eco-labeling program (elp) - sustain...
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Eco-Labeling Program (ELP)
Eco-labels refer to a product's collective overall environmental performance [19]. The
benefits of eco-label include enhanced export market opportunities, improved product quality through
the removal of substances that may be harmful, financial saving through the process of optimization
and improvement [18] and prevent consumers from being confused over claims of environmental
friendliness [20]. The International Standards Organization (ISO) has classified the existing
environmental labels into Type I, II and III as in Table 4 [21].
Table 4. Types of environmental labels
Type/Descriptions
Type I: Ecolabels (ISO 14024)
Ecolabels are based on ambitious criteria of environmental quality, and they guarantee that the awarded products respect
the highest environmental standard in that market segment. The criteria are usually developed through the involvement of
a large number of stakeholders and awarded after an independent process of verification. Ecolabels labels take into
account all adverse environmental impacts of a product throughout its life cycle.
Type II: Self-declared environmental claims (ISO 14021)
The labels belonging to this group do not share some of the usual characteristics of environmental labels, the main
difference being that they are not awarded by an independent authority. These labels are developed internally by
companies, and they can take the form of a declaration, a logo, a commercial, etc. referring to one of the company‟s
products.
Type III: Environmental impact labels (ISO 14025)
Type III labels consist in qualified product information based on life cycle impacts. Environmental parameters are fixed by
a qualified third party, then companies compile environmental information into the reporting format and these data are
independently verified. The environmental impacts are expressed in a way that makes it very easy to compare different
products and sets of parameters. Type III labels do not assess or weight the environmental performance of the products
they describe.
Source: [21]
In actual fact, SIRIM Eco-labeling scheme Type I that verify products according to
environmental criteria was started in the year 2005. As of October 2011, SIRIM has developed 31
eco-label products criteria namely (i) ECO01-Environmentally Degradable Non-Toxic Plastic
Packaging Material; (ii) ECO02-Hazardous Metal-Free Electrical and Electronic Equipments and
Parts; (iii) ECO03-Biodegradable Cleaning Agents; (iv) ECO04-Recycled Paper; (v)
ECO05-Bio-Fiber Composite Construction Material; (vi) ECO06-Food Grade Lubricants; (vii)
ECO07-Floor Mate; (viii) ECO08-Fabric Care Product; (ix) ECO09-Tableware from Biomass; (x)
ECO10-Adhesives; (xi) ECO11-Water-based Adhesives; (xii) ECO12-Paper-based Packaging
Product; (xiii) ECO13-Organic Fertilizer; (xiv) ECO14-Recycle Rubber Products; (xv)
ECO15-Shampoo Products; (xvi) ECO16-Shower Liquid Products; (xvii) ECO17-Solid Body Soap
Products; (xviii) ECO18-Recycled Plastic Products; (xix) ECO19-Paints; (xx) ECO20- Clay Roof
Tiles; (xxi) ECO21-Fiber Cement; (xxii) ECO22-Ceramic Tiles; (xxiii) ECO23-Masonry Units; (xxiv)
ECO24-Energy Saving Electronic Ballast; (xxv) ECO25-Fluorescent Lamp; (xxvi) ECO26-Printing
Ink; (xxvii) ECO27-Luminaries and Light Source for Interior Lightings; (xxviii) ECO28-Paper Printed
Material; (xxix) ECO29-Cement; (xxx) ECO30-Ballpoint; and (xxxi) Flat Glass. Four products criteria
have been upgraded to Malaysian Standards as in Table 5.
Table 5. Eco-label products criteria upgraded to Malaysian Standards
No. Code Product Criteria
1 ECO 01 Environmentally Degradable & Non-toxic Plastic Packaging Material (MS2073:2008 - Eco-labeling
Criteria for Environmentally Degradable Plastics Packaging Material)
2 ECO 02 Hazardous Metal-free Electrical & Electronic Equipments & Parts (MS2237:2009 - Eco-labeling Criteria
for Electrical & Electronic Equipment & Components With Restricted Hazardous Substances)
3 ECO 03 Biodegradable Cleaning Agents (MS2225:2009 - Eco-labeling Criteria for Biodegradable Cleaning
Agents)
4 ECO 04 Recycled Paper (Malaysian Standards MS2080:2008 - Eco-labeling Criteria for Recycled Paper)
Source: Malaysian Green Technology Corporation (2011)
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So far, 14 companies have received eco-labeling certification. In addition, Malaysia has
also become a member of the Global Eco-Labelling Network (GEN) on October 2010.
Malaysia Green Directory (MDC)
Malaysia Green Directory (MDC) is an online directory/database that comprises of
information on green products, services, technical experts, research, development and innovation
projects and testing labs. MDC will facilitate potential users and buyers to quickly and easily find
products and services that take into account environmental criteria for their procurement and
reference. In order to be listed in MDC, the companies must comply with minimum criteria as stated in
Table 6. MTGC is given the task to evaluate, verify, maintain, validate and produce the database
for MGC. Application, registration and publication can be made online via MGC website
www.greendirectory.my. As of October 2011, there are 160 published items from 40 respective
companies.
Table 6. Minimum Criteria for MGD
Categories/Minimum Criteria
Products
A product that contributes to environmental sustainability such as saving energy, saving water, minimizing waste,
complying with eco-labeling requirements or improving ecological biodiversity
Services
A company showing clear environmental leadership by incorporating environmental management standard, energy
management standard or code of practice and „Corporate Social Responsibility‟ principles throughout their operations and
complying with international requirements for carbon management or carbon trading
Technical Experts
An expert or a consultant with key capabilities in the environmental sustainability field and able to refer to green projects as
examples
Testing Labs
A laboratory that provide services to test and verify any product or system using certified Malaysian Standards or any
International Standards that support environmental sustainability
Research, Development & Innovation
A research and development project that drive the adoption of new clean and efficient technologies and promote
sustainability economy as a whole
Source: Malaysian Green Technology Corporation (2011)
CONCLUSION
GGP is in line with Malaysia‟s national policies, where the growth objectives of the nation
will be in balance with environmental consideration. The three initiatives discussed are important
components in supporting the implementation of GGP. However, each initiative should be evaluated
of its effectiveness so that improvement and remedial measures can be taken. As GGP can be a
significant source of support to sustainable development policy goal, its implementation need to be
accelerated.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This study is sponsored by the Malaysian government under the Federal Training Award Scheme.
References
[1] Khairul Naim Adham & Chamhuri Siwar, 2011, Perolehan produk hijau di sektor awam
Malaysia: Hala tuju, inisiatif dan prospek, Jurnal Pengurusan Awam 8(1): 61-90 (in Malay)
[2] United Nations, 1992, Agenda 21: Programme of Action for Sustainable Development, New
York: United Nations
[3] World Summit on Sustainable Development, 2002, Plan of implementation of the World Summit
on Sustainable Development. New York: United Nations.
[4] McCrudden, C., 2004, Using public procurement to achieve social outcomes, Natural Resources
Forum, 28(4): 257-267.
[5] IGPN, 2010, Green Purchasing: the new growth frontier - policies and programmes to enhance
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green business growth in Asia, Europe and the United States, Japan: IGPN.
[6] Goh, C.W. & Suhaiza, Z., 2010, Green supply chain initiative: Investigation on the barriers in
the context of SMEs in Malaysia, International Business Management 4(1): 20-27.
[7] Eltayeb, T. K. & Suhaiza, Z, 2009, Going green through green supply chain initiatives towards
environmental sustainability, Operation Supply Chain Management, 2: 93-110.
[8] Bolton, P., 2008, Incorporating environmental considerations into government procurement in
South Africa, TSAR 2008.1 31-50
[9] Khairul Naim Adham & Chamhuri Siwar, 2011, Moving towards government green
procurement (GGP) in Malaysia: Issues and challenges, In the Proceeding of the International
Symposium on Environment and Natural Resource 2011 (ISENAR 2011) „Harnessing Natural
Resource for Sustainability‟, 15-17 November, Hotel Equatorial Bangi, Selangor.
[10] Ministry of Finance Malaysia (MOF), 2010, Malaysia Procurement Regime. Government
Procurement Division, Ministry of Finance Malaysia http://www.treasury.gov.my/pdf/lain-lain/
msia_regime.pdf [2 April 2011]
[11] Ministry of Energy, Green Technology and Water Malaysia (KeTTHA), 2009, National Green
Technology Policy, Putrajaya: Ministry of Energy, Green Technology and Water Malaysia
[12] Geng, Y. & Doberstein, B., 2008, Greening government procurement in developing countries:
building capacity in China, Journal of Environmental Management, 88: 932–938
[13] Economic Planning Unit (EPU) Malaysia, 2010, 10th Malaysia Plan 2011-2015, Economic
Planning Unit, Prime Minister Department. Kuala Lumpur: Percetakan Nasional Malaysia
Berhad
[14] Performance Management and Management Unit (PEMANDU), 2010, Economic
Transformation Program, Performance Management and Management Unit, Prime Minister
Department. Kuala Lumpur: Percetakan Nasional Malaysia Berhad
[15] National Economic Advisory Council Malaysia (NEAC), 2010, New Economic Model for
Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Percetakan Nasional Malaysia Berhad.
[16] Ministry of Finance (MOF), 2010, 2010 Budget, Putrajaya: Ministry of Finance
[17] International Green Technology and Eco Products Exhibition and Conference (IGEM), 2011,
Malaysia‟s Prime Minister Speech, 8 September, Kuala Lumpur
[18] Malaysian External Trade Development Corporation (MATRADE), 2011, Reaping the benefits of
green business in TradeMart January & February 2011, Kuala Lumpur: Berita Publishing Sdn.
Bhd. 4-5
[19] Giridhar, T.R., 1998, Eco-labelling: A comparative analysis. Chemical Business, 12(7): 95
[20] Childs, C. & Whiting, S., 1998, Eco-labeling and the green consumers, Department of
Environmental Science, University of Bradford, West Yorkshire,
http://www.brad.ac.uk/acad/envsci/SB/init.htm [29 July 2011]
[21] UNOPS, 2009, A guide to environmental labels for procurement practitioners of the United
Nations System, UNOPS.
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TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER FOR SUSTAINABLE PRODUCTION AND
CONSUMPTION: TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT OF THE 3Rs TECHNOLOGIES
Kyungsun Lee1
1Program in History and Philosophy of Science, Seoul National University
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
To achieve sustainable development in developing countries, they should consider
sustainable production and consumption. The 3Rs (Reduce, Re-use, Recycle) strategy is an effective
way to encourage sustainable production and consumption by reducing waste and resource. While 3Rs
strategy widely discussed, however, 3Rs technology have known as crucial part of 3Rs strategy. This
paper argued about 3Rs technology, especially technology transfer which is way to develop technical
capacity in developing countries. To successful transfer of technology, this paper discuss about how to
assess technologies and find out appropriate technology by considering what is environmentally
sustainable technology and sustainable development. In short, new technology assessment factor
should be considering not only economic growth,
Keywords: Sustainable development, Sustainable Production and Consumption, 3Rs, Technology
Transfer, Technology Assessment
BACKGROUND
Developing countries are facing an extreme challenge regarding resource depletion and
waste management with instance of rapid economic growth. To overcome those challenges and
achieve sustainable development, these countries should consider sustainable production and
consumption. The 3Rs (Reduce, Re-use, and Recycle) strategy is an effective way to achieve both
sustainable production and consumption. Several Asian countries have already recognized the 3Rs
strategy and started to promote and adapt that strategy to their countries. (IGES, 2009) However, 3Rs
technology has not been utilized widely yet even though one of biggest barriers to its use in
developing countries is lack of recognition and information regarding the technology, and existing
lower technical capacity.
International technology transfer can contribute to developing technical capacity through
time and money when developing new technology. Technology transfer is always a complex process
because it involves many stakeholders and different technologies. Only a well prepared process of
technology transfer can be successful and contribute to achieving the desired sustainable development.
This paper discusses about the most important key to success technology transfer, namely, needed
technology assessment.
In the context of technology transfer, especially environmentally sustainable technology,
technology refers not only to hardware, such as equipment, but also to software for know-how and
knowledge. (IPCC, 2000) Technology transfer includes several steps, namely a needs assessment,
technology assessment, transfer of equipment, and final implementation. To successfully transfer
technology, it is important that researchers develop a needs assessment and a technology assessment..
(K. Kebede & K. Mulder, 2008)
In the case of 3Rs technology, there needs assessment has already been completed in the
developing countries already done need assessment in developing countries; they share a common
need for 3R technology. The problem that remains, however, is lack of information about that
technology. In this paper, I investigate what kind of 3Rs technology is needed and how to assess to
find the appropriate technology and produce successful technology transfer.
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THE 3Rs TECHNOLOGY
Reduce Technologies
Reduce means to lower waste by using things you already have until the very end of their life
cycles and thus avoid waste generation. There are three types of reduction, waste reduction, resource
reduction and energy reduction. The reduction process can be applied to both the consumption and
production process.
As mentioned, 3Rs technologies consider software as technology. For instance, any system
or service such as servicizing, service provider owned service and managed products can be part of the
attempt to reduce technologies. (EPA, 2009)
Reuse Technologies
Reuse means re-utilization of resource materials and goods. Technologies applied to reuse in
agriculture and industry can be examples of reuse technology. There are special technologies in each
industry, i.e. steel slug reuse in the steel industry. Regarding goods reuse, it is possible to reuse parts of
production. In this case, diagnosing a life cycle and dismantle technology will be the necessary
technology.
Recycle Technologies
Recycle means re-utilization of waste as resources. This technology can be divided into
material recycling and non-material recycling. Non-material recycling calls for recovering energy like
heat and electricity produced by incineration. With material recycling, there is variety of technologies
applicable to different materials.
THE TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT NEEDED FOR SUCCESFUL TECHNOLOGY
TRANSFER
Technology Assessment Factors
In traditional technology transfer, there are four core assessment factors; Technical,
economical, environmental and institutional factor. (K. Kebede & K. Mulder, 2008) The most
important of these is the economic factor because the main purpose of technology transfer is to
encourage economic growth in the developing countries. Unlike traditional technology transfer,
environmentally sound technology transfer must be understood in the context of sustainable
development. The air of applying 3Rs technologies, however, is to achieve not only economic growth,
but also environmental protection and social progress. Therefore these assessment factors must be
adjusted.
The new core assessment factors will have five categories. The first category is technology
factors, which assess the nature of technology itself, such as the complexity of technology, including
its infrastructure, operation and maintenance. The second category remains economic factor, which is
related with resources, including human, capital, land and raw materials. The first and second
categories are almost the same as the more traditional technology assessment factor. The third category
is the environmental factor, which is a bit different from a traditional technology assessment. In
traditional assessment, the focus is environmental conditions like geographical and climate. However,
to have an environmentally sound technology, environmental factors are evaluated for the impact of
technology on the environment. For example, the technology assessment should consider how
effective a technology is for mitigating climate change and reducing air and water pollution. The
fourth factor is the institutional factor. It consists of organizational factors and policy frameworks like
laws and regulation. Also, it considers global cooperation and partnership. The final factor is the social
one. The traditional factor was a part of the institutional factor. However, in the context of sustainable
development, that factor should be assessed for to balance both the economic and environmental
factors. It means that appropriate and environmentally sound technology should contribute toward
improving the general quality of life and support the capacity for building in the receptor countries.
The social is factor considered as a contribution that will improve the public health, training and
education for better capacity building.
Assessment of the 3Rs Technologies
There are two types of model to assess and describe regarding the 3Rs technology by
discussing assessment factors. The first model is assessing and describing each technology through the
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five core factors. [Figure 1] The advantage of this model is that it can be easily combined with needs
assessment. If the receptor countries have their own databases for what they have and what they still
need, it is easy to find an appropriate technology for them by combining the needs assessment with the
technology assessment. However, this model is hard to use for a comparison of similar technologies.
The second model however is a comparative model. [Figure 2] Here each technology is located within
a coordinated system. In this model, it is easy to compare similar technologies and note and revise or
add to their strong and weak points.
Figure 1 Illustration of Model 1 and Model 2 for technology assessment
CONCLUSION
The transfer of 3Rs technologies presents a different characteristic from any usual traditional
technology transfer. Unlike traditional technology transfer that has only focused on economic growth,
the 3Rs technology transfer process considers economic growth, environmental protection, and social
progress within the overall framework of sustainable development.
In this paper, I examine how to develop a proper technology assessment of 3Rs technology
for successful technology transfer. This assessment factor should be adjusted in the context of
environmental sound technology and sustainable development. First of all, any new assessment factor
should consider environmental sound technology for not only hardware but also for software. Second,
any new technology assessment should be evaluated in terms of economic growth, environmental
protection and social equity as a part of long-term sustainable development. By considering all these
factors, receptors countries can evaluate using 3Rs technology and thus learn the appropriate
technology for each country while reducing risk.
References
[1] EPA (US Environmental Protection Agency), 2009, “Green Servicizing” for a Key concepts,
tools and analyses to inform policy engagement More Sustainable US Economy, Washington
D.C, USA, Available online:
http://www.epa.gov/osw/partnerships/stewardship/docs/green-service.pdf (accessed on 29th July
2011).
[2] GEC (Global Environment Centre Foundation), 2006, 3Rs Technologies and Techniques in Japan
2009, Available online: http://gec.jp/gec/EN/publications/ecotown-3R.pdf (accessed on 29th July
2011).
[3] IGES (Institute for Global Environmental Strategies), 2009, National 3R Strategy Development –
A progress report on seven countries in Asia from 2005 to 2009, Kanagawa, Japan
[4] IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), 2000, IPCC Special Report –
Methodological and Technological Issues in Technology Transfer (Summary for Policy Makers)
[5] Kassahun Yimer Kebede, Karel F. Mulder, 2008, Needs Assessment and Technology Assessment:
Crucial Steps in Technology Transfer to Developing Countries, Revista internacional de
sostenibilidad, tecnología y humanismo, Numero 3, 85-104.
[6] UNCRD (United Nations Centre for Regional Development), 2010, 3R Sourcebook, Nagoya,
Japan.
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ENERGY EFFICIENCY MODEL IN THE INDUSTRIAL PARK
(CASE STUDY OF INDUSTRIAL PARK IN WEST JAVA PROVINCE)
Aviasti
1*, T. Yuri Zagloel
2, Roekmijati W.S
3,Budi Darmadi
4
1Doctoral Student in Programs of Environmental Science, University of Indonesia and
Lecturer in Industrial Engineering Department, Bandung Islamic University 2 Lecturer in Industrial Engineering Department, University of Indonesia
3Lecturer in Chemistry Engineering Department, University of Indonesia
4 Ministry of Industry Indonesia
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
In this decade we are faced with problems that threaten all aspects of human life which is
damaging the environment. The cause of this damage, one of which is to manufacture products that are not
environmentally friendly and inefficiensi in the use of its resources. Green Design is defined as an activity
carried out in designing a product by considering the impact on the environment caused by the product life
cycle, to reduce waste, manage materials, preventing pollution and product improvements. The purpose of
this research is to develop a model of energy efficiency in one area of industry resulting in the utilization of
industrial waste in running a sustainable industry. So the ultimate goal of this research will be realized and
generate profits for business, welfare of society and development success for the government.
Keywords: green design, energy sources, energy efficiency, sustainability
I.INTRODUCTION
All the activities of human life from a few hundred years ago is highly dependent on energy derived
from fossil (coal, oil and gas) and demand for energy is increasingly rising. These resources are used
constantly and rarely think about their impact to life in the future. At this time everyone felt the vulnerability
of fuel supplies due to man's dependence on energy derived from fossil fuels. Besides its impact on the
processing of energy derived from fossil may cause environmental pollution, as well as utilization.
But other than that there is another hierarchy that is determined by market trends or interest in the
company or the surrounding communities. And perhaps one of the criteria is that the products produced is
clean environment and minimize harmful exhaust for surrounding communities. Another problem, whether
the energy required to run the industry are available? At this time all the nations dependence on fossil fuels as
a source of considerable energy, while reserves of energy sources is very limited, especially petroleum.
The success of a manufacturing company depends on the company's ability to identify customer
wants and then translate them into technical characteristics as well as quickly create the desired product with
low cost. But not as easy as imagined because companies often forget one thing if the manufacturing
processes and resulting product environmentally friendly? Because in this decade we are faced with problems
that threaten all aspects of human life that is damaging the environment, and one reason is to manufacture
products that are not environmentally friendly and ineffesiensi in the use of its resources.
By considering the problems facing the world about the energy on the Sustainable Development
Summit in Johannesburg South Africa at September 2002 agreed to supply system and the Sustainable
Energy Utilization. To responding this issue the Department of Energy and Mineral Resources issued a
Renewable Energy Development Policy and Energy Conservation (Green Energy) in December 2003.
II. LITERATUR REVIEW 2.1. Ecological Industry
The term industrial ecology was first introduced by Robert Frosch along with Nicholas
Gallopolous in 1989 in the Journal of Scientific American with the title Strategic for Manufacturing. Frosch
developed concept of Industrial Metabolism introduced by Robert Aynes to improve a systematic
change of the ingredients in a modern economy. Frosch and Gallopolous suggest the need for an ecosystem
as an industrial energy use and material optimally, waste and pollution are minimized, and there is an
economic potential for each product in the manufacturing process (Frocsh, 1989; 152).
The definition of industrial ecology by Robert Frosch on paper Industrial Ecology: A Philosopical
Introduction published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences in 1989: “In the industrial
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context we may think of organism will manage as being use of products and waste products”
According to Chertow in Industrial symbiosis: Literature and Taxonomy in 2000 said that
industrial ecology is divided into 3 (three) levels that are focused on the facility level, the level of inter-firm
and level on regional or global scale. The division of this level for more details can be seen in figure 1 ..
Figure 1. Industrial Ecology Operates at Three Levels
The concept of industrial ecology is the concept of raw material utilization and optimal energy
without spoiling the environment. Integration between the industry is needed for the prevention of
environmental damage while increasing profits for the industry. In designing an industrial ecology area
consists of several stages of the process analysis of material and energy flow analysis, analysis of regional
natural resource availability, re-analysis of actual problems encountered and setting priorities. In the
analysis of material flow and energy is used to identify raw materials and energy at every stage of the
production process. This analysis also includes the analysis of mass and energy integration process. The
purpose of this analysis are saving the use of natural resources, analyzing the use of raw materials are more
environmentally friendly and reducing environmental impact. Analysis of the regional availability of
natural resources used to analyze the availability of raw materials, the negative impact of their use of other
resources. After knowing the results of the above analysis it can be re identification of actual problems
encountered. Settlement of existing problems should be communicated with other related industries in the
region. Eventually the industry will be composed of mutually beneficial symbiosis between industry.
2.2. Eco Industrial Park
The emergence of the words sustainability in development planning makes all the sectors also
provides direction to the development of more environmentally friendly. Not only that all parties who are
interested try to incorporate elements of environmentally friendly, because it tastes konsumenpun tend to
prefer products that are green and clean. Green Design is defined as an activity undertaken in product
design by considering the impact on the environment caused by the product life cycle, to increase the level
of kompetititif, increase value-added market, lower costs or to meet the demands of sustainability and
environmental settings (Karlson, 2001). The main purpose of the Green Design is issued by the company to
reduce waste, reduce materials, prevent pollution and product improvements..
SUSTAINABILITY
INDUSTRIAL
ECOLOGY
FACILITY OR FIRM Design for environment
Pollution prevention
“green accounting
o kkeen accounting”
INTER FIRM Industrial Symbiosis (Eco Industrial Park)
Product life-cycles
Industrial Sector Intiative
REGIONAL/GLOBAL Budgets and cycles
Material and Energy flow studies (industrial metabolism)
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The concept of Eco Industrial Park (EIP) is expected can answer the problems associated with
environmental contamination caused by an industrial estate. The purpose of the EIP is nothing but improve
the economic performance of industries through the minimization of environmental impact. Approach
was done on green infrastructure design, planning and implementation of the concept of net product,
pollution prevention, energy efficiency and the relationship between the companies.
Eco Industrial Park is a collection of industry (producers of products / services) which are located
in a place where the actors in it trying to improve environmental performance, economic and social
development. Principles of eco industrial park was born in 1992 and implemented in developed countries
such as Germany, Britain, Australia, the United States, and Canada. Starting in 1999 applied in Asian
countries such as Japan, China, Thailand, the Philippines, and Korea and is proven to increase economic
benefits, environmental, and social.
Examples of successful implementation of the Eco Industrial Park is the Industrial Symbiosis in
Kalundborg Denmark have emerged since 1970 as a partnership of the industries that try to reduce costs
and try to comply with applicable regulations. More than two decades, spontaneous cooperation between
companies develop into bilateral exchanges involving several companies. Another example is, Symbiosis
Cane Sugar Refining Industry in Guitang China. Initially only producing sugar industry, is currently
Guintang Group makes alcohol, cement mills, and produce fertilizer, raw materials derived from waste of
sugar. Another success is also shown with the development of Eco Industrial Networking in the Industrial
Zone Naroda Gujarat India, one goal is to establish a cooperation in the prevention of pollution.
Some of the fundamental principles required to develop an EIP is based on the experience of several States
according to Lowe (2001) are as follows:
a. Integrated with the natural system; have a relationship with the natural setting by minimizing impacts on
the environment.
b. Energy systems; eficiency of energy use will reduce costs and impact on the environment.
c. Material flow and waste management in the region; the companies that are in the area of EIP seeks to
optimize the use of all materials and minimize the use of toxic materials. Moreover, it can be developed
infrastructure that aims to transform a byproduct of an industry to other industries, collect byproducts
that may be utilized by other industries outside the region and facilitate the processes of toxic waste.
d. Water, waste water from one plant might be used by other manufacturers. This can be done directly or
can also be passed through a pretreatment. Infrastructure built can only include the water management.
e. Collection Management Services and Support Services; management plays a role in the EIP must support
the exchange of inter-product companies and helps companies adapt to change and maintain the
exchange of side chains and keep the fabric of communication within the region.
f. Design and construction of sustainable; building design and infrastructure to be constructed with the
aim of optimizing the use of resources more efficiently and minimize the possibility of widespread
pollution.
g. Integrated with the surrounding area; this project should be able to return value for the surrounding
community through such things as the existence of the institution as a business incubator for new
businesses.
2.3. Industrial Metabolism
Perspective of social flow is necessary for modern environmental management. Analysis of
material flow, such as industrial metabolism and research on the life cycle have an important role in
the environmental debate and management. This is a consequence of the new situation in developed
countries where industrial pollution has been radically reduced emissions and consumption becomes
much more important. To meet the challenges of modern environmental management, needed an
efficient way between industrial metabolism with the economy, ethics and environment.
Environmentally Industrial Area will be very influenced by the industrial metabolism model contained
in the region (Stefan Anderberg).
The concept of industrial metabolism was launched by Robert U. Ayres in 1988. He views the
„metabolism of industry‟ as „„the whole integrated collection of physical processes that convert raw
materials and energy, plus labour, into finished products and wastes…‟‟ (Ayres, 1994: pp.3). The aim of
industrial metabolism studies is to gain improved knowledge and understanding of the societal uses of
natural resources and their total impact on the environment. The basic idea isto analyze the entire flow of
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materials and identify and assess all possible emission sources and other effects in connection to these
flows.
Allenby and Richards (1994), mentioned in industrial metabolism as a comprehensive integration
of a set of physical processes that convert raw materials and energy, plus labor into final products and
wastes in a steady-state conditions. Side of the production (supply), can not walk by itself, there must be a
control system is performed by human component. In this industry the human metabolic process has two
main roles: (1) directly, as the labor input (labor input), and (2) indirectly, as a consumer outputs (eg as a
determinant of final demand). This system lasted at least in the form of a decentralized market competition,
by balancing supply and demand, both product and labor through the price mechanism..
Manahan (1999) states for a system of industrial metabolism can take place in accordance with its
function, then there are some important key components that must exist in every process operation are:
a. At least one major producer that operates on a large scale
b. At least one secondary material processing that utilizes the waste with a large volume as primary
producers, both waste from other manufacturers and also from the consumer
c. Each company ensures cooperation and exchange of information between all members within the system.
Three main key to establishing an industrial metabolism that are optimization, system integration
and eco-efficiency
Environmentally Industrial Area will be strongly influenced by the industrial metabolism model
contained in the region. Metabolism is the overall industry and the energy flow of materials through
industrial systems. Metabolism industry must pay attention to resource conservation and environmental
protection, including the industrial transition, emphasizing the reuse of materials used, production of
sustainable, renewable energy, efficient transportation, and the need for human relationships, especially the
interaction between individuals or industries that are outside clusters but affects the survival of the
industrial park.
III. DATA AND METHODS
Application of the concept of Eco Industrial Park will produce industrial symbiosis, which is a
form of industrial cooperation which has a level of interdependence between firms which exchange
material, energy and other things that are mutually beneficial to each other and can provide shared
prosperity. At this time industrial symbiosis, especially for environmentally sound industrial area in
Indonesia has not managed to make mutually beneficial cooperation with good. According Djajadiningrat
and Melia (2004) challenges faced by the developers of the Eco Industrial Park area at the moment is
breaking the ice during this emerging communication is communication between the actors, governments,
and surrounding communities.
Yet according to Decree of the President of the Republic of Indonesia No.. 41 1996 and
Government Regulation of Republic of Indonesia number 24 year 2009 concerning Industrial Zone, Section
1 of Article 2 states that the purpose of the industrial area in addition to accelerating the growth of the
industry, is also increasing efforts of environmentally sound industrial development. In article 4 of Decree
of the President of the Republic of Indonesia No.. 41 in 1996 stated that the development does not reduce
the industrial area of agricultural land and carried on the land that has the function to protect natural
resources and cultural heritage. Also in Chapter I, Article 1 of Regulation No government of the Republic
of Indonesia. 24 of 2009 concerning Industrial Area designation states that the area is a stretch of industrial
land designated for industrial activities based on Spatial statutory regulations.
Based on data from the Ministry of Industry in 2007 the industrial park have been scattered in 13
provinces in Indonesia region, listed 81 areas that have been operating from 203 industrial park that is
licensed to exploitation. The impact of positive and negative impacts arise with the existence of the
industrial area. The positive impact arising among others absorb a number of local employment and rising
incomes surrounding communities. While the negative impact is the pollution of the environment, labor
issues, issues of cultural change in society, and other social problems.
Industrial area managers try to pay attention to and cope with the impacts arising from
industrial activity by building environmentally sound industrial park. But the development of Eco Industrial
Park in Indonesia is very slow and Jababeka industrial area is the only industrial park initiatives to develop
the concept of Eco Industrial Park. Based on studies that have been done Jababeka industrial area was not
yet able to apply the principles of Eco Industrial Park as a whole. But the industrial area manager's attention
to the environment continue to be followed by participants Corporate Performance Assessment Program
(PROPER), so as to obtain PROPER certificate issued by the Ministry of Environment. This was followed
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by other industrial areas in Indonesia, although of the 81 new industrial area 14 industrial zones that have
been getting PROPER. Given the breadth of the research problem of this study is restricted to industry
metabolism that occurs in 6 areas in West Java especially waste treatment for energy efficiency.
IV. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Figure 2 will be demonstrated linkage industries contained in a region in terms of
utilization of industrial waste one to the other industries as alternative energy sources or as inputs
for the manufacture of its products .
Example :
Figure 2. Conceptual framework
In the table 1 based on previous research and conceptual framework be proposed an
alternative model for energy efficiency by taking into account the type of industry, industrial potential,
and a source of energy in the industrial park in West Java Province
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Table 1. Alternative Model of Efficiency Energy in the Industrial Park in West Java Province Province District Type of industry/
Industrial Potential
Energy sources Alternative energy
West Java Tanggerang - Wood
- Chemical
- Coal
- Rubber
-Biomass
-Coal*
-Sun
Energy used for industrial wood
is the sun. Industrial waste
generated from wood used as
energy for the coal industry.
While waste from reprocessed
coal industry so that it becomes a
byproduct or a source of energy
for other industries. (alternative
1)
Bandung - Textile
- Clothing
- Shoes
- Food/beverages
-Tobacco
-Biomass
-Geothermal
Geothermal energy used for
industrial food, beverages and
tobacco. Waste generated from
this industry to be processed
biomass energy for the textile,
clothing and shoes. Waste
generated from the textile,
clothing and footwear
reprocessed as byproducts or
energy for other industries
(alternative 2)
Bogor - Textile
- Clothing
- Shoes
-Biomass Waste from agricultural and
livestock are used as a biomass
energy industry for textile,
apparel and footwear. Waste
generated as a byproduct or
source of energy for other
industries (alternative 3)
Bekasi - Textile
- Clothing
- Shoes
-Biomass
-Sun
Household and industrial trash
besides solar energy can be used
as biomass energy for textile ,
clothing and shoes industry. And
waste generated as a byproduct
or source of energy for other
industries (alternative 4)
Cirebon -Wood -Biomass
-Sun
For the timber industry using
the sun's energy. While the
waste is generated as a biomass
energy for other industries.
(Alternative 5)
Cianjur -Food/beverages
-Metal/engine
-Biomass
Agricultural waste into energy
sources for food and beverage
industry. The resulting waste
into energy for metal goods and
industrial machinery. While
industrial waste from metal
goods and industrial machinery
processed into byproducts.
(Alternative 6)
CONCLUSION
The emergence of words of sustainability in development planning makes all sectors also provide a
more environmentally friendly development. Not only that all parties felt compelled trying to incorporate
elements of environmentally friendly, because it customer tastes tend more want products that are green and
clean. If all industrial activities undertaken in designing of products considering the impact on the
environment and utilization of energy resources is good, then the path of sustainable industrial wheels will
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come true. So that it can generate profits for businesses, welfare for the people and the success of
development for the government.
References
[1] Aviasti, Green and Clean Product Design Alternatives Based Spatial Aspects of Industrial
Manufacturing and Concept Eco Industrial Park. 2005. Published in the Proceedings of the
National Seminar on Optimization of Potential Energy and Energy Supply Systems As One Of
Main Pillars of Industrial Development. Palembang. Pages 90-99. ISSN 1412-338X.
[2] Curran, M.A.1996. Lyfe-Cycle Environmental Assessment. McGraw Hill.
[3] Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources. Policy of Renewable Energy Development and
Energy Conservation (Green Energy). Jakarta. December 2003.
[4] Lowe, E.A. 2001. Eco Industrial Park of Hand Book for the Asian Developing Countries.
Report to Asian Development Bank.
[5] Purwanto, 2005. Application of Cleaner Production in the Industrial Area. Seminar on Cleaner
Production Implementation Program to Support Eco Industrial Zone in Indonesia. Jakarta.
[6] Veiga, Lilian Bechara Elabras and Magrini, Alessranda. 2008. Eco Industrial Park Development
in Ria de Janeiro Brazil: a tool for Sustainable Development. Journal of Cleaner Production.
www. Elsevier.com / locate / jclepro.
[7] Walisiewicz, Marek. 2003. Translation: Dwi Satya Palupi. Alternative Energy. Publisher. Jakarta.
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NEW LEARNING APPROACHES IN DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING PHYSICS
GADJAH MADA UNIVERSITY TO DEVELOP ENERGY TECHNOPRENEUR IN
GREEN ECONOMICS ERA
Rachmawan Budiarto and Susetyo Hario Putero
Department of Engineering Physics, Gadjah Mada University, Indonesia
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Every country is exploring its own sources for solving the energy problems. Most of them
are focused on developing the utilization of new and renewable energy sources. Vision of New and
Renewable Energy 25/25 declared by Indonesian Government in 2010 states that by 2025 new and
renewable energy should fulfill 25% of total Indonesia energy demand Human resources with
appropriate competence are needed in fulfilling the target. The engineering education could play the
important role in this field within the frame of three mission of higher education (Tridharma Perguruan
Tinggi). In the learning field, the department implements Student Centered Learning (SCL) and
Research Based Learning (RBL) methods for improving the student‟s knowledge based on real energy
problem solving. The main idea is to bring the students into the real problem by designing the synergy
of several courses. The new learning approaches successfully encouraged the student‟s
technopreneurship in order to answer the real community‟s energy problems. More than 10 new and
renewable energy system based products/year are produced within the new learning approaches.
