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Earth Materials Rocks and Minerals

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Page 1: Earth&Materials& - Ms. Johnston's Webpagejohnstonsd36.weebly.com/uploads/.../earth_materials... · • The&mostcommon&elements&thatmake&up& minerals&are&oxygen,&silicon,&aluminum,iron,

Earth  Materials  Rocks  and  Minerals  

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Mineralogy:  

The  Study  of  Minerals  and  their  Proper8es  

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A  Mineral…  

•  Occurs  naturally  

•  Is  a  solid  

•  Is  a  pure  substance  (element  or  compound)  

•  Has  atoms  arrange  in  an  orderly  pa:ern  (crystalline)  

•  Is  inorganic  (not  formed  by  any  process  involving  plants  or  animals)  

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•  The  most  common  elements  that  make  up  minerals  are  oxygen,  silicon,  aluminum,  iron,  calcium,  potassium,  and  magnesium  

•  There  are  over  2000  known  minerals;  most  are  rare.  

•  Common  minerals  that  make  up  most  of  the  Earth’s  crust  are  called  ROCK-­‐FORMING  MINERALS  

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• Most  minerals  are  compounds    

  (i.e.,  halite  =  NaCl,  Galena  =  PbS)  

   

•  A  few  minerals  are  made  up  of  only  ONE  element,  and  are  called  NATIVE  elements    

  (i.e.,  gold,  copper,  silver,  sulphur,  carbon)  

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Mineral  Iden8fica8on  

• Minerals  are  usually  idenNfied  using  physical  properNes,  although  some  simple  chemical  tests  may  also  be  used.  

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Colour  

•  First,  and  most  easily  observed  property  •  Some  minerals  have  dis8nc8ve  colours  (i.e.,  malachite,  sulphur)  

•  However,  many  different  minerals  have  similar  colours  

• Weathering  may  also  alter  the  colour  of  minerals  

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Lustre  •  The  way  a  mineral  shines  in  reflected  light.  

•  Either  metallic  (like  polished  metal)  or  non-­‐metallic  

•  Non-­‐metallic  lustre  may  be  further  described  as  vitreous  (glass-­‐like),  pearly,  greasy,  dull,  earthy,  etc.  

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Crystal  Shape  

• When  minerals  have  Nme  and  room  to  form,  their  parNcles  arrange  themselves  into  flat-­‐faced,  regularly  shaped  crystals.  

•  However,  most  mineral  grains  are  too  small  or  imperfect  to  idenNfy.  

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Streak  

•  The  colour  of  a  mineral’s  powder  when  it  is  rubbed  against  a  streak  plate  

• Metallic  minerals  give  dark  streaks  (brown,  grey,  black)  

•  Nonmetallic  minerals  give  light  streaks  

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Cleavage/Fracture  

•  A  mineral  exhibits  cleavage  if  it  breaks  along  flat  surfaces  when  hit  with  a  hammer.  

•  A  mineral  exhibits  fracture  if  it  splits  into  uneven  or  curved  surfaces  

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Hardness  •  A  mineral’s  resistance  to  being  scratched.  

• Moh’s  hardness  scale:    measure  of  how  hard  a  mineral  is  compared  to  a  standard  set  of  minerals,  ranging  on  a  scale  from  1  to  10  (soXest  =  talc  (1),  hardest  =  diamond  (10)).  

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•  Prospector’s  Scale:    

      Fingernail  =  2.5  

         

      Penny  =  3  

         

      Steel  =  5.5  

         

      Glass  =  6  

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Specific  Gravity  

•  The  relaNve  density  of  a  mineral.  

•  RaNo  of  mineral’s  weight  to  an  equivalent  amount  of  water.  

