east european communism and its collapse, part ii
TRANSCRIPT
East European Communism and Its Collapse,Part II
Vladimir Lenin (1870-1924)
1917: Russian Communists (Bolsheviks) took power in
Russia They proclaimed the start of a world revolution against
capitalism From being behind the West, Russia seemed to jump ahead
of it – to the next, post-capitalist stage of world history Western Marxism, a product of developed capitalism, was
transplanted into a country which had just entered the capitalist stage
Russia’s challenge: to prove that modernization was possible without capitalism
Russia’s new role was a sign of the profound crisis of Western civilization
Other attempted socialist revolutions in Europe in the wake of World War I: Germany Hungary Estonia Bulgaria Finland Italy
To modernize Russia fast, the Communists resorted to dictatorial methods
The Soviet state undertook forced modernization of economy and society
The goals of keeping power and defending the state against foreign enemies became paramount
In the 1930s, Russia restored its imperial and autocratic traditions under Stalin’s dictatorship – and called it “victory of socialism”
The goal of social development was subjugated to the goal of security
The resulting model was deeply flawed, fit only for situations of extreme emergency (war)
Stalin as a young revolutionary (1902)
GULAG wards, 1930s
In the 1920s and 1930s, the rising forces in Eastern Europe are socialism and nationalism
Failure of old elites The peasantry moves to take over land Rise of working–class movements Nationalist mobilization The Great Depression Collapse of liberal democracies
The march of European dictators 1922: Italy, Spain 1923: Turkey 1926: Poland, Lithuania, Portugal 1929: Yugoslavia 1933: Germany 1934: Latvia, Bulgaria 1936: Hungary, Greece 1939: Spain again 1940: Romania
The ultimate test of the Russian state has usually been war The Romanov Empire failed that test in WWI – and fell By the time of the next test – WWII, the Russian state was
transformed into a more formidable machine The “socialist” organization of the country was aimed at
making the state more militarily capable A similar logic unfolded in Italy and Germany under
different forms of “socialism” They talked of “socialism”, but they meant winning world
wars
Read Preface to Timothy Snyder’s Bloodlands: Europe between Hitler and Stalin. Basic Books, 2010
E-edition available from York Library: http://site.ebrary.com.ezproxy.library.yorku.ca/lib/oculyork/
docDetail.action
September 1, 1939: Nazi Germany invades Poland
1940: Hitler in occupied Paris
Hitler and Mussolini in Munich, June 1940
Nazi propaganda poster: SS forces kill the Red beast of communism
German poster depicting Soviets: “The lower race”
The “master race” celebrating rapid conquest of Russia
Victims of German occupation
Hitler’s Empire, 1942
Moscow, October 1941
Women digging anti-tank moats near Moscow
Eastern Europe as the key arena of the struggle for the future of Europe
The crisis of the European civilization generated 2 alternative ideologies: one of the Left, the other from the Right
Both communism and fascism arose from the European periphery
Communism was a Eurasian rebellion against the West Fascism presented itself as a force to save Western
civilization from “Eastern barbarism” Western democracies were maneuvering between the
two – first supporting fascism, then communism
German POWs in Russia
Buchenwald, 1945: Survivors of Hitler’s “Final Solution”
The Red Army takes Berlin, May 1945
Western losses in World War II (incl. civilians) France – 0.65 mln. dead, 0.3 mln. wounded Britain – 0.4 and 0.3 mln. Italy – 0.5 and 0.35 mln. USA – 0.4 and 0.65 mln. Canada – 0.04 and 0.05 mln. Australia – 0.06 and 0.015 mln. Total – 2.4 mln. dead and 1.5 mln. wounded
HUMAN TOLL: 3.9 mln.
Eastern and Central European losses in World War II (incl. civilians)
Russia – 27 mln. killed, 15 mln. wounded Germany – 7 and 7 mln. Poland – 6 and 1 mln. Yugoslavia – 1 and 0.6 mln. Romania – 1 and 0.9 mln. Hungary – 0.5 and 0.5 mln. Total: 43 mln. killed and 25 mln. wounded
HUMAN TOLL: 68 mln.
Shattered states and societies Discredited elites Economies destroyed Legacies of ethnic warfare Masses in turmoil Intensive political struggles in each country In Western Europe, too:
Capitalism seriously undermined Socialism popular
In 1945, with the defeat of fascism, communism replaced it in Eastern Europe
Occupation by Soviet troops was a key factor – but the case of Yugoslavia showed that communist regimes could be established by internal forces
Attractiveness of socialism: rapid modernization on an egalitarian basis
Eastern European communism became a specific avenue of development (both social and national)
The Right is either eliminated or severely weakened The situation favours the Left East European Left in 1945: 3 types of left-wing forces:
Agrarian socialists Social Democrats Communists
Throughout East Europe, left-wing parties were banned since 1920s or 1930s
Only in Czechoslovakia the Left, including CP, was fully legal until the German occupation - and was dominant in politics
Now the Left is free to act and take advantage of the postwar crisis
Its issues are popular: Punishment of collaborators Building democracies Socialist reforms
East European Communists welcomed Soviet aid, but did they want to be Soviet puppets?