Several of them have been installed in and utilized by the community. Simultaneously, it is also an
answer for a challenge of creating green jobs.
Keywords: engineering education, new and renewable energy, technopreneur, green economics.
INTRODUCTION
The world is now facing up complex problem due to the over exploitation on fossil fuel and
excessive dependence on that non-renewable resources. It also takes place in Indonesia. The problem
could be solved by increasing energy efficiency and increasing use of new and renewable energy
technology to build sustainable energy system. Human resources with appropriate competence are
needed in fulfilling the purpose. Higher education, especially the engineering education could play the
important role in this field.
The Department of Engineering Physics of Gadjah Mada University, Indonesia focusing on
development of all types of new and renewable energy is able to play significant role in solving
Indonesia‟s energy problems. Within the frame of three mission of higher education (Tridharma
Perguruan Tinggi), the department conducts activities in innovative and comprehensive way as a part
of its effort to be one of main players in developing sustainable energy system. This paper describes
those experiences.
POSITIONING OF NEW AND RENEWABLE ENERGY IN INDONESIA
Vision of New and Renewable Energy 25/25 declared by Indonesian Government in 2010
states that by 2025 new and renewable energy should fulfill 25% of total Indonesia energy demand.
This is significantly more progressive compared than target in Presidential Decree No. 5/2006
declaring that fossil based energy should fulfill around 89.5% of total Indonesian primer energy
demand. For example based on data of Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources, in 2010 84% of
energy for electrical generation in Indonesia is still powered by fossil based energy resources
(Budiarto, 2011). It needs significant systematic breaktrough in all aspects of energy development;
technology, bussiness, social, and politics. Therefore, Indonesian high quality human resource in new
and renewable energy is a vital condition to fulfill the target.
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TECHNOPRENEURSHIP IN GREEN ECONOMICS ERA
Many believe that the crisis is an opportunity to amend economic organization – so that it no
longer prioritizes economic growth over environmental sustainability, social justice and equity. A
green economics is typically understood as an economic system that is compatible with the natural
environment, is environmentally friendly, is ecological, and for many groups, is also socially just. It is
the system that is dominated by investing in, producing, trading, distributing, and consuming not only
environmentally friendly but also environmentally enhancing products and services (UNEP, 2010).
According to Saumya (2007) the green economics includes ecological and environmental
impact in addition to the economical impact of a transaction. It then includes externalities ignored by
conventional economics.
Business activities are encouraged to be more environmental friendly. Business players are,
for instance, demanded to manage and use waste from their activities. They are also encouraged to
increase the energy efficiency in their business as well as to use new and renewable energy to power
business activities. It needs businessman having strong commitment to implement the above principles
of green economics.
Meanwhile, in rapid globalization characterized by intense competition, each person must
demonstrate their excellence and uniqueness. Everyone should be able to find their comparative
advantage. Empowering the creative abilities of students is one way to help them find their
comparative advantage. Jackson et al (2006) explained that the students will become more effective
learners and, ultimately, successful people if they can recognize and harness their own creative
abilities. In the context of engineering education, creativity should not only generate new technologies
that useful to the users but also have economic value to the inventors. Technopreneur student should
be able to merge their knowledge and the entrepreneurial ability to produce new useful products.
Patterson and Mitchell (2007) note that engineers today should not only understand the physical
design characteristics of a product or system, but also the business perspective that has traditionally
been the territory of management.
Any education institutions define their unique position. One of main focuses targeted by
Department of Engineering Physics of Gadjah Mada University is development of new and renewable
energy as a vital component of green economics development. Its curriculum is designed to develop
students to be technopreneur having ability to build sustainable energy systems.
NEW LEARNING PARADIGM IN GADJAH MADA UNIVERSITY
Gadjah Mada University has declared to shift the teaching method from teacher-centered
learning into student-centered learning (SCL) in 2004. This new method drives lecturer to optimize
student‟s learning capability. There are several techniques could be selected by lecturers to implement
SCL in the courses, such as problem based learning, collaborative learning and cooperative learning.
Gadjah Mada University had stated in its strategic plan that three missions of higher
education called Tridharma Perguruan Tinggi (learning, research and community empowerment) have
to be pursued completely and comprehensively. One of the implementation is research-based learning
(RBL). Basically RBL is a SCL Plus that integrates research into learning process.
RBL is developed to improve the learning quality that uses authentic learning,
problem-solving, cooperative learning, contextual and inquiry-discovery approach guided by the
constructivism philosophy (Diah Tri Widayati, et.al, 2010).
In this context, the mentioned design of learning method is aimed to prepare competent
human resources in green economics implementation as one of the answer to serious complex problem
due to recent unsustainable energy system.
THREE MISSIONS IN DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING PHYSICS
In the learning context, course development in the department is a part of implementation of
new teaching paradigm in Gadjah Mada University in order to encourage students to become more
competence and skillful in problem identification and problem solving along with to empower them to
come up with new ideas and innovation. The main idea is to bring the students into the real problem.
In fact, most of problems could only be solved by interdisciplinary approaches due to its complexity.
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To simulate this fact, the synergy of several courses has been designed. In this case, synergy is
conducted by using a common purpose to unite them. According to this basic idea, several targets
could be built, such as:
1). Generating technopreneur in the field of new and renewable energy system to solve energy
problems faced by micro, small and medium enterprises (SME).
2). Generating conceptual industries based on advanced reactor‟s fuel cycle to prepare the nuclear era
in Indonesia.
3). Generating quality assurance systems of local resources and wisdoms based hydro energy
engineering to improve its utilization in Indonesia.
The scenarios are shown in Table 1 below.
Table 1. The scenarios. Courses Synergy Purposes Activities Outputs
Synergy Scheme 1
Renewable energy engineering
Energy policy
Research methodology
Industrial management
Technopreneur in the field
of new and renewable
energy system for solving
SME‟s energy problems.
Lecturing
Internship
Independent
work
“Company”
Feasibility study report
Business plan
Prototypes
Products
Synergy Scheme 2
Advanced reactor technology
Nuclear fuel management
Waste treatment technology
Engineering Management
Technopreneur in the field
of advanced reactor‟s fuel
cycle based industries.
Lecturing
Independent
work
“Company”
Feasibility study report
Business plan
Conceptual product design
Synergy Scheme 3
Hydropower engineering
Structure & properties of
materials engineering
Quality assurance
Quality assurance systems
of local resources and
wisdoms based
hydropower engineering
Lecturing
Independent field
study
Product design
Quality assurance
programs
In above scenarios, student is systematically encouraged to be an inventive technopreneur
who will discover problems, originate creative ideas and innovative solutions. Within the group, they
are stimulated to discuss and produce new ideas in order to solve their finding problems (5th RBL
strategies). Student group members should come from several course‟s students that mentioned in
Table 1.
Subject matters, for instance hand outs, papers, short films, animations, have been available
at GMU‟s Elisa (e-Learning System for Academic Community). So, the presence of students in the
class is emphasized to obtain sufficient knowledge from both lecturers and other students to solve
problems they face in developing ideas. Lecturers have to dedicate time to provide consultation or
guidance to students at any time. For simplicity, lecturers must prepare their e-mail and e-learning to
provide this.
For improving the quality of RBL, lecturers continually enrich their knowledge and lecture
materials through research and community empowerment. Recently, the community empowerment is
being conducted efficiently and effectively by merging with Student Community Services -
Community Empowerment Program (KKN PPM) that shows the main characteristic of GMU as a
community oriented university.
Application and development of the course synergy scheme are also linked to the renewable
energy projects run by Centre for Energy Studies (CES) Gadjah Mada University, as well as many
projects on renewable energy and development of SME run by two institutions: Institute for Research
and Community Services (IRCS) Universitas Gadjah Mada and Business Technology Centre (BTC)
Yogyakarta. The linkage between the courses synergy provided by the Department of Engineering
Physics and activities run by the above three institutions directly involve the students in various
activities of research and community development in the framework of green economics. The course,
research and community development are comprehensively conducted. This integrated scheme applies
mutual feedback in mechanism of continuous improvement (Budiarto et all, 2011).
CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT
The synergy course is developed in stages, utilizing a variety of grant programs and
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availability of networks with external stakeholders. The table 2 shows the development stage of one
synergy course.
Table 2. Development Evolution of The Synergy Scheme
Year Innovation Source of Funding or Partners
2006 Innovation on content and method of
course of energy policy
Grant on Lecture Content
Inherent – UGM
2007 Synergy of 2 Courses: Energy policy
and Management of Industry
Grant on Lecture Plan
Duelike – UGM
2008
Synergy of 4 Courses: Renewable
energy, energy policy, management of
industry and research methodology
Grant on Lecture Innovation
PHK A2 - UGM
2009
Integration of Synergy of 4 Courses
between and Technology Injection
Program for SMEs in Yogyakarta
BTC – BPTIY Yogyakarta
2010
Development of Technopreneurship in
Renewable Energy trough Synergy of 4
courses
Grant on Technopreneurship RAMP-IPB.
Curriculum 2005 implemented by the Department provides several subjects directly aimed
to increase application of new and renewable technologies. They are 1) renewable energy engineering,
2) new energy engineering, 3) hydropower engineering, 4) wind energy enegineering, 5) biomass
energy engineering, 6) power generation optimation, 7) energy policy, and a set of courses in nuclear
engineering. New curriculum 2011 introduces several new courses, for instance: 1)
technopreneurship, 2) geothermal engineering, and 3) integration of renewable energy. The new course
number 3 that subtitutes course of energy policy contains subjects as follow: character in use
renewable energy resources, energy policy, renewable energy industry, energy security, green
economics, and roadmap of energy system. So, the new synergy needs to create based on new courses
introduced in new curriculum and the present energy problems.
The stages in devoping scheme of synergy course and new curriculum are examples in
implementation of continuous improvement mechanism in Department of Engineering Physics of
Gadjah Mada University.
BENEFIT FOR COMMUNITY
The new learning approach mentioned above successfully increases the utilization of
renewable energy in the community, particularly rural communities. There are more than 10 new and
renewable energy system based products/year that means energy business embryos produced by above
methods. Some products have been installed and used in several SMEs in Yogyakarta in order to solve
their energy problems, such as rocket stove for tofu industry and solar drier for banana chips industry.
Several conceptual industries in the field of nuclear fuel cycle are also produced by students,
for instance nuclear grade heat exchanger industry, MSR fuel fabrication and yellowcake industry, etc.
Some of concepts that are guided tightly by lecturers were sent to the Indonesia government as a
reference in developing nuclear industries in Indonesia for supporting future energy demands.
The other outputs are several hydro technology designs based on community problem, such
as hydram pump for water lifting, micro hydro for electricity, home industry‟s water wheel etc.
Therefore, the realization of those designs will helpful the community.
By taking KKN PPM, students also could disseminate effectively the renewable energy
based products to the community. By direct contacting to the community as the last user, students
could refine and improve their products. Executions of some KKN PPM had been awarded and
supported by the other institutions including international institutions, for instance local governments,
Mondialogo, Innovations for the Base of the Pyramid (iBoP) Asia etc. It shows that the community
development activities successfully enlarge network resulting in increasing the role of the department
to improve capability of relevant stakeholders in answering energy problems.
In order to disseminate the technology, student was also encouraged to publish their designs
on seminar or conference. Several students‟ papers were accepted to present their paper on several
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international conference abroad.
Besides, the new approach in the learning method creates many benefits as follow (Putero
and Budiarto, 2011):
1). Synergy scheme is inherently supported by material enrichment from various renewable energy
based programs. It brings the class session closer to the field dynamics. Providing problems based
on real projects in the field gives students opportunity to experience challenge in developing real
renewable energy applications.
2). In other direction, learning content which is given and discussed in class session supports project
activities.
3). Result and challenge occured within synergy scheme and project activities stimulates various
themes for research activities. Research activities will then give supporting input for the synergy
schemes and projects.
4). Financial support needed for development of synergy schemes could be obtained also from
various programs conducted by CES, IRCS and BTC.
CONCLUSIONS
The new learning approaches successfully encouraged the student‟s technopreneurship in
order to answer the real community‟s energy problems. More than 10 new and renewable energy
system based products/year are produced within the new learning approaches. Several of them have
been installed in and utilized by the community. Simultaneously, it is also an answer for a challenge of
creating green jobs.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The supporting of the Department of Engineering Physics, Gadjah Mada University is acknowledged.
We also thank to Gadjah Mada University, especially Faculty of Engineering for permitting this
publication.
References
[1] Budiarto, 2011, Kebijakan Energi – Menuju Sistem Energi Yang Berkelanjutan, Samudera Biru,
Yogyakarta
[2] Budiarto, R., Putero, S.H., Kusnanto, and Ferdiansjah, 2011, Preparing Green Economics Trough
Synergy Among Seven Courses in Engineering Physics Gadjah Mada University, Proc. of Intl.
Seminar of APRCE, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta.
[3] Diah Tri Widayati, et.al, 2010, Guidelines for Research based Learning, Gadjah Mada University.
[4] Jackson N, In: Jackson N, Oliver M, Shaw M, and Wisdom J, 2006, Developing creativity in
higher education: an imaginative curriculum, Routledge, Oxon.
[5] Patterson P and Mitchell R, 2007, Innovation and entrepreneurship: merging engineering and
business, International Conference on Engineering Education 2007
[6] Putero, S.H. and Budiarto, R., 2011, Roles of New and Renewable Energy Engineering Education
of Gadjah Mada University in Solving Energy Problems of Indonesia, Proc of AMSTECS 2011,
Tokyo
[7] Saumya, 2007, Green economics, Presentation, Udai SJC.
[8] UNEP, 2010, General Information, XVII Meeting of the Forum of Ministers of Environment of
Latin America and the Caribbean.
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THE STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF THE RELATIONSHIP AND THE DILEMMA IN
THE ENVIRONMENT-FRIENDLY MANAGEMENT
-A case study at a convenience store in Japan-
Shino Koda
Graduate School of Energy Science, Kyoto University
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
In response to the raising of the environmental awareness, the need to transform modern
society away from being an energy waster has been growing. Environment-friendly action,
environment-friendly activities, environment-friendly products - all these things are deeply related to
people's daily life.
In this context, this paper focuses on the behavior of the customers at convenience stores and
the relationship among the franchiser, the franchisee and the customers. This paper attempts to
introduce a case study conducted at a convenience store and argues the dilemma in the relationship
between the franchiser and the franchisee and the influence of it on the behavior of the franchisee and
the customers. In order to gain further understanding of the approach I applied for this paper, the
methodology of group dynamics is overviewed. A case study conducted by the participant observation
is introduced as well as the features of convenience stores in Japan. Then, as a result of the participant
observation, according to the qualitative data, it was found that the inconsistent orders for the
franchisee from the franchiser and the fear of the franchisee for the opportunity loss caused the
dilemma in the relationship between the franchiser and the franchisee. This dilemma is discussed as
well as the norm created by the franchisee and the customers. In conclusion, for the betterment of the
environment-friendly management, the solution of the dilemma is a key. The fundamental conversion
of the norm and the creation of the new meaning of the environment-friendly action leading people to
the environment-friendly behavior at convenience stores are needed for the environment-friendly
management. This will eventually lead people to the environment-friendly daily life.
Keywords: dilemma, convenience store, opportunity loss, participant observation, group dynamics
INTRODUCTION
In response to the raising of the environmental awareness, the need to transform modern
society away from being an energy waster has been growing. Companies run in the
environment-friendly way have begun getting more reputation. Environment-friendly products have
been more popular among people. Under such circumstances, there has also been a growing need for
convenience stores to conduct the environment-friendly activities. Environment-friendly action,
environment-friendly activities, environment-friendly products ― all these things are deeply related
to people's daily life. In this context, with the thorough participant observation, this paper focuses on
the behavior of the customers at convenience stores and the relationship among the franchiser, the
franchisee and the customers, for convenience stores are something that Japanese people cannot live
without nowadays.
Japanese lifestyle has drastically changed since the first convenience store was launched.
The first convenience store was launched in Japan in 1969 [1]. Since then, convenience stores have
affected the way Japanese people live.
Convenience stores in Japan have some environmental problems. Incorrect disposal of waste
as well as copious amounts of food waste, for instance, is one of the issues that has generated a major
discussion. Franchisers promote the environment-friendly management and they order their
franchisees to follow their policy.
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However, their attempt doesn‟t work very well. Why do the franchisees refuse to follow the
manuals given by the franchiser that show them what should be done as the environment-friendly
activities? This paper attempts to investigate and analyze the cause of the problem by conducting the
thoroughgoing participant observation with the methodology of group dynamics.
This paper builds upon the methodology of group dynamics newly proposed by Sugiman.
The next section provides an overview of its methodology and convenience stores in Japan are briefly
explained. Then, this paper shows a case study conducted at a convenience store in Japan. Following
the results of the case study, the dilemma which was observed in the relationship between the
franchiser and the franchisee is discussed. The last section provides the conclusion of this research.
METHODOLOGY
In this paper, the methodology of group dynamics is applied. Group dynamics newly
advocated by Sugiman highly stresses collaborative practice by researchers and people, maintaining
social constructionism as its meta-theory [2]. It differs from traditional group dynamics created by
Kurt Lewin. This new group dynamics underlines the nature of the collectivity while the traditional
group dynamics puts an emphasis on the psychological process of individuals [3][4]. Sugiman defines
group dynamics as “a field of study in which the dynamic nature of human collectivities or groups is
investigated by examining the collectivities as wholes on the one hand, and the dynamic bilateral
relations between the collectivity and the lives, or the psychological states, of individuals who belong
to these collectivities on the other” [5].
In group dynamics proposed by Sugiman, holding social constructionism as its meta-theory,
communication is defined as what produces something communal, provides a basis of meaning and
enables our life world to be less ambivalent in the end [6]. Following this definition, this paper regards
communication as what provides people with the basis of the meaning of the practice of the
environment-friendly behavior and activities. Communication reflects the relationship. Thus, during
the participant observation, the considerable attention was given to every conversation and dialogue
among the franchiser, the franchisee and the customers.
This research does not attempt to find the universal fact but develop the social construction
of the “fact” in locale [7]. Thus, this paper considers the relationship and the norm with the qualitative
data and the ethnography at the convenience store where I conducted the participant observation and
proposes the betterment of the environment-friendly behavior at the store.
CONVENIENCE STORES IN JAPAN
According to the Statistics Bureau of Japan, convenience stores are defined as small-sized
retailers whose space is more than 30 ㎡ and less than 250 ㎡, opening 24 hours a day or for longer
hours with the self-service style and selling a limited range of goods mainly foods and beverages for
daily consumption[8]. At convenience stores in Japan, people can buy all kinds of hot and cold foods
and beverages as well as commodities for daily use. Moreover, they even offer postal service and
private home delivery service. People can pay even the utility bills. In short, convenience stores in
Japan are truly convenient. Japanese lifestyle is based on the convenience, thus Japanese society can
be regarded as “a convenience-oriented” society.
It is plausible to say that going to convenience stores is almost a habit for Japanese people.
In Japan, one of the typical daily activities is to go to convenience stores to buy daily commodities as
well as foods and beverages. According to the statistics conducted by the Ministry of Economy, Trade
and Industry of Japan, the number of the convenience stores in Japan is more than 42,000 [9]. Other
surveys support that going to convenience stores is essential to Japanese people's daily activities. For
instance, more than 60% of Japanese men and women who are over 20 years old go to convenience
stores at least once a week, men in the 20s go to convenience stores every two days, and more than
80% of women in the 20s go to convenience stores every day [10][11][12].
Convenience stores in Japan have developed differently from the ones in other countries [13].
Since the first convenient store was established in the late 1960s, the number of the convenience stores
has kept increasing. Convenience stores in Japan pursue, literally, “the convenience”. People can get
almost everything and they can do almost everything that they have to do in their daily life at a
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convenience store ― posting, payment, and so on―. Most of the convenience stores in Japan are
open 24 hours. Convenience stores in Japan are literally convenient.
CASE STUDY
Based on the methodology of group dynamics, the thoroughgoing participant observation
was conducted at a convenience store in Kyoto, Japan from June to August in 2008. I worked as a
part-timer. I did just the same as co-workers as a job. I was mainly a casher and cleaner. When there
were not so many customers inside the store, I had to do many things such as displaying goods and so
on. Working just like other employees, I collected the ethnography and recorded the dialogues between
the employees and the customers, their behavior and every conversation in the store as well as the
manuals given by the franchiser.
The main purposes of this participant observation are to collect the ethnography, to observe
the behavior of the customers and the workers, and to analyze the communication and the relationship
among the franchiser, franchisee and the customers based on the ethnography I obtained during this
participant observation.
Responding to the recent growing environmental awareness, convenience stores have
engaged in a variety of efforts to conduct the environment-friendly management, and the convenience
store where I conducted the participant observation was no exception. This convenience store received
various manuals given by the franchiser about the enhancement of the environment-friendly activities
which had never been followed.
RESULTS
The inconsistent orders for the franchisee from the franchiser and the fear of the franchisee
for the opportunity loss were observed. The franchiser ordered the franchisee to conduct
environment-friendly activities. The franchisee, however, disobeyed the orders from the franchiser
although the franchisee tried to follow the orders at first.
It was also found that the franchisee had the belief that the customers did not expect the
franchisee to conduct the environment-friendly activities for the reason that the franchisee knew that
most of the customers were convenience-oriented. Thus, the franchisee put priority on satisfying the
needs of the customers, which means making more profit by avoiding the opportunity loss, rather than
practicing the environment-friendly activities according to the manuals given by the franchiser.
DISCUSSION
It is affirmed that the dilemma mainly caused by the inconsistent orders by the franchiser
and the fear of the franchisee for the opportunity loss was a factor of the franchisee‟s unwillingness to
conduct the environment-friendly activities. Let us discuss this dilemma through the lens of each side.
The franchiser cares about the profit and it believes that practicing environment-friendly
activities leads to more profit because it thinks the customers prefer the company which is keen on
environment-friendly activities. It also believes that satisfying all the needs of the customers also leads
to more profit. Therefore the franchiser orders the franchisee to carry out the environment-friendly
activities as well as to make more profit and satisfy all the needs of the customers at the same time.
The franchiser, however, does not follow the orders. The franchisee tries to follow the orders from the
franchiser at first, but eventually it begins concentrating on only making more profit and satisfying the
needs of the customers. Under such circumstances, through the lens of the franchiser, the franchisee
does not make any effort to make more profit with the disobedience to their orders.
The franchisee cares about the profit, however, unlike the franchiser, the franchisee believes
that carrying out environment-friendly activities leads to less profit. Through the lens of the franchisee,
the orders from the franchiser are deeply conflicting because carrying out environment-friendly
activities does not mean making more profit and satisfying the needs of the customers. That is to say,
the orders from the franchiser are incompatible. At first, the franchisee tries to conduct the
environment-friendly activities according to the manuals given by the franchiser, but the franchisee
soon gives up following the manuals and concentrates on satisfying the needs of the customers because
the franchisee fears the opportunity loss.
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This causes the dilemma. Behind the convenience-oriented norm lies this dilemma. It leads
the franchisee to the disobedience to the orders from the franchiser, the environment-unfriendly
management and the convenience-oriented norm.
CONCLUSION
The dilemma mainly caused by the inconsistent orders by the franchiser and the fear of the
franchisee for the opportunity loss was found in the relationship between the franchiser and the
franchisees, wielding the bad influence on the behavior of the employees and the customers.
For the betterment of the environment-friendly management, the solution of the dilemma is a
key. Then, the fundamental conversion of the norm and the creation of the new meaning of the
environment-friendly action leading people to the environment-friendly behavior at convenience stores
are needed for the environment-friendly management. This will eventually lead people to the
environment-friendly daily life.
References
[1] H. Kim, 2001, Innovations of the Convenience-store Industry, Yuhikaku, Japan.
[2] T. Sugiman, 2006, Theory in the Context of Collaborative Inquiry, Theory & Psychology, (16)
311-325.
[3] K. Lewin, 1947, Frontiers in Group Dynamics: I. Concept, method and reality in social science;
social equilibria, Human Relations, (1) 5-41.
[4] K. Lewin, 1947, Frontiers in Group Dynamics: II. Channels of Group Life; Social Planning and
Action Research, Human Relations, (1) 143-154.
[5] T. Sugiman, 1998, Group Dynamics in Japan, Asian Journal of Social Psychology, (1) 51-74.
[6] T. Sugiman, 2008, A Theory of Construction and Norm and Meaning: Osawa‟s Theory of Body,
In T. Sugiman, K. J. Gergen, W. Wagner, and Y. Yamada, Meaning in Action: Constructions,
Narratives, and Representations, Springer-Verlag, 135-148
[7] T. Sugiman, From Empirical Fact-finding to Collaborative Practice, In T. Sugiman, M. karasawa,
J. H. Liu, and C. Ward (Eds.), Progress in Asian Social Psychology, (2) 3-7.
[8] Classification of commerce, 2004, the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry of Japan,
Available online:
http://www.meti.go.jp/statistics/tyo/syougyo/result-2/h16/pdf/niji/riyou-gyou.pdf (accessed on
3rd October 2011).
[9] Commerce trend analysis, the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry of Japan, 2011, Statistics
on commerce, Available online:
http://www.meti.go.jp/statistics/tyo/syoudou/result/pdf/h2sk4-6j.pdf (accessed on 3rd
October 2011).
[10] Nomura Research Institute, Ltd., 1998, Kawariyuku nihonjin, Nomura Research Institute, Ltd.,
Japan.
[11] Nomura Research Institute, Ltd., 2001, Zoku kawariyuku nihonjin, Nomura Research Institute,
Ltd., Japan.
[12] Nomura Research Institute, Ltd., 2001, Taisyukasuru IT syohi, Toyo Keizai Inc., Japan.
[13] H. Kim, 2001, Innovations of the Convenience-store Industry, Yuhikaku, Japan.
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RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN CHEMICAL COMPONENTS OF WOOD AND THEIR
SUGAR RELEASED
Wahyu Dwianto1*, Fitria1, Ika Wahyuni1, Danang Sudarwoko Adi1, N. Sri Hartati2,
Rumi Kaida3, and Takahisa Hayashi3 1Research and Development Unit for Biomaterials, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, INDONESIA
2Research Center for Biotechnology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, INDONESIA 3Department of Bioscience, Tokyo University of Agriculture, JAPAN
Corresponding author: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
A study on the relationship between chemical components of wood and their sugar released
for ethanol production has been carried out. About 100 hardwoods collected from three botanical
gardens in Indonesia, i.e. Cibodas, Purwodadi and Bali were taken as the samples. Three major wood
components were analysed, i.e. cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. The sugar released from
enzymatic saccharification of woods was determined using Nelson-Somogyi method. The results show
varied relationships between sugar released and chemical components of wood. As for cellulose, it can
be seen that the content of cellulose in wood was not exactly related to its sugar released. This trend
was also occurred for the relationship between hemicellulose and sugar released. However, lignin
content in woods gave an expected trend where the less lignin content, the higher the sugar released.
Keywords: lignocellulosic, enzymatic saccharification, chemical components, sugar released, lignin.
INTRODUCTION
Woody biomass is considered as one potentially important renewable source of bioethanol.
This type of energy is called the second-generation biofuel, which is biofuel derived from
lignocellulosic materials [1]. The goal of making woody biomass feasible as bioethanol feedstock
might now seem to be impossible in the near future. However, as fossil-based energy is becoming
limited, this wood-based ethanol could be a good alternative due to its renewable characteristic. Many
researches to unlocking the feasible process for this wood-to-ethanol energy are currently on going,
which is conducted in various ways and points of importance.
The conversion of wood to ethanol is preferred to be environmentally friendly since this new
source of energy is not only regarded as promising source but also expected to significantly reduce
negative environmental impact due to greenhouse gas emission. Therefore, bioconversion involving
enzymatically hydrolysis is considered as a good option as it requires low energy and less pollution [2].
This enzymatic hydrolysis is used to enable the release of sugar derived from cellulose and
hemicellulose even though the simultaneous hydrolysis of both polymers is currently difficult to take
place. On the other hand, the structure of woody biomass is recalcitrant to sugar released, makes this
process very challenging to take place in a cheap and efficient way. The study of the primary barrier to
releasing sugar from lignocellulosic biomass would support the improvement of lignocellulosic
bioethanol production.
Wood is mainly comprised of cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin where the crystalline
bundles of cellulose are embedded in a covalently linked matrix of hemicellulose and lignin [3]. The
cellulose and hemicellulose fractions that comprise about two-thirds to three-quarters of
lignocellulosic materials can be hydrolysed enzymatically to release the sugars that in turn can be
converted into ethanol. Nevertheless, cellulose is considered as the most important ethanol source
since it can be broken down into glucose that is further fermented into ethanol. Unlike cellulose,
hemicellulose releases two forms of sugars, the pentoses and hexoses, where the pentoses are not
readily fermented to ethanol, making the cellulose the only preferable component for hydrolysis. The
condition of close association of the three major wood components resulted in many researches on
effective pretreatment process to disrupt this association as its main goal is to increase the enzyme
[EnE-048]
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accessibility improving digestibility of cellulose [1,4,5,6,7]. Therefore, the chemical components of
certain materials are understandable to be the major consideration in choosing the most suitable
feedstock for bioethanol. Hence study on the relationship of wood chemical components and its sugar
released is important to confirm the effect of this association.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Xylem Preparation
Branches of 101 hardwood species were cut out from mature trees collected from Cibodas,
Purwodadi, and Bali Botanical Gardens. Their barks were peeled and their xylems were dried in an
oven at 70°C. The xylems were then milled into powder (40-60 mesh) using a ball mill. The powder
was used as a xylem preparation for saccharification.
Chemical Analysis
Chemical analysis was carried out to determine three wood components, i.e. cellulose,
hemicellulose, and lignin. Xylem preparation was ground in liquid nitrogen and the resulting fine
powder was successively extracted 4 times with water and 24% KOH containing 0.1% NaBH4. The
insoluble wall residue (cellulose fraction) was washed twice with water. The amount of cellulose was
determined by measuring the acid-insoluble residue; the samples were extracted with acetic/nitric
reagent (80% acetic acid/concentrated nitric acid, 10:1) in a boiling water bath for 30 min [8] and the
resulting insoluble material was washed in water and freeze-dried. Total sugar in each fraction was
determined by the phenol-sulfuric acid method [9]. Lignin content was determined by the Klason
method [10].
Enzymatic Saccharification
The enzymatic sacharification was conducted through hydrolysation of wood meal by
commercial cellulose [11]. One hundred milligrams of meal was autoclaved at 120°C for 3 min to
impregnate it with water, and washed once with water by centrifugation. A commercial cellulase
preparation (Meicelase, Meiji Seika, Tokyo, Japan) derived from Trichoderma viride was used to
digest the meal samples. Enzymatic hydrolysis of the meal samples was performed in 2 ml of 50 mM
sodium acetate buffer, pH 4.8, containing 0.02% Tween 20 and 0.4 filter paper units of the cellulase
preparation (2.0 mg). The mixture was incubated at 45°C in a rotary shaker set at 135 rpm. About 100
μl of the supernatant was collected at 6, 24, and 48 h after the start of hydrolysis and used for sugar
analysis. The quantity of sugar released was estimated as reducing sugar by the Nelson-Somogyi
method [12].
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The results were plotted on the graphs of chemical components against sugar released as
shown in Figure 1. Analysis of relationship between wood compositions and sugar released of all
wood samples tested revealed various patterns among cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin content.
Cellulose and hemicellulose contents demonstrated weak correlation with sugar released. Correlation
between lignin content and sugar released was more pronounced, were the lower the lignin content of
wood samples, the higher the sugar released. The complexity of wood structure and high lignin content
were estimated to be the major cause that inhibits contact between cellulose and the enzyme in
sacharification process. We assumed that lignin was the primary obstacle to releasing sugar in several
wood samples tested. The wood with lower lignin content will give higher cellulosic ethanol
production which ultimately will reduce the processing cost. This statement goes along with some
previous researches [13,14,15] saying that removal of lignin can effectively increase cellulose
hydrolysis, in other words result in higher sugar-released. The structure of lignin which is made up of
cross-linked network polymers, gives the plant structural support, impermeability, resistance against
microbial attack, and oxidative stress, limits the accessibility of enzymes and the rate of hydrolysis by
acting as a shield, preventing the digestible parts of the substrate from being hydrolyzed [15].
[EnE-048]
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Figure 1. Relationships between major chemical components of wood and their sugar released.
Since we expect woods with higher cellulose content should produce higher sugar released,
this research confirmed that any wood should be investigated individually to see its suitability for
bioethanol production. It might occur that even though the wood has high level of cellulose, the
composition of its other chemical components such as hemicellulose and lignin may act as inhibitors
in the conversion of its cellulose into reducing sugar that will be further converted into ethanol.
However, even though this study shows lignin is the main factor affecting the sugar released with the
same result is also obtained by many other studies stated above, other study shows that improving the
surface area accessible to cellulase is a more important factor for achieving a high sugar yield [16].
Since the cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin are present in varying amounts in the different parts of
the plant and form the structural framework of the plant cell wall which depends on plant species, age
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and growth conditions [13], their contribution on the amount of sugar released is not just in the matter
of their quantity on plants, especially woods, but also on how they are distributed and on growth
condition involved. It is also mentioned by Chandra et al. [17] that the chemical, physical and
morphological characteristics of the heterogeneous lignocellulosic substrates influenced the
effectiveness of enzymatic hydrolysis.
CONCLUSIONS
High cellulose content of wood is not the only indicator of its high ability to produce high
sugar released. The complexity of wood structure makes it necessary to always examine the other two
components, hemicellulose and lignin where lignin seems to be the most prominent component that
affects the sugar released.
References
[1] P, Alvira, E. Tomás-Pejó, M. Ballesteros, M.J. Negro, 2010, Pretreatment technologies for an
efficient bioethanol production process based on enzymatic hydrolysis: A review. Bioresource
Technology, (101) 4851-4861.
[2] R. Gupta, Y.P. Khasa, R.C. Kuhad, 2011, Evaluation of pretreatment methods in improving the
enxymatic saccharification of cellulosic materials, Carbohydrates Polymers, (84) 1103-1109.
[3] L.O. Ingram, J.B. Doran, 1995, Conversion of cellulosesic materials to ethanol, Fems
Microbiology Reviews, (16) 235-241.
[4] W.K. El-Zawawy, M.M. Ibrahim, Y.R. Abdel-Fattah, N.A. Soliman, M.M. Mahmoud, 2011, Acid
and enzyme hydrolysis to convert pretreated lignocellulosic materials into glucose for ethanol
production, Carbohydrate Polymers, (84) 865-871.
[5] N. Mosier, C. Wyman, B. Dale, R. Elander, Y.Y. Lee, M. Holtzapple, M. Ladisch, 2005. Features
of promising technologies for pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass. Bioresource Technology,
(96) 673-686.
[6] M. Galbe, G. Zacchi, 2007, Pretreatment of lignocellulosic materials for efficient bioethanol
production, Adv Biochem Engin/Biotechnol, (108) 41-65.
[7] Y.N. Guragain, J. De Coninck, F. Husson, A. Durand, S.K. Rakshit, 2011, Comparison of some
new pretreatment methods for second generation bioethanol production from wheat straw and
water hyacinth. Bioresource Technology, (102) 4416-4424. [8] D.M. Updegraff, 1969, Semimicro determination of cellulose in biological materials. Anal.