•  Specific  gravity  of  non-­‐metallic  minerals  is  generally  <  3  

•  Specific  gravity  of  metallic  minerals  is  generally  >  5  

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Acid  Test  

• When  calcite  is  exposed  to  acid,  it  fizzes  

•  Gas  produced  is  carbon  dioxide  

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Magne8sm  

•  Some  minerals  containing  iron  are  magne8c  and  will  be  a:racted  to  a  magnet  (ie.,  magneNte)  

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Other  Proper8es  

•  Taste  (i.e.,  halite  –  rock  salt)  

•  Fluorescence  (glows  in  ultraviolet  light)  

•  RadioacNvity  

•  Double  Refrac8on  

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Mineral  Groups  

•  All  minerals  can  be  classified  as  either  silicate  or  non-­‐silicate  minerals  

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Silicates  

•  Silicate  minerals  contain  atoms  of  silicon  (Si)  and  Oxygen  (O)  

•  Some  only  contain  silicon  and  oxygen    

         (i.e.,  quartz  –  SiO2)    

• most  also  contain  one  or  more  other  elements    

       (i.e.,  feldspar:  (  KAlSi3O8  –  NaAlSi3O8  –  CaAl2Si2O8)  

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•  Feldspar  is  the  most  common  mineral  in  the  earth’s  crust,  followed  by  quartz  

•  Silicates  make  up  96%  of  the  Earth’s  crust  

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Non-­‐silicates  

•  4%  of  the  Earth’s  crust  is  made  up  of  non-­‐silicate  minerals  (meaning  they  don’t  contain  silicon)  

•  Can  be  further  classified  as:  – Carbonates  –  contain  carbonate  (CO3)  group  

– Halides  –  halogens  (Cl,  F)  with  Na,  K  or  Ca  – NaNve  elements  

– Oxides  –  contain  oxygen,  but  not  silicon  

– Sulfates  –  contain  sulphate  (  (SO4)  group  

– Sulfides  –  contain  sulfur  

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PETROLOGY  

             The  Study  of  Rocks  and  their  Forma8on  

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Principles  of  Uniformitarianism:  

1.  Geological  processes  now  at  work  were  also  acNve  in  the  past.  

3.  Physical  features  of  the  Earth  were  formed  by  these  processes  over  long  periods  of  Nme.  

   In  other  words,  the  rocks  we  see  around  us  were  formed  in  the  past  by  the  same  geological  processes  we  see  around  us  today.  

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Rock  Types  and  the  Rock  Cycle  

•  A  rock  is  a  group  of  minerals  bound  together  (i.e.,  it  is  usually  a  mixture).  

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There  are  three  types  of  rock:  •  igneous  rock  –  formed  when  molten  rock  cools  

•  sedimentary  rock  –  formed  from  weathered  and  eroded  rock  that  is  deposited  and  cemented  together  into  new  rock.  

• metamorphic  rock  –  formed  when  exisNng  rock  undergoes  intense  heat  and  pressure  that  alters  the  rock’s  composiNon  and  characterisNcs.  

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Igneous  Rocks  

•  “igneous”  comes  from  the  Greek  word  for  fire.  

•  Deep  inside  the  earth,  the  temperature  is  very  high  and  the  rock  there  is  in  liquid  form  called  magma.  

•  As  magma  pushes  towards  the  Earth’s  surface,  it  starts  to  cool  and  turn  into  solid  igneous  rock.    

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•  Igneous  rocks  that  cool  slowly  deep  in  the  Earth  are  called  intrusive  or  plutonic  igneous  rocks.  

•  Other  igneous  rocks  form  when  magma  erupts  from  a  volcano,  or  reaches  the  surface  through  long  cracks  in  the  crust.    Magma  is  called  lava  when  it  reaches  the  Earth’s  surface.    These  are  called  extrusive  or  volcanic  igneous  rocks.  

•  Igneous  rocks  are  classified  by  composi8on  (the  minerals  it  contains)  and  texture  (crystal  size).  

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Composi8on  of  Igneous  Rocks  

•  Igneous  rocks  form  from  two  main  types  of  magma:  

– FELSIC  

– MAFIC  

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Felsic  Rocks:  

• Magma  with  a  high  percentage  of  silica  (SiO2)  and  li:le  calcium,  magnesium  or  iron.  

•  Felsic  magma  is  thick  and  slow-­‐flowing  

•  Forms  light-­‐coloured  rocks  

• Most  plutonic  rocks  are  felsic  

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Mafic  Rocks:  

• Magma  with  a  low  silica  content,  with  higher  amounts  of  calcium,  magnesium  and  iron.  