Some did, others not Those who did not, tried to find other options And the West was more or less willing to treat them as
legitimate forces in the region But Stalin would not tolerate the slightest dissent from the
Kremlin line He was the Red Emperor And dissenters were severely punished Degree of Soviet control was determined by Soviet strategic
considerations Any leeway was possible only if Soviet interests demanded it
The logic of Soviet imperialism Geopolitics and security above all In 1945-47, Stalin considered it pragmatic to allow a degree
of freedom to East European countries “People’s Democracies” In 1948-49, he decided to go for full control and isolation
from the West East European Communists were to serve as the tools for
the Soviet takeover The issue of national independence It required a massive purge of East European Communist
Parties Installation of Soviet-type totalitarian regimes
The Soviet Bloc, 1949
1949: Celebrating Stalin’s 70th birthday, Molotov delivering report
After Stalin’s death in 1953, Eastern Europe began to move away from Stalinism as an unviable system--Extreme degree of state control over society – hard to
maintain, permanent emergency rule--Economic inefficiency of bureaucratic rule --War was no longer on the horizon; capitalism was stabilizing with the help of social reforms and US aid--The challenges of peace and prosperity--Communist elites needed more normal, stable regimes in
which they would be secure from challenges both from above and from below
Reforms were inevitable
Reforms were in the interests of both of the rulers and the ruled
BUT: Stalinist features at the foundation of communist power--Bureaucracy reigns as the New Class; no interest in sharing power--One-party systems--Control of information--Mechanisms of repression (security services, the military)
From the death of Stalin to the collapse of communism
In each communist country: attempts to develop viable political-economic systems which would:
--secure the dominance of communist elites,
and at the same time
--make socialism attractive – or at least acceptable - to the masses
Return to the past was impossible
Options for the future:
--National Stalinism (Albania, Romania, China)
--Reform socialism
--Capitalism
National Stalinism would simply prolong the agony. Reform socialism required a strong commitment to
democracy from the ruling elites. They needed to take big risks with democratization But the fear of losing power prevented them from taking
such risks Or, when some of them would venture risky democratic
strategies, Soviet hardliners would intervene (Hungary, 1956, Moscow, 1964, Czechoslovakia, 1968, Poland, 1981, Moscow, 1991)
Ultimately (in 1989-91), the elites opted for national capitalism
The key role of nationalism The nationalist-communist fusion in its various forms Sources of nationalist agendas in communist countries:
Nation-building processes were spurred on by state socialism National communist elites sought to reduce or overthrow
imperial control Part of the reform process, an element of democratization
Hungary, October 1956: Overthrowing Stalinism
Hungarian revolutionaries in Budapest
Prague, 1968: Soviets invade Czechoslovakia to suppress democratic reforms
1980: Solidarity movement in Poland challenges the Communist regime
The era of East European Communism started in 1917 with the Russian revolution
Its demise began also in Russia: in 1985 with Gorbachev’s reforms
Even though Gorbachev did not aim at abandoning socialism
Mikhail Gorbachev, the last leader of the Soviet Union
The logic of Gorbachev’s perestroika
Recognition that the Soviet system was in deep crisis
Need for fundamental reforms
Market socialism
Democratization
Negotiating an end of the Cold War with the West
Disarmament
Encouragement of similar reforms in Eastern Europe
Gorbachev in Berlin, October 1989
November 1989: the fall of the Berlin Wall, symbol of Cold War division of Europe
Prague, Nov. 1989
Bucharest, Dec. 1989
Moscow, August 1991: hard-liners attempt a coup to stop democratic reforms
The coup is defeated
The Communist regimes maintained peace and stability in Eastern Europe for half a century
They carried out intensive modernization policies Eastern European societies became industrialized, educated,
more egalitarian Resistance to Soviet control fostered nationalist movements Struggle for democracy and human rights went on As societies developed, their ability to challenge the states
grew As the Soviet model stagnated and the West regained its
strength, capitalism began to look more and more attractive By late 1980s, East European communist reforms evolved
into plans for Westernization
Under Gorbachev, Russia recognized that it could no longer offer an alternative to the West
The choice: To reform state socialism into democratic market socialism Or: To abandon socialism altogether and adopt the Western
capitalist model Gorbachev: attempted the first option Post-communist regimes in Eastern Europe opted for
capitalism Yeltsin’s Russia: did the same