Chem., (32) 420-424. [9] M. Dubois, K.A. Gilles, J.K. Hamilton, P.A. Rebers, F. Smith, 1956, Colorimetric method for
determination of sugars and related substances. Anal Chem., (28) 350-356.
[10] V.L. Chiang, M, Funaoka, 1990, The dissolution and condensation reactions of guaiacyl and
syringyl units in residual lignin during kraft delignification of sweetgum, Holzforschung, 44(2)
147-155.
[11] R. Kaida, T. Kaku, K. Baba, S. Hartati, E. Sudarmonowati, T. Hayashi, 2007, Enhancement of
saccharification by overexpression of poplar cellulase in sengon, J. Wood Sci, (55) 435-440.
[12] M. Somogyi, 1952, Notes on sugar determination, J. Biol. Chem., (195) 19-23.
[13] H. Jørgensen, J.B. Kristensen, C. Felby, 2007, Enzymatic conversion of lignocellulose into
fermentable sugars: challenges and opportunities. Biofuels, Bioproducts and Biorefining, (1)
119-134.
[14] M.J. Taherzadeh, K. Karimi, 2008, Pretreatment of lignocellulosic wastes to improve ethanol and
biogas production: A Review, Int. J. Mol. Sci., (9) 1621-1651.
[15] Y. Yamashita, C. Sasaki, Y. Nakamura, 2010, Effective enzyme saccharification and ethanol
production from Japanese cedar using various pretreatment methods. Journal of Bioscience and
Bioengineering, (110) 79-86.
[16] J.A. Rollin, Z.G. Zhu, N. Sathitsuksanoh, Y.H.P. Zhang, 2011, Increasing cellulose accessibility is
more important than removing lignin: A comparison of cellulose solvent-based lignocellulose
fractionation and soaking in aqueous ammonia, Biotechnology and Bioengineering, (108) 22-30.
[17] R.P. Chandra, R. Bura, W.E. Mabee, A. Berlin, X. Pan, J.N. Saddler, 2007, Substrate
pretreatment: The key to effective enzymatic hydrolysis of lignocellulosics? Biofuels.
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A PRELIMINARY STUDY OF ADSORPTION AND DESORPTION CHARATERISTICS OF
ORGANIC SORBENT POWDER IN
TWO CONNECTED FLUIDIZED BEDS
Akihiko HORIBE1, Sukmawaty1*, Naoto HARUKI1, Daiki HIRAISHI1
1Graduate School of Natural Science and Technology, Okayama University
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Desiccant air conditioning system using organic sorbent in two fluidized bed chambers
which connected with spiral tube was experimentally studied. While one fluidized bed removes
moisture from the supply air, the other is regenerated by a heated air flow. The experiments were
carried out under the various conditions such as air flow rate, desorption air temperature and spiral
speed. Adsorption and desorption characteristics of the organic sorbent materials show that adsorption
and desorption performance promoted by increasing air flow rate and desorption air temperature. For
spiral revolution speed, it was found that the optimal value depend on the driving conditions.
Keywords: sorption, desorption, organic sorbent, fluidized bed chambers, spiral.
INTODUCTION
Desiccant air conditioning system has been continuously growing during the past several
years. This system is considered as a good alternative for air conditioning because it can be a good
system to overcome the disadvantages of traditional vapor compression air conditioning system.
Desiccant air conditioning system can be reduce the use of CFCs that known as ozone destroyer.
Desiccant can be regenerated (reactivated) by application of heat to release the moisture where the heat
can be from abundant waste heat energy that classified as new energy source which is free and harmful
to the environment. Decreasing the cost of desiccant dehumidification system and improving their
performance can be providing more opportunities for this technology.
The inorganic adsorbent such as silica gel and zeolite etc. have been used generally in this
system, but this adsorption heat cycles has been pervaded to a lesser extent due to degradation
phenomenon of powdering the inorganic adsorbent caused by expansion and shrinkage of the
adsorbents under the adsorption and desorption processes. One of the adsorbents for solving this
problem against the inorganic adsorbents is an organic adsorbent like adsorption polymers. Sorption
polymers as an organic adsorbent (HU720PR) are used as desiccant material.
Heat and mass transfer characteristics of a packed fluidized bed with organic powder with
result that the completion time for the adsorption process was increase with decreasing the air
temperature and the air flow rate and by increasing the air relative humidity (1), dynamic sorption
characteristics of organic sorbent (2) and sorption process of organic sorbent in fluidized bed with
cooling pipe, the measured result revealed that the sorption process was accelerated and the water
uptake ability was improved by the cooling effect of water flowing through multiple pipes (3) had
been investigated in our laboratory.
The main section of the desiccant cooling system is the desiccant bed. The cooling system
capability is mainly affected by the characteristics of heat and mass transfer of the desiccant. One of
the advantages of fluidized bed is the rate of heat and mass transfer between gas and particle high
compare with other modes of contacting (4).
Differently from previous work that desorption process occur after sorption process finishes.
At the present work, to make the system working continuously, sorption and desorption process take
place at the same time. Sorption process in one chamber and desorption process in the other one, and
sorbent is transferred from desorption chamber to sorption chamber or vise versa continuously. The
objective of this study was to investigate the operation of continuous fluidized bed in sorption and
desorption process (humidity, temperature and flow rate). In this study Heat and mass transfer were
considered to evaluate the effect of air velocity and sorbent mass on the sorption and desorption rates.
[EnE-059]
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EXPERIMENTAL SET UP AND PROCEDURE
The set-up of the experimental apparatus for adsorption and desorption operation on
continuous fluidized bed of organic sorbent is depicted in Figure 1. The experimental apparatus mainly
consists of air compressor, an after cooler, filter, membrane dryer, humidifier and temperature
controller, heater, flow meter, adsorption and desorption chambers and spiral tubes that connected the
two chambers.
Air compressor compressed the air into a desired pressure (regular output power of 3.7 kW,
maximum output pressure 0.93 MPa, maximum output air flow rate 0.4 m3/s). The air pass through the
after cooler for eliminating the heat that generated by air compressor. Then, the air went through the
air purifier system that is composed an air filter that capable to eliminate dust over 0.3 μm in diameter
The air is blown through the membrane dryer to reduce its humidity.
The humidity of air is controlled by the operation of air bubble distributor in the moisture
control unit of the humidifier. The temperature of the hot water in the humidifier could be controlled
by adjusting output electric power of an electric heater. The before enter the test section moisture
control unit is made from stainless steel. After passing the humidifier, and, there is another heater
that the temperature could be controlled by adjusting output electric power with a PID control unit.
Figure1. Experimental set up
Flow rate control valve and flow rate meter functioned to control the air flow velocity at the
desired value. For low velocity, the measuring accuracy 2.5 % and with velocity measuring range 0.02
m3/s – 0.1m3/s. At the air controller, the inlet air temperature and the inlet air relative humidity have
become possible to flow the air to the test section. Pressure gauge is used to measure the air pressure at
the inlet of the test section.
K type of thermocouple, with diameter 0.32 mm and measuring accuracy of ± 0.1 °C, was
used to discover the test powder sorbent profile temperature. One of them was set at the inlet of test
section, at the center of the sorbent powder chamber and the other one was set at the exit point of the
sorbent at the screw. To obtain the temperature of inlet and outlet air, K type thermocouples with 0.32
mm in diameter and measuring accuracy of ± 0.1 °C was used. The humidity of inlet and outlet air was
measured with dew-point hygrometer with measuring accuracy of 0.2°C.
The experiment procedure is as follows. First of all, sorption material is dried in dry oven
with temperature 105°C until water vapor completely removed. Then the sorption material with
specified mass is filled into the test section. After that air with certain temperature, humidity and
velocity is exhaled into the desiccant chamber. After the condition that set is reached, spiral switch on
with the desired speed. Temperature, humidity and dew point temperature inlet, at the chamber and
outlet are recorded every 30 seconds. Experimental data was taken until the sorption and desorption
reaction reaches equilibrium level.
Amount of dehumidification was calculated from absolute humidity differences multiplied by
air mass flow rate.
P.I.D
Compressor
After
cooler
Membrane
Dryer
Air Heater
Flow Meter
Test section
Humidifier
Filter
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RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Figure 2. Sorption isotherm diagram
Sorption material that use in this research is HU720PR, type powder of organic sorbent.
Mean diameter of the sorbent is 113 μm with density 931 kg/m3. Figure 2 shows the sorption isotherm
diagram of silica gel (type A and type B) and powder of organic sorbent. Ratio mw/m0 means the
mass ratio of sorbed water vapor, mw to the dried organic sorbent, m0 and it was named
non-dimensional sorption ratio. The data of mw/m0 for the organic sorbent is greater than that of
silica gel over the whole relative humidity range; shows that this material can sorb more water vapor
by the expansion phenomena. It could be concluded that this organic sorbent is the suitable material
for high relative humidity range because it can uptake water vapor more than 2 times than silica gel
with running condition 80%RH.
The experimental examinations have been carried out to investigate the heat and mass
transfer behavior in the sorption and desorption process. Test conditions are desorption inlet air
temperature TD is 50°C, dew point temperature 21.4 °C and absolute humidity 0.016 kg/kg, sorption
inlet air temperature TS is 30°C, dew point temperature 21.4 and 0.016 kg/kg. Spiral speed is 100 rpm
that can carry about 50 g/minutes sorbent from desorption to sorption chamber or vise versa. Sorbent
mass is varied depends on the treatment.
Figure 3. Amount of dehumidification with difference air velocity
0.03 0.04 0.050
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
u0[m/s]
md[g
/min
]
desorption sorption
[D inlet condition] [other condition] 50℃ 0.016kg/kg' spiral speed 100rpm, [S inlet condition] sorbent mass 400 g 30℃ 0.016kg/kg' (each chamber 200g)
20 40 60 80 100
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0
:HU720PR (30℃)
\ \ :silica gel A (30℃)++++ :silica gel B (30℃)
ψ[%RH]
mw
/m0[-
]
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If a good contact between the sorbent particle and air is important, high speed of air velocity is
tried. But the high speed of air does not assure good contact between sorbent particle and the air. To
investigate the effect of inlet air velocity, desorption and sorption experiments were conduct for air
velocity 0.033, 0.042 and 0.048 m/s. The effect of process air velocity on the sorption and desorption
capacity can be seen in Figure 3. The inlet condition of desorption and sorption chambers are as
follows: TD 50 °C, TS 30 °C, dew point temperature is 21.4 °C, sorbent mass rate about 50 g/minute.
As shown in figure, higher sorption and desorption capacity is attained at air velocity 0.048 m/s.
Increasing the air flow velocity indicates a larger amount of air passing through the fluidized bed per
unit time, this causing the amount of bubble increase, so the contact surface area between air and
sorbent increase which will increase the performance of the sorbent. Increasing air velocity also effect
the decreasing of boundary layer concentration between air and sorbent which will increase the
sorption and desorption capacity. This result accordance with Hamed (4), which increasing the velocity
will increase sorption ratio of the sorbent particle.
Figure 4. Typical apartment figure
The regeneration temperature is a key parameter for desorption process. Figure5 shows the
effect of desorption inlet temperature to sorption and desorption process. The test conditions are:
sorption inlet temperature 30 °C, moisture content of both chambers are 0.016 kg/kg, sorbent mass is
400 g and spiral speed is 100 rpm. Since sorption inlet temperature is constant, the experiment result
shows that desorption inlet temperature effect to the amount of dehumidification of desorption and
adsorption process. Increased desorption inlet temperature will be increase sorbent temperature
balance in both chambers, this caused sorption performance also increased. These phenomena can be
explained as increasing desorption temperature decrease the moisture content of the sorption materials
and also removed their surface moisture content where can be improved the ability of sorption
materials at sorption chamber to sorbed the water vapor of the flow air. Rong-Luan (11) explained that
uptake capacities of silica gel of desiccant-based air conditioning system increase marginally with the
increased of regeneration temperature over the range of 379-441 K. Ramzy (12) also explained that
lower values of the humidity of air at bed exit could be attained with increase in regeneration
temperature.
In this part, we discuss the consideration of revolution spiral impact and examined it at
various experimental conditions. The basic conditions of the experiments are as follows, desorption air
condition: temperature 50 ℃, superficial velocity 0.033 m/s, sorption air condition the: temperature
30 ℃, superficial velocity 0.033 m/s, the amount of sorbent filling 400 g.
40 50 60 70-0.02
0
0.02
0.04
[D inlet condition] [other condition] 40,50,60,70℃ 0.016kg/kg' spiral speed : 100rpm[S inlet condition] sorbent mass: 400g 30℃ 0.016kg/kg' each chamber 200g) flow rate : 0.033 m/s
Desorption Sorption
TDin [℃]
md[g
/min
]
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Figure 5. Amount of dehumidification with difference spiral speed
Figure 5 shows the effects on the spiral revolution speed ω= 10, 20, 30, 50 and 100 rpm. It is
seen that the highest amount of dehumidification is achieved at the lowest spiral speed. These
phenomena can be explained by Figure 6. For low spiral revolution speed, the difference temperature
of the sorbents ΔT is high that can be affect the sorbent performance. Temperature difference at low
spiral revolution speed is the highest and accordance with the sorbent performance.
Figure 6. Sorbent temperature difference with difference spiral speed
CONCLUSIONS
• Adsorption and desorption performance are promoted by increasing air flow rate and
desorption inlet temperature.
• Spiral speed revolution effect the adsorption and desorption performance.
• Temperature difference between the sorbent accordance with the adsorption and desorption
performance.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Sukmawaty, lecturer in Mataram University, is grateful to Directorate General Higher Education
Indonesia for the scholarship support.
0 50 1000
2
4
6
8
10[D inlet condition] [other condition] 50℃ 0.016kg/kg' flow rate : 0.033 m/s[S inlet condition] sorbent mass: 400g 30℃ 0.016kg/kg' (each chamber 200g)
ω [rpm]
T
[℃
]
0 20 40 60 80 1000
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
[D inlet condition] [other condition] 50℃ 0.016kg/kg' 0.033 m/s sorbent mass: 400g[S inlet condition] (each chamber 200g) 30℃ 0.016kg/kg' 0.033 m/s
ω [rpm]
md [
g/m
in]
desorption sorption
[EnE-059]
~ 458 ~
References
[1] H Inaba, A Horibe, K Kameda, N Haruki, and T Kida, 2000, Heat and Mass Transfer of a
Fluidized Bed Packed With Organic Powder Type Adsorption Material. Proceeding of the
Symposium on Energy Engineering in the 21st Century, Hong Kong, Jan. 9-13.
[2] H Inaba, 1998, Heat and Mass Transfer Characteristics of New Adsorption Polymers for
Advanced Adsorption Cycle. Therm. Sci.Eng. 6(1), pp. 11-18.
[3] A Horibe, S Husain, H Inaba, N Haruki, P Tu, 2008, An Experimental Investigation of Sorption
Process in Fluidized Bed with Cooling Pipe. Journal of Heat Transfer, 130, pp. 114509-1 –
114509-4.
[4] D Kunii, O Lavensviel, 1977, Fluidization Engineering. Robert E. Krieger publishing Co, New
York.
[5] Y Rong-Luan, Tushar K.G., Anthony L.H., 1992. Effects of regeneration conditions on the
characteristics of water vapor adsorption on silica gel. J. Chem. Eng. Data 1992, 37, 259-261.
[6] A.K Ramzy, A.M Hamed, M.M Awad, M.M Bekheit, 2010, Theoretical investigation on the
cyclic operation of radial flow desiccant bed dehumidifier. J. Eng. And Tech. Research Vol.2(6),
96-110.
[EnE-060]
~ 459 ~
DECAY TIME EFFECT OF SPENT FUEL LWR ON FBR FUEL BREEDING
CAPABILITY
Sidik Permana
Department of Science and Technology for Nuclear Material Management (STNM),
Japan Atomic Energy Agency (JAEA)
Nuclear Physics and Biophysics Research Group, Physics Department,
Bandung Institute of Technology
*Corresponding author: [email protected]; [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Decay time effect of spent fuel (SF) light water reactors (LWR) on fuel breeding capability of
fast breeder reactor (FBR) has been evaluated. Accumulated SF LWR in term of isotopic composition
gives a different composition during decay time process due to a different half time of nuclides and
converted nuclide from one nuclide to another. Those accumulated SF LWR are loaded into FBR core
as initial fresh fuel in MOX fuel form. Fuel breeding capability is strongly depending on the fuel
composition of initial fuel as well as changing fuel composition due to irradiation process of the
reactors and some design specifications. Longer decay time of SF LWR fuel composition as initial
loaded fuel in FBR core, shows better breeding capability of FBR, especially in beginning of cycle and
slightly higher at equilibrium condition. Building-up of plutonium composition from the initial loaded
process and during irradiation process is the important item.
Keywords: Decay time, SF LWR, fuel breeding, FBR core, Plutonium
INTRODUCTION
Sustainability of nuclear fuel in term of fuel breeding and recycled and reused nuclear
material as well as reduction of nuclear waste material becomes one of the important issues for nuclear
renaissance. Spent fuel or used fuel of the reactors can be treated as waste to be reduced or as new fuel
to be reused or recycled. Some recycling transuranic materials can be used for increasing the level of
proliferation resistance in relation to intrinsic aspect of nuclear non-proliferation issue [1-4]. In
addition, recycling transuranic material will also increase the fuel breeding capability of the reactors
which is mainly comes from the increase of plutonium productions [5]. The optimization option can be
adopted for Recycling transuranic material program to achieve a reduction of waste, high proliferation
resistance level as well as better fuel breeding capability as shown in Fig. 1. This evaluation intends to
investigate the effect of decay time to the composition of spent fuel (SF) from discharged fuel LWR.
This SF LWR will be adopted to be loaded into the FBR core. Some compositions of SF LWR which
depend on the decay time of cooling process will give some different capability of fuel breeding in
FBR. From the evaluation, it can be estimated the significant impact of SF LWR composition from
different decay time as initial fuel loaded into the fuel breeding capability of FBR design.
Waste
Spent Fuel
Burnt
Fuel
Recycle
U,Pu
MA,FP
Reduce SF
Volume and
Radio-Toxicity
Increasing Fuel
Breeding and
Nuclear
Nonproliferation
SF Recycling Option
Optimization
Fig. 1 Spent Fuel Recycling Option
[EnE-060]
~ 460 ~
METHODOLOGY
Investigation of SF composition of LWR will be conducted by adopted well established code,
ORIGEN code for standard PWR fuel burnup and different decay times after the fuel are discharged
from the LWR. Those compositions of SF LWR will be loaded into FBR design and whole core and
burnup analysis will be done by CITATION Code. Fuel breeding capability is evaluated based on the
reaction rate of fissile and fertile materials of uranium and plutonium including additional contribution
from Pu-238.
DISCUSSIONS
Each actinide has its own composition and it changes as a function of decay time. The
change of composition due to the change of decay process is depend on individual half-life and shorter
half-life will give significant changes during decay process such as Pu-241 and Pu-238 as shown in
Fig. 2. Other actinides show a constant composition during decay process which means their half-life
much longer than the shorter one. SF LWR composition of longer decay time as initial loaded fuel into
FBR design gives an increase of breeding capability especially for the beginning of cycle (BOC) of
FBR. Initial composition give a significant value for increasing fuel breeding capability is estimated
from the high vector composition of fissile materials from converted fertile materials especially for
plutonium composition. In case of equilibrium condition for all initial fissile material composition,
additional fissile material compositions are also produced during reactor operation which give almost
the same level of breeding, although slightly higher level for longer decay time composition as shown
in Fig. 3.
100
1000
104
105
106
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
U-234
U-236
U-235
U-238
Pu-238
Pu-239
Pu-240
Pu-241
Pu-242
Ac
tin
ide C
om
po
sit
ion
[g
ram
s/1
MT
]
Decay Time [Years]
U-235
U-236
U-238
U-234
Pu-239
Pu-240
Pu-242
Pu-238
CONCLUSIONS
Decay time effect on SF LWR composition as initial loaded material to the fuel breeding
capability of FBR design have been carried out. The results show that longer decay time of SF LWR
fuel composition as initial loaded fuel in FBR design, gives better fuel breeding capability of FBR,
particularly in the BOC and slightly higher at equilibrium condition. Increasing fissile Plutonium
composition from the initial loaded process and during irradiation process is the important item.
References
[1] M. Saito, et al., 2002, Prog. in Nuc. Energy, 40 (3-4), 365-374
[2] International Atomic Energy Agency, 1972, Information Circular, INFCIRC/153
[3] B. Pellaud, 2002, J. Nucl. Mater. Managements, XXXI(1),30-38
[4] G. Kessler, 2007, Nucl. Sci. and Eng., 155, 53-73
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
1.1
1.2
5 10 15 30
BOC
EOEC
Bre
ed
ing
Rati
o [
-]
Decay Time [Years]
Fig. 2 Actinide composition of SF
LWR as a function of decay time
Fig. 3 Breeding Ratio of FBR for different
decay time of initial SF LWR composition
[EnE-061]
~ 462 ~
FUTURE NATURAL GAS PRICE PREDICTION IN INDONESIA
USING NETBACK MARKET VALUE METHOD
Erwin Gitarisyana1 Athikom Bangviwat1* Jaruwan Chontanawat2 Djoni Bustan3 1 The Joint Graduate School of Energy and Environment, KMUTT, Bangkok, Thailand
2 Department of Social Sciences and Humanities, School of Liberal Arts, King Mongkut‟s University
of Technology Thonburi, Bangkok, Thailand 3 Department of Chemical Engineering of the Graduate Program of Sriwijaya University, Palembang
Indonesia
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Natural gas prices in most countries are determined based on crude oil prices. The natural gas
price may not reflect the actual cost especially when crude oil prices spike sharply. This study
employed the netback market value (NMV) method to calculate natural gas price using weighting
factors for competitive fuels of each sector. From data for 2000 – 2009, it was found that natural gas in
Indonesia was sold to end users in the domestic market at average prices 15% - 96% cheaper than the
calculated market values, and 16% - 145% lower than the export prices. By using data from Agency
Assessment and Application of Energy in Indonesia or Badan Pengkajian and Penerapan Teknologi
(BPPT), and adopting NMV and econometric forecasting methods, future gas market prices are
calculated. From the calculation, the netback market value during 2010 – 2015 is 5.22 to 8.86 USD/
MMBTU. The calculated prices are useful to control supply and demand for natural gas, because
Indonesia has plans to increase natural gas supply in the domestic market by building an LNG
receiving terminal, which is targeted to be in operation in 2012.
Keywords: Natural gas price, Netback market value (NMV)
INTRODUCTION
The world proven reserves of gas as of January, 1, 2010 amounted to 6,609 TCF(trillion
cubic feet)[1]. Indonesia was ranked 14th among the countries with natural gas reserves, of which its
proven natural gas reserves totaled 108.40 TCF[2], while its natural gas production was 3.1 TCF. If the
production is assumed to be constant, then reserve will last 37.4 years[3]. This could be less, because
energy demand tends to increase each years, which will affect the energy security of the country. In the
current year, Indonesia is the biggest natural gas exporter in Asia, and the second biggest natural gas
exporter in the world after Qatar. Figure 1 shows natural gas production and consumption in Indonesia
from 1980 to 2009, of which 50% of its production was exported to other countries[4]. From oil and
gas exports which gives major effect to economic growth, Indonesia has earned more than 30% of it‟s
national income in 2008[5]. In most countries, the natural gas price are determined by crude oil prices.
This may not reflect the actual cost of the natural gas, especially when crude oil prices spike sharply as
in the year 2008[6, 7].
In Indonesia the price of natural gas in the domestic market has been much lower than the
export price, which causes the natural gas producer to export rather than to sell in the domestic market.
Moreover, natural gas demand in Indonesia is still high, especially in the power plant sector where the
electrification ratio in Indonesia is still low, around 66% in 2009. The ratio between natural gas for the
export market and natural gas for the power plant sector in 2009 is still 3.54 : 1, of which 100% of
LNG production was exported to other countries[8]. Despite of the export of LNG, Indonesia plans to
operate the first LNG receiving terminal in 2012 in order to increase domestic natural gas
consumption[9]. If the price of natural gas is not attractive to the gas producers, then they tend to give
priority to the export market over the domestic market which requires a large investment cost to
generate a higher rate of return.
[EnE-061]
~ 463 ~
Figure 1 Natural Gas Production and Consumption in Indonesia in 1980-2009
Natural gas price prediction using netback market value is used to determine the value of
natural gas on producer side in perspective of domestic market. This prediction will be useful to
analyze the competitiveness of natural gas value in Indonesia compared to export. If the gap between
export price and domestic price can be minimized, the producer will tend to deliver more natural gas to
the domestic market, and the government‟s target to increase domestic consumption could be achieved.
METHODOLOGY
By applying the netback market value (NMV) method which calculates the price of natural
gas by using the prices and the weighting factors of the competitive fuels, with data from
2000-2009[10] to determine the market price of natural gas on the same period, it has been found that
the calculated market value is higher than the average selling price of the natural gas in the domestic
market, but is still competitive to the export price. The NMV method is used to determine natural gas
price at producer side with respect of domestic and export market by calculating the market price less
its delivery cost.
Transportation
Household Commercial
Other sectorIndustrial
EXPORT MARKET
Distance <
1,000km
Pipeline
Distance >
1,000km
Distance >
1,000km
Voyage transportation
Voyage transportation
DOMESTIC MARKET
NMV FOR GAS
PRODUCER PRICE
GAS DELIVERY
COST
Figure 2 Netback Market Value Schematic Concept
[EnE-061]
~ 464 ~
Natural gas prices for 2010 to 2015 are predicted by using netback market value method
and trend analysis. First, the share of other fuels competitive to natural gas for each sectors are
determined. BPPT as agency assessment and application of energy in Indonesia provides data for
future fuel consumption prediction for 2010 to 2015[11]. The data is used to calculate weighting
factors[6, 7] for competitive fuels, using formula (1):
WF = ESS × CES (1)
where:
ESS : Energy sector share is the share of each sector in the total energy consumption. The main
sectors are industrial, household, commercial, transportation, power plant and other sectors.
Note that in order to obtain the summation of 100 %, the shares of certain sectors with low
consumption were combined with others.
CES : Competing energy share signifies the market share of a competing energy in a consumption
sector. It is calculated by identifying the competitors to natural gas and using the ratio of
this competing energy to the total supply (excluding natural gas) of competing energies.
Energies that clearly do not compete with natural gas are excluded.
.
Second, prices of natural gas competitive fuels are predicted using trend analysis and
econometric forecasting methods based on data for 2000-2009 [8-10, 12-14]. Exponential, linear,
polynomial and logarithmic models are employed to fit the data. The coefficient of determination
R-squared of each model is calculated and used to determine the best fit. Third, the delivery cost from
natural gas producer to domestic market is estimated. This cost includes transportation[15], receiving
terminal and regasification[16], and pipeline transportation costs[9]. An inflation rate of 5.5% similar
to BPPT prediction and average Indonesian inflation from 1971 to 2007[17, 18] is included in the
calculation. Finally, the netback market value to determine natural gas price at producer side is
calculated [6, 7] using formula (2):
NMV = ∑(WFi × Pi) – C (2)
where:
NMV : Netback Market value of natural gas in a country,
WFi : Weighting factor for competing fuel i,
Pi : Price of competing fuel i, (retail price of competing energy in each consumption segment
in price per unit of volume)
C : Domestic cost of delivery of natural gas (estimated cost of supply from gas producer to
the end users in price per unit of volume).
DATA AND ANALYSIS
Total energy consumption prediction for natural gas competing fuels in Indonesia from 2010
to 2015 in BOE (barrel of oil equivalent) and percentages are shown in Table 1[11]. This data is
needed to determine ESS (Energy Sector Shares). Industrial and power plant sectors are still dominant
in total energy consumption, and the demand of energy will increase for several more years.
[EnE-061]
~ 465 ~
Table 1. Prediction of total natural gas competing fuels consumption in Indonesia for 2010 - 2015
Total energy consumption (BOE, barrel of oil equivalent)
Sector Year
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Industrial 313,096,776 331,777,022 350,462,969 369,150,289 387,836,038 406,518,319
Household 87,350,000 89,224,000 91,098,000 92,972,000 94,846,000 96,720,000
Commercial 32,274,043 33,999,056 35,724,310 37,449,746 39,175,319 40,900,997
Transportation 201,009,916 206,524,052 212,075,807 217,678,791 223,352,430 229,124,436
Power plant 257,637,484 287,698,241 317,695,189 347,638,663 377,536,858 407,396,379
Other sector 26,360,000 27,640,000 28,920,000 30,200,000 31,480,000 32,760,000
TOTAL 917,728,219 976,862,370 1,035,976,275 1,095,089,488 1,154,226,646 1,213,420,131
SHARE (%)
Sector Year
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Industrial 34.12 33.96 33.83 33.71 33.60 33.50
Household 9.52 9.13 8.79 8.49 8.22 7.97
Commercial 3.52 3.48 3.45 3.42 3.39 3.37
Transportation 21.90 21.14 20.47 19.88 19.35 18.88
Power plant 28.07 29.45 30.67 31.75 32.71 33.57
Other sector 2.87 2.83 2.79 2.76 2.73 2.70
Energy shares of the natural gas competing fuels per sector in Indonesia for 2010 to 2015 are shown in
Table 2[11]. This data is needed to determine CES (Competing Energy Shares).
Table 2. Prediction of natural gas competing fuels consumption per sectors in Indonesia
for 2010 - 2015
Sector Competing fuel Competing fuel shares year (%)
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Industrial
Coal 62.06 61.94 61.83 61.72 61.63 61.55
Briquette 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.13 0.14
Kerosene 1.20 1.76 2.26 2.71 3.12 3.49
ADO 11.94 11.82 11.71 11.60 11.51 11.43
IDO 0.22 0.16 0.11 0.08 0.06 0.04
Fuel Oil 3.65 3.47 3.31 3.16 3.03 2.91
Other petroleum product 10.64 10.21 9.82 9.45 9.11 8.79
LPG 0.53 0.56 0.59 0.61 0.63 0.65
Electricity 9.68 10.00 10.29 10.55 10.78 11.00
Household
Kerosene 5.30 4.88 4.49 4.10 3.73 3.38
LPG 49.34 49.30 49.26 49.22 49.19 49.15
Electricity 45.36 45.82 46.25 46.67 47.08 47.47
Commercial
Kerosene 12.55 11.82 11.16 10.56 10.01 9.51
ADO 18.34 18.32 18.31 18.29 18.28 18.26
IDO 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00
LPG 5.08 5.08 5.08 5.08 5.08 5.09
Electricity 64.01 64.77 65.45 66.06 66.62 67.14
Transportation
Premium 62.43 61.48 60.58 59.70 58.85 58.02
Bio premium 0.93 1.09 1.24 1.38 1.51 1.64
Pertamax 1.34 1.35 1.36 1.37 1.38 1.40
Biopertamax 0.09 0.12 0.17 0.23 0.32 0.45
Pertamaxplus 0.42 0.43 0.43 0.44 0.45 0.46
Biosolar 0.85 1.07 1.28 1.48 1.66 1.84
Kerosene 0.29 0.30 0.31 0.31 0.32 0.33
ADO 33.47 33.98 34.46 34.91 35.32 35.70
IDO 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.00
Fuel oil 0.12 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.14 0.14
[EnE-061]
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Electricity 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03
Power plant
Coal 80.70 82.38 83.76 84.91 85.89 86.74
HSD 17.07 15.59 14.37 13.34 12.47 11.71
IDO 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
FO 2.22 2.02 1.87 1.74 1.63 1.54
Other sector
Kerosene 7.81 7.50 7.22 6.96 6.72 6.50
ADO 77.81 78.19 78.54 78.86 79.16 79.43
IDO 7.21 7.17 7.14 7.11 7.08 7.05
Fuel oil 7.17 7.13 7.10 7.07 7.05 7.02
Weighting factors using formula (1) have been determined by multiplying ESS and CES as shown in
Table 3.
Table 3. Prediction of weighting factors for competitive fuels to natural gas for 2010 - 2015
Sector Competing fuel WF year (%)
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Industrial
Coal 21.17 21.04 20.91 20.81 20.71 20.62
Briquette 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.05
Kerosene 0.41 0.60 0.77 0.91 1.05 1.17
ADO 4.07 4.01 3.96 3.91 3.87 3.83
IDO 0.07 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01
Fuel Oil 1.24 1.18 1.12 1.07 1.02 0.98
Other petroleum product 3.63 3.47 3.32 3.18 3.06 2.94
LPG 0.18 0.19 0.20 0.21 0.21 0.22
Electricity 3.30 3.40 3.48 3.56 3.62 3.68
Household
Kerosene 0.50 0.45 0.39 0.35 0.31 0.27
LPG 4.70 4.50 4.33 4.18 4.04 3.92
Electricity 4.32 4.18 4.07 3.96 3.87 3.78
Commercial
Kerosene 0.44 0.41 0.38 0.36 0.34 0.32
ADO 0.65 0.64 0.63 0.63 0.62 0.62
IDO 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
LPG 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.17 0.17 0.17
Electricity 2.25 2.25 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26
Transportation
Premium 13.67 13.00 12.40 11.87 11.39 10.95
Bio premium 0.20 0.23 0.25 0.27 0.29 0.31
Pertamax 0.29 0.29 0.28 0.27 0.27 0.26
Biopertamax 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.06 0.09
Pertamaxplus 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09
Biosolar 0.19 0.23 0.26 0.29 0.32 0.35
Kerosene 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06
ADO 7.33 7.18 7.05 6.94 6.84 6.74
IDO 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Fuel oil 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03
Electricity 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00
Power plant
Coal 22.66 24.26 25.69 26.96 28.10 29.12
HSD 4.79 4.59 4.41 4.24 4.08 3.93
IDO 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
FO 0.62 0.60 0.57 0.55 0.53 0.52
Other sector
Kerosene 0.22 0.21 0.20 0.19 0.18 0.18
ADO 2.23 2.21 2.19 2.17 2.16 2.14
IDO 0.21 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.19 0.19
Fuel oil 0.21 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.19 0.19
Prices of natural gas competitive fuels have been predicted using trend analysis and
econometric forecasting methods as shown in Table 4.
[EnE-061]
~ 467 ~
Table 4. Prediction of natural gas competing fuels price for 2010 - 2015
Sector Competing fuel Price (USD/BOE) in year
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Industrial
Coal 14.56 16.65 19.03 21.76 24.88 28.45
Briquette 41.89 42.84 43.71 44.51 45.26 45.97
Kerosene 43.81 45.38 46.83 48.16 49.41 50.57
ADO 86.10 93.25 100.19 106.92 113.44 119.74
IDO 147.28 167.68 189.17 211.77 235.46 260.25
Fuel Oil 97.43 110.91 125.15 140.14 155.88 172.38
Other petroleum product 105.14 109.09 111.94 113.69 114.35 113.91
LPG 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.08 0.08
Electricity 118.56 123.79 129.02 134.25 139.48 144.70
Household
Kerosene 43.81 45.38 46.83 48.16 49.41 50.57
LPG 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.08 0.08
Electricity 108.32 110.89 113.26 115.45 117.49 119.40
Commercial
Kerosene 43.81 45.38 46.83 48.16 49.41 50.57
ADO 86.10 93.25 100.19 106.92 113.44 119.74
IDO 147.28 167.68 189.17 211.77 235.46 260.25
LPG 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.08 0.08
Electricity 141.28 144.08 146.65 149.03 151.24 153.32
Transportation
Premium 111.97 133.91 160.16 191.56 229.11 274.02
Bio premium 69.09 64.60 60.12 55.64 51.16 46.67
Pertamax 128.52 136.00 142.87 149.24 155.17 160.71
Biopertamax 143.88 175.04 212.94 259.05 315.14 383.37
Pertamaxplus 131.25 138.49 145.16 151.33 157.07 162.45
Biosolar 75.72 75.81 75.90 75.97 76.05 76.12
Kerosene 43.81 45.38 46.83 48.16 49.41 50.57
ADO 86.10 93.25 100.19 106.92 113.44 119.74
IDO 147.28 167.68 189.17 211.77 235.46 260.25
Fuel oil 107.98 116.94 125.90 134.86 143.82 152.79
Electricity 111.90 114.07 116.06 117.91 119.63 121.24
Power plant
Coal 14.56 16.65 19.03 21.76 24.88 28.45
HSD 86.10 93.25 100.19 106.92 113.44 119.74
IDO 147.28 167.68 189.17 211.77 235.46 260.25
FO 97.43 110.91 125.15 140.14 155.88 172.38
Other sector
Kerosene 43.81 45.38 46.83 48.16 49.41 50.57
ADO 86.10 93.25 100.19 106.92 113.44 119.74
IDO 147.28 167.68 189.17 211.77 235.46 260.25
Fuel oil 107.98 116.94 125.90 134.86 143.82 152.79
Natural gas market value prediction has been calculated by multiplying the predicted
weighting factor and the forecast price. The result in Table 5, calculated from the shares and prices of
the competing fuels, show the values of natural gas in domestic market. The summation of the market
values of all the natural gas competing fuels in each year has become the calculated natural gas market
value in currency per unit of volume.
