate
Calibrate/Validate against actual data
Examples Where Early Life TK Matters
Immature glucuronidation–bilirubin high in newborns–jaundice
Grey baby syndrome–CAP in newborns– slow glucuronidation–metHb
Immature carboxylesterases–OP pesticide tox greater in juvenile rats
Timchalk et al. Toxicology, 2006
Age-Dependence of CPF Inhibition of Brain Cholinesterase in Juvenile Rats
TK Features, Older Children
Liver larger per body weight CYPs catch up to adult levels Increasing lipid mass per body weight
Physiological Database for PBPK Modeling
ILSI 1994 – Rats, Mice, Humans
USEPA 2009 – Early life through senescence – Humans
http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/cfm/recordisplay.cfm?deid=202847
Enzyme Ontogeny Data
Liver bank studies probing mRNA, protein expression and/or activity of enzymes towards their respective substrates including drug PK literature
– Hakkola et al. 1998 – Vieira et al. 1997, 1998–CYP2E1 and other CYPs – Alcorn and McNamara 2002–CYP Ontogeny – Ginsberg et al. 2002–clearance of pharmaceuticals in vivo – Ginsberg et al. 2004–TAP – Hines et al. 2007
Johnsrud et al. 2003–CYP2E1 – Hines et al. 2016–human liver carboxylesterases
Phase II:
– McCarver and Hines 2002 – GSH levels in plasma: Chantry et al.1999
Child Illness Drug Blood level Therapy
Pharmacokinetics
Children
Ontogeny of TK
Exposure Internal Dose Risk
Use of Pediatric Pharmacokinetic Data in Children’s Risk Assessment for Environmental Agents
Figure 4Analysis of Children's Pharmacokinetic Database Half-Life Results for Glucuronidation SubstratesLorazepam, Morphine, Oxazepam, Trichloroethanol, Valproic Acid, Zidovudine
0.00
2.00
4.00
Prematureneonates
Full termneonates
1 wk - 2 mo 2 - 6 mo 6 mo - 2 yr 2 -12 yr 12 - 18 yr
Child
ren's
t 1/2 r
elativ
e to a
dults ***
* p<0.1, **p<0.05, ***p<0.01
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _1.0 (adults)
*****
** **
Ginsberg et al. Tox Sci 2002
Individual Half-Life Data from the Children’s PK Database
365032852920255521901825146010957303650-1.0
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
CYP 1A2 Log(Child/Adult T1/2)CYP 2C Log(Child/Adult T1/2)CYP 3A Log(Child/Adult T1/2)Glucuron Log(Child/Adult T1/2)Renal Log(Child/Adult T1/2)
Age (days)
Log(C
hild/A
dult T
1/2)
Child = averag
Child/adult = 3
Child/adult = 1
Hattis et al. Risk Anal 2003
Child/Adult TK Differences and Intra-Child Variability greatest in first weeks of life
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
1.20
24 hours
1-7 days
8-28 days
1-3 months
3-12 mos
1-10 years
Adult
Frac
tion o
f Adu
lt G
M Va
lue
CYP2E1 content (Vieira et al.1996)
CYP2E1 content (Johnsrud etal. 2003)
CYP2E1 Protein Expression in Children’s Age Groups as a Fraction of Adult Levels
a.
Ontogeny of Plasma Glutathione Chantry, et al., 1999
Mean Age (Weeks)
GSH Ratio to Adult
SD
0.5 0.09 0.19
4 0.2 0.22
9 0.26 0.18
18 0.39 0.21
27 0.38 0.18
40 0.54 0.19
53 0.39 0.2
79 0.42 0.22
312 to Adult 1.0 0.48
Ontogeny of Human Hepatic “Phase I” Enzymes Lines not carrying all the way to adulthood represent non-availability of data. Reprinted from (Saghir et al., 2012).
Toxicokinetic MOA Critical to Understanding Influence of Ontogeny
Distribution: Is chemical fat seeking or highly protein bound? – May be more “free” toxicant in young children
Metabolism: Is chemical activated–which enzymes? – Less metabolite may be formed in early life – May also be slower metabolite removal
Excretion: glucuronidation and urinary excretion are
subject to early life immaturities – Longer half life of many pharmas in neonates
TK MOA and Ontogeny Considerations
Parent Compound Active – Early life slow
clearance, ↑ed internal dose
• Toluene–Nong et al. 2006
Toluene Internal Dose in Children (Modeled Lines) vs Adults (Data Points) After a 7 Hour Inhalation Exposure
MOA Ontogeny Considerations
Metabolite Active – Early life may be less sensitive Acetaminophen
– Early life may have higher internal dose E.g., OPs and deficient CE detoxification
– Early life may be similar to adult E.g., Acrylamide (Walker et al. 2007)
Acrylamide Case Study Summary
Neonatal acrylamide AUC up to 3x >adult – 5x > for 99th% neonate to median adult ratio – Less differential in older ages where dietary exposure is
more prevalent Glycidamide AUC: children 2x> adults
– 5x differential for 99th % child to adult ratio – Differences quenched by immaturities going in opposite
directions Dosimetry in humans greater than in rats
TK Intraspecies UF for HHRA
Need to consider TK variability for all reasons, not just immaturity – E.g., polymorphisms, other stressors/exposures
3 fold
5 fold upper % child / mean adult captures both child/adult difference and intra-child variability
Child/Adult Differences: Need to Consider Upper %, Not Just Mean Difference (Dorne et al. Food Chem Tox 2005)
Dorne and Renwick, Tox Sci 2005
“In the absence of data on the activity of the relevant pathway(s) of elimination in neonates and the consequences of metabolism (i.e., detoxication or activation), an extra uncertainty factor higher than that in adults for polymorphic metabolism (CYP2D6, CYP2C19, NAT) may be an option to be considered by risk assessors and risk managers (Dorne et al., 2005).”