•  Ho:er  and  thinner  than  felsic  magma  

•  Forms  dark-­‐coloured  rocks  

• Most  volcanic  rocks  are  mafic  

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Texture  of  Igneous  Rocks  

•  Depends  on  size  of  mineral  crystals  in  the  rock.  

•  Crystal  size  depends  on  how  fast  magma  hardens  

•  LONGER  =  LARGER  

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•  Plutonic  rocks  cool  slower,  therefore  coarse  grains    

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•  Lava  hardens  rapidly  forming  8ny  crystals  •  Lava  that  cools  super-­‐quick  forms  rocks  with  no  crystals  

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•  Porphyry:  a  rock  with  2  stages  of  cooling,  so  that  it  has  both  large  and  small  crystals.  

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Sedimentary  Rocks  

• most  of  the  earth’s  surface  is  covered  in  sedimentary  rocks  

•  there  are  three  types  of  sedimentary  rocks:  – clasNc  -­‐  made  from  fragments  of  other  rocks.  – chemical  -­‐  formed  from  precipitates  falling  out  of  soluNon.  

– organic  -­‐  formed  from  remains  of  plants  and  animals.  

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Clas8c  Sedimentary  Rocks  

•  form  when  rocks  weather  (break  apart).    •  That  material  is  eroded  (carried  away)  and  later  deposited  in  another  locaNon.  

•  Layers  of  sediment  undergo  pressure  and  cementaNon  to  eventually  form  sedimentary  rocks.  

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•  ClasNc  rocks  are  classified  by  “sorNng”  (size  of  parNcles)  

• Conglomerate:  made  up  of  pebbles  and  sand  

• Sandstone:  mainly  grains  of  quartz  

• Shale:  Nny  flakes  of  clay  cemented  together  

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Chemical  Sedimentary  Rocks  

•  Form  when  sea,  lake,  swamp  or  underground  waters  evaporate  or  change  temperature,  causing  dissolved  minerals  to  fall  out  of  soluNon.  

•  Examples  include  some  limestones,  rock  salt  and  rock  gypsum.  

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Organic  Sedimentary  Rocks  

•  Formed  from  the  remains  of  plants  and  animals  •  Shell-­‐producing  organisms  such  as  clams,  mussels  or  coral  are  made  up  mostly  of  calcite  –  the  mineral  that  makes  up  limestone.    When  they  die  their  shells  pile  up  on  the  floor  of  the  water  body,  and  eventually  cement  together  to  form  limestone.  

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•  Coal  is  formed  from  decayed  plants  that  are  buried  and  compacted  into  ma:er  that  is  mostly  carbon.  

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Metamorphic  Rocks  

•  Heat  and  pressure  can  cause  certain  minerals  to  change  into  other  minerals.  

• Minerals  may  also  change  in  size  or  shape,  and  they  may  separate  into  parallel  bands.  

•  Hot  magma  may  circulate  through  a  rock,  dissolving  some  minerals  and  deposiNng  others.  

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Types  of  Metamorphism:  

•  Contact  metamorphism  –  when  hot  magma  pushes  through  exisNng  rock,  causing  changes  in  the  structure  and  composiNon  of  surrounding  rock.  

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•  Regional  metamorphism  –  movement  of  tectonic  plates  creates  tremendous  heat  and  pressure  at  plate  boundaries,  changing  minerals  into  rock.  

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Classifica8on  of  Metamorphic  Rocks:  

• Made  according  to  the  texture  of  the  rock  (foliated  or  non-­‐foliated),  and  the  composiNon  of  the  rock.  

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Foliated  Metamorphic  Rocks:  

– Extreme  pressure  fla:ens  mineral  crystals  in  rock  and  pushes  them  into  parallel  bands  

– Minerals  of  different  densiNes  separate  into  bands,  oXen  producing  alternaNng  dark  and  light  layers.  

– Examples  included  slate,  schist  and  gneiss  

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Non-­‐Foliated  Metamorphic  Rocks  

– No  “banding”  or  layers  are  observed  

– Examples  include  quartzite  and  marble  

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The  Rock  Cycle