Table 5. Prediction of natural gas market value for 2010 – 2015
Sector Competing fuel Gas market value (USD/BOE) in year:
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Industrial
Coal 3.08 3.50 3.98 4.53 5.15 5.87
Briquette 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02
Kerosene 0.18 0.27 0.36 0.44 0.52 0.59
ADO 3.51 3.74 3.97 4.18 4.39 4.59
IDO 0.11 0.09 0.07 0.06 0.04 0.03
Fuel Oil 1.21 1.31 1.40 1.49 1.59 1.68
Other petroleum product 3.82 3.78 3.72 3.62 3.50 3.35
LPG 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
[EnE-061]
~ 468 ~
Electricity 3.91 4.20 4.49 4.77 5.05 5.33
Household
Kerosene 0.22 0.20 0.18 0.17 0.15 0.14
LPG 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
electricity 4.68 4.64 4.61 4.57 4.55 4.52
Commercial
Kerosene 0.19 0.19 0.18 0.17 0.17 0.16
ADO 0.56 0.59 0.63 0.67 0.70 0.74
IDO 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
LPG 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
electricity 3.18 3.25 3.31 3.37 3.42 3.47
Transportation
Premium 15.31 17.41 19.86 22.73 26.09 30.02
Bio premium 0.14 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.14
Pertamax 0.38 0.39 0.40 0.41 0.42 0.42
Biopertamax 0.03 0.04 0.07 0.12 0.20 0.33
Pertamaxplus 0.12 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.14 0.14
Biosolar 0.14 0.17 0.20 0.22 0.24 0.26
Kerosene 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03
ADO 6.31 6.70 7.07 7.42 7.75 8.07
IDO 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00
Fuel oil 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.04
Electricity 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
Power plant
Coal 3.30 4.04 4.89 5.87 6.99 8.29
HSD 4.13 4.28 4.41 4.53 4.63 4.71
IDO 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
FO 0.61 0.66 0.72 0.77 0.83 0.89
Other sector
Kerosene 0.10 0.10 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09
ADO 1.92 2.06 2.20 2.33 2.45 2.57
IDO 0.30 0.34 0.38 0.41 0.45 0.50
Fuel oil 0.22 0.24 0.25 0.26 0.28 0.29
TOTAL (USD/ BOE) 57.75 62.57 67.81 73.60 80.05 87.30
TOTAL (USD/MMBTU) divided by 5.8 9.96 10.79 11.69 12.69 13.80 15.05
The result of market value calculation has been converted from USD/BOE to
USD/MMBTU to make it uniform unit in natural gas business. Natural gas market value
prediction from 2010 to 2015 tends to increase following other competitive fuels price. The price
increases from 9.96 USD/ MMBTU (US dollars per million BTU) to 15.05 USD/MMBTU. Delivery
costs from natural gas producer to the end user in domestic market, estimated in Table 6, are used to
determine natural gas prices at producer side. Potential gas resources are located in Bontang, East
Kalimantan, and potential customers are located in West Java. Natural gas will be converted into LNG
for transport from Bontang to West Java(A), then re-gased at the first re-gasification terminal in West
Java (B), and distributed through the existing gas pipeline (C). The total cost is determined by
summing all costs above.
Table 6. Prediction of natural gas delivery cost for 2010 – 2015
Delivery cost of natural gas USD/MMBTU in year
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
LNG from Bontang to West Java (A) 0.22 0.23 0.25 0.26 0.27 0.29
Regasification cost (B) 0.51 0.54 0.57 0.60 0.64 0.67
Domestic cost from LDC (by pipeline) (C) 4.00 4.23 4.46 4.70 4.96 5.24
Total domestic cost (A+B+C) 4.73 5.00 5.28 5.56 5.87 6.20
RESULT AND ANALYSIS
The result from the calculation using netback market value is shown in Figure 3, the cost of
transportation and distribution has been subtracted from the market value to determined netback
market value, or natural gas value at producer side. Average natural gas price at natural gas producer in
domestic market in 2002 to 2009 is around 86% - 406% cheaper than export price and around 4% -
177% lower than netback market value to stimulate economic growth[8, 10]. Natural gas price
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prediction from 2010 to 2015 tends to increase following other competitive fuels price. The price
increases from 5.22 USD/ MMBTU to 8.86 USD/MMBTU. The NMV price drops from 5.98
USD/MMBTU in 2009 to 5.22 USD/MMBTU in 2010 due to the decreases in other competitive fuel
price, but rises afterwards till 2015.
Figure 3. Historical data and predicted trend of the natural gas price in Indonesia
The details of natural gas prices are shown in Table 7 below:
Table 7. Detail of natural gas prices in Indonesia[8, 10]
Gas Price (USD/MMBTU) Year
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
A. ACTUAL PRICE
Average existing selling price to the end user for
domestic market 2.81 3.29 3.26 3.67 3.70 3.88 5.21 5.23 4.88 6.03
Average existing producer price for domestic market 1.79 2.32 2.24 2.41 2.44 2.40 2.64 2.61 2.26 2.66
Average existing export price 4.82 4.31 4.45 4.84 6.00 7.19 8.49 9.04 11.97 6.98
B. CALCULATED NETBACK MARKET VALUE
Calculated market value in domestic market 2.07 2.59 3.75 5.80 5.65 6.80 9.52 8.98 9.56 10.04
Calculated market value less delivery cost (NMV)
for domestic market 0.73 1.28 2.33 4.13 3.94 4.82 6.39 5.76 6.28 5.98
NMV for export market 4.57 4.05 4.16 4.51 5.64 6.81 8.07 8.55 11.45 6.41
Gas Price (USD/MMBTU) Year
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
C. PREDICTION OF NETBACK MARKET VALUE
Calculated market value for domestic market 9.96 10.79 11.69 12.69 13.80 15.05
Calculated market value less delivery cost (NMV)
for domestic market 5.22 5.79 6.42 7.12 7.93 8.86
CONCLUSION AND REMARKS
The prediction of natural gas price using NMV method will be useful for the determination of
an attractive price, which is also competitive with the export price, for the natural gas producers to
deliver natural gas to domestic market. The discrepancy between the natural gas price for domestic
consumption and the export price is narrowed to make government‟s target of increasing domestic
natural gas consumption possible.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author thankfully acknowledges Dr. Athikom Bangviwat, Asst. Prof. Dr. Jaruwan Chontanawat
and Dr. Ir. H. Djoni Bustan, M.Eng for their helpful consultation on this conference paper. This work
was supported by beasiswa unggulan, Bureau for Planning and International Cooperation, Ministry of
Education Republic Indonesia and PT PGN (Persero) Tbk.
References
[1] EIA, 2010, International Energy Outlook, Washington, DC, USA.
[2] MEMR, 2010, Indonesia Energy Statistic 2010, Jakarta, Indonesia.
[3] BP, 2011, BP Statistical Review of World Energy, London, UK.
[4] IEA, 2010, Natural Gas Production and Consumption, Paris, France.
[5] MEMR, 2009, Blueprint National Energy Management 2010-2025, Jakarta, Indonesia.
[6] Miyamoto, A., Ishiguro, C., Yamada, T, 2009, Irrational LNG Pricing Impedes Development
of Asian Natural Gas Markets: A Perspective on Market Value, Osaka, Japan.
[7] Miyamoto, A. Ishiguro, C., 2009, A New Paradigm for Natural Gas Pricing in Asia: A
Perspective on Market Value, Oxford Institute for Energy Studies.
[8] MEMR, 2010, Handbook of Energy & Economics Statistics of Indonesia, Jakarta, Indonesia.
[9] PT PGN (Persero) Tbk, 2000-2009, Natural Gas LDC State Owned Company, Annual Report,
Jakarta, Indonesia.
[10] Gitarisyana, E., Bangviwat, A., Bustan, D., 2011, Determination of Natural Gas Price by
Netback Market Value Method, 4th International Conference on Sustainable Energy and
Environment (SEE 2011): A Paradigm Shift to Low Carbon Society , Bangkok, Thailand.
[11] BPPT (Badan Pengkajian dan Penerapan Teknologi), 2010, Indonesian Energy Outlook,
Jakarta ,Indonesia.
[12] PT Bukit Asam Tbk Coal Company, 2000-2009, Annual Report, Tanjung Enim, Indonesia.
[13] Pertamina, 2000-2009, Oil and Gas State Owned Company: Annual Report, Jakarta,
Indonesia.
[14] PLN, 2000-2009, Electricity State Owned Company: Annual Report. Jakarta, Indonesia.
[15] Maulidiana, M, 2008, Modeling of LNG Value Chain To Optimize The Gas Value For
Domestic Advantage. University of Indonesia, Jakarta, Indonesia.
[16] EIA, 2003, The Global Liquified Natural Gas Market: Status and Outlook, Washington,
DC,USA.
[17] IEA, 2010, Key world Energy Statistic, Paris, France.
[18] IMF, 2009, World Economic Outlook Database, Washington, DC, USA.
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STANDARD OF THERMAL COMFORT FOR ENERGY CONSERVATION IN
BUILDINGS
Muhammad Nur Fajri Alfata1*, Wahyu Sujatmiko1 1) Research Institute for Human Settlements, Ministry of Public Works.
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
The standard of thermal comfort in Indonesia is still referring to the static model developed by
ASHRAE. This model cannot describe the real thermal comfort condition in tropical regions such as
Indonesia. The objective of this study is to determine the thermal neutrality (expressed by neutral
temperature) and the comfort level of building occupants in Indonesia by adaptive thermal comfort
approach. The study was conducted in several high rise buildings in Jakarta and Makassar. A field study
was employed in which all physical environment data requirements to calculate thermal comfort
indices and thermal comfort questionnaires were collected in the same time and the same place.
Research findings showed that the neutral temperature at the operative temperature is 26.7 oC and the
comfort level ranges from 25.7oC to 27.7oC. This result suggested a higher level than that computed by
using thestatic approach. By adjusting the air conditioning temperature levels close to neutral
temperature, the energy consumption for air conditioning can be minimized.
Keywords: adaptive thermal comfort, static thermal comfort, thermal neutrality, energy conservation,
thermal comfort range.
INTRODUCTION
Nowadays, Indonesia is facing complex and sophisticated problems related to energy security.
The increase in oil price, followed by the growth of energy consumption and decline of oil production
in Indonesia are part of many problems in this country. In 2020, it is predicted that national energy
consumptions will increase from 122 Giga Watt year (GWy) or equal to 674 million barrel oil per day
(bopd) to 304 GWy (eq. 1680 bopd) or increase 2.5 times [1]. Meanwhile, the oil production in
Indonesia has declined from 1.3 million bopd to 950 thousand bopd [2], making Indonesia now as net
importer country. In 2002, Indonesia imported about 126.8 million bopd and will increase to 797.7
million bopd (about 6.3 times) in 2020 [1].
Most of the energy consumption was used in buildings. In the U.S., consumption of electrical
energy in the building sector reached up to 75% [3]. In Indonesia, the energy consumed to obtain
thermal comfort on high-rise buildings is relatively larger than to other needs [4]. The energy audit on
the Directorate General of Water Resources‟ buildings in 2010 showed that the electrical energy
consumption for air conditioning accounts for 58% [5]. The consumption of electrical energy is
believed to have continously increased with the number of air conditioned buildings and due to the
global warming issue affected to the local climate conditions.
The amount of energy consumed in air conditioned buildings is more likely influenced by the
setting of indoor air temperature. The standard ASHRAE which recommends indoor air temperature is
lower than that of the Indonesian requirement made mostly building inhabitants not only felt
discomfort cold, but also increased energy consumed for air conditioning system. It because the lower
setting of indoor air temperature, the higher energy consumed for air conditioning. For every 1oC
decrease in the temperature setting, about more 10% of overall energy is consumed [6,7].
Since amount of energy is consumed for thermal comfort in buildings, it is necessary to study
the real condition of thermal comfort of high rise building‟s occupants in Indonesia so that strategies to
conserve energy can be determined, particularly in the building sector. Inspite of workers productivity,
thermal comfort is related to energy consumption and the sustainability, the standard must therefore
consider those aspects. The standards themselves will fall into disrepute and even disuse if they ignore
these issues, particularly with the issues of global warming and climate change. In the past, the
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preparation of standards had not seen it as part of its task to consider sustainability [8], but even today,
the preparation of thermal comfort standard in Indonesia still has not considered the energy
consumption and sustainability yet.
Indonesia has no standard related to the thermal comfort in buildings specifically, although
some standards have mentioned it shortly and briefly, such as SNI 03-6572-2001 on the procedure for
designing ventilation systems and air conditioning in buildings and SNI 03-6390-2000 on energy
conservation of air system in buildings. But, both standards still refer to the ASHRAE Standard 55 that
is based on the PMV based static model. The model is considered insufficient to provide a complete
description of thermal comfort in the tropic region [9,10]. There is a pressumed that at the higher
outdoor temperature, human tends to feel comfortable at the higher temperatures [10,11]. Thus, these
standards are differ from the real condition of thermal comfort in Indonesia. Therefore, it was
necessary to use an adaptive method for assessing the real thermal comfort, as suggested by Karyono
[9] and Sujatmiko et al [12].
Research of adaptive thermal comfort is a field experiment subjected to real occupants in real
buildings. This research basically determines the thermal neutrality, thermal acceptability and thermal
preference of respondents in a real building, and also studies the adaptive response of occupants
against their thermal conditions to obtain thermal comfort by utilizing the building facility, in either
active or passive way [12]. A number of studies had been conducted to evaluate the thermal comfort
with the adaptive thermal comfort approach, but it only was carried out in Jakarta [9]. Therefore, the
study should be complemented with data from other cities or regions to obtain full understanding of
adaptive thermal comfort in Indonesia.
METHODS
The study was conducted in Jakarta and Makassar, South Sulawesi. In Jakarta, Manggala
Wanabhakti (MW) building was taken as the subject of study. The building consists of seven blocks,
but only two blocks were surveyed, namely Block 4 and Block 7. Block 4 is occupied by the Building
Management, BSN/KAN, and several private companies, while the Block 7 is occupied by the
Ministry of Forestry. Both were chosen because the blocks have over five floors, which are categorized
as high rise buildings. Meanwhile, four buildings in Makassar were investigated, namely Gedung
Keuangan Negara (GKN), City Government Office of Makassar (Walikota), Local Parliamentary
Building (DPRD), and Agency for Regional Development Planning (Bappeda).
A Class 2 field experiment was employed in which all physical environment data
requirements to calculate thermal comfort indices and thermal comfort questionnaires were collected
in the same time and the same place [13]. The survey is designed cross-sectional, where respondents
were asked once in every measurement. This method actually has a weakness because each respondent
only gives the response of thermal sensation at a particular temperature and can not be recognized in
other temperatures. Nevertheless, this method has advantages when compared to longitudinal
techniques since it does not much disturbed respondents in doing their activities.
Air temperature (Ta), globe temperature (Tg), relative humidity (RH) were measured by
QuesTemp 34 from Quest Technology, USA, and air velocity (va) was measured by anemomaster
Kanomax A031. Meanwhile, thermal responses of respondents were surveyed using questionnaires.
These questionnaires included some basic questions about the evaluation of thermal environments
during the measurement of thermal variables. Each questionnaire asked every respondent to choose
one of seven scales of the thermal impression, namely -3 (Cold), -2 (Cool), -1 (Sligthly Cool), 0
(Neutral), 1 (Slightly Warm), 2 (Warm), and 3 (Hot). The temperature was obtained using a statistical
analysis. It was measured based on the air temperature (Ta), globe temperature (Tg), operative
temperature (Top) and the Standard Effective Temperature (SET).
Operative temperature is a function of air temperature (Ta) and globe temperature (Tg),
calculated using:
(1)
where A=0,5 if va < 0,2 m/s, A=0,6 if 0,2<va<0,6 m/s, and A=0,7 if 0,6<va<1,0 m/s
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SET is a function of thermal insulation (clo), physical activity (met) and indoor thermal
variables, and the value of SET was obtained by ASHRAE Thermal Comfort software instead of
psychometric chart.
Respondents
The detailed information of respondents in both cities is presented in Table 1 and Table 2.
Table 1 Profile of respondents in Jakarta
No Categories Block 4 Block 7 Total Remarks
1 Number of respondents 107 62 169
2 Sex Male 68(63.5%) 32(51.6%) 100(58.2%)
Female 39(36.5%) 30(48.4%) 69 (40.8%)
3 Age (years) Min 17.0 15.0 15.0 Ten respondents in block 4 and
four in block 7 did not mention
their age Max 64.0 57.0 64.0
Average 33.7 35.1 34.0
SD 10.1 13.1 11.3
4 Have lived in
Jakarta for
> 5 years 80(75.5%) 38(67.9%) 118(72.8%) One respondent in block 4 and six
in Block 7 did not mention how
long they have lived in Jakarta 1 – 5 years 18(17.0%) 12(21.4%) 30(18.5%)
< 1 year 8(7.5%) 6(10.7%) 14(8.6%)
5 Height (cm) Min 145.0 148.0 145.0 Three respondents in block 4 and
five in block 7 did not mention
their height Max 185.0 187.0 187.0
Average 164.7 162.7 164.0
SD 7.6 8.3 7.9
6 Body Mass
(kg)
Min 40.0 40.0 40.0 Five respondents in block 4 and
another five in block 7 did not
mention their mass Max 110.0 85.0 110.0
Average 63.5 59.4 62.0
SD 12.2 11.0 11.9
Table 2 Profile of respondents in Makassar
No Categories Buildings
Total GKN Walikota DPRD Bappeda
1 Number of respondent 29 53 10 10 102
2 Sex Male 13 (44.8%) 19 (36%) 7 (70%) 8 (80%) 47(46.1%)
Female 16 (55.2%) 34 (64%) 3 (30%) 2 (20%) 55(53.9%)
3 Age (years) Min 20.0 17.0 20.0 22.0 17.0
Max 53.0 52.0 50.0 42.0 53.0
Average 39.0 35.1 35.0 29.0 36.0
SD 13.1 8.9 11.4 5.9 10.5
4 Have lived in
Makassar for
> 5 tahun 17 (59%) 50 (94%) 8 (80%) 9 (90%) 84(82%)
1 – 5 tahun 7 (24%) 3 (6%) 2 (20%) 1 (10%) 13(13%)
< 1 tahun 5 (17%) - - - 5(5%)
5 Height (cm) Min 150.0 150.0 158.0 150.0 150.0
Max 176.0 179.0 177.0 171.0 179.0
Average 162.0 160.0 164.0 164.0 161.0
SD 7.6 7.4 7.2 7.2 7.6
6 Body Mass
(kg)
Min 40.0 45.0 50.0 47.0 40.0
Max 86.0 85.0 80.0 67.0 86.0
Average 62.0 59.0 66.0 56.5 61.0
SD 12.7 9.4 10.4 6.3 10.4
This study involved 271 respondents. A total of 169 respondents were from Jakarta and the
rest were from Makassar. It consisted of 147 men (54.2%) and 124 women (45.8%). Respondents aged
between 15 years to 64 years with an average of 34.8 years and a standard deviation of 11.0 years. The
sampled respondents have an average height of 163 cm with the shortest of 145 cm and the highest of
187 cm and a standard deviation of 7.9 cm. The minimum weight of respondents is 40 kg and the
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maximum sample is 110 kg. The average weight of respondents is 61.5 kg respondents with a standard
deviation of 11.4 kg. Most of respondents have lived in their respective towns for more than five years.
Respondents were measured at steady state condition with a mild level of activity, or equal to 1 met
(58 W/m2) and thermal insulation was measured an average of 0.6 with range from 0.4 to 0.8 clo.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Jakarta and Makassar were pressumed to have the same climatic conditions since both are
located in coastal areas. The acclimatization of office buildingsis also considered equal. The
measurement of indoor air temperature showed that temperature ranged from 22.3o to 30.2oC with an
average about 25.8 oC and standard deviation of 1.6oC. Air velocity inside the room ranged from 0.0
m/s to 0.85 m/s with average of 0.12 m/s and standard deviation of 0.14 m/s. Mostly air velocity was
about 0.1 m/s.
By those circumstances, the value of mean radiant temperature (MRT) did not significantly
different from the value of air and globe temperature. This variable is used to determine operative
temperature (Top). Meanwhile, the measured relative humidity ranged from 47 to 77%, with average
about 63% and standard deviation of 6.7%. This mean relative humidity inside the room relatively
high, with only few rooms had relative humidity below 50%. Buildings in Makassar have wider range
in indoor thermal variables and more vary than those of Jakarta (see Table 3)
According to the thermal variables above, calculated indoor operative temperature (Top)
ranged from 22.2o to 30.2oC with average about 25.8oC and standard deviation 1.6oC. Calculation of
SET by ASHRAE Thermal Comfort software shows that SET value ranged from 23 to 26.8oC with
average of 24.8oC and standard deviation 0.98oC. For predicted mean vote, it showed that average vote
respondents for thermal comfort was 0.2, it means that thermal impression of respondents between
neutral and slighly warm. The predicted mean vote (PMV) ranged from -1.7 to 2.0, with standard
deviation of 0.6. For respondents in Jakarta, average PMV is about -0.2 (neutral to slightly cool) while
in Makassar is about 0.4 (neutral to slightly warm). As thermal variables, PMV of respondents in
Makassar wider and more vary than those of Jakarta.
Table 3 Indoor thermal variables and thermal comfort indices
No Location Ta
(oC)
Tg
(oC)
RH
(%)
va
(m/s) clo
Tmrt
(oC)
Top
(oC)
SET
(oC)
PMV
1 Jakarta
Min 22.7 23.5 49.0 0.10 0.40 23.5 23.1 23.0 -1.0
Max 27.3 28.0 64.0 0.35 0.80 28.0 27.6 26.8 0.6
Avg 25.3 25.5 57.8 0.10 0.60 25.5 25.4 24.8 -0.2
SD 0.9 1.0 3.2 0.05 0.06 1.0 0.9 1.0 0.3
2 Makassar
Min 22,3 22,1 47 0,00 0,50 22,1 22.2 20.5 -1.7
Max 30,2 30,2 77 0,85 0,80 30,2 30.2 32.9 2.0
Avg 26,5 26,4 67,5 0,14 0,64 26,4 26.4 26.5 0.4
SD 1,9 2,0 5,9 0,19 0,08 2,0 2.0 2.7 0.8
Table 4 Actual vote of thermal comfort in building
Building Actual Mean Vote
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 Avg Total
Blok 4 MW 1 18 50 21 10 6 1 -0.6 107
Blok 7 MW 0 7 18 24 7 6 0 -0.2 62
Subtotal 1 25 68 45 17 12 1 -0.4 169
GKN 0 6 18 5 0 0 0 -1 29
MOM 0 4 17 12 3 16 1 0.25 53
DPRD 0 2 6 2 0 0 0 -1 10
Bappeda 0 1 2 2 3 2 0 0,3 10
Subtotal 0 13 43 21 6 18 1 -0.4 102
Total 1 38 111 66 23 30 2 -0.4 271
Percentage (%) 0.37 14.02 40.96 24.35 8.49 11.07 0.74 - 100
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Table 4 showed that respondents give average vote for thermal comfort about -0.4 (between
neutral to slightly cool). It was quite different trend compared to the PMV as shown in Table 3. Most of
respondents felt that indoor climatic condition was slightly cool (40.96% of total respondents) and only
24.35% of total respondent felt totally comfort (neutral). As variation of air temperature, there were some
respondents felt cool (-2) and warm (2), and only very few respondents who felt hot (0.74% of total
respondents) and cold (0.37% of total respondents).
Neutral temperature is the temperature in which the respondents neither feel hot nor cold, cool
nor warm. Comfortable temperature range is the temperature in which the average respondents give their
impression of thermal scale between -0.5 and 0.5. Neutral temperature was obtained by linear regression of
air temperature (Ta), operative temperature (Top) and SET against the thermal response of the respondents.
Neutral temperature of the air temperature is expressed in equation y=0.494.Ta - 13.20, with R2=0,513,
where y is thermal response. By substituting y=0 (for neutral thermal response), the indoor thermal
neutrality reached at air temperature of 26.7oC. Meanwhile, by substituting y = ± 0.5 to the equation, the
range of comfort level was obtained. It showed that comfort level ranged from 25,7oC to 27,7
oC.
The thermal neutrality in operative temperature is expressed by equation y=0.506.Top-13.52 with
R2=0,534. Thus, neutral temperature is about Top 26.7
oC with thermal comfort level ranged from operative
temperature 25.7oC to 27.7
oC. Meanwhile, thermal neutrality in SET is expressed by equation
y=0,388.SET-10.45 with R2=0,540. Thus, neutral temperature is about SET 26.9
oC with the range of
thermal comfort from SET 25.6oC to 28.2
oC. SET has the widest range of thermal comfort amongst all
(about 3.2oC) while Ta or To is the narrowest one (about 2
oC). The regression of thermal responses against
thermal comfort indices is shown in Figure 1. It is important to be noted that SET has the highest
coefficient of determinant (R2) and Ta has the lowest one. It is argued that the more complicated thermal
variables involved in calculation, the higher correlation of the thermal variables to actual comfort level (see
also in Table 5).
(a)
(b) (c)
Figure 1 Linear regression of thermal neutrality against air temperature (a), operative temperature (b), and
Standard Efective Temperature (c)
The first published research on thermal comfort in Indonesia was carried out by Karyono in
1995 [9] and published as part of database of Adaptive Comfort Standard (ACS) in final report
ASHRAE RP.884[13]. The research showed that neutral temperature of building‟s occupants (workers)
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in Indonesia was about at Ta 26.4oC with range of thermal comfort from Ta 24.9 to 28oC, and about at
Top 26.7oC with range of thermal comfort from Top 25.1 to 28.3oC. During this time, from the first
published, there are no significant difference in neutral temperature, either in Ta or Top. But, range of
thermal comfort of recent study is narrower than previously (2oC compared to 3.1oC in Ta and 3.2oC in
To). The comparation of previous and recent study is shown in Table 5.
Table 5 The comparation of previous and recent thermal comfort study in Indonesia
No Variables Previous study Recent study
1 Time of study 1993 2011
2 Location of study Jakarta Jakarta, Makassar
3 Respondents 596 (345 male, 227 female) 271 (147 male, 124 female)
4 Amount of buildings 7 6
5 Thermal neutrality Ta 26.4oC
To 26.7oC, and
Teq 25.3oC
Ta 26.7 oC
To 26.7 oC
SET 26.9 oC
6 Range of thermal
comfort
Ta 24.9 – 28oC
Top 25.1 – 28.3oC
Teq 23.5 – 27.2oC
Ta 25.7 – 27.7oC
Top 25.7 – 27.7oC
SET 25.6 – 28.2oC
7 Regression equation Ta: y = -8,428 + 0,319.Ta
(R2=0.415)
Top: y = -8,331 + 0,312.Top
(R2=0.421
Teq: y = -6,895 + 0,272.Teq
(R2=0.425)
Ta: y = 0.494.Ta - 13.20
(R2=0.513)
To: y = 0.506.Top-13.52 (R2=
0.534) SET: y= 0,388.SET-10.45
(R2= 0.540)
As reported by Karyono [9,11], there was a difference between adaptive model and PMV
based static model. Figure 2 shows that difference, where the actual neutral temperature was higher
than predicted while the actual range of thermal comfort was wider than predicted by PMV model. By
PMV based thermal comfort model, the neutral temperature obtained at the operative temperature of
25.9°C or SET 25.2oC, while the range of thermal comfort ranged from operative temperature 24.6 to
27.3oC or from 23.5 to 26.9oC in SET. The actual neutral temperature was 1.4oC higher than predicted
in Top or Ta, and 1.7oC higher than that in SET. Meanwhile, the actual range of thermal comfort was
about 0.7oC narrower than predicted, either in Top or SET. It is argued the variation in individual needs
is sufficient to suggest a great discrepancy between predicted and actual comfort level [14]
Figure 2 also shows that those differences wider at low temperatures rather than at higher
temperature. It is argued that the predictions by the PMV based model would be sufficient and close to
the real conditions of thermal comfort at high temperature but insufficient at lower temperature. It is
noted that PMV model used was field experiment based PMV model, not laboratory based PMV
model, so that the result slightly different from what de Dear et al, or Brager & de Dear proposed for
buildings with centralized HVAC [13,15]
The lower neutral temperature, the more energy is needed for air conditioning, and vice versa.
Thus, the higher neutral temperature has a larger opportunity to energy conservation in buildings. By
adjusting the air conditioning systems to a level close to the Indonesian‟s neutral temperature, the
required energy for indoor air conditioning can be minimized. For every 1oC increasing of temperature
to reach the neutral temperature, it is about 10% of energy in buildings conserved.
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(a)
(b) (c)
Figure 2 Discrepancy between Actual Mean Vote (AMV) and Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) against air
temperature (a), operative temperature (b) and Standard Effective Temperature (c)
Standard of Thermal Comfort in Indonesia
Standard of thermal comfort in Indonesia arranged through SNI 03-6572-2001 on procedure
for designing ventilation systems and air conditioning in buildings, and restate explicitly in SNI
03-6390-2000 on energy conservation of air system in buildings with small difference. Both standard
stated that thermal comfort for Indonesian is about 25±1oC at relative humidity 55±10% (in SNI
03-6572-2001) or at relative humidity 60±10% (in SNI 03-6390-2000). Despite those thermal comfort
criteria, SNI 03-6572-2001 also provide other criteria, namely: comfortably cool (20.5 – 22.8oC),
optimum comfortable (22.8 – 25.8oC), and comfortably warm (25.8 – 27.1oC). These criteria based on
effective temperature (ET). All those value based on and refered to research by LPMB-PU in 1960s. It
seems that those value does not change yet since the first time it published.
In the same standard, there are another criterion for thermal comfort for two different main
seasons, dry and wet season. This term itself is little bit confusing. In Bahasa Indonesia (as used in
SNI), it is expressed with musim panas and musim dingin. If translated to English literally, it should be
summer and winter. Since there are no summer and winter in Indonesia, this paper prefer use dry and
wet season to substitute these terms eventhough this standard probably adopted ASHRAE Standard for
winter and summer. In dry season, thermal comfort level ranged from operative temperature (Top) 22.5
to 26oC at relative humidity 60% (or 23.5-27oC at dew point temperature 20oC), while in wet season,
thermal comfort level ranged from Top 20 to 23.5oC at 60% (or 20.5-24.5oC at dew poit temperature
20oC). SNI 03-6572-2001 used two different thermal parameters, effective temperature for three levels
of comfort and operative temperature for dry and wet season, and it caused difficulties in its
implementation.
Standard ASHRAE 55 suggested that optimum thermal comfort for indoor ranged from
operative temperature 22.5 to 26oC. Table 4 shows that temperature for optimum comfortable in
standard SNI is refer to ASHRAE Standard 55, and then classified into three comfort levels with
different thermal unit. The first used operative temperature scale, and the latter used effective
temperature. The same scale (operative temperature) was used to classify thermal comfort range in dry
and wet season. The dry season shows the same value as ASHRAE standards (see Table 6).
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Table 6 The difference of ASHRAE Standard 55, SNI, and result of recent study
ASHRAE Std 55 SNI Recent study
Top 22.5 – 26oC Comfortably cool: ET 20.5 – 22.8
oC
Optimum comfortable: ET 22.8 – 25.8oC
Comfortably warm: ET 25.8 – 27.1oC
SET 25.6 – 28.2 oC
Dry season: Top 22.5 - 26oC at RH 60%
Wet season: Top 20 - 23.5oC at RH 60%
Top: 25.7 - 27.7oC
The range of comfort level that obtained from AMV ± 0.5 indicates that the range of thermal
comfort in Indonesia is narrower than that ASHRAE and ISO required, and stretched in higher
effective temperatures as well the operative temperature. SNI‟s range of comfortably warm is optimum
comfortable according to this research, and comfort level in dry season has lower value than those of
this research. It strengthens the previous results of studies that people in higher climatic conditions,
such as tropical regions as Indonesia, tend to have a higher comfort level as well, as reported by de
Dear et al. [13], and supported by Karyono‟s research [16]. Thus, thermal comfort standards in
Indonesia should consider these findings.
It is noted that this research was conducted during dry season, so it did not distinguish
between the standard of thermal comfort in dry season and wet season. This study only focused on
thermal comfort in the coastal or lowland cities at dry season, so the profile of thermal comfort in
upland cities or mountain area has not described yet. As reported by previous study that the lower
mean outdoor temperature, the lower indoor operative temparature for thermal comfort [11,13], thus
the research of thermal comfort in Indonesia is necessary to be managed for upland area and at wet
season as well.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This study showed that neutral temperature of building‟s occupant in Jakarta and Makassar is
at air temperature and operative temperature 26.7 oC or SET 26.9oC, while the thermal comfort level
ranged from 25.7oC to 27.7oC in Top or Ta and from SET 25.6 to 28.2oC. The neutral temperature by
means of adaptive approach shows a higher level than that by PMV based thermal comfort model, but
has narrower range of thermal comfort level. PMV based model can be used to predict thermal comfort
level of occupants, but it would be sufficient and close to the real conditions of thermal comfort level at
high temperature but not at lower temperature. It has a great opportunity for energy conservation in
buildings by adjusting the air conditioning temperature levels close to neutral temperature, so that the
energy consumption for air conditioning can be reduced.
The effort to conserve energy through determining the standards of actual thermal comfort of
Indonesian should be developed through the preparation of a database of neutral temperature and
thermal comfort level throughout Indonesia. As local climate condition in Indonesia is diverse, the
thermal neutrality and thermal comfort level will be varies depend on climate condition, and the
standard of thermal comfort will be different from one to another. Thus, this research need to be
enriched and complemented with such a similiar study in highland cities/area and at wet season.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author would like to thank to The Reasearch Institute for Human Settlements - Ministry of Public
Works for funding this research through MAK 2433.02.204 in Fiscal Year 2011
References
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Ilmu Pengetahuan dan Teknologi Bidang Sumber Energi Baru dan Terbarukan untuk Mendukung
Keamanan Ketersediaan Energi Tahun 2025, Jakarta.
2. Kurtubi. 2005. Harga Minyak Dunia dan Kemelut Harga BBM. BBM, Antara Hajat Hidup dan
Lahan Korupsi. Jakarta: Kompas Publisher.
3. Attmann, Osman. 2010. Green Architecture, Advanced Technologies and Materials. New York:
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4. Sujatmiko, Wahyu. 2008. Konservasi Energi pada Bangunan Gedung, Majalah Dinamika Riset.