Diagrammatic Representation of Three Respiratory Tract Regions, USEPA 1994
Child/Adult Differences in Inhaled Particle
and Gas Dosimetry
Scoping Early Life TK Issues for HHRA
Are data available to inform: – Qualitative scoping assessment? – Quantitative PBTK assessment?
Is a model needed or can we make some judgements without PBTK?
How much variability/uncertainty does early life TK add to the early life risk assessment? – Relative to other factors/data gaps in the assessment – Relative to standard intraspecies UF for TK (3.3 fold)
Framework for Scoping Early Life TK
1. What are the key determinants of chemical TK? 2. What is the ontogeny profile for these fate pathways? 3. What are implications for internal dose in early life? 4. Are there supporting in vivo data?
a. TK data in children–mostly available for pharmas b. TD data in children or animals
5. What is the need for and feasibility of PBTK modeling? 6. Synthesize all the relevant information:
a. Qualitative–evaluate early life vulnerabilities, variability, uncertainty relative to default UF
b. Quantitative--prioritize the need for PBTK 1) What would be learned and what uncertainties likely to encounter?
Case Study
Chemicals(s) Highlighted Pathways
#1 Acetaminophen UGT, SULT, GST, CYP2E1 #2 Chlorpyrifos CYPs 2C19, 2B6, 1A2, PON1 #3 Toluene CYPs 2E1, 1A2 #4 Aromatic Amines CYP1A2, NAT2 #5 Trichloroethylene CYP2E1, GST
Early Life TK Case Studies to Illustrate the Framework
Abbreviations: UGT–uridine diphosphate glucuronyl transferase; SULT– ulfotransferase; GST–glutathione S-transferase; CYP–cytochrome P-450; PON–paraoxonase; NAT–n-acetyltransferase.
Mature Immature
Immature
Immature?
How Might Metabolic Immaturities Affect Acetaminophen Internal Dose?
Implications of Acetaminophen Case Study
Immaturity in activation (CYP2E1) and detoxification (glucuronidation) occur at same time – No window of heightened TK vulnerability
Sulfation capacity helpful with low/moderate doses GSH immaturity an uncertainty but downstream of
activation step Poisoning cases suggest infants less vulnerable than
older groups – Penna and Buchanan 1991; Isbister et al. 2001; Porta et al.
2012 PBTK modeling feasible
– Adult model exists, can be adapted to children’s parameters
Immature Immature
Immature Immature
Immature
Immature Immature
Immature Immature
Immature
How might Metabolic Immaturities Affect Aromatic Amine Internal Dose?
Implications of Aromatic Amine Case Study
Immaturity in NAT a predisposing factor Immaturity in CYP1A2 a protective factor Other CYPs can activate AAs
– 1B1–no ontogeny data; 2A6–rapid development Immaturity in glucuronidation a predisposing factor Maturity in sulfation could go either way In vivo data for early life-increasing DNA adducts with
increasing age in mice (McQueen and Chau 2003) Synthesis: Potential exists for a TK window of
vulnerability in early life due to some activation with limited detox capability–
PBTK potential limited by no published model for adults
CYP2E1: immature CYP2B1: mature
Immature?
Immature
How Might Metabolic Immaturities Affect TCE Internal Dose?
Implications of Trichloroethylene Case Study
Some activation in liver likely even in newborns due to CYP2B1
Deficient glucuronidation may predispose liver to TCE toxicity/cancer
Kidney less likely to be vulnerable in early life – Blood flow to kidney is less than in older ages – Excess TCE not oxidized can be exhaled – GSH immaturity would be protective
Importance of PBTK Modeling – High – potential for greater internal dose in liver
Potential for PBTK Modeling – Human model could be adapted
Need better definition of which CYPs in early life
Summary
Early Life / Adult internal dose differences–chemical-specific – 3x TK variability factor reasonable in average case – 5-10x considering intra-child variability
– Therefore, need to examine each case
Novel pathways, increased respiratory exposure not considered in HHRA – Research need: chemical metabolism in fetal and postnatal liver bank samples
Scoping early life TK can help determine:
– Whether immaturities exist that might impact internal dose – Whether PBTK modeling is warranted – Whether PBTK modeling is feasible – Identify critical data gaps and areas of uncertainty qualitative assessment
References Alcorn J, McNamara PJ. Ontogeny of hepatic and renal systemic clearance pathways in infants: part I.
Clin Pharmacokinet. 2002;41(12):959-98. Chantry et al. Plasma glutathione concentrations in non-infected infants born from HIV-infected
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Dorne JL, Walton K, Renwick AG. Human variability in xenobiotic metabolism and pathway-related uncertainty factors for chemical risk assessment: a review. Food Chem Toxicol. 2005 Feb;43(2):203-16.
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McQueen CA, Chau B. Neonatal ontogeny of murine arylamine N-acetyltransferases: implications for arylamine genotoxicity. Toxicol Sci. 2003 73(2):279-86.
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