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Indonesia. Proceedings of the Conference of the 30th Australia and New Zealand Architectural
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Nyaman Manusia Indonesia. Dimensi Teknik Arsitektur Vol 29(1). pp. 24 - 33
8. Nicol, J.F., and M.A. Humphreys. 2002. Adaptive thermal comfort and sustainable thermal
standards for buildings, Energy and Buildings, Vol 34(6)
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Research and Information, Vol. 23 (6)
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Architectural Science Review Vol 39(3). pp. 135 - 139
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Australia: The University of Sydney.
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Kenyamanan Termal Adaptif Di Indonesia. Prosiding Pertemuan dan Presentasi Ilmiah
Standardisasai 2008. Jakarta: Badan Standardisasi Nasional
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and Preference, Final Report ASHRAE RP-884. Center for Environmental Design Research,
University of California. USA: Berkeley, CA
14. Ong, Boon Lay. From Homogenity to Heterogenity. Naturally Ventilated Buildings: Buildings for
the Senses, the Economy and Society. Edited by Derek Clements-Croome. E&FN Spon
15. Brager, G.S. and de Dear, R. 2001. Climate, Comfort, and Natural Ventilation: A New Adaptive
Comfort Standard for ASHRAE Standard 55. Proceedings: Moving Thermal Comfort Standards
into the 21st Century. Windsor: Oxford Brookes University.
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Comfort in Jakarta, Indonesia. Proceedings CLIMA 2000 Conference. Belgium: Brussel.
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PROCESS OPTIMIZATION OF RICE STRAW DELIGNIFICATION FOR
BIOETHANOL PRODUCTION USING PHANEROCHAETE CHRYSOSPORIUM
Arni E. Gambe-Gilbuena1* Rizalinda L. de Leon2 and Ma. Auxilia T. Siringan3
1Energy Engineering Program, College of Engineering, University of the Philippines Diliman, 2Department of Chemical Engineering, University of the Philippines Diliman, 3Natural Science
Research Institute, University of the Philippines Diliman
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
The optimization of pre-treatment conditions for rice straw ethanol production, using
Phanerochaete chrysosporium Burds was performed. P. chrysosporium produce lignin peroxidases
which undergo a series of oxidative processes that degrade lignin by cleaving its aromatic rings thus
facilitating the enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose for ethanol production. The substrate size, treatment
duration and spore concentration were used as independent variables with the relative amounts of
lignin and cellulose as response variables in a Box-Benkhen optimization design. The culture
conditions which were predicted to result in the lowest amount of lignin (58.24%) with the highest
amount of cellulose retained (86.14%) were; substrate size of 320 μm, treatment duration of 12 days
and initial spore concentration of 1.8 x 106 spores/ml. These results may be used in the design of a
biological delignification system as an alternative to harsh thermo-chemical pre-treatment processes.
Keywords: alternative energy, lignocellulosic bioethanol, biological delignification, P. chrysosporium
INTRODUCTION
The increasing energy needs of world economies, particularly for transport fuels, encouraged
worldwide efforts to find alternative sources of liquid fuels. The global increase in bioethanol demand
is widely seen as a consequence of the depletion of the world‟s petroleum reserves and the growing
awareness of the environmental hazards posed by petroleum-based fuels [1]. With the current
estimates of the world‟s fossil fuel reserves, it is predicted that in 50 years petroleum will run out and
15 years later natural gas will follow suit [2].
Bioethanol has been touted as a feasible substitute to petroleum-based transportation fuels
because it is renewable and its production process can be potentially carbon neutral [3]. The Philippine
government enacted Republic Act 9637 or the Philippine Biofuels Act in 2006. The law requires
blending 2% biodiesel to petroleum-derived diesel fuels and 10% ethanol to gasoline from 2011
onwards. The law which essentially created an economic infrastructure for biofuel production, is
widely seen as a strategy by the government to eradicate poverty which in the Philippines is a largely
rural phenomenon [4].
Ethanol is widely produced using food crops such as corn (USA), sugarcane (South and
Central America, Asia and Africa), cassava (South and Central America, Asia), cereals (Europe,
Canada), maize (Canada) and sugar beets (Europe) [5]. These plant materials are preferred because of
the ease with which fermentable sugars can be obtained and processed to ethanol.
However, it is feared that the continued use of food crop coupled with an increasing global
demand for ethanol could result to an intensification of their cultivation. This is turn will lead to an
increase in water usage through irrigation and use of higher quantities of fertilizers and pesticides
which endanger habitats and aquifers [1].
Lignocellulosic materials are attractive alternatives to food crops since these can be sourced
from non-food agricultural residues [6]. However, the structural complexity of these materials which is
primarily due to the arrangement of their lignin and cellulosic components require lengthier and
costlier bioethanol production processes [7, 8]. Pre-treatment is necessary to expose more of the
celluloses for enzymatic saccharification [9]. The commonly-used methods for the pre-treatment of
lignocellulosic materials are thermo-chemical in principle [10]. However, aside from these processes
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being energy-intensive, chemicals that inhibit the subsequent saccharification and fermentation
processes are also produced as by-products [11, 12].
Biological pre-treatment methods offer a gentler alternative which could potentially increase
the amount of ethanol produced at lower costs [13]. The complete lignolytic system of P.
chrysosporium and its high specificity for lignin degradation led to its selection as a model organism
for studies on biological delignification [14, 15]. Previous studies on P. chrysosporium mostly focused
on increasing peroxidase production through medium optimization [14]. Therefore in this work, the
optimum culture conditions for maximum lignin removal and cellulose retention for rice straw
delignification using P. chrysosporium were determined.
METHODOLOGY
Medium Optimization
P. chrysosporium was grown on PDA slants and stored at 15ºC. For the optimization
experiments, spores were sub cultured on PDA plates and stored at RT for 7 to 15 days prior to use.
Since lignin peroxidase production of P. chrysosporium is dependent on the medium composition it
was essential to first optimize the culture medium. The glucose, ammonium tartrate and CaCl2
concentrations [14] with the peroxidase activity level as the response variable were considered in a
Box-Benkhen (BB) design [16] using the response surface method (RSM) for optimization (Table 1).
Growth Profile Determination
Inoculum, as spore suspension of P. chrysosporium was prepared using the optimized
medium (OM). Two ml of the spore suspension containing approximately 1.5 x 107 spores/ml was
distributed into 97 ml OM. One ml of the filter-sterilized thiamine-HCl was added to the OM cultures
for a final volume of 100 ml with a spore concentration of approximately 4.45 x 105 spores/ml.
Three OM cultures flasks were randomly chosen from the start of incubation (Day 0) to the
6th day of observation. Spores or pellets from these flasks were harvested on pre-weighed Whatman
No.1 filter paper, oven-dried at 100°C for 24 hours and weighed [17]. The dry weights of P.
chrysosporium pellets were determined by subtracting the weight of the filter paper.
Culture Condition Optimization
Three process parameters, namely; substrate size, initial spore concentration and treatment
duration were used in the BB design for optimization using RSM (Table 2). The sun- and air-dried rice
straw samples were ground, sieved and segregated into coarse (~990ìm), fine (~675ìm) and finest
(~350ìm). Three spore concentrations of P. chrysosporium were prepared; 1x103, 1.65x106 and 3.3x106
spores/ml. The rice straw and spore suspensions were incubated at RT, 95 rpm for 4, 12 or 20 days.
The amounts of lignin and cellulose were determined as described in [18] and [19], respectively.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Medium Optimization
The data revealed an apparent inverse relationship between peroxidase activity and pellet
size (Fig. 1) with the highest activity of 269.6 AU for smallest average P. chrysosporium pellet area of
0.0430 cm2. A mathematical model for enzyme activity in terms of coded factors was generated using
Design Expert 8 (Stat-Ease, Inc, MN, USA):
Enzyme Activity = 17.58 + (-36A) + (-54.08B) + (-16.18C)
+ (31.4AB) + (23.1AC) + (-20.75BC) + (11.93A2) + (18.78B2)
where A , B and C are the Glucose, Ammonium tartrate, and CaCl2 concentrations, respectively.
The model generated (Eq. 1) was used to find the optimal concentrations of glucose,
ammonium tartrate and calcium chloride concentrations which will maximize peroxidase activity. The
computed optimum value of the enzymatic activity was 269.968 A.U. for 2.02 g/L glucose, 0.22 g/L
ammonium tartrate and 0.04 g/L calcium chloride (Fig. 2).
Eq. 1
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Table 1. The variables and levels for the Box-Behnken experimental design
for medium optimization.
Variables Units Symbol Coded Levels
-1 0 +1
Glucose g/L A 2.0* 4.0 6.0
Ammonium tartrate g/L B 0.2*** 1.1 2.0***
Calcium chloride g/L C 0.01* 0.03 0.05**
References: *[37], **[4], ***[22]
Table 2. The Box-Benkhen experimental design for the optimization of
culture conditions for rice straw delignification.
Design
Point
A: Size of
Substrate,
(approx.) m
B: Treatment
Duration,
days
C: Concentration
(approx.),
spores/ml
1 350 4 1.65 x106
2 990 4 1.65 x106
3 350 20 1.65 x106
4 990 20 1.65 x106
5 350 12 1.00 x103
6 990 12 1.00 x103
7 350 12 3.30 x106
8 990 12 3.30 x106
9 675 4 1.00 x103
10 675 20 1.00 x103
11 675 4 3.30 x106
12 675 20 3.30 x106
13 675 12 1.65 x106
14 675 12 1.65 x106
15 675 12 1.65 x106
Figure 1. The average area and the corresponding average peroxidase activity of P. chrysosporium pellets
for each of the design points in Table 2. The highest peroxidase activity observed was 269.60 AU at an
average pellet area of 0.0430 cm2.
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Figure 2. The predicted peroxidase activity of P. chrysosporium using the optimum values for glucose,
ammonium tartrate and calcium chloride concentrations. Contour graphs generated while holding the
glucose (B), ammonium tartrate (C) and calcium chloride (D) concentrations at their optimal values of 2.02
g/L, 0.22 g/L and 0.04 g/L, respectively.
Growth Profile
It was important to determine the onset of P. chrysosporium„s secondary metabolism for the
design of the subsequent experiments since the production of lignin peroxidases was previously
observed to occur during this period [20]. The growth profile of a microorganism can be used to
establish the onset of a microorganism‟s various growth phases.
The dry-weight measurements and the corresponding peroxidase activity of P. chrysosporium
grown in the optimized medium during a 7-day observation period are shown in Fig. 3.
The rapid increase in biomass during the microorganism‟s exponential-linear growth phase
was observed from Day 1 to Day 3. During the stationary phase (Day 3 to Day 6) when there was no
increase in the dry-weights observed, P. chrysosporium shifted to its secondary metabolism, an
assertion that was supported by the peroxidase production profile. Consistent with the growth profile
observations, no peroxidase activity was observed on Day 1 and Day 2, a period when a rapid increase
in dry weight was noted. However, from Day 3 to Day 6, the enzyme activity progressively increased.
The growth profile obtained was similar to that described for the wild-type P. chrysosporium
strain used by Orth, et al. [21]. The production of lignin peroxidases during the microorganism's
secondary metabolism was evident in the growth characterization of P. chrysosporium vis-à-vis its
peroxidase activity profile (Fig. 3). Consistent with previous reports [22, 8, 23], the rapid increase in
peroxidase activity was observed only during the microorganism's secondary growth phase which was
marked by a cessation of mass accumulation (Fig. 3). The switch to secondary metabolism may have
been triggered by the depletion of nutrients in the growth medium since the concomitant release of
lignin-degrading enzymes can facilitate the extraction of nutrients from materials that are available in
the microorganism‟s environment.
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Figure 3. The growth profile and time course of the extracellular peroxidase activity of P.
chrysosporium Burds grown in an optimized medium (OM) under submerged, agitated conditions.
Mathematical Models for Lignin and Cellulose Contents
Second-order polynomial equations were used to fit the predicted model to the experimental
data and the results for the relative lignin and cellulose contents were: (A = Substrate size, B =
Treatment duration, C = Spore concentration)
Lignin = 73.80 + (3.31A) + (-0.62B) + (-5.09C) + (1.83AB)
+ (-1.28AC) + (-2.16BC) + (11.87A2) + (9.89B2) + (6.12C2)
Cellulose = 87.30 + (-3.53A) + (-0.54B) + (2.69C) + (-4.83A2)
+ (-5.74B2) + (-12.36C2)
The models generated were used to assess the effects of substrate size, treatment duration and
spore concentration on the amounts of lignin and cellulose in the treated rice straw samples. To
facilitate analysis, contour graphs showing the variations in lignin and cellulose contents were
generated (Fig. 4-7).
Effects of Treatment Duration on Biological Delignification
The length of time required to obtain the desired output provides essential information
pertinent to the design of reactors for scale-up purposes. The relative amounts of lignin and cellulose
subjected to the three different durations of treatment were as illustrated in Figs. 4 and 5, respectively.
The model showed that at all treatment durations considered, the lower amounts of lignin were
observed in the small (-1) substrate size range (Table 3).
The biological delignification of lignocellulosic materials must ideally result in the decrease
of the amount of lignin while retaining the most amount of cellulose available for saccharification. It is
logical to surmise that the lengthy immersion alone of biological materials, in this case, rice straw will
result in the decrease of its structural integrity which may in turn increase the exposure of celluloses to
facilitate the saccharification process. However, the results obtained herein did not support this
assertion. At all substrate size ranges and across all spore concentrations considered, increasing the
duration of treatment did not result in a commensurate decrease in the amount of lignin (Fig. 6). The
model generated suggested a complex interplay of the factors considered for analysis wherein the
longest treatment duration did not necessarily guarantee the highest lignin removal or the most
cellulose retained in the rice straw samples.
Eq. 2
Eq. 3
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Figure 4. The predicted lignin content of rice straw samples subjected to 4, 12 and 20 days of treatment
duration. A. Representative surface diagram of the variations in the predicted lignin content using various
substrate sizes and spore concentrations for a constant treatment duration of 12 days. B.-D. Contour graphs
showing the variations in lignin content for a treatment duration of 4, 12 and 20 days, respectively. The
white dots represent the location of the experimental results of the design points.
Figure 5. The predicted cellulose content of rice straw samples subjected to 4, 12 and 20 days of treatment
duration. A. Representative surface diagram of the variations in the predicted cellulose contents using
various substrate sizes and spore concentrations for a constant treatment duration of 12 days. B.-D. Contour
graphs showing the variations in cellulose contents for a treatment duration of 4, 12 and 20 days,
respectively. The white dots represent the location of the experimental results of the design points.
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Figure 6. The predicted lignin content of rice straw samples using small, mid-sized and large substrate sizes.
A. Representative surface diagram of the variations in the predicted lignin contents of rice straw for
different durations of treatment and spore concentrations. B.-D. Contour graphs showing the variations in
lignin contents holding the substrate size constant at 320 m (small), 670 m (mid-sized) and 990 m
(large), respectively. The white dots represent the location of the experimental results of the design points.
Figure 7. The predicted cellulose content of rice straw samples using small, mid-sized and large substrate
sizes. A. Representative surface diagram of the variations in the predicted cellulose contents of rice straw
for different durations of treatment and spore concentrations. B. Contour graph showing the variations in
cellulose contents holding the substrate size constant at 320 m, 670 m and 990 m, respectively. The
white dots represent the location of the experimental results of the design points.
The model (Eq. 2) suggested that halting the delignification process after 4 days would be
premature while prolonging the treatment duration beyond the 20-day maximum period would be
superfluous as this will not result in more lignin removal (Fig. 6). Although peroxidase activity was
already noted at Day 4 (Fig. 3), the amounts generated may not have been sufficient for
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delignification.
On the other hand, the extension of the delignification process will potentially result in the
loss of celluloses (Fig. 7). This may be attributed, initially to the immediate utilization of released
celluloses by the microorganism as deduced from the low lignin contents observed (Fig. 6).
Interestingly, at longer durations of treatment, the models predicted lower cellulose yields with higher
lignin contents (Fig. 7), similar to that observed for shorter treatment durations. This may be explained
by the results of a recently reported P. chrysosporium secretome analysis. [24]. In the aforementioned
study, the predisposition of P. chyrsosporium to cellulase production on the second to third week of
incubation was observed. The high lignin content may be due to the decrease in the lignin peroxidases
while the smaller amounts of celluloses may be due to the cellulolytic activity of the fungus [24].
Effect of Substrate Size on Biological Delignification
Size reduction poses a potentially high energy requirement that diminishes the economic
feasibility of a process hence its inclusion in the analysis. The most substantial reduction of lignin
content was predicted to occur at the small substrate size range for all spore concentrations and
treatment durations considered for analysis (Fig. 4). This “bias” may be attributed to the comminution
of rice straw which is essentially a pre-treatment process that falls under the physical methods category
[9]. Physical pre-treatment methods are ideal because of the lower amounts of inhibitors that are
produced [1,13]. However, they are inherently energy intensive [13].
These concerns and the results reported herein, further bolster the notion of using
combinations of pre-treatment methods that result in a delignification system with lower energy inputs
and higher ethanol yield. Similar systems have been used in the pulp and paper industry where
bio-bleaching is used to lessen the amounts of chemicals required for processing pulp obtained from
wood [25]. Although relatively high amounts of cellulose can be obtained in the region for the region
corresponding to the low lignin contents, the highest cellulose content was predicted to be obtained at
moderately-sized substrates subjected to a moderate duration of treatment (Fig. 5C, Fig. 7C).
For all spore concentrations considered, relatively smaller amounts of cellulose were
predicted for both the small (Fig. 5B) and large (Fig. 5D) size substrates with the higher values at the
regions corresponding to moderate substrate sizes and mid-length treatment duration. Although P.
chrysosporium attacks lignin more selectively compared to other lignin-degrading microorganisms, it
also degrades celluloses but to a lesser degree. The results observed herein suggest that an increase in
cellulose consumption may have occurred when the conditions were favorable to lignin degradation
(Fig. 6B, C).
Effect of Spore Concentration on Biological Delignification
Previous reports indicating that the initial spore concentration of the inoculum is not
commensurate to the amount of lignin peroxidase produced [23] necessitated the inclusion of this
parameter in the analysis. It was apparent in Fig. 4-5 that an increase in the spore concentrations did
not necessarily translate to the lowest lignin contents or the highest cellulose retained in the samples. Since lignin peroxidase is the key to biological delignification, the idea of producing more of
the enzyme with the use of the most number of P. chrysosporium spores is intuitive. The results
however did not reflect the aforementioned expectation. Regions predicted to result in low lignin
contents were observed at all spore concentrations considered for analysis (Fig. 4) particularly for
small substrate sizes. It must be noted however that the lowest lignin predicted corresponds to the
region for medium spore concentrations (Fig. 6A). For medium- and large- sized substrates on the
other hand, low lignin contents can only be obtained in regions corresponding to medium to high spore
concentrations (Fig. 6 C, D). Mid-sized or large-sized samples present more physical barriers for an
efficient reaction between the delignifying enzymes and their substrates hence, the deployment of
more microorganisms may be beneficial. Interestingly, the model for cellulose content suggested
smaller cellulose yields for both low and high concentrations of the inoculum for all treatment
durations. The low cellulose levels at both the low and high spore concentrations for the short duration
of treatment may be explained by the low amount of lignin peroxidases that were produced as reflected
in the high amounts of lignin predicted (Fig. 6).
These observations indicated a non-straightforward relationship between the operation
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parameters considered and the desired output of obtaining the highest yield of cellulose with the least
amount of lignin retained, and underscored the need for an optimization procedure to facilitate the
selection of the optimal values for the process parameters considered.
Optimization of Culture Conditions for Biological Delignification
The mathematical models for lignin and cellulose contents (Eq. 2 and Eq. 3 respectively),
were used in an optimization.procedure using Design Expert 8. Equal weights and importance were
given to the parameters and the responses.
The substrate size, treatment duration and spore concentrations that were predicted to result
in optimum lignin removal and cellulose retention were 350.37m, 12.03 days and 1.87 x 106
spores/ml, respectively. The locations of the optimum values of lignin and cellulose contents in the
solution space are shown in Fig. 8. The experimental value (83.28%) of the cellulose content of rice
straw subjected to the optimal culture conditions was close to the calculated optimum value of 86.14% .
However, the experimental percentage for the lignin content (67.94%) was slightly higher than the
predicted value of 58.24%. These results may stem from the possibility that there are other parameters
that affect the biological delignification process which were not accounted for in this work.
Figure 8. The predicted lignin and cellulose contents for the calculated optimum values of the substrate
size, treatment duration and spore concentration.
CONCLUSION
The optimal concentrations of glucose, ammonium tartrate and calcium chloride were 2.02
g/L, 0.22 g/L and 0.04 g/L, respectively which was predicted to result in a peroxidase activity of
269.968 AU. These results were consistent with previous reports on the necessity of subjecting P.
chrysosporium Burds to carbon and nitrogen starvation for the microorganism to produce lignin
peroxidases as products of its secondary metabolism. The growth profile of P. chrysosporium grown in
the optimized culture medium was consistent with the onset of secondary metabolism marked by a
sharp increase in the measured activity levels of lignin peroxidase. The analysis of the effects of the
culture conditions considered for analysis, namely; substrate size, treatment duration and spore
concentration revealed several observations. The smallest substrate size was generally favoured over
the medium- and large-sized rice straw samples for lignin removal. An increase in the inoculum
concentration did not result in a corresponding decrease in the lignin content. In the same manner,
prolonging the treatment duration did not result in lower lignin content which was also observed in
samples subjected to short durations of treatment. A complex interplay of the aforementioned culture
conditions on the lignin and cellulose contents of rice straw inoculated with P. chrysosporium
underscored the importance of using an optimization method to determine the parameter values which
would result in low lignin content with a high amount of cellulose retained.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The financial assistance provided by the ERDT Scholarship Program made the completion
of this work possible.
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References
[1] J. Hill J, et al, 2006, Environmental, economic, and energetic costs and benefits of biodiesel and
ethanol biofuels, PNAS, 103.
[2] W. Soetart, E. Vandamme E, Eds, 2009, Biofuels, John Wiley and Sons, United Kingdom.
[3] J. Park, et al, 2009, Efficient recovery of glucose and fructose via enzymatic saccharification of
rice straw with soft carbohydrates, Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem, (73) 1072-1077.
[4] E. Javier, 2008, The Philippine Biofuel Program, Paper presented at the 2008 Energy Summit,
SMX Convention Center, Mall of Asia.
[5] United Nations Environment Planning, 2009, Towards sustainable production and use of
resources: assessing biofuels.
[6] M. Balat, H. Balat, C. Öz, 2008, Progress in Bioethanol Processing, Prog. Energy Combustion
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[7] C. Kubicek, et al, 2009, Metabolic engineering strategies for the improvement of cellulase
production by Hypocrea jecorina, Biotech. Biofuels, (2) 19.
[8] R. Sharma, D. Arora, 2010, Changes in biochemical constituents of paddy straw during
degradation by white rot fungi and its impact on in vitro digestibility, J. Appl. Microbio, (109)
679-686.
[9] M. Taherzadeh,K. Karimi, 2008, Pretreatment of lignocellulosic wastes to improve ethanol and
biogas production: A Review, Int. J. Mol. Sci, (9)1621-1651.
[10] B. Bals B, et al, 2010, Evaluation of ammonia fibre expansion (AFEX) pretreatment for
enzymatic hydrolysis of switchgrass harvested in different seasons and locations, Biotechnology
for Biofuels, (3)1.
[11] S. Allen, et al, 2010, Furfural induces reactive oxygen species accumulation and cellular damage
in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Biotechnology for Biofuels, (3)2.
[12] T. Mills, N. Sandoval, R. Gill, 2009, Cellulosic hydrolysate toxicity and tolerance mechanisms
in Escherichia coli, Biotechnology for Biofuels, (2) 26.
[13] U.S. Department of Energy, 2006, Breaking the Biological Barriers to Cellulosic Ethanol: A
Joint Research Agends, DOE/SC-0095, U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science and Office
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[14] J. Bak, et al, 2009, Fungal Pretreatment of Lignocellulose by Phanerochaete chrysosporium to
Produce Ethanol from Rice Straw, Biotechnology Bioengineering, (104) 471- 482.
[15] H. Burdsall, 1998, Taxonomy of Industrially Important White-Rot Fungi. In: Environmentally
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[18] D. Ulmer, et al, 1983, Rapid degradation of isolated lignins by Phanerochaete chrysosporium,
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[19] D. Updegraff, 1969, Semimicro determination of cellulose in biological materials, Analytical
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USE OF CARBONACEOUS MATERIALS FOR THE TREATMENT OF KRAFT
PULP MILL EFFLUENT – REMOVAL OF COLOR AND PHENOLIC COMPOUNDS
N. Kaushalya Herath1, Yoshito Ohtani2* and Hideaki Ichiura2 1 The United Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences, Ehime University
2Department of Forest Science, Kochi University
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
A study on the utilization of carbonaceous materials for the removal of color and phenolic
compounds from the kraft pulp mill effluent has been carried out. Laboratory scale batch and column
experiments were conducted using real effluent and four types of carbonaceous materials; powdered
activated carbon, granular activated carbon, laboratory prepared rice husk carbon and activated rice
husk carbon. The effects of adsorbent dose, initial effluent pH, type of adsorbent and contact time
were the parameters studied. Changes in the effluent color and phenolic compounds were monitored
by UV/Vis absorption spectra at 465 and 280nm, respectively.
According to the batch experiments, increase of adsorbent dose has a positive impact on the
removal of phenolic compounds in the effluent. However, increasing dose contributes to the effluent
color. Initial effluent pH also affects the removal efficiencies, with acidic pH being more favorable.
Performance of the carbonaceous materials experimented decrease as powdered activated carbon >
granular activated carbon > activated rice husk carbon > rice husk carbon.
Keywords: kraft pulp mill effluent, adsorption, color, phenolic compounds.
INTRODUCTION
Rapid increase in human population and limitation of resources are two major issues faced
by the world. From all the resources, water plays an important role being a necessity not only for
human but for all the living materials on earth. Global fresh water depletion leads to the need of
treating and reusing the wastewater generated at industrial utilities. Pulp and paper industry is one of
the most important industries in the world, utilizing a huge amount of water and generating a
considerable amount of wastewater with high biological oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen
demand (COD), suspended solids (SS), toxicity and color. Bleach plant effluents from kraft pulp mill
contain dissolved lignin, emulsified soaps, other organic ingredients and substantial amounts of
inorganic salts [1]. This effluent can cause slime growth, thermal impacts, scum formation, color
problems and loss of aesthetic beauty while increasing the amount of toxic substances in the water,
causing death to zoo plankton and aquatic plants, affecting the terrestrial eco system [2].
Various treatment technologies are employed for the treatment of industrial wastewater.
These techniques include coagulation- flocculation, adsorption, filtration, biological treatment,
oxidation, osmosis, etc. All these methods do have their own advantages and disadvantages. One most
critical factor in deciding a specific treatment technology is the cost involvement in installation and
maintenance of the facility.
Adsorption of organic pollutants onto solid materials, especially carbonaceous materials has
been identified as an efficient method of controlling water pollution. The most commonly used
adsorption material is activated carbon (AC) [3]. It has perfect adsorption ability for relatively
low-molecular-weight organic compounds such as phenols and can be manufactured in different sizes
and with pores of any width. Adsorption capacity of AC is determined by many factors including
physical properties of the adsorbent and nature of compounds to be adsorbed [4].
Properties of the adsorbent also depend on the activation method used in manufacturing them
and extent of activation. Physical activation and chemical activation are common methods in
activating the carbon materials. Physical activation is the carbonization of raw materials in an inert
atmosphere followed by partial gasification of the resulting char with steam, CO2 or a mixture of them.
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In chemical activation, the raw materials are impregnated by compounds such as KOH, NaOH, H3PO4
or ZnCl2. After impregnation they are pyrolyzed and washed to remove the activating agent [4, 5, 6].
Although AC is widely used, the regeneration is difficult and relatively expensive [1]. In
theory any carbonaceous material can be a source of AC. However materials with high carbon content,
low inorganic content are more preferable. Therefore alternative cheaper materials and solid wastes
like fly ash, fruit stones, peat, soil, rice husk, sawdust, bagasse are widely being experimented with
regard to improved adsorption properties, cost effective activation methods and regeneration [1, 4, 5].
This study is aimed at evaluating the use of commercially available powdered activated
carbon (PAC), granular activated carbon (GAC) prepared from coconut shell, laboratory prepared rice
husk carbon (RHC) and laboratory prepared chemically activated rice husk carbon (ARHC) for the
treatment of kraft pulp mill effluent. In order to determine the suitability of alternative materials two
RHC types has been used. Rice husk is an agricultural waste product which is widely available in most
parts of the world. It is cheap and the utilization of it gives a solution to the disposal problems as well.
In this paper, change of color and phenolic compounds in the low concentration kraft pulp mill
effluent by adsorption on the above carbonaceous materials has been discussed. The effect of
adsorbent dose, initial effluent pH, type of adsorbent and the contact time are the parameters studied.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Wastewater
Wastewater samples for the experiments were sourced from a kraft pulp mill in Ehime
Prefecture, Japan. Effluent samples for the experiments were prepared by filtering the original kraft
pulp mill effluent with Advantec No.2 filter papers and diluting the filtered effluent 1000 times using
distilled water. This low concentration samples are similar to the residual effluent released by the
manufacturing process which does not contain enough organic or chemical compounds for chemical or
energy recovery.
Activated carbon
For the experiments following carbonaceous materials were used.
Analytical grade powdered activated carbon (Wako Pure Chemicals Ltd.) with pH from 5 to 8 in
50g/L slurry at 250C.
Granular activated carbon prepared from coconut shell with 30- 60 mesh size (commercial type).
RHC prepared by anaerobically combusting rice husk at 7000C for 1.5hrs.
Activated RHC prepared by following method.
Mixture of rice husk, NaOH (25g in 100g rice husk) and water (75mL in 100g rice husk) was
kept still for 24hrs. It was then anaerobically combusted at 7000C for 1.5hrs. After cooling the mixture
was washed with water till all NaOH is removed.
Analysis
Effluent samples were initially analyzed for determination of COD, SS, TDS (total dissolved
solids) and dissolved inorganic solids according to Standard Methods of Examination of Water and
Wastewater [7]. The properties are given in Table 1.
Table 1. Initial properties of the kraft pulp mill effluent Parameter Value
pH 11.5
COD (mg/L) 160810
SS (g/L) 5.5
TDS (g/L) 170.7
Dissolved inorganic solids (g/L) 73.8
UV/Vis spectrophotometer (Hitachi U-2810) was used to measure and monitor the UV/Vis
absorption spectra of the effluent. Measurements were obtained at wavelengths of 465nm and 280nm
to monitor the performance. These wavelengths correspond to different properties of wastewater;
465nm corresponds to color causing compounds mainly due to lignin [8] and 280nm is related to
aromatic groups like phenols, which are usually present in these kinds of effluents [9]. Every
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experiment was done in triplicate.
Batch experiments
PAC treatment experiments were conducted using different doses of PAC (0.05, 0.1, 0.5 and
1g/L). After PAC was introduced to samples they were immediately stirred for 30min and allowed to
settle for 1hr. Supernatant was filtered using 5C filter paper before analysis. The optimum dose was
used at different initial effluent pH levels (2, 4, 5, 7 and 10) in order to find effect of initial effluent pH.
Sample pH values were adjusted using small volumes of concentrated H2SO4.
GAC experiments were conducted using different doses (0.1, 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 4 and 5g/L) and
at different initial effluent pH levels (5, 6, 7 and 8). The steps were similar to those with PAC.
RHC was kept in distilled water for 24hrs and taken for experiments after filtering away the
water. Different doses of RHC (4, 6, 8 and 10g/L) was added to effluent samples and slowly stirred for
1hr. They were allowed to settle for 1hr. Supernatant was filtered using 5C filter paper and taken for
analysis. Effect of pH was determined by using the optimum RHC dose at different initial effluent pH
levels (5, 7 and 9).
ARHC was used for experiments in the same method as with RHC.
Column experiments
Experiments were conducted using the following set- up.
Figure 1. Set up for column experiments
The column consisted of filter membranes at inlet and outlet. It was packed with RHC and
cleaned with distilled water initially. 0.1% effluent was continuously sent through the column at a rate
of 8.85mL/min. Samples for analysis was collected at every 50mL of flow.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Adsorbent dose
Removal percentages of phenolic compounds for different carbon doses are shown in Figure
2. Initial pH of the samples were taken without prior adjustment (around 10).
Effluent
Pump with
flow
adjustment
Carbon column
55mL volume
Treated
effluent
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0
10
20
30
40
50
0 2 4 6 8 10
Dose (g/L)
Rem
ov
al %
of
ph
eno
lic
com
po
un
ds
PAC GAC RHC ARHC
Figure 2. Removal of phenolic compounds for varying carbon doses at pH10.
Phenolic compound removal increased with increasing adsorbent dosage up to a certain dose
and then leveled off. By increasing the PAC dosage from 0.1g/L to 0.5g/L, the percentage of phenolic
compounds removed increased from 18% to 32%. However, a further increase of adsorbent to 1g/L
only removed 35%, indicating a negligible increase of phenolic compound removal at higher
adsorbent dosages. Higher PAC dosages result in higher adsorption owing to the increase of surface
area [10, 11]. Particle aggregation and precipitation can be the reason for the insignificant
improvement of adsorption for further increases of PAC. Similar tendency was observed with GAC
and RHC as well.
ARHC shows higher removal efficiencies than RHC for similar doses. This improvement is
due to the difference in activation process. Addition of NaOH in the anaerobic combustion has resulted
in this improved performance.
Figure 3 shows the change of color for various carbon doses. PAC, GAC and RHC show
similar trends. Initial increase of adsorption materials resulted in improvement of color removal. After
a certain dose any further additions increase the effluent color. This is due to smaller adsorption
material particles remaining in the suspension. Of all the four types of carbonaceous materials ARHC
has the highest negative impact on the effluent color. Presence of smaller particles in higher quantity
compared to the other types is the reason for this.
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
0 2 4 6 8 10
Dose (g/L)
Rem
ov
al %
of
colo
r
PAC GAC RHC ARHC
Figure 3. Removal of color for varying carbon doses at pH10.
Initial effluent pH
To determine the effect of pH, experiments were carried out over a range of pH for PAC and
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GAC using 0.5g/L and RHC 4g/L, previously obtained optimum dosage for each of them (Figure 4).
0
20
40
60
80
100
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
pH
Rem
ov
al %
of
ph
eno
lic
com
po
un
ds
PAC(0.5g/L) GAC(0.5g/L) RHC(4g/L)
Figure 4. Effect of initial effluent pH.
It is very clear with PAC that lower pH is more favorable for the removal of phenolic
compounds. Other two carbon types also have the similar characteristics though it is not very clear due
to lower efficiencies. Organic compounds have a poor adsorption capability on ACs when they are
ionized. The adsorbent particles have negatively charged active sites. At low pH, H+ ions in the
effluent can neutralize those sites and make it easy for the phenolic compounds to diffuse and get
adsorbed. At high pH, OH- can act as a barrier for diffusion and reduce the adsorption capacity [1, 12,
13].
Type of adsorbent
Both color and phenolic compounds show higher removal efficiencies with PAC (Figure 2,
3). PAC, as clearly stated by name, contains powder form of carbon, providing a larger surface area
than the other two types. Hence it is capable of removing higher percentages of compounds from the
effluent. On the other hand RHC consists of larger particles than the other two types and hence the
poorest performance.
In addition to this, the activation process also affects the adsorption capacity of carbonaceous
materials [4, 8]. PAC and GAC have been commercially manufactured by activation processes.
Therefore, they have better performance when compared to the laboratory prepared carbon types.
ARHC was prepared by chemically activating with NaOH and consisted of higher proportion of
microporocity [6]. But RHC was prepared without any specific activation therefore it showed the
poorest performance.
Further, agricultural waste materials carry metal oxides and they can fill or block pores
leading to low surface area [14].
Contact time
Effect of contact time was evaluated using the column reactor. Figure 5 shows the removal
percentage of phenolic compounds in the effluent after passing through the RHC column.
Removal percentage of phenolic compounds decrease with increasing effluent flow and close
to a near zero efficiency. Maximum removal is 20% in the first 50mL. This maximum initial removal
indicates the adsorption capability of the RHC. Poor availability of pores in the RHC can be the reason
for this low adsorption capacity. Limitation of pores and obstructions for contacting them could be
identified as the reason for continual decrease of efficiency.
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0
10
20
30
40
50
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Effluent flow (mL)
Rem
ov
al %
of
ph
eno
lic
com
po
un
ds
Figure 5. Removal of phenolic compounds in the column reactor.
Figure 6 shows the variation of color due to the adsorption in the RHC column.
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Effluent flow (mL)
Rem
ov
al %
of
colo
r
Figure 6. Removal of color compounds in the column reactor.
Effluent color increases during the flow of initial 350mL and then starts to decrease with the
same pattern as that of the phenolic compounds. Initial color increase can be due to carrying away the
smaller particles from the RHC.
CONCLUSIONS
All carbonaceous materials experimented are capable of removing phenolic compounds in
the low concentration effluent. The efficiencies are in the order of PAC> GAC> ARHC> RHC.
However adding color to the effluent was common with all carbon types and therefore cleaning carbon
prior to use is recommended. Adjusting initial effluent pH to acidic level is more favorable for the
treatment.
The performance of RHC is the poorest since it was prepared without specific activation.
However once activated using NaOH, the performance improved. This observation suggests that rice
husk carbon can be a potential raw material for AC. Being a waste product the utilization of it is
economically feasible and also solves their disposal issues.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Financial support for the research provided by the Japanese Government Monbukagakusho
Scholarship is greatly appreciated.
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References
[1] Q. Zhang, K.T. Chuang, 2001, ―Adsorption of organic pollutants from effluents of a kraft pulp
mill on activated carbon and polymer resin‖, Advances in Environmental research, (3) 251- 258.
[2] D. Pokhrel, T. Viraraghavan, 2004, ―Treatment of pulp and paper mill wastewater- a review‖,
Science of the Total Environment, (333) 37- 58.
[3] V.K. Gupta, A. Mittal, R. Jain, M. Mathur, S. Sikarwar, 2006, ―Adsorption of Safranin- T from
wastewater using waste materials- activated carbon and activated rice husk‖, Journal of Colloid
and Interface Science, (303) 80- 86.
[4] A. Dąbrowski, P. Podkościelny, Z. Hubicki, M. Barczak, 2005, ―Adsorption of phenolic
compounds by activated carbon- a critical review‖, Chemosphere, (58) 1049- 1070.
[5] V. Shihari, A. Das, 2009, ―Adsorption of phenol from aqueous media by an agro-waste
(hemidesmus indicus) based activated carbon‖, Applied Ecology and Environmental Research, (7)
pp13- 23.
[6] Y.Chen,Y. Zhu, Z. Wang, Y. Li, L. Ding, X. Gao, Y. Ma, Y. Guo, 2011, ―Application studies of
activated carbon derived from rice husks produced by chemical- thermal process- A review‖,
Advances in Colloid and Interface Science, (163) 39- 52.
[7] American Public Health Association, 2005, Standard Methods for the examination of water and
wastewater, (21st Edition, Maryland,USA: Port City Press), 2-56, 2- 57, 5-15.
[8] A.R. Shawwa, D.W. Smith, and D.C. Sego, 2001, ―Color and chlorinated organics removal from
pulp mills wastewater using activated petroleum coke‖, Water Research, (35) 745- 749.
[9] A.C. Rodrigues, M. Boroski, N.S. Shimada, J.C. Garcia, J. Nozaki, and N. Hioka, 2008,
―Treatment of paper pulp and paper mill wastewater by coagulation- flocculation followed by
heterogeneous photocatalysis‖, Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology A: Chemistry, (194)
1- 10.
[10] H. Temmink, K. Grolle, 2005, ―Tertiary activated carbon treatment of paper and board industry
wastewater‖, Bioresource Technology, (96) 1683- 1689.
[11] S. Arivoli, M. Thenkuzhali, P. Martin Deva Prasath, 2009, ―Adsorption of rhodamine B by acid
activated carbon- kinetic, thermodynamic and equilibrium studies‖, The Electronic Journal of
Chemistry, (1) 138- 155.
[12] S. Mukherjee, S. Kumar, A.K. Misra, M. Fan, 2007, ―Removal of phenols from water
environment by activated carbon, bagasse ash and wood charcoal‖, Chemical Engineering
Journal, (129) 133- 142.
[13] K.P. Singh, A. Malik, S. Sinha, P. Ojha, 2008, ―Liquid- phase adsorption of phenols using
activated carbons derived from agricultural waste material‖, Journal of Hazardous Materials,
(150) 626- 641.
[14] A. Aworn, P. Thiravetyan, W. Nakbanpote, 2008, ―Preparation and characteristics of agricultural
waste activated carbon by physical activation having micro- and mesopores‖, Journal of
Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, (82) 279- 285.
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SYNTHESIS OF ZSM-11 ZEOLITE FROM SMOKELESS COMBUSTION SYSTEM
OF RICE HUSK
Erni Johan* Kiyotoshi Ogami, Naoto Matsue and Teruo Henmi
Faculty of Agriculture, Ehime University, 3-5-7 Tarumi, Matsuyama 790-8566, Japan
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
A huge amounts of rice husk is discharged from rice-producing countries in the world. Japan
generated about 1.98 million tons of rice husk in 2007, and about 60% of them were disposed as
industrial waste. In the present study we tried to recycle this rice husk and converted it into valuable
materials, ZSM-11 zeolite. Rice husk was burned as fuel for a boiler to warm a green house during
winter season. The boiler was modified to introduce smokeless combustion system by keeping
combustion temperature not so high in order to obtain amorphous rice husk ash with high silicon
content. The rice husk ash was applied to synthesize high silica zeolite, ZSM-11 by hydrothermal
reaction. Two methods were introduced, one is the direct hydrothermal reaction at 170°C for 3 days,
another is with preheating treatment prior to the hydrothermal reaction. XRD analysis confirmed that
ZSM-11 were formed, with better crystallinity for that with preheating treatment.
Keywords: ZSM-5, ZSM-11, smokeless combustion, rice husk.
INTRODUCTION
Rice is main food of the people in many countries in the world. The production of rice is
about 384 million tons in 2002 year. During rice milling process a rice husk is generated abundantly.
Most of rice husk is commonly utilized as animal feed, fertilizer, component of bricks or as reinforcing
material in cement (Chiarakorn et al., 2007). In Japan 1.98 million tons of rice husk was generated in
2007, and about 60% of it was disposed as industrial waste. Previously Japanese farmers used to burn
the rice husk in their field, or mixed it with cow dung to produce manure. However, for environmental
safety, burning of rice husk privately is prohibited by Japan regulations, recently. Rice husk has to be
combusted at high temperature or to be buried as industrial waste, that need high cost for farmers. In
the present study, we utilized rice husk as fuel for a boiler to warm a green house during winter season.
We developed a technique to make a smokeless boiler by adding rice husk ash to adsorb smokes, and
reducing consumption of air during combustion to maintain lower temperature. Combustion
temperature was about 500 °C, and the rice husk ash produced was composed mostly of amorphous
silica without crystalline silica such as crystobalite.
ZSM-11 is a high silica zeolite containing two intersecting channels system with
10-membered ring opening, which are both straight and have the same elliptical opening with free
diameter intermediate to those Linde type A and faujasite (Kokotailo et al., 1978). This kind of zeolite
is a promising material for cracking in petroleum industry, NOx decomposition or adsorption of VOCs
(volatile organic compounds). Kustova et al. (2004) found that ZSM-11 is a good catalyst for cracking
and isomerization of n-hexadecane and epoxidation reaction of oct-1-ene and styrene. Our previous
study proved that ZSM-11 has greater adsorption capacity of toluene and xylene, as compare to its
family, ZSM-5 (Johan et al., 2009). In the present study we synthesized and characterized ZSM-11
synthesized from rice husk ash produced from the smokeless boiler. The objective of the present study
is to find optimum condition for the synthesis of ZSM-11 from rice husk ash.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Rice husk ash (RHA) obtained from boiler after combustion with smokeless system was
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sieved to separate carbons remained, then was heated at 600°Cin order to remove unburned carbon.
Analysis by X-ray florescence (Rigaku RIX 2100) indicated that the RHA contained mainly of silicon
(SiO2= 90.6%). Two methods of ZSM-11 synthesis were employed, method I was without preheating
treatment, and method II was that with preheating treatments. Five grams of RHA was placed in
conical flask, then was added with 0.022mol of NaOH, 0.01mol of tetra-n-butyl ammonium bromide
(TBABr), and 4.05mol of H2O. The mixture was then stirred with magnetic stirrer for 30 minutes, and
then was transferred into 100 mL stainless steal autoclave. Hydrothermal reaction was carried out at
170 °C for 72 h. Reaction product was washed several times with water, then was dried at 40°C for 16
h. The obtained product was subjected for XRD with Cu-Kα radiation (Rigaku Ultima IV X-ray
Diffractometer). When ZSM-11 is confirmed, the sample was calcined 450 °C for 3 h to remove the
template (TBABr). The sample was subjected for characterization by XRD, SEM (Hitachi High
Technology S-800) and FTIR (Jasco FT/IR-4100).
Another five grams of RHA was mixed with 0.022mol of NaOH and 4.164mol of H2O, then
was stirred for 30 min. The mixture was then preheated at 70 °C for 6 h. After preheating, same
amount of TBABr was added and mixed well. Hydrothermal reaction was then carried out at 170 °C
for 72 h. Reaction product was subjected for analysis, same with that for the synthesis without
preheating treatment above. ZSM-11 reference sample was synthesized from chemical reagents, tetra
ethyl orthosilicate (TEOS), as a silicon source.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Fig. 1 shows powder XRD patterns of the original RHA, the synthesis products, and the
reference. The original RHA showed broad peak only, indicating that the RHA is almost amorphous.
Chemical analysis indicated that it contain more than 90% of silica and trace amounts of aluminum,
phosphorus, calcium, potassium, and magnesium. In this experiment, during combustion of rice husk
Figure 1 XRD patterns of rice husk ash (a) and the synthesized product (b. method I, c. method II)
and the reference before calcination.
in the boiler, we kept combustion temperature not so high, about 500 °C, in order to produce
amorphous ash. Increasing temperature to 800 °C or more will cause formation of cristobalite,
conversely lower temperature causes formation of much carbon, and less ash. Similar result was found
by Shen et al. (2011). Therefore, in this study we just used the amorphous RHA to synthesize ZSM-11.
Figure 1 also shows the XRD pattern of synthesis products of method I and method II, and
reference. Different from the raw material, sharp peaks without amorphous background were found for
the synthesized products, indicating that the products are well crystallized. XRD of both synthesized
product have same pattern with the reference, indicating that ZSM-11 is formed. Some
studies have been done on synthesis of zeolites from RHA, included MCM-41 (Chiarkorn, 2007) and
a
b
c
Reference
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ZSM-5 (Mohamed at al., 2008), however for those on ZSM-11, these are the first study.
Figure 2 shows the X-ray diffraction patterns of the samples after calcinations. The patterns
were similar with those of before calcinations, but the relative intensity of the first two peaks (101 and
200 planes) were quite higher as compared to those of before calcinations. The two peaks may have
relationship with the channel of ZSM-11 zeolite, where the channel blocked by the template was
opened after removing it by calcination. Furthermore, degree of crystallization was evaluated from
total surface area of sum of peaks and compared with the reference. Relatively crystallization of
ZSM-11 synthesized with method I is 82% as compare with reference, and that of method II is 86%.
This means that preheating treatment increases the crystallization of ZSM-11. During preheating
process, silicon is dissolved and released . so the system, so it will accelerate the crystallization.
Figure 2. X-ray diffraction patterns of the synthesized samples after calcination
The results of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) for the rice husk ash, the synthesized
ZSM-11 and that synthesized from chemical reagents are shown in Figure 3. The images indicate that
with preheating treatment (Figure 3c) we obtained better crystallization, however without preheating
treatment, ZSM-11 crystal was observed with some raw materials remained (figure 3b). Furthermore, a b c d
100 μ m 6 μ m 6 μ m 6μm
Figure 3. SEM images of (a) rice husk ash, (b) ZSM-11 synthesized with method I, (c) ZSM-11
synthesized with method II, (d) reference, ZSM-11 synthesized from chemical reagents
the difference in the morphology of the three samples is due to difference in Si/Al ratio. ZSM-11
synthesized from TEOS (figure 3c) has long ellipse morphology, with the result Si/Al=∞, as shown in
Table 1. Previous studies indicated that with increasing aluminum content (decreasing Si/Al ratio) the
morphology of ZSM-11 changed from ellipse to spherical (Johan et al., 2009, Gonzalez et al., 2009).
With the preheating treatment, silicon was released to the system, so give the formation of ZSM-11
Method I
Method II
Reference (TEOS)
Inte
nsi
ty (
cps)
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with higher Si/Al ratio as compare to that without the preheating treatment. In fact, Chemical analysis
result (Table 1) showed that the ZSM-11 obtained by method II has higher Si/Al ratio as compare to
that obtained by method I. Next research will be carried out to test the ability of the synthesized
ZSM-11 as catalyst or as VOCs adsorbent.
Table 1. Silicon and aluminum contents of the samples
Sample SiO2 (%) Al2O3 (%) Si/Al ratio
ZSM-11 (reference) 99.3 ND* ∞
ZSM-11 (method-I) 87.8 0.548 135.49
ZSM-11 (method II) 91.8 0.08 980.75
* ND: not detectable
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) result is shown in Figure 3. ZSM-11
synthesized with method II has similar pattern with that of reference, indicating that the sample is well
crystallized as supported by XRD result. The spectrum of ZSM-11 synthesized by method I has similar
peaks with that of reference, but the peak around 1200cm-1 was not so clear. The spectra showed
typical spectra for the ZSM-11.
Figure 4. FTIR spectra of the samples
Table 2. Comparison of characteristic infrared frequencies
Sample V1*(cm-1) V2*(cm-1) V3*(cm-1)
ZSM-11 (reference) 1235, 1102, 1059 799 554
ZSM-11 (method II) 1233, 1103, 1039 796 550
ZSM-11 (method I) 1095, 1001 797 549
* V1 represents the asymmetric-O stretching mode, V2 the symmetric stretching mode, and V3 is a
bending mode
The appearances of the FTIR peak are mainly due to asymmetric T-O (Si-O or Al-O)
stretching vibrations around 1000-1200 cm-1, T-O symmetric stretching vibration around 800cm-1 and
Wave number (cm-1)
Tra
nsm
itta
nce
3000 2600 2200 1800 1400 1000 400
ZSM-11 (reference)
ZSM-11 (method II)
ZSM-11 (method I)
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bending vibration of T-O around 550cm-1. The results for the FTIR spectra of the samples are tabulated
at Table 2. The vibration peaks of synthesized ZSM-11 changed to lower regions as compared to the
reference, may be due to the presence of small amount of aluminum.
CONCLUSIONS
1. ZSM-11 have been synthesized successfully from by-product material, rice husk ash produced
from smokeless combustion boiler.
2. Preheating treatment increased both the yield and Si/Al ratio of the ZSM-11.
References
[1] Gonzalez, G., M.E. Gomes, G. Vitale, G.R. Castro, 2009, Effect of Al content on phase
transitions of zeolite MEL, Microporous and Mesoporous Materials, (121) 26-33.
[2] Chiarakorn, S., T. Areerob, N. Grisdanurak, 2007, Influence of functional silane on
hydrophobicity of MCM-41 synthesized from rice husk, Science and Technology of Advanced
Materials, (8) 110-115.
[3] Mohamed, M.M., F.I. Zidan, M. Thabet, 2008, Synthesis of ZSM-5 zeolite from rice husk ash:
characterization and implications fro photocatalytic degradation catalysts, Microporous and
Mesoporous Materials, (108) 193-203.
[4] Liu, J.S., S. Zhu, H.Zhang, J. Tan, 2011, Effects of calcinations parameters on the silica phase of
original and leached rice husk ash, Materials Letters, (65) 1179-1183.
[5] Kustova, M.Y., P. Hasselriis, C.H. Christensen, 2004, Mesoporous MEL-type zeolite single
crystal catalysts, Catalysis Leetters, (96) 205-211.
[6] Kokotailo, G.T., P. Chu, S.L. Lawton, 1978, Synthesis and structure of synthetic ZSM-11, Nature,
(275) 119-120.
[7] Johan, E., N. Matsue, T. Henmi, 2009, Synthesis of ZSM-11 from by-product of optical fiber and
its characterization, ZMPC 2009 International Symposium on Zeolites and Microporous Crystals.
Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan.
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ADSORPTION OF DIAZINON PESTICIDE FROM WATER USING
IRON MODIFIED MONTMORILLONITE AS AN ADSORBENT
P. Kabwadza-Corner*, Erni Johan, Naoto Matsue, Teruo Henmi and Zaenal Abidin
Faculty of Agriculture, Ehime University, Japan
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
The adsorption of a commonly used organophosphate pesticide, diazinon (O,O-diethyl-O-
[6-methyl-2-(1-methylethy)-4-pyrimidinyl]phosphorothioate) in aqueous solution on iron modified
montmorillonite at room temperature was investigated. Two types of iron modified montmorillonite
samples, Fe-modified and FeOH-modified, synthesized with different pH and levels of Fe hydrolysis
were used. The d-spacing of the samples was greater than 15Å, indicating the formation of iron
hydroxides in the interlayer space of montmorillonite. The amount of adsorption was calculated from
the difference between the initial and final concentration of diazinon. The adsorption data were
analyzed using the Langmuir adsorption isotherms. The amounts of diazinon adsorbed were 58.8 and
54.1 mmol kg-1 for Fe-modified and FeOH-modified, respectively. The steep rise in their adsorption
isotherms indicated the possibility of adsorption for low level of diazinon in polluted waters.
Keywords: environment, pollution, adsorption, organophosphate, diazinon
INTRODUCTION
Progressive increase in production and application of chemicals for agriculture as well as for
plant protection and animal health has converted the problem of environmental pollution into national
and international issues. The pollution of soil, ground and surface water involves a serious risk to the
environment and human health due to direct exposure or through residues in food and drinking water.
[1-4]. Modern agriculture relies increasingly on the use of pesticides to meet the ever-growing need
for food and fiber. While pesticides are indispensable to increase the quantity and quality of food
commodities and to safe guard society through better health and higher living standards, their off-site
migration and detrimental effects on surface water and groundwater quality are of environmental
concern. Pesticides form a strong class of environmental pollutants as they are mostly
non-biodegradable.
Among newly developed pesticides, organophosphate pesticides are the most commonly used
[5]. This is due to their reduced persistence and shorter half-life as compared to organochlorine
pesticides whose use is banned in many countries. Diazinon is a broad spectrum organophosphorous
insecticide classified by the World Health Organization (WHO) as ―moderately hazardous‖ Class II [6].
It is used as a control for sucking and chewing insects and mites. It is also an active ingredient of some
veterinary ectoparasiticides to control mange mites, ticks, lice, keds, biting flies, blowflies on sheep,
cows, pigs, goats as well as horses [7]. It is relatively water soluble (40 mg L-1 at 25°C), moderately
mobile and persistent in soil hence it is a concern for ground and surface water derived drinking water.
Toxic effects of diazinon are attributed to its inhibition of the enzyme acetylcholinesterase. It is also
associated with toxicity to aquatic organisms at concentrations of 350 ng L-1 with an LC50 in killifish
(48 h) of 4.4 mg L-1. Fatal human doses were found to be in the range of 90 to 440 mg kg-1 [8]. Over
13 million lbs. of diazinon are applied annually in the United States alone. All residential uses in the
U.S were banned starting December 31, 2004 [9]. In many developing countries however, diazinon is
still being used for multiple uses including indoor uses.
The remediation of pollution in the environment has been one of the approaches taken in
reducing pollution effects. Techniques that have been used have included the use of activated carbon,
biological methods and adsorption using various adsorbents like charcoal, water melon peels and
zeolites. Adsorption provides one of the most efficient methods for the removal of pollutants from the
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environment. It is an effective containment technique for pollutants that are very persistent in the
environment. It is at the same time a means of limiting mobility of pollutants to a wider area once they
get adsorbed. Various adsorbents have been used for the removal of diazinon from the environment
through adsorption and they include the use of agricultural soil [11], use of surfactant modified
agricultural soil [10] and organo-zeolites [12]. The modification of expandable phyllosilicates with
iron species to form materials that could be used as adsorbents has also been explored for a long time.
These materials have shown important potential application as catalysts and adsorbents for inorganic
pollutants. However little is known about their application as adsorbents for organic pollutants such as
organophosphate pollutants.
In present study adsorption of organophosphate pesticide diazinon was done using
iron-modified montmorillonite as a low cost adsorbent. The abundance of montmorillonite in nature,
its expansion ability and large interlayer space qualifies this phyllosilicate as a useful adsorbent for
such pollutants with relatively large molecular size.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Iron modification procedure
Montmorillonite supplied by the Japan Clay Science Society was used for making the iron
modified samples. Montmorillonite was initially saturated with Ca2+ by washing with 0.5 M CaCl2.
After the CaCl2 washing, the sample was washed thrice with water and once with acetone. Finally, the
sample was dried for 48 h at 40 °C. After drying the sample was ground, sieved and stored in clean,
dry jars, and called as Ca-montmorillonite.
Fe (NO3)3 purchased from Nacalay Tesque was used for iron modification. Two types of iron
modified samples were synthesized at different pH and NaOH hydrolysis. To Ca-montmorillonite,
0.01M Fe (NO3)3 was added and shaken for 1 h, centrifuged and decanted. This addition and
centrifugation was done thrice. The samples were then washed thrice with water and once with
acetone. Samples were then dried for 48 h at 40 °C. After drying the samples were also ground, sieved
and stored in clean, dry jars. These were called Fe-modified montmorillonite. For the second sample,
dubbed FeOH-modified montmorillonite, the 0.01M Fe (NO3)3 was pre-hydrolyzed with NaOH to
achieve an OH/Fe ratio of 2. The hydrolyzed solution was then added to Ca-montmorillonite samples
and a similar procedure to the one used for the Fe-modified montmorillonite was followed.
Sample Characterisation
The three samples (Ca-montmorillonite, Fe-modified montmorillonite and FeOH-modified
montmorillonite) were subjected to physical characterisation by X-ray diffraction using a Rigaku
Ultima IV X-ray Diffractometer and physical observations. The total Fe content was measured by
washing with 1M HCl followed by Fe analysis using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (AAS)
with a Hitachi Z-5000 spectrophotometer.
Adsorption experiment
Diazinon (97.5%) was purchased from Dr. Ehrenstorfer-Schäfers laboratory, German. HPLC
grade distilled water was purchased from Nacalay Tesque and acetonitrile from Kanto Chemical Co.,
INC. The concentrations of diazinon in solution were determined by a Jasco PU-2089 plus HPLC
equipped with an Inertsil ODS-4, 5µm (4.6 I.D x 150mm) column, 1.0 mL/min flow rate, UV
detection at 246 nm and an injection volume of 100 µL. A Jasco UV-2075 plus intelligent UV-Vis
detector was used and results were recorded on a Hitachi D-2500 Chromato-integrator.
Diazinon adsorption experiments were conducted in glass tubes with screw caps lined with
Teflon. All experiments were conducted in the tubes covered with aluminum foil. Concentrations
ranging from 0 to 128 µmol L-1 were used. To 0.05g sample of montmorillonite, 30 mL of pesticide
solution were added. Samples were shaken in a reciprocal shaker for an equilibration time of 24 h
under room temperature. Adsorption was calculated from the difference between the initial and
equilibrium concentrations.
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Characterisation of final product
Visual observations indicated that, with iron modification, the color of the sample had
changed from greyish green (Ca-montmorillonite) to light-reddish brown (Fe-modified
montmorillonite) and dark-reddish brown (FeOH-modified montmorillonite). This indicated that iron
species may present in the iron modified samples. Figure 1 shows the X-ray diffraction patterns of the
three samples, Ca-montmorillonite, Fe-modified montmorillonite and FeOH-modified montmorillonite.
Figure 1: XRD patterns for (i) Ca-montmorillonite, (ii) Fe-modified montmorillonite and (iii)
FeOH-modified montmorillonite.
The XRD pattern for Ca-montmorillonite is typical for Ca-exchanged montmorillonite [13]
with a d-spacing of 15.27Å. With iron modification, the d-spacing changed to 15.33 Å for
FeOH-modified and 15.38 Å for Fe-modified montmorillonite. This indicated that some iron was
successfully intercalated into the interlayer space with some iron on the outer surfaces of the samples
as well. The d-spacing values are obviously smaller than those of Fe-pillared clays in previous reports
(2.5±0.5 nm) [14]. However, they are similar to those reported in the other literature (about 1.54 nm)
[15] as it is considered that hydrolyzates of iron ion are difficult to form stable and consistent
structures.
Table 1 shows the total iron content for the samples. It is clear that the Fe-modified
montmorillonite had a higher total Fe of 140.7 cmol/kg in comparison to the FeOH-modified
montmorillonite which had a total Fe of 128 cmol/kg. This was, to a large extent influenced by the
level of hydrolysis which the Fe solution used during the modification had undergone. The Fe (NO3)3
solution that was used for the Fe-modified montmorillonite sample had gone through lesser hydrolysis
with a preparation pH of 3.30. For the FeOH-modified montmorillonite, prior hydrolysis with NaOH
to a pH of 5.34 may have resulted into a larger molecular size of iron hydroxide species hence less
possibility of penetrating into the interlayer space.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
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Table 1: Total iron content for Fe- and FeOH-modified montmorillonites
SAMPLE Fe (cmol/kg)
Fe modified 140.7
FeOH modified 128.0
Adsorption experiments are useful to evaluate adsorption capacities of adsorbents and
thermodynamic parameters like the energy of adsorption. Figure 2 shows the adsorption isotherms for
diazinon on Fe- and FeOH-modified montmorillonites and Ca-montmorillonite.
Figure 2: Adsorption isotherms of Diazinon on Fe- and FeOH-modified montmorillonites
The results indicate that Fe-modified montmorillonite had the highest potential to adsorb
diazinon pesticide in comparison to FeOH-modified montmorillonite and Ca-montmorillonite as
shown in Figure 2. The chromatogram of diazinon before and after the adsorption experiments did not
significantly change except for the intensity which was an indication that diazinon remained intact.
There was generally strong adsorption of diazinon on both iron modified samples as evidenced by the
adsorption isotherms. The content of iron in the Fe-modified montmorillonite was high which resulted
into the sample having a higher adsorptive capacity. Since Fe has high affinity to sulphur which is
present in the molecular structure of diazinon, the presence if iron meant that diazinon could be
adhered to the adsorbent.
The degree of polymerization had a significant contribution to the adsorptive properties of
the samples. The Fe-modified sample, which was prepared at a lower pH than the FeOH-modified
sample was less polymerized and had a comparatively larger available room within its structure for
diazinon adsorption. On the contrary, the FeOH-modified sample whose preparation pH was slightly
higher had a higher degree of polymerization. This implied that the available room for adsorption of
diazinon was less hence lower adsorption. In other studies, Fe montmorillonite prepared at OH/Fe= 2
(similar to current study), practically all original exchangeable cations in the montmorillonite sample
were replaced by ferric ions with a majority of the total present outside the interlayer space [16].
The adsorption data have been subjected to the Langmuir adsorption isotherm analysis with
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the following linearized form:
C/X=1/XmK + C/Xm (1)
Where C is the equilibrium concentration (µmol L-1), X is the amount adsorbed (µmol g-1),
Xm is the maximum adsorption (µmol g-1) and K is a constant related to binding energy (unitless).
Table 2 indicates the Langmuir analysis results for the three samples. The Langmuir’s adsorption
capacities so calculated were 58.8, 54.1 and 31.3 µmol g-1 for Fe-modified, FeOH-modified and
Ca-montmorillonite respectively. Langmuir’s K values related to binding energy on the samples were
1.52, 0.75 and 0.04 for Fe-modified, FeOH-modified and Ca-montmorillonite respectively. This
indicated that the Fe-modified sample apart from having high adsorptive capacity also has a high
Langmuir binging energy constant, implying that Diazinon was strongly bound to the sample unlike
with the FeOH modified and Ca montmorillonite. Using this sample to remove Diazinon as a water
pollutant would therefore result into Diazinon being strongly bound to the adsorbent and its mobility
would be greatly reduced.
Table 2: Maximum adsorption and Langmuir K-constant for Ca montmorillonite, FeOH- modified
montmorillonite and Fe-modified montmorillonite
Sample Maximum Adsorption Langmuir K-Constant
Ca-montmorillonite 31.3 0.04
FeOH-modified 54.1 0.75
Fe-modified 58.8 1.52
CONCLUSION
The use of iron modified montmorillonite as an adsorbent for pollutants such as diazinon is
an effective means of environmental pollution cleanup. Iron modified montmorillonite is a low cost
adsorbent due to the abundance of montmorillonite in nature as well as that of iron. It can also be
applied to the adsorption of other sulphur containing organophosphate pollutants. At environmental
concentrations of diazinon (<3 µmol L-1 in many countries) iron modified montmorillonite would be
very effective in pollution control.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We would like to express gratitude to the government of Japan through the ministry of education,
sports and culture for the financial provision that enabled this study to be conducted.
References
[1] I.R. Plimmer, 1990, Pesticide loss to the atmosphere. Am. J. Ind. Med. 18 (4), 461–466.
[2] R.W. Risebrough, 1990, Long-Range Transport of Pesticides. In: Kurtz, D.A. Lewis, Chelsea, pp.
417–426.
[3] W. Mathys, 1994. Pesticide pollution of groundwater and drinking water by the processes of
artificial groundwater enrichment or coastal filtration: underrated sources of contamination.
International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Medicine 196 (4), 338–359.
[4] P.D. Capel, L. Ma, B.R. Schroyer, S.J. Larson, T.A. Gilchrist, 1995. Analysis and detection of the
new corn herbicide acetochlor in river water and rain. Environmental Science and Technology. 29
(6), 1702–1705.
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[5] G.Z Memon, M.I Bhanger, M Akhtar, F.N Talpur, J.R Memon, 2008. Adsorption of methyl
parathion pesticides from water using water melon peels as a low cost adsorbent, Chemical
Engineering Journal .138, 616-612.
[6] P.C.H. Li, E.J. Swason, F.A.P.C. Gobas, 2002. Diazinon and its degradation products in
agricultural water courses in British Columbia, Canada, Bull. Environ. Contamination and
Toxicology. 69,59-65.
[7] S. Budavari, (Ed), 1989. The Merck Index,11th ed. Merck and CO, New Jersey, USA
[8] H. Shemer, K.K. Linden 2006, Journal of Hazardous Materials B136 553-559
[9] http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/factsheets/chemicals/diazinon-factsheet.htm (accessed on 13th
June 2011).
[10] E. Iglesias-Jimenez, M.J Sanchez-Martin, M. Sanchez-Camazano, 1996. Pesticide sorption in a
soil-water system in the presence of surfactants. Chemosphere 32 (9): 1771-1782.
[11] L. Nemeth-Konda, Gy.Füleky, Gy. Morovjan, P. Csokan, 2002. Sorption behaviour of acetochlor,
atrazine, carbendazim, diazinon, imidacloprid and isoproturon on Hungarian agricultural soil,
Chemosphere. 48, 545-552.
[12] J. Lemić, D. Kovačević, M. Tomašević-Ćanović, D. Kovačević, T. Stanić, R. Pfend, 2006.
Removal of Atrazine, Lindane and diazinone from water by Organo-zeolites. Water Research. 40,
1079-1085
[13] Pingxiao Wu ,Weimin Wu , Shuzhen Li, Ning Xing, Nengwu Zhu, Ping Li, JinghuaWu,Chen
Yang, Zhi Dang, 2009. Removal of Cd2+ from aqueous solution by adsorption using Fe-
montmorillonite. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 169, 824–830
[14] E.G. Rightor, M.S. Tzou, T.J. Pinnavaia, 1991. Iron oxide pillared clay with large gallery height:
synthesis and properties as a Fischer-Tropsch catalyst, Journal of Catalysts. 130, 29–40.
[15] P. Yuan, F. Annabi-bergaya, Q. Tao, et al., 2008. A combined study by XRD, FTIR, TG and
HRTEM on the structure of delaminated Fe-intercalated/pillared clay, Journal of Colloid
Interface Science. 324, 142–149.
[16] T. Grygar, D. Hradil, P. Bezdicka, B. Dousova, L. Capek, O. Schneeweiss, 2007.
Fe(III)-Modified Montmorillonite and Bentonite: Synthesis, chemical and UV-Vis spectral
Characterisation, Arsenic sorption and catalysis of oxidative dehydrogenation of propane, Clays
and clay minerals, Vol 55, No.2, 165-176
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CONNECTIONS BETWEEN HOMEGARDEN AND LIVELIHOOD: CHALLENGES
AND POTENTIALS OF A CASE STUDY IN VIETNAM
Daniela Maekawa*, Ho Tan Duc and Ueru Tanaka
Graduate School of Global Environmental Science, Kyoto University
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
In Vietnam, homegardens were first developed by the Vietnamese government with the
intention to enhance food nutrition. However, what other benefits may be provided by homegardens?
How homegardens are connected to the livelihood of local villagers? And, can we judge the
importance of homegardens, based only on how much income they may generate?
By conducting field survey, group discussion with 3 key informants, interviews with 4 local
leaders and 28 villagers, results show that characteristics of homegardens varies greatly because they
reflect the needs of individual householders. In total, 85 species of plants and cultivars were founded.
Identified roles and functions of homegardens included: supplemental source of income, food
materials for daily diet, medicine, fuel, ornamental purposes, conserving traditional knowledge and
replicating local knowledge and skills among friends, worship and others amenities in daily life in
daily life like minimizing the impact of flood and contributing for the well-being of the elder and
children. Facing issues in daily livelihood included: flood and typhoon, sanitation and improvement of
productivity.
This paper will discuss about the current situation of homegardens in Huong Van, a flood
plain commune in Central Vietnam. It will debate on the main challenges and potentials concerning to
villagers’ livelihood and the connections with their homegardens, in order to provide a better
understanding of these agroforestry systems and support the thesis, that homegardens are a type of life
supporting system. They are unique to each family and they are related to resilience and sustainability
of local villager’s. Such ultimate characteristic comes alive when we carefully analyze and deep our
understanding on the subject. The primary purpose of homegardens is to enhance villager’s livelihood.
Keywords: homegarden, livelihood, Vietnam, potentials, challenges
INTRODUCTION
Rural homegardens provide to villagers diversified needs in a relatively small area. They are
particularly important to the societies in the tropics where developing countries with an economy of
subsistence are often found. However, they have been long neglected by the scientific community,
publications on the topic are scattered and comprehensive books and reports focused on it are rare
(Nair and Kumar, 2006). As a result, there is still no universally accepted definition of the word
homegarden, explaining the reason why each author commonly starts their writing with their definition
of the term. The same authors defined homegardens as ―integrated tree-crop-animal production
systems, often in small parcels of land surrounding homesteads, developed and nurtured by farmers
through generations of innovation and experiment‖.
In Vietnam, homegardens were first promoted by the central government with the intention
to enhance food security (Hop, 2003) and they still quite important since more than 70% of the
population still living in rural areas (Bank, 2009). ―In prostrated and recurrent conflict, Vietnamese
people have learned to minimize food security through…,agricultural diversification and emphasis on
family needs and traditional food patterns‖ (Giay, 1998, p.311). However, what other benefits may be
provided by homegardens? And what are the challenges and potentials concerning to resilience and
sustainability?
This paper will discuss about the current situation of homegardens in Huong Van, a flood
plain commune in Central Vietnam. It will debate on the main challenges and potentials concerning to
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villagers’ livelihood and the connections with their homegardens, in order to provide a better
understanding of these agroforestry systems and support the thesis, that homegardens are a type of life
supporting system. The thesis is that benefits goes further beyond of supplemental income and
nutrition.
METHODS
The Study site was Huong Van commune, that is divided into mountainous and living area
and it is located in a flood plain region of Huong Tra District, Thua Thien Hue Province in Central
Vietnam. In 2010 the commune presented 6887 inhabitants distributed along 6210, 68 hectares. The
commune is located by the Bo river basin, as shown in figure 1, therefore, the area is usually affected
by floods (CARD, 2011). Methods included getting permission from local leaders and district’ police,
field survey, group discussion with 3 key informants, collecting banana varieties samples and
interviewing 4 commune leaders and 28 local villagers.
Figure 1. Location of Huong Van commune.
RESULTS
Homegardens presented a total of 85 plants (table 1) and 7 types of livestock; chicken, duck,
pig, buffalo, cow, fish and frog. The size ranged from 400m2 to 2940m2 and 89,07% of the property
total area was represented by homegardens, the others 10,93% were represented by the house itself.
Soil fertility may be increasing since the manure once used in the rice paddies, that current utilizes
chemical fertilizers, are being discharged direct into gardens and flood may also contribute to replace
soil fertility.Among livestock and plants, chicken and banana were the most common components. The
frequency of chicken reached 78% of homegardens and the frequency of banana reached 100%.
Banana is an important component of the homegardens in Huong Van and the great number
of varieties and diversified usages explains its abundance. Because its importance more detailed data
were collected about this homegarden component. Nine banana varieties were identified in the
commune: Ba Lun, Bom, Cau, La, Mat Huong, Moc, Mong Vo, Su and Tieu. All fruit varieties can be
used as a source of supplemental income and food. Moc is normally used as an offering to worship. La
and Su have similar functions, their leaves are used for wrapping, their stem can be used for raising
pigs or be eaten by villagers and their seeds are used for medicinal purposes. Mong Vo and Mat Huong
are rare varieties. Mat Huong presents on the back of its petiolar canal a peculiar reddish tonality and
Mong Vo is known for its sweet taste but rather small production. Local people eat Tieu when they feel
sick. Some villagers build a type of floating platform with a cage on the top using stems of banana and
other materials like bamboo that can also be found in homegardens. Since banana stems are less dense
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than water, they will float when flood comes. Villagers place their chickens and ducks and sometimes
pigs, inside those cages on the top of such platform, rescuing their small livestock. Those cages can be
also used to save important goods. Another peculiar practice involving a garden component is the
traditional and newly introduced way of planting pomelo. The traditional way consist of tithing a piece
of plastic containing soil around the mother brunch and after the young roots are released, brunch is
cut and planted, the newly replicated tree will present a twisted looking, however, the trees planted
direct from the seeds (newly introduced way) will grow straight, will take more time to produce fruits
but will last longer (see figure 2).
Almost all villagers (27 out of 28) answered that the main purpose of their gardens is to
generate income. Local leaders estimated that 80% of homegardens production is used to generate
income and 20% is used for worship and nutritious purposes, since the food for worship can be eaten
after offering it.
However, other identified roles and functions of homegardens (figure 2) included:
supplemental source of income, food materials for daily diet, medicine, fuel, ornamental purposes,
conserving traditional knowledge and replicating local knowledge and skills among friends, worship
and others amenities in daily life like minimizing the impact of flood and contributing for the
well-being of the elder and children. And, since every homegarden presented some peculiar
characteristic, it is believed that functions and benefits provided by homegardens in Huong Van
commune are not yet fully covered and some facing issues concerning to homegardens and daily
livelihood of villagers are shown in figure 3, those included: flood and typhoon, sanitation and
improvement of productivity. According to Wiersum (2006) rural transformation due to economic
development and urbanization is modifying the dynamics of homegardens since it is closely related
to the livelihood of the communities. The major cities like Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh attract the
majority of the young labor force, but they often come back to help their parents during harvest
season or extended holidays, especially during new years. In some cases, couples that left the
commune to work in the big cities cannot afford to bring their children with them. In those cases
their grandparents will raise children, what represents a great opportunity for children to experience
local livelihood and learn some of the traditional knowledge.
Table 1. List of plants identified in 28 homegardens of Huong Van commune
Vietnamese English Family
1 Bí ngô Pumpkin Cucurbitaceae
2 Cà tím Purple eggplant Solanaceae
3 Ca trang White eggplant Solanaceae
4 Cai troi Blumea Asteraceae
5 Cam sành Orange Rutaceae
6 Ca ri Annato Bixaceae
7 Cau Betel Palm Arecaceae
8 Cây bông gòn Kapok Malvaceae
9 Cây khế Star fruit Oxalidaceae
10 Cây lô hội Aloe Xanthorrhoeaceae
11 n Prunus Rosaceae
12 Cây Thừa mức Laniti Apocynaceae
13 Cây tre Bamboo 1 Gramineae
14 Cây tre Bamboo 2 Gramineae
15 Cây vú sữa Star apple Sapindaceae
16 Cây xoài Mango Anacardiaceae
17 Cây xương rắn Christ plant Euphorbiaceae
18 Chè, Trà Tea Theaceae
19 Chi sả Lemon grass Poaceae
20 Choc gai Lasia spinosa Araceae
21 Chuối Ba Lun Banana 1 Musaceae
22 Chuối Bom Banana 2 Musaceae
23 Chuối Cau Banana 3 Musaceae
24 Chuối, Là, Đa, Hột, Chát Banana 4 Musaceae
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25 Chuối Mat Huong Banana 5 Musaceae
26 Chuối Mat Mốc, Quang Banana 6 Musaceae
27 Chuối Mỏng vỏ Banana 7 Musaceae
28 Chuối Sự Banana 8 Musaceae
29 Chuối Tieu Banana 9 Musaceae
30 Đại tướng quân Giant spider lily Amaryllidaceae
31 Dâu Gia Burmese grape Phyllanthaceae
32 hi Đậu triều Pigeon Pea Fabaceae
33 Chôm Chôm Rambutan Sapindaceae
34 Đu đủ Papaya Caricaceae
35 Dừa Coconut Arecaceae
36 Gừng Ginger Zingiberaceae
37 Hành tây Spring Onion Alliaceae
38 Hồ tiêu Pepper Piperaceae
39 Hoa lay ơn Gladiolus Iridaceae
40 Keo Acacia Fabaceae
41 Khoai Lang Sweet Potato 1 Convolvulaceae
42 Khoai Lang Sweet Potato 2 Convolvulaceae
43 Khoai Nua Stinky lily, Konjac Araceae
44 Khoai Tia Sweet Potato 3 Convolvulaceae
45 Lá lốt Piper sarmentose Piperaceae
46 Lẻ Bạn Nanas Kerang Commefinacca
47 Mai Hue/ Vang Yellow Appricot Ochnaceae
48 Mãng cầu ta Custard apple Annonaceae
49 Mía Sugar Cane Gramnieae
50 Mít Jackfruit Moraceae
51 Mon Voi Taro 1 Araceae
52 Mon Chum Taro 2 Araceae
53 Mon Sap Taro 3 Araceae
54 Mon Ngọt Taro 4 Araceae
55 Mướp đắng Bitter melon Cucurbitaceae
56 Nhau Noni fruit Rubiaceae
57 ổi Guava myrtaceae
58 ớt nhiều màu Chili Pepper Solanaceae
59 Quả vả Elephant ear fig Moraceae
60 Li li Lily Liliaceae
61 Rau Bồ ngót Sweet leaf bush Euphorbiaceae
62 Rau Can Japanese parsly Apiaceae
63 Rau Càng cua Vietnamese crab claw Piperaceae
64 u n tía Purple Amaranth Amaranthaceae
65 u n trắng White Amaranth Amaranthaceae
66 u i p cá Houttuynia Saururaceae
67 u đinh lăng Polyscias Araliaceae
68 Rau Má Indian pennywort Apiaceae
69 u ng tơi Indian spinach Basellaceae
70 Rau muống Morning glory Convolvulaceae
71 Rau Mùi Tàu Saw coriander Apiaceae
72 Rau Ngò tây Parsley, Celery Apiaceae
73 Rau quế Ocimum Lamiaceae
74 u ră Vietnamese coriander Polygonaceae
75 S đại hành Lagrimas de la Virgen Iridaceae
76 Sắn Ba Trang Cassava 1 Euphorbiaceae
77 Sắn KM94 Cassava 2 Euphorbiaceae
78 Thanh long Dragon Fruit Cactaceae
79 Thanh Trà Pomelo Rutaceae
80 Thơm Gai Pineapple Bromeliaceae
81 Thơm không có Gai Pineapple Bromeliaceae
82 Tỏi Garlic Amaryllidaceae
83 Trầu Betel Piperaceae
84 Sa chu chê Sapodilla Sapotaceae
85 Xương rồng Cactus Cactaceae
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Figure 2. Some of the components and benefits provided by homegardens in Huong Van commune.
Figure 3. Some of the facing issues concerning to homegardens in Huong Van commune
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Since each homegarden presented its own peculiar characteristic, it is believed that functions
and benefits provided tend to increase as the numbers of visited gardens increase and shown results
does not reflect all functions of homegardens in Huong Van commune.
However, the collected samples of banana varieties may provide some important reflections
on the way homegardens are seem from a generic point of view. Banana is only one component from a
great range founded, but it presented many varieties and diversified functions when more attention
was given to it.
Therefore, current results may contribute to the understanding of complexity and singularity
of homegardens and emphasize that the importance of homegardens shall not be based, only, on how
much income they provide. Its importance goes far beyond of only a source of supplemental income
and food. Homegardens are unique to each family because they reflect the particular lifestyle of them.
They are life-supporting systems, increasing resilience and enhancing villager’s livelihood. Such
ultimate characteristic comes alive when we carefully analyze and deep our understanding on the
subject.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Thank you to all members of Centre for Agriculture Forestry Research and Development
(CARD) of Hue University of Agriculture and Forestry and villagers of Huong Van commune.
References [1] Bank, W. (2009). Rural Development & Agriculture in East Asia and Pacific.Available online:
http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/EASTASIAPACIFICEXT/EXTEAP
REGTOPRURDEV/0,,contentMDK:20534368~menuPK:3127821~pagePK:34004173~piPK:3400370
7~theSitePK:573964,00.html (accessed on 17th July 2011).
[2] CARD, C. f. (March, 2011). Newsletter. Hue City: Asia Platform for Sustainable Community
[3] Giay, T. (1998). Utilisation of wartime nutrition survival experiences. Asia Pacific J Clin Nutr ,
311-313.
[4] Hop, L. T. (2003). Programs to Improve Production and Consumption of Animal Source Foods and
Malnutrition in Vietnam. The Journal of Nutrition , 4006-4009.S. Blanchard, P. Reppe, 1998, Life
cycle analysis of a residential home in Michigan, University of Michigan and National Pollution
Prevention Center USA, October.
[5] Kumar, B. M. (2006). Tropical Homegardens: A Time-Tested Example of Sustainable Agroforestry.
Netherlands: Springer Science.E. Prianto, 2007, Indonesian landed house electricity consumption,
Home Design Going Green seminar, WWF-Indonesia, Jakarta. [6] Wiersum, K. (2006). Diversity and Change in Homegarden Cultivation in Indonesia. In B. a. Kumar,
Tropical Homegardens: A Time-Tested Example of Sustainable Agroforestry (pp. 13-24). Netherlands:
Springer.
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THE INFLUENCE OF AGRICULTURAL LAND USE ON WATER QUALITY OF
U-TAPAO RIVER, THAILAND
Saroj Gyawali1* and Kuaanan Techato1 1Faculty of Environmental Management, Prince of Songkla University
Hatyai, Songkhla, Thailand
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Water is one of the important factors guaranteeing sustainable agriculture development.
Sustainable agriculture development has become widely recognized goal for human society ever since
deterioration of environmental and social conditions in many areas of the world has taken place. For
sustainable development of agriculture, the policy or decision makers should consider the influence of
agriculture land use on water quality of river in significant manner. Agriculture land use affects the
quality of water bodies to a great extent. The study indicated that agriculture land-uses were
significantly correlated to many water quality variables in the river basin. This relationship was
evident in a regional scale, both temporally and spatially. If agriculture land uses changes in the future,
the levels of contaminants will be changed accordingly. Planners and policy-makers at different levels
should bring stakeholders together, based on the understanding of agriculture land use and water
quality relationship in a basin level to prevent pollution from happening and to plan for a sustainable
future.
Keywords: Agriculture, Land use, Water quality, Sustainable development
INTRODUCTION
All life on earth needs water to survive and it is an essential resource for industry, agriculture
and domestic purpose. Agriculture uses two-thirds of the world’s water and is the greatest source of
livelihood, especially in the developing world where large portions of the population depend on
farming to meet daily survival needs [1]. Reports from across the globe have shown that agriculture is
a chief contributor to water quality degradation by runoff carries fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides, and
livestock waste in a drainage basin into tributaries, which carry the runoff into major water bodies [2].
United States Environmental Protection Agency (2000) reported that agricultural non point source
pollution (NPS) is the leading source of water bodies deteriorating [3]. Poorly managed animal
feeding operations, overgrazing, plowing too often or at the wrong time, and improper, excessive, or
poorly timed application of pesticides, irrigation water and fertilizers are the causes of NPS pollution.
So, agriculture water pollution is becoming a major concern not only developing countries but also in
developed countries [4].
The intensification of agriculture practices, in particular the growing use of fertilizers and
pesticides has had an increasing impact on water quality [5]. From another angle, the soil is the most
important factor of agricultural water pollution. Rain water carries soil particles or sediment and
dumps them into nearby water bodies. Too much sediment might block the sunlight and reduce the
growth of aquatic living beings. It can also clog the gills of fish or smother fish larva. In addition,
other pollutants like fertilizers and pesticides, heavy metals are often attached with the soil particles
and wash into the water bodies, causing algal blooms and depleted oxygen, which is deadly to most
aquatic life [6]. Another agriculture base NPS pollution is excessive nutrients. Farmers apply nutrients
such as phosphorous, nitrogen and potassium in the form of chemical fertilizers, manure and sludge,
when these sources exceed plant needs, they can cause algae blooms which can ruin the aesthetic
value of water body and kill fish by removing oxygen from it. Rising nitrate concentrations threaten
the quality of drinking water, while high pesticide use contributes substantially to indirect emission of
toxic substances. Increasing levels of nitrates and phosphorus in surface water reduce their ability to
support plant and animal life and make them less attractive for recreation [4].In agriculture practice,
insecticides, herbicides and fungicides are used to kill agricultural pests. These chemicals can enter
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and contaminate water through direct application, runoff and atmospheric deposition. They can
poison fish and wildlife, contaminated food sources, and destroy the habitat that animals use for
protective cover. Sometimes, inefficient irrigation can cause water quality problems. Excessive
irrigation can affect water quality by causing erosion, transporting nutrients, pesticides, or decreasing
the amount of water that flows naturally in streams and rivers [6].
Water is one of the important factors guaranteeing sustainable agricultural development.
Sustainable agriculture development has become widely recognized goal for human society ever since
deterioration of environmental and social conditions in many areas of the world has taken place [1].
The lack of sustainable development leads to the degradation of environment. Agriculture land use
affects the quality of water bodies to a great extent. The relative impacts of different types of
agriculture land use on the water quality need to be ascertained and quantified. It is imperative that the
impact of agricultural land use on water quality be evaluated so that appropriate practices can be
developed to minimize pollution [4]. Impacts from agriculture activities on surface water of river can
be minimized by practicing sustainable development approach on river basin management. By
practicing this concept, it might reduce pollution and also increase productivity and save resources in
the long run. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to describe the impact of agriculture land use
on water quality of U-tapao River and recommend sustainable agriculture development polices for
River Basin.
STUDY AREA
U-tapao is a sub-basin of Songkhla lake basin which is located at southern part of Thailand.
The basin is about 60 km long from north to south, and 40 km wide from west to east, and total
coverage is about 2,170 square kilometers. Climate of basin is influenced by two seasonal monsoons
as well as tropical depressions. The south-west monsoon lasts from May to October and the north-east
monsoon lasts from November to January. Under continuous economic and social developments,
natural resources and environments in the basin have been affected significantly. The industry,
commerce, and population in basin grow very fast in recent years. To meet the social and economic
needs, a part of paddy and dry farming land has been converted into residential and industrial land.
The forested and agricultural areas have been converted mainly into large scale rubber plantation and
human settlements. These changes have impacted negatively on the ecological integrity and
hydrologic processes in the basin. Therefore, it is necessary for policy makers to develop new land use
plans and strategy to sustain basin for long term [7].
Study Area: U-tapao River Basin, Thailand
Figure 1. Boundary of U-tapao river basin and fourteen water quality monitoring stations
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U-tapao river, the most important river in the basin is 68 km long and approximately
3–8m deep. This river originates from Bantad mountain and flows through Hatyai municipality before
emptying into the outer part of Songkhla Lake. Like other rivers, U-tapao is very much affected from
point and non point sources of the basin. Major sources of waste discharged into the U-tapao river are
from rubber, parawood, and seafood processing industries. The water quality of the U-tapao River is
affected by the land use and land cover within its drainage basin or watershed. The watershed,
especially the lower section, has experienced urbanization over the past three decades as the cities of
Hatyai have grown and developed. During last decades the original forest located in the uplands of the
landscape has been cleared into agricultural land dedicated to cash crops. The conversion from forest
to agricultural land had several noticeable impacts especially on the soil and water quality. The
temporal change of land use and management can thoroughly affect quality and quantity of surface
water [7].
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Both statistical and geographic information systems (GIS) analyses were employed to
examine the statistical and spatial relationships of agriculture land use and the water quality in
receiving water on a regional scale. In this research, Arc View GIS was used to aggregate, synthesize
and analyze large databases, and to identify spatial relationships. Water quality data from the year
2001 - 2010 were collected from existing monitoring framework done by the Regional Environment
Office 16, Songkhla. Water quality monitoring stations were located at 14 sites throughout the U-tapao
river basin (Figure1). The water quality parameters for this study were temperature, pH, conductivity,
suspended solid (SS), biological oxygen demand (BOD), and dissolved oxygen (DO). Land-use and
digital data were obtained from Southern Remote Sensing Centre. Percentage of land uses were
determined by using Landsat imagery and slope was derived from digital elevation maps. The
Pearson’s correlation coefficient was used to examine the strength and significance of the relationships
among agriculture land use and water quality parameters. One-way ANOVA test performed at 5%
level of significance to test whether mean values of water quality parameters of different monitoring
stations vary spatially and temporally or not.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Overall, the study area was dominated by agriculture land use (rubber plantation, paddy field,
shrimp farm etc.). Mean and standard deviation (SD) of temperature of U-tapao river was 27.71 0C and
0.66 0C and minimum and maximum were 26.20C and 28.9 0C, respectively. Similarly, mean and SD
of pH value of river was 6.83 and .19. Mean and SD of SS were 55.19 mg/L and 3.14 mg/L and
minimum and maximum values were 11 mg/L and 151 mg/L, respectively and. Mean and SD of BOD
were 2.46 mg/L and .57 mg/L and mean and SD of DO were 3.68 mg/L and 1.08 mg/L. Water quality
parameters; temperature, conductivity, BOD, DO, and suspended solid were differed on different
monitoring stations (Table 1) with significant difference (p < .05) except pH value.
Table 1: Mean and Standard deviation of water quality parameters(WQP) of fourteen monitoring
stations
Monitoring
Stations
Temperature
(ºC) pH
Conductivity
(μm/s)
BOD
(mg/L)
DO
(mg/L)
SS
(mg/L)
I 22.5±0.72 7.05±0.22 51.22±2.6 1.22±0.33 7.11±0.22 59.5±23.51
II 25.9±0.41 7.01±0.12 128.12±23.2 1.56±0.26 6.56±0.22 67.01±35.21
III 26.2±0.99 7.11±0.32 151.23±34.6 2.54±0.21 5.43±0.45 81.3±13.39
IV 26.7±0.68 6.91±0.25 1655±56.23 2.78±2.25 5.33±0.32 82.07±17.71
V 27.04±0.58 6.93±0.24 129.89±23.39 1.93±0.58 5.06±1.13 66.11±37.69
VI 27.0±0.44 6.84±0.16 215.89±76.79 2.67±0.69 4.32±1.32 79.11±18.47
VII 27.63±0.70 6.91±0.15 222±45.99 2.86±0.33 4.74±0.24 108.42±23
VIII 27.65±0.72 7.10±0.28 221.22±76.9 2.53±0.71 3.56±0.94 74.55±25.61
IX 27.91±0.69 6.85±0.81 213.89±81.69 2.33±0.54 3.95±0.60 65.88±19.17
X 27.86±0.50 6.87±0.17 197.67±71.33 2.74±0.63 3.466±0.07 47.77±31.62
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XI 27.95±0.60 6.86±0.18 204.33±77.33 2.5±0.37 3.37±0.72 45.77±33.91
XII 27.88±0.59 6.8±0.21 289.89±213.22 2.34±0.56 3.11±0.83 42±31.53
XIII 27.99±0.11 6.78±0.19 488±404.251 2.56±0.49 3.15±0.73 37.88±24.79
XIV 28.04±0.55 6.76±0.2 4307.4±5296 2.511±0.39 3.11±1.13 37.66±30.84
Total 27.63±0.88 6.88±0.18 664.31±2059 2.44±0.58 3.48±1.18 56.6±31.26
F 3.589 0.48 3.285 1.618 5.018 2.133
Sig <0.01 0.22 <0.01 0.04 <0.01 0.032
Water quality parameters of river have been changing on different time interval
(Table 2) with significant difference for temperature, pH, BOD, DO, and SS (p < .05) except
for conductivity.
Table 2: Mean and standard deviation of water quality parameters from year 2001 to 2010
Year Water Quality Parameters
Temperature pH Conducivity BOD DO SS
2001 27.85±0.32 7±0.05 120.63±13.72 2.4±0.38 4.21±0.44 49.11±19.27
2002 28.48±0.48 6.78±0.05 1693.8±4168 2.39±0.61 2.96±0.94 43.33±31.34
2003 28.78±0.88 6.85±0.14 1224±547 2.57±6.7 3.13±0.49 56.36±50.29
2004 28.63±0.32 6.6±0.07 534.78±178.26 2.54±0.44 2.86±1.08 35.66±20.58
2005 28.08±0.25 6.9±0.1 1951.1±4289 2.32±0.7 3.3±0.89 41.55±6.04
2006 27.31±0.18 6.63±0.05 807.3±1937 2.23±0.36 4.37±0.52 79.55±16.4
2007 27.5±0.46 6.66±0.86 315.56±238.63 3.31±0.38 3.86±1.00 61.66±40.21
2008 27.63±0.27 6.81±0.11 196.22±28.22 1.9±0.42 3.86±1.03 33.72±29.2
2009 26.81±0.34 6.93±0.05 184.22±41226 2.23±0.37 4.83±1.16 47.66±14.91
2010 26.81±0.64 7.07±0.12 427.43±766 2.45±0.51 3.8±1.18 95.85±18.1
F 25.34 30.39 0.991 5.469 4.415 9.049
Sig <0.01 <0.01 0.447 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01
Table 3: Results of the Karl Pearson’s correlation analysis on water quality and agriculture land use
Water Quality Parameters Land-use types
Rubber Paddy Pig Farming Shrimp farming
Temperature .29 .06 .07 .05
pH .03 -.03 -.25** -.28**
Coductivity - .07 -.01 .22 -.00
Suspended solid (SS) .61* .46* .58** .32**
Biological oxygen demand (BOD) .59** . 68** .44** .23**
Dissolved oxygen (DO) - .31** -.24** -25** -.31**
*p<.05,**p<.001
Results from the statistical analyses indicated that different types of agriculture land-use
were significantly correlated to many water quality variables in the U-tapao river basin (Table 3). For
example, SS and BOD had positive correlationship and DO had negative correlationship with all types
of agriculture land use (p < 0.01). In addition, pig farming and shrimp farming had negative
relationship with pH (r = - 0.25, p < .01 & r = - 0.28, p < .01). Results from the correlation analyses
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indicated that agriculture land-use types were significantly correlated to many water quality
variables in the U-tapao river basin.
Over the last ten years, the combination of different agriculture land use types affected the
water quality of U-tapao River and turned it into a polluted unnatural habitat and unhealthy ecosystem.
There are a wide variety of pig farming and shrimp farming on the side of river. Liquid wastes from
most of these industrial sectors have being directly discharged into the river without proper treatment.
Obviously, the river has been adversely affected by this discharge. Based on the result of this study, pH
values of most of sites were deviating from the neutral pH value towards slightly
acidic (pH < 7) which is not good for aquatic life . Average DO of basin was 3.68 mg/L with range
4.4 mg/L (Maximum 5.9 mg/L and Minimum 1.5 mg/L). DO is an indicator of a water body’s ability
to support aquatic life; hence, it is essential for good water quality. Its amount is directly related to
the population size and community of aerobic bacteria the aquatic system can support. Generally, DO
> 5 mg/L is considered favorable for growth and activity of most aquatic organisms; DO < 3 mg/L is
stressful to most aquatic organisms, while DO < 2 mg /L does not support fish life. Evaluating, the
mean concentration of DO of fourteen sites, some areas of basin showed the stressful condition of
aquatic life. By current water quality standards, the water of river does not fit on safe drinking water
standards and can be regarded as polluted river in terms of many parameters like temperature, pH,
conductivity, SS, BOD, and DO. The statistical analysis showed that different types of agriculture
activities affected the greatest number of water quality variables; SS, BOD and DO variables were
shown (Table 3) to be influenced by rubber, paddy, pig and shrimp activities while temperature and
conductivity were not found to be significantly influenced by these things.. Results from the
correlation analyses indicated that agricultural activities were significantly correlated to many water
quality variables in the U-tapao river basin. Therefore, the results indicate that the agricultural
activities on river basin are very much link with water quality of river. So, the policy maker should
give proper attention on this issue.
CONCLUSIONS
The results showed that agriculture land uses were related to many water quality parameters.
This relationship was evident in a regional scale (U-tapao basin), both statistically and spatially. If
agriculture land uses changes in the future, the levels of contaminants will be changed accordingly. The
study exhibits the importance of study on the influence of agriculture land use on water quality of river.
Planners and policy-makers at different levels should bring stakeholders together, based on the
understanding of agriculture land use and water quality relationship in a basin level to prevent pollution
from happening and to plan for a sustainable future.
References
[1] J. C. Clausen, W. Meals, 2009, Water quality achievable with agriculture best management
practices, Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, (44) 593-596.
[2] X. Deng, J. Huang, S. Rozelle, E. Uchida, 2008, Growth, population and industrialization, and
urban expansion of China, Journal of Urban Economics, (63) 96-115.
[3] United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 2000, Protecting Water Quality from
Agriculture Runoff, Washington, DC, USA.
[4] X. Wang, 2001, Integrating water-quality management and land-use planning in a watershed
context, Journal of Environmental Management, (61) 25-36
[5] E. K. Weatherhead, N.J.K Howden, 2009, The relationship between land use and surface water
resources in the UK, Land Use Policy ,(26), 243–250.
[6] J. C. Clausen, D. W. Meals, 1989,Water quality achievable with agriculture best management
practices, Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, (44), 593-596.
[7] S. Wiwat, R. Chartchai, 2005, Master plan for songkhla lake basin development,
Executive Summary, Prince of Songkla University, Thailand, Hatyai.
[8] W. Ren, Y. Zhong, J. Meligrana, B. Anderson, W. E. Watt, J. Chen, H. K. Leung, 2003,
Urbanization, land use, and water quality in Shanghai,1947–1996, Environment International,
(29) 649- 659.
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ASSESSMENT OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SAP FLOW AND
MICROCLIMATE BY STREET TREES ARRANGEMENT
Yin-Hsuan Sun1*, Feng-Chung Jan2, Chun-Ming Hsieh1 and Mikiko Ishikawa 2 1Department of Urban Planning, National Cheng Kung University
2Department of Urban Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
With a particular focus on the improvement of thermal environment, the cooling effect
brought by the green spaces in the urban area receives great attention recently. Among factors
concerning the planning of green spaces, street trees serve not only to relieve the Urban Heat Island
(UHI) effect but also to benefit the landscape in urban areas where roads cover most part of the city.
Hence this study in road sections with different planting density conducts transpiration measurement
on street trees and their surrounding microclimate with a particular focus tree species and spacing.
Concerning the tree transpiration measurement, this study takes Granier approach for assessment of
transpiration amount of each tree species. In addition, microclimate factors such as anemometry and
insolation will be taken into consideration in the evaluation of road space improvement based on the
actual measurement of street trees distribution and microclimate conditions. With the result, the
relation of transpiration activities microclimate in both cases of Koelreuteria elegans and Cassia
fistula will be analyzed and thus serve to support that the planting density of open and dense forests
will influence the transpiration activities because of insolation. This study therefore takes roads with
varied conditions for installation of street trees as the referent of study and further evaluates efficiency
via tree transpiration measurement and microclimate assessment. Also with a purpose of improving the
thermal environment brought by street trees, the distribution of tree species, distance between trees,
anemometry and all other related factors are included in the analysis of planting design. Hence, this
study will be taken into consideration in the transpiration of road space improvement based on the
actual measurement of street trees distribution and microclimate conditions.
Keywords: SFM (Sap Flow Measurement), Granier Method, microclimate, insolation simulation,
street trees.
INTRODUCTION
Recently as the Urban Heat Island (UHI) effect receives close attention, the efficacy of street
trees in reducing summer heat and energy consumption also receive particular attention. Hence in the
street trees distribution techniques and plans cooperating with urban planning, tree’s function to adjust
microclimate must be taken into consideration. Based on the aforesaid introduction, the thickness of
tree canopy as a flat plate is taken into the simulation for evaluating the shading and cooling efficiency
[1]. Recently, Sap Flow Measurement (SFM) for estimation of transpiration amount has been applied
to urban street trees evaluation. For example, taking single street tree as the object of evaluation,
Granier Method is then used to measure the Cinnamomum Camphora [2]. The result suggested that the
latent heat transportation amount is same as the predicted transpiration amount, which also revealed
the accuracy of the measurement.
According to the Yoshida and Yamaguchi (2005) study [3], from the configuration of plants
and their transpiration amount, the plant’s configuration density will influence the transpiration
amount [4]. In studies concerning the allocation of street trees and the influence of the wind
environment, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) serves as the evaluative tool for analyzing the
allocation of plants and changes in the wind environment [5-6]. From the allocation of plants, the
change of wind speed, and the wind speed distribution, the combination of high trees and bushy trees
can thus be evaluated in terms of their wind-proof and wind-boost efficiency. Further, perspectives
such as air stream in the street and the transpiration efficiency are used for analytical discussion [7].
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Wind speed distribution, humidity distribution, and ground surface temperature are taken on
roads with street trees in order to conduct detailed simulations used to verify road thermal
environment assumptions.
With the measurement of transpiration amount and thermal environment evaluation that also
combines the weather simulation in urban green spaces, the relationship between tree transpiration and
microclimate has received close attention recently. However, research examples taking street trees as a
forest in transpiration measurement and also in combination with urban microclimate weather
simulation has not yet been conducted. In sequence, this study will first generalize the weather
information of Tainan City and discuss the relationship of transpiration amount and microclimate.
SFM devices are therefore introduced into this study and, in the mean time, take field measurement on
the microclimate data. With the two measurements mentioned, following goals are expected to be
achieved. First, via the SFM, the variation of tree transpiration amount of lined trees is analyzed.
Further, open forest and dense forest will be cross compared with their transpiration amount and then
evaluated according to the density of planting and transpiration. Based on the aforesaid evaluations,
the relationship between microclimate and transpiration amount of open forest and that of dense forest
is thus evaluated.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Study site
Tainan, the most ancient city of Taiwan, had been removed of its city walls built by the Qing
Government in the early 20th century, when Japanese ruled Taiwan. The vestige of those city walls
were then planned to be the foundation for establishing parkways. During that period of time, the
Governor-General of Taiwan with the modern Western cities as models proposed city reform plans that
included the European street trees planning concepts, which was further applied to Tainan City’s
parkway projects [8]. After WWII though the political authority had shifted from Japan to the present
Taiwanese government, the urban planning projects were succeeded and constructions at large scale
were then implemented. In recent years, with a concept of connecting scenery roads and further
expand the relaxation zones, Tainan City government proposed urban green space preservation
projects that focused on the ―Capital Project of Water and Greenery‖. As a result, the study site
selected by this study is one of the well-organized parkways under Tainan City government’s
plan—Dongfeng Road.
The trees discussed by this study are Koelreuteria elegans and Cassia fistula planted in the
middle section of the parkway at 200m in length and 60m in width along the median and also on both
sides of the pavements next to the four-line road. Koelreuteria elegans is a widely used street tree
species with diffuse porous wood, high heat tolerance and native to Taiwan that grows in places with
blazing sunshine. While Cassia fistula is a kind of fast-growing tree with ring porous wood that is
native to South Asia and commonly used as street tree for its beautiful flowers. These two species of
trees are planted in the same parkway, each at a square measure of 1672 m2. Those that are planted on
both sides of the green belts are 8.5m, 7m on both sides of slow lanes and 7.5m on both sides of
central fast lanes.
Concerning the allocation of trees, separated as former and latter section, the former section
Figure 1. Parkway—Dongfeng Rd.
Parkway
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of dense forest is primarily planted with dual-lined Koelreuteria elegans with tree height average
at 5-6m, density of planting at 4m, canopy breadth average at 3m and with a total of 76 trees in four
lines. While the latter section of open forest is primarily planted with dual-lined Cassia fistula with
tree height average at 6-7m, density of planting at 5-6m, canopy breadth average at 1.5m and a total of
56 trees in the 100m of tree belt.
Since the study site is located in Tainan city, this study for the convenience of follow-up
practice conducted a preliminary generalization and analysis of the summer weather information of
June-September during 2005-2010, which is recorded by the Tainan Weather Center, Central Weather
Bureau. The wind direction in summer time is south wind at a speed of 2.87 m/s with average
temperature and humidity at 22.48℃ and 68.01%.
Table 1. Summary of tree for measurement Tree Name Koelreuteria elegans Cassia fistula Tree Species Sapindaceae FabalesTree Hight Average 5.86m 6.45mDBH Average 21.8cm 22cmTree Distances 4m 6mSapwood Average 0.42cm 1.45cm
Sapwood Area 1.320m2 6.808m2
Canopy Layer Aaverage 2m 4mCanopy Width Average 3m-4m 1.5-2mCrown Height 3m 4mTree Number 56 68
2.87m/2
South
22.48℃
68%
Average Wind
Wind direction
Average Temperature
Average Humidity
Microclimate measurement
In Tree Physiology, trees absorb water from the soil and transport them to the upper part for
branches and foliage to process transpiration. The influence that this transpiration path brings is the
inhibition of rising air temperature. As a result, in order to understand the relationship between tree
transpiration and microclimate, it is necessary to evaluate the study site with a consideration of
microclimate.
The observation time was a week in early July 2011, observing from 9 AM to 4 PM daily.
The equipment used for weather observation included a Young 5103 wind monitor, Young temperature
and humidity device, and YK-2005AH hot wire anemometer. Also, the observation spots were on both
sides of the parkway, each was roughly 100 m of dense and open forest section. An ambulatory
observation was conducted on both sides of the greenway and average observations were recorded
every 30 min. The measurement items were temperature, humidity, wind speed, wind direction, and
insolation amount. Observation spots are shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Open forest and dense forest in the study area.
The observation spots are selected in consideration of relieving the thermal environment with a
discussion on the relationship of the transpiration amount variation resulting from the street trees
planting strategies and the microclimate. Essentials to the selection of observation spots including the
following: First, microclimate observation is taken in places where each species of tree is distributed
in open and dense forest. Second, in both open and dense forests, tree selection is based on the
similarity in height and not obstructed by any buildings or facilities. Finally, for the convenience of
Table 2. 2005-2010 Summer
information
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conducting sap flow method, trees of similar DBH in both open and dense forests are selected as
target trees. In addition, in order to avoid the influence of dead trees, the sturdiness of the forest is
taken into consideration.
For the prediction of tree shading in areas with different plant distribution, the insolation
amount and the sky exposure rate are first examined. First, concerning the insolation amount, this
study adopts the weather information of early July issued by the Central Weather Bureau at Tainan; as
for the sky exposure rate, in order to observe the upper part of the tree canopy, cameras with fish eye
lens are used for picture-taking at an altitude of 1m above ground. Also, considering the distance to
the adjescent trees might influence the insolation condition, the distance is measured from the ground
repeatedly for determination of the relativie tree spacing in open and dense forest. Following the
measurement of distance, software for analyzing the sky exposure rate in the pictures are then used. As
the result suggests, from the sky exposure rate perspective, the difference in each area is little. In the
observation of Koelreuteria elegans in dense forest, when in the highest insolation amount of the day,
the temperature in the forest is lowered. On the other hand, in the observation of Cassia fistula in the
open forest, when in the highest insolation amount of the day, the temperature in the forest in also
influenced—but a distinct increase. As a result, in the two areas, it is positive that dense forest of
Koelreuteria elegans has 2-3℃ lower than that of open forest of Cassia fistula.
(a) Koelreuteria elegans (b) Cassia fistula
Figure 3. The result of sky exposure rate measurement
Sap flow measurement
Tree transpiration matters not only the Tree Physiology. Vapor as a phenomenon of heat
transportation also influences the surrounding temperature. In the past, when conducting research on
sole tree, Granier Method is usually applied in measuring the upward sap flow speed and amount in
the trunk so as to infer and to evaluate the transpiration amount of the whole forest [9]. Granier
Method, used to measure the transpiration amount of trees, involves inserting probe of the heat and
thermocouple into the tree trunk and measuring the temperature difference in a set time by the probe
and then recorded via the data logger. The observation device is shown as Figure 4.
Figure 4. Sap flow equipment concept
The temperature difference is set at every 30 seconds and average is recorded every 15
minutes. Concerning installation, HS probe is inserted 2.0cm deep into sapwood of the tree at 1.3m
high. In order not to be influenced by heat, the RS probe is inserted 15cm below the HS probe and the
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insertion position is selected in the apheliotropic position to avoid direct insolation. The sap flow
speed of individual tree is then inferred from the regression equation of the sap flow.
The prediction of transpiration amount is based on substituting the temperature difference
into the theoretical equation and transfer to sap flow speed as follow:
U=1.19×10-4 ×( (△т0-△Т)/(△т)) 1.231 R2= 0.96
U:Sap flow speed [m/s]
△т0:Temperature difference of probes when U=0 [℃]
△т:Temperature difference of probes [℃]
This regression equation in is originally primarily used for conifers such as Prunus malus,
Quercus robur and Castanea sativa. With this background, former studies also expand the application
to other species of trees and trees with larger diameters for sap slow speed measurements [10].
According to a study result of Mohamed Habib Sellami, in the calculation of tree
transpiration amount, much precise evaluation can be inferred from the average of plural study objects
[11]. This study selects trees with diameters of average DBH in each species for sap flow
measurement lasting for a week starting from 9am to 4pm. With the following regression equation,
individual tree transpiration amount and that of a group of trees can thus be inferred. A range of 200m
in length and 60m in width is selected to be the study site, which is further divided into former and
latter sections, each at 100m long. In the former section, two lines of trees are planted on each side,
with a total of 56 Koelreuteria elegans in four lines; while the latter section is planted with 48 Cassia
fistula in also four lines. In sum, there are 104 trees for evaluation of transpiration amount. For the
evaluation of the transpiration amount of the whole green belt, the calculation of the measure of
sapwood of each tree is essential. Hence the macrocosm of transpiration amount will be ratiocinated in
the following sequence.
Transpiration amount of sole tree: (Square measure of areas where sap flow occur in a tree
section=sapwood square measure) ×(sap flow speed)
F= U×As
F= U×As
F: Transpiration amount of sole tree (㎥ s-1); As: Square measure of sapwood (m2)
Calculation of stand transpiration amount after finishing calculating that of sole tree:
E=Jm×(Ar)/(Ag)
E=Jm×(Ar)/(Ag)
E=Stand transpiration amount (㎥ s-1); Jm=Average sap flow speed in an area (ms-1); (Ar)=Total
sapwood square measure in an area (㎡); Ag=Total square measure of an area (㎡).
This study selects trees with diameters of average Diameter at Breast Height (DBH) in each
species for sap flow measurement lasting for a week starting from 9am to 4pm.
Tree sapwood measurement
The most exterior part of the tree is known to be the cambium that serves to produce new
cells surrounding the tree via cell division and then processes secondary growth. Together with the
growth of cambium, the annual rings thus appear. The growth of trees therefore depends primarily on
the cell division process that takes place in where is known to be the sapwood. The sapwood has the
function of hydraulic distribution. In order to understand the relation of transpiration activity and the
hydraulic distribution, the calculation of sapwood square measure is necessary. The increment borer
that serves to measure the sapwood and heartwood is most commonly found in the measurement
mechanisms of water transportation tissues of trees.
In order to reduce the harm to the tree, the increment borer is used in obtaining the sapwood
information and calculating the square measure of sapwood in the green belt for the stand transpiration
amount. Sapwood samples are collected in a DBH position and base on the sample the water
transportation square measure can thus be inferred. Hence this study can be divided in to the following
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sequences: First, concerning the prediction of sapwood square measure, the diameter of each tree
is firstly determined by using increment borer to take samples at 1.3m high above the ground in
different direction. The samples are then used to calculate the scale and the square measure of
sapwood of each tree. The results are further applied to sap flow speed measurement device of sole
tree. In addition, assuming the capacity for transporting water of sapwood is consistent, the
transpiration amount can be inferred based on the individual tree transpiration.
Street trees in parkway are selected to be the study object of this study. There are in total 104
trees in the dense forest, where sap flow speed devices are used. Since the length of HS probe is 2cm,
when the sapwood measure is small, mechanical difficulties will easily occur in applying Granier
method. Hence Granier method is applied to trees of similar height and age with average sapwood
scale between 0.3-2cm. The selection of study object is therefore essential.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Microclimate Observation Result in the Study Site
According to the information concerning wind direction, wind speed, temperature and
humidity observed in parkway green belt, the generalization and analysis is as follow. In the case of
Koelreuteria elegans planted in dense forest, the average temperature was around 32.1 ℃. The
temperature started to rise at 9 am and declined a bit and remained at a certain temperature after 11 am.
The temperature then started to rise after 12 pm but the change is little. Also, concerning the
observation of average humidity, the average humidity in the morning was at 56%~58%. A decline in
humidity was found after 12 pm and dropped to 53%. After 3 pm the humidity was found rising again
to 58%; while concerning the result of average wind speed, the change in wind speed was little in the
morning at around 2.2-2.6 (m/s). After 12 pm, the wind speed gradually increased and declined after 3
pm. As in the case of Cassia fistula under open forest allocation, the average temperature was between
32.5~33.5℃. The temperature had dropped a bit to 33.55℃ before 1 pm and then raised again to
33.8℃ but it gradually decrease after 3 pm. As for the average humidity, it was also between 52~68%,
which is similar to that of Koelreuteria elegans; while concerning average wind speed, changes were
found more in the morning between 1.6~2.2 (m/s) and remained stable in the afternoon.
As suggested in the result of sky exposure rate, in the observation of dense Koelreuteria
elegans forest, the tree shading takes up 34%, while 12% in the case of open Cassia fistula forest as
shown in Fig. 3. This result also suggests that when reaching the highest insolation amount of the day,
dense Koelreuteria elegans forest has lower temperature as the shading is better. While in the case of
open Cassia fistula forest with same weather condition, the temperature in the forest has distinct
increase compared to that of dense forest. Hence the temperature in dense Koelreuteria elegans forest
is 2-3℃ lower than that in open Cassia fistula forest.
Based on the aforesaid observation, parkway planted with Cassia fistula has higher
temperature than with Koelreuteria elegans. The average difference in temperature is around 1~2℃. In
contrast, parkway planted with Koelreuteria elegans is found to have higher humidity than that with
Cassia fistula but the difference is little.
The aforesaid meteorological observation result can serve to the following analysis.
Comparing the planting environment of the two species of trees, it is inferable that temperature is
higher in open Cassia fistula forest; while in dense Koelreuteria elegans forest, since the tree height is
lower and foliage denser, temperature is found lower than that in Cassia fistula forest. In contrast, on
account of forest density, the average humidity is found higher in Koelreuteria elegans forest. From the
humidity data, it is inferable that temperature changes of the entire day reach the highest temperature
at 1~3 pm. This phenomenon results in low humidity in a same time frame. In addition, concerning the
comparison of wind speed, the speed of wind is higher in Koelreuteria elegans forest than in Cassia
fistula forest. The wind is found mostly in the path between trees but after 4 pm the wind speed in
Cassia fistula forest increases and surpasses that of Koelreuteria elegans forest. The information above
is analyzed according to the digit data in following figures.
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Figure 5. Average of wind speed
(a) Average of temperature (b) Average of humidity
Figure 6. Average of temperature and humidity in two kinds of street trees
Insolation simulation analysis
Concerning about the insolation, heat, and transpiration in the simulated environment,
Insolation Simulation Analysis is applied to analyze the difference between two kinds of tress. To
simulate the transpiration amount of these two kinds of trees, the research area is divided at the mesh
of 1m ×1m. Because of that roads in the park are east-westward and that the species of trees are
allocated differently in the simulated region, this study focus on analyzing the relationship between
heat exposure of crowns and tree transpiration according to these two species of trees. Two kinds of
forests are simulated: one is dense forest, and the other is open forest. In the case of dense forest,
Koelreuteria elegans are planted with the distance of 4m. Its tree shape is ellipsoidal with the foliage
gathered at the crown. As a result, it is found that its crown receives the most insolation during 11:00
and12:00. Besides, since the height of Koelreuteria elegans is lower, it tends to form larger
measurement of tree shade. On the other hand, Cassia fistula is cultivated in the case of open forest
with the distance of 6m. Its tree shape is long ellipse with more foliaged dispersed on the side while
less at the top of crown. Therefore, the highest average temperature lies at the 14:00 to 15:00.
Furthermore, the measurement of foliage that receives more insolation increases because of the slope
of insolation; therefore, the most transpiration lies in this period as well. According to the predicted
variation of transpiration amount between these two species of trees, the effect of alleviating
microclimate varies along with the difference in time that transpiration effect activates.
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Table 3. Analysis conditions
Time Object ①Koelreuteria elegans②Cassia fistula 09:00~16:00
Meteorological Data
1.Average Temperature: 22.48℃2.Quantity Of Solar Radiation Average:①Koelreuteria elegans:88.72②Cassia fistula:182.70(kwh)3.Wind direction: South
Analysis Range
1.East-West Direction: 200m2.Crown Height Average:①Koelreuteria elegans:2m ②Cassia fistula:3m3.Canopy Width Average:①Koelreuteria elegans:3m ②Cassia fistula:4m
Environmental Condition
1.Sky View Factor:①Koelreuteria elegans: % ②Cassia fistula: %2.Stand Evapotranspiration:①Koelreuteria elegans: 1.92 (m3 s-1)②Cassia fistula: 2.75 (m3 s-1)
(a) Koelreuteria elegans (b) Cassia fistula
Figure 7. Simulation of the tree's shadow
Sap flow diurnal variation Tree transpiration amount is usually influenced by the climate. Even with the same moisture in
soil, transpiration amount varies with the insolation amount and air humidity. Considering the physiological
structure of the tree, broad-leaved trees are further divided into diffuse, rings and radial porous woods
according to their varied arrangement of tracheids; hence similar to the characteristics of sap flow. During
observation, the result of the variation is as shown in Figure 8.
Trees of average Diameter at Breast Height (DBH) value are selected to be the research
object of sap flow measurement in this study such as Koelreuteria elegans of DBH between 20-30cm
and Cassia fistula with DBH also in between 20-30cm, three trees of each species are chosen for
measurement. As the result suggest, the sap flow speed of Koelreuteria elegans increases as the
insolation amount increase in the morning. During 11 am to 12 pm, the sap flow speed is between
10.39-14.91 (㎝ h-1) and reaching its peak. After 12 pm, the sap flow speed gradually decreases and
carries on decreasing after 4 pm. While in the case of Cassia fistula, the sap flow speed appears to be
stable since morning and reaching its peak at 2 pm and sustaining for an hour with a speed between
10.73-13.79 (㎝ h-1) and then gradually decreasing.
As the study site being set in subtropical climate, it has the highest temperature from
mid-June to September. Hence with the continuous cloudless days during observation, the sap flow
measurement in this study can be assumed that under consistent soil moisture content, transpiration
speed of each target tree is consistent and exuberant. Besides, the variation of sap flow results
primarily from the change of microclimate. The cross-comparison with the observed microclimate
result with the aforesaid observation on sap flow speed is therefore consistent.
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Figure 8. Sap flow diurnal variation
CONCLUSION
The shadow of trees is the main cooling source in urban area; the cooling effect of street
trees originates from the transpiration effect of trees. Alleviating the microclimate phenomenon
through the planting design of street trees becomes a trend in urban design recently. Therefore, sap
flow measurement in combination with simulation of microclimate is applied to find out the
relationship between microclimate and transpiration amount around streets.
As the result suggests, from the sky exposure rate perspective, the difference in each area is
little. In the two areas, it is positive that dense forest of Koelreuteria elegans has 2-3℃ lower than that
of open forest of Cassia fistula. Concerning about the insolation, heat, and transpiration in the
simulated environment, Insolation Simulation Analysis is applied to analyze the difference between
two kinds of tress. According to the predicted variation of transpiration amount between these two
species of trees, the effect of alleviating microclimate varies along with the difference in time that
transpiration effect activates. On account of the difference in planting strategy, the branches and leaves
are in a vertical distribution. Also, with bigger tree spacing, the transpiration amount is higher because
of the insolation angle.
According to the study result mentioned above, planting design of street trees on broad roads
has much to do with the transpiration effect. Furthermore, a green belt can not only embellish a city,
but also provide shades that restrain the increase of temperature around roads. Consequently, planting
design of trees is a notable issue in urban planning.
References
[1] B. Köstner, A. Granier, J. Cermák, 1998, Sapflow measurements in forest stands: methods and
uncertainties, Annales des Sciences Forestieres, (55) 13-27.
[2] A. Yoshida, 2007, Fundamental Study on Estimation of Transpiration Rate of Street Tree,
Architectural Institute of Japan , 661-662.
[3] Y. Atsumasa, Y. Kohei, 2005, Mitigation of thermal environment in urban space by use of
transpiration from green cover, Architectural Institute of Japan, (45) 309-312.
[4] N. Ken-ichi, H. Aya, T. Jun, T. Takemasa, 2006, Transpiration rata of trees in an urban area
Field experiments on oasis effect, Journal of Environmental Engineering, (608) 59-66.
[5] N. Koji, Y. Shinji, O. Ryozo, S. Junichi, 2003, Numerical Analysis of Effects on Wind
Environment Caused by Various Arrangements of Artificial Trees, Architectural Institute of
Japan, (46) 185-188.
[6] N. Koji, Y. Shinji, O. Ryozo, S. Junichi, 2003, Numerical Analysis of Effects on Wind
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Environment Caused by Various Arrangements of Artificial Trees, Architectural Institute of
Japan, (46) 185-188.
[7] Y. Shinji, N. Atsushi, O. Ryozo, 2006, Effects of growth and types of trees on leaf area density
and optical depth on tree canopy : Study on method to evaluate the shading effect of street tree
on solar radiation based on field observation, Architectural Institute of Japan, (605) 103-110.
[8] W. Takao, 1936, Park Way and its Design, journal of the Japanese Institute of Landscape
Architecture, (3) 40-50.
[9] A. Granier, 1985, Une nouvelle méthode pour la mesure du flux de seve brute dans le tronc des
arbres, Annales des Sciences Forestieres, (42)193-200.
[10] A. Diawara, D. Loustau, P. Berbigier, 1991, Comparison of two methods for estimating the
evaporation of a Pinus. Pinaster stand: sap flow and energy balance with sensible heat flux
measurements by an eddy covariance method, Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, (54) 49-66.
[11] M.H. Sellami, M.S. Sifaoui, 2003, Estimating transpiration in an intercropping system:
measuring sap flow inside the oasis, Agricultural Water Management, (59) 191-204.
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THE INFLUENCE OF BUILDING COTTAGE TO LAND USE FROM SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT ASPECT
Tzu-Ling Chen1* and Hsueh-Sheng Chang2 1Assistant, Department of Urban Planning, National Cheng Kung University
2Assistant Professor, Department of Urban Planning, National Cheng Kung University
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
The agricultural land has the land limitation and unrecoverable feature; therefore, the change
of agricultural land should be considered cautiously and confirmed harmless to the environment. The
loosen act in Taiwan brings about agricultural land use problems, including the amount of cottage
increases suddenly and mostly for residential use, real estate speculations, incomplete living facility
and the effect of family drainage on surrounding agricultural land. Hence, this paper attempts to base
on sustainable development to investigate the effects of building cottage to the surrounding land use in
Tainan, Taiwan. The anticipative outcome is to find out the trend, spatial aggregation and the social
economic condition of building cottage by using aerial image, mapping technology and spatial
autocorrelation analysis. The experiment can be future agricultural policy amended reference
including cottage become residential use, inefficient land use etc.
Keywords: building cottage, real estate speculations, family drainage
INTRODUCTION
Recently, the overall economic structure change result in the change from agriculture to
industrial and commercial industry. In addition, the affiliation of World Trade Organization (WTO)
opened up free trade of agricultural products and reduced agriculture competitive ability substantially,
further decreased the agricultural land use area and the serious change of agricultural land. Owing to
the competitive ability of agriculture decline progressively, the Agricultural Land Conversion Scheme
and Agricultural Development Act have been proposed to loosen original strict restriction of
agricultural land owner from peasant to natural person. The loosen proposals are to relieve the
restriction of agricultural land commerce and to attract more people who interested in devoting
agricultural production.
Nevertheless, the loosen proposal brings about agricultural land use problems. The amount of
cottage increases suddenly and mostly for residential use. Formerly, cottage is an essential facility for
agriculture requirement. According to the law, the ratio of the cottage building area is one and the
agricultural land area is nine. While cottage become residential use, building cottage become one of
the land speculations and the incomplete living facility directly increase local government fiscal
expenditure for the fundamental facility construction. In addition, the emission of family drainage will
affect the cultivation of surrounding agricultural land and become polluted. In fact, the cottage in
Taiwan do not assist agriculture properly, but impact the surrounding agricultural land and cause
inefficient fiscal expenditure, even result in urban sprawl, land use unsustainable.
In addition, according to the past research on the land cover change originate from the social,
economic, and political processes embedded in human societies, and result in changes in the demand
for, and supply of, land and land related resources (Turner et al., 1994; Napton et al., 2010; Radel et al.,
2010). Land use has always changed in response to changing human needs, driven by gradual trends
and abrupt changes in the economy, society, technology, governance structures, and environmental
conditions (Rounsevell & Reay,2009). The developments of speedy socio-economic development,
modifications of industrial structure and the accelerations of industrialization and urbanization have
hastened the change of land use and land cover, particular the direct impact on the change of
agricultural land.
Hence, this paper attempts to base on sustainable development to investigate the effects of
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building cottage to the surrounding land use in Tainan, Taiwan. First of all, this paper will divide
present cottage use into agricultural use and non-agricultural use with the integration analysis of social
economic condition. Furthermore, the aerial image of the research area will be analyzed to estimate
the cluster phenomenon of the cottages and propose preliminary cottage building tendency. In addition,
the spatial autocorrelation analysis will further be used with cottage building license data and social
economic condition to search out the hotspot and the relationship between cottage building and social
economic development. In the next phase, this paper will investigate the living facilities and the land
use condition surrounding the cottages to analyze the possible fiscal and environmental problems.
METHOD
This paper attempts to investigate the effects of building cottages to the surrounding land use
in Tainan, Taiwan. Through the integration analysis of social economic condition, we will attempt to
search out the location feature and trend of building cottages. In addition, the present land use
investigation data in 1995 and 2006 from National Land Surveying and Mapping Center will be used
in this research. The aerial image of the research area will be analyzed to estimate the cluster
phenomenon of the cottages simultaneously to confirm the cottage whilst the present land use
investigation data can only present the land use type but the cottage. The result might offer spatial
location feature of cottages on agricultural land and further illustrate the tendency.
Besides, the spatial autocorrelation analysis will further be used with cottage building license
data and social economic condition to search out the hotspot and the relationship between cottage
building and social economic development. In the analysis of spatial associations, it has long been
recognized that the assumption of stability over space may be highly unrealistic, especially when a
large number of spatial observations are used. This paper uses LISA (Local Indicators of Spatial
Association) statistics elaborated upon by Anselin (1995) to assess significant local spatial clustering
around an individual location. LISA for each observation gives an indication of the extent of
significant spatial clustering of similar values around the observations, labeled as High-High (HH).
Local spatial clusters, referred to as hot spots, may be identified as significant. The second
interpretation of LISA statistics is insignificant, labeled as Low-Low (LL). The third interpretation of
LISA statistics includes indications of spatial outliers, labeled as High-Low (HL) and Low-High (LH).
RESULT AND CONCLUSION
The anticipative outcome is to find out the trend, spatial aggregation and the social economic
condition of building cottage by using aerial image, mapping technology and spatial autocorrelation
analysis. The experiment can be future agricultural policy amended reference including cottage
become residential use, inefficient land use, and affect agricultural production environment and so on.
The experimental factors can contribute for active verifiable criterion for the building license
application of cottage in the future to reduce negative effect of building cottage abusively.
Reference
[1] L. Anselin, 1995, Local indicators of spatial association – LISA, Geographical Analysis,
(27) 93-115.
[2] D.E. Napton, R.F. Auch, R. Headley, J.L. Taylor, 2010, Land changes and their driving
forces in the Southeastern United States, Reg Environ Change, (10) 37-53.
[3] C. Radel, B. Schmook, R.R. Chowdhury, 2010, Agricultural livelihood transition in the
southern Yucata´n region: diverging paths and their accompanying land changes, Reg
Environ Change, (10) 205-218.
[4] M.D.A. Rounsevell, D.S Reay, 2009, Land use and climate change in the UK, Land Use
Policy, (26S) S160–S169
[5] B.L. Turner, W.B. Meyer, 1994, Global land-use/land-cover change: towards an integrated
study, Ambio, (23)91–95.
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ECO-FARMING WITH CROP LIVESTOCK SYSTEM TO FACE THE TWIN
CHALLENGGES, FOOD SAFETY AND CLIMATE CHANGE: Case study in Jambi
Province
Evi Frimawaty1, Adi Basukriadi
2, Jasmal A.Syamsu
3, T.E.Budhi Soesilo
4
1 Doctoral Student of Environmental Science Study Program, University of Indonesia,
Jakarta, Indonesia and staff of Jambi Province Government, Indonesia 2Faculty Mathematics and Science, University of Indonesia
3Animal Husbandry Faculty, University of Hasanuddin
4Environmental Science Study Program, Post graduated Program, University of Indonesia
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
The objective of this study is to analysis the environmental risk of agriculture system at the
farmer household especially from cattle and paddy production, and to determine availability of rice straw as
cattle feed resource and cattle manure as compost to support the integration of cattle and paddy as a kind of
crop livestock system to realize eco-farming. This study used secondary data from the previous research
and related institutions, like beef cattle population, and the total area of rice harvest, in Jambi Province. The
data is used to analyse the cattle and paddy performance, the potential sources of rice straw as cattle
feed, and the potential of manure as compost. According to the environmental risk analysis result that
farming system at the farmer household in Jambi Province, the partial system have a risk for environment
and food safety. The analysis revealed over the last five years (2005-2009) the total area of rice harvested in
Jambi province increased by 0.28% per year. However, the amount of paddy production produced a
substantial increase of 2.79% per year. Based on the carrying capacity, beef cattle population can be
increased about 30% in Jambi Province with efficiency in land use forage and decreasing in emission from
farming system.
Key words: crop livestock system , environmental risk analysis, eco-farming,
INTRODUCTION
Climate change is the responsibility of all parties, both governmental, private and community of all
layers. There is an increasing need for more attention to the environment from every sector of development
for climate change, decline in the quality of the environment and disruption of ecosystem balance. Human
population growth curve is still showing rapid growth phase. Human interaction with the environment to
meet their needs has led to the depletion of natural resources leading to massive environmental degradation,
especially in developing countries. Reed [1], say that the problem of environmental degradation has
become a common phenomenon in rural communities in developing countries, especially in societies that
are still faced with the problem of meeting basic needs and poverty.
The relationship with the environment of human activities in meeting their needs can be seen in
Figure1.
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Figure1. Relationship of human activities and their environmental in meeting their needs.
According to Steinfield et al [2], the livestock sector is also responsible for the use of water is quite
a lot, in the United States 85% of fresh water resources are used for livestock. Livestock also produces
excessive amounts of biological waste for the ecosystem as well as an estimated 18% of emissions of
greenhouse gas emissions come from livestock sector, from maintenance activities chickens, cows, pigs and
other livestock animals. The United States has lost 70% of Amazon forest being converted into land for
development of cattle ranching. This led to the livestock sector has been criticized for causing significant
environmental damage. In this report also stated that the farm produces 9% carbon dioxide (CO2), and 37%
methane (CH4). Based on these data, the report recommends that the livestock sector is a significant
contributor to the second or third highest on the most serious environmental problems at every scale from
local to global. On the other hand the agricultural sector in Indonesia is the leading sectors in supporting the
national economy. It can be seen from the role of agriculture to GDP in 2010 increased from 14.5% to
15.3% [3] . Agriculture plays in meeting the needs of animal and crop food commodities such as cattle and
rice, to reach national food security. According to Diwyanto and Haryanto [4], there are three dimensions
that are implicitly contained in the food security, food availability, food stability, and food accessibility.
Besides that I think the other one is food safety. The challenges are agriculture is very depend on the land
and vulnerable to climatic shocks, contribute to the waste and environmental pollution and high use of
natural resources (water, and land), in Jambi Province, farmers are decrease or less labor, aging and less
educated, will hinder the adoption of technologies, and the last one, ownership of land is narrow and small
capital, it will limit the choice of technology.
What need to be done? We have to move from conventional agriculture to sustainable
agriculture. Sustainable agricultural development is how to produce food and preserving the agricultural
resource base. The term used to describe the terminology refers to the agriculture-based ecology: eco-
farming. Eco-farming ensures healthy farming and healthy food for today and tomorrow, by protecting
soil, water and climate, promotes biodiversity, and does not contaminate the environment with chemical
inputs or genetic engineering. Eco farming is the way to create sustainable agriculture through some of
the concepts like LEISA (low external input sustainable agricultural), Integrated farming system, CLS
(crop livestock system).
Crop livestock system in Indonesia is known as integration cattle and paddy. The Integration
cattle and paddy program is to optimize the utilization of local resources such as the use of straw as livestock
feed and manure can be processed into organic fertilizer which is very useful to improve the nutrients soil that
plants need. With the integration of rice and livestock systems, is expected to realize zero waste from the
both of farm. The framework concept of eco-farming model in facing climate change and food safety can be
seen in Figure2.
Population
Life support
systems
Emissions,
Residue, Waste
Human
Activities:
Conventional
Farming Systems
Environmental hazards
Food
Safety
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Figure 2. The framework concept of eco-farming model for food safety and climate change
Agriculture development is strongly associated with the development of a region. In supporting the
integration of cattle and paddy, Jambi province is one of the potential province in Indonesia as a agricultural
region for food development. As an illustration, the number of cattle population in Jambi province in 2008 is
about 149,042 head, and the total area of paddy is 143.034 ha [5] and showed an increase in growth each year.
METHODE
Risk is the chance of something adverse unpredictable / undesirable, uncertainty or the possibility
of something, which if happens will result in the loss. Risk management is a structured approach to
managing uncertainty related to the threat, or a series of human activities including risk assessment,
developing strategies to manage and mitigate risks by using empowerment / resource management.
Strategies that can be taken include the transfer of risk, avoid risk, and reduce the negative effects of risk
[6].
Stages in Risk Analysis
The stages are traversed in implementing the risk analysis is to identify in advance the risks that
might occur, after identifying it conducted an evaluation of each risk in terms of severity (risk value) and
frequency. Evaluation of environmental impact is include the element of impact analysis, which illustrates
the possibilities that will arise from the activities. This method is an activity to calculate the risk of an
activity and determining the impact of activities / events are qualitatively and quantitatively.
The existing condition of agricultural system:
- Partial; livestock & crops
- The potential for waste, emissions and pollution
Identification of Environmental Risk:
- Methane Emissions Impacts of animal manure
- The impact of land degradation and residual use of chemical fertilizers
Need to do Environmental Risk management Environmental
Risk analysis
Analysis of the utilization of waste from
farming system
Alternatif Model:
Model Eco-farming with CLS
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Table 1. Measurement in Qualitative Impact
Level Criteria Description
1 Insignificant Not dangerous and does not cost control
2 Minor Dangerous, it is necessary first aid and accident costs are in control.
3 Moderate Dangerous, requiring immediate attention and require greater cost control
4 Major Extremely dangerous, causing loss of productivity and huge cost in control
5 Catastrophic Cause immediate death, requires a very large cost control
Sources: Joint Technical Committee Australian and New Zealand, 1999
Table 2. Opportunities measurement
Level Criteria Description
A Certainly occur Chance events that are sure to happen
B Occur Chance events that cannot be avoided
C Large opportunities occur Opportunities of events is large
D Small opportunities occur Opportunities of events is small
E Rarely Occur Opportunities of events are very rare
Sumber : Joint Technical Committee Australian and New Zealand, 1999
Table 3. Qualitative Risk Analysis Matrix and Risk Level
Chance
Impact
Insignificant
1
Minor
2
Moderate
3
Major
4
Catastrophic
5
A (Certainly occur) H H E E E
B (Always Occur) M H H E E
C (Large opportunities occur) L M H E E
D (Small opportunities occur) L L M H E
E (Rarely Occur) L L M H H
Source : Joint Technical Committee Australian and New Zealand, 1999
Description :
E : Extreme risk, requiring immediate handlers
H : Large risk, requires serious treatment
M : Risk of being, requires special handling
L : Low risk, handling routine
To determine availability of rice straw as cattle feed resource and cattle manure as compost in
Jambi Province, this study was conducted by using secondary data that obtained from the results of
previous studies related to the conversion rate of livestock populations of beef cattle and the average
production of rice straw waste. The analysis carried out as follows:
a. Cattle and paddy performance. To determine the role of cattle and paddy, an analysis cattle and
rice performance in the last five years (2005-2009), by calculating the rate of growth of livestock
numbers, number of livestock production (meat), the area under paddy and rice production. The
growth rate was calculated according to the formula Riethmuller [7].
b. Rice straw production. Based on the data area of the rice harvest, carried out the calculation of dry
matter production of waste rice straw, according to Syamsu, et al [8].
c. Carrying capacity of rice straw as cattle feed. Carrying capacity of rice straw as cattle feed was
calculated using the formula according to [8], and used the assumption of ruminant livestock feed
requirements, ie one livestock unit (1 LU) average ruminants requires dry matter (DM) is 6.25 kg /
day [7].
d. The Increased capacity of Cattle Population (ICCP). ICCP values in a district is calculated as the
difference between the carrying amount of feed rice straw to cattle production, based on the potential
carrying capacity of feed is 30% [8].
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RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Environmental Risk Analysis
Table 4. Environmental Risk Calculation of partial farning system
Source of Risk
Impact
Risk Category
Magnitude opportunities
1.Manure of cow
Produce methane 80-110 kg / head /
day *
produce Odor
Mayor Cernainly occur High risk
2. The usage of
chemical fertilizers
on rice usahtani
Decline in soil quality
Minor Cernainly occur Low risk
3. The usage of pesticides
in rice farming
Residues in rice Mayor Occur High risk
* According to research results from Balitnak, Ciawi, (2000).
According to Salim [9]), there are three principal within the meaning of "sustainable
development": First, is the concept of "needs". Meet human needs must be a central objective of
development. Part of the population of developing countries cannot meet basic needs for human life.
Economics paradigm that includes unlimited human needs are faced with a resource (resources) that limited
development. Where conventional construction is continued, then the entire contents of the earth's natural
resources and processed products of science and technology and build an artificial resource will not be
enough. Because of that development cannot be allowed to grow in a linear trend on a single lane solely
economic development but need to be complemented by social development and environmental pathways.
Secondly, regarding the concept of the sustainable development, the environment have capable of
supporting the development process in order to continue for the long term. Earth has the ability to provide
resources to support the ability to absorb waste and pollution from development, but with the proviso that
environmental principles are not violated. Third, is the flow of the construction of the present generation to
the next generation with no shortage of human resources and the ability to meet their needs. Development
is going to bring change to the environment, both beneficial and detrimental because it caused
environmental degradation. Development activities should be pursued so as not to cause adverse effects.
For that all development activities on the environment should be based on environmental insight. Therefore
it is in the development of agriculture as a source of food must be intervention to create a model of
sustainable
The performance of cattle (the cattle population and meat production) and paddy performance
(harvested area of paddy and rice production) in Jambi province over the last five years (2005-2009) is shown
in Table 5.
Table 5. Cattle and Rice Performance
Description Years Growth (%)
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Harevst area of paddy (ha) 154.941 140.613 149.888 143.034 155.802 0,28
Rice Production (ton) 579.635 544.597 586.630 581.704 644.947 2,79
Cattle Population (head) 113.678 118.160 125.114 149.042 164.256 9,68
Meat Production (000 ton)
2,86
2,96
3,16
3,55
3,86
7,81
Table 5 shows that within the last five years (2005-2009) the total area of rice harvested in Jambi
Province showed an increase of 0.28% per year. However, the amount of paddy production produced a
substantial increase of 2.79% per year. On the other hand, the number of cattle population showed an
increasing trend each year that is equal to 9.68% per year, and the population is followed by an increase in the
amount of meat production by 7.81% per year.
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Production and carrying capacity of rice straw
Carrying capacity of rice straw is the ability of a region to produce or provide a feed in the form of
waste rice straw that can accommodate the needs of a population of beef cattle without the treatment. Table 2
shows that the production of rice straw in dry matter is 849,622 tons in Jambi Province. Based on rice straw
production can be calculated the carrying capacity of rice straw as a source of cattle feed. Carrying capacity
of rice straw as cattle feed sources as much as 1,937,139 LU. Thus, the number of cattle that can be added
based on the potential carrying capacity of the feed that is 30% and the population of cattle at this time (412
229 LU), amounted to 1,067,439 LU.
Implications Development of Cattle and Paddy Integration Based Eco Farming
In the context of the availability of waste rice straw as a feed source in Jambi Province, showed that
rice straw can support the development of the integration patterns of cattle and paddy with eco farming
approach. Utilization of rice straw as feed source of cattle that will decrease waste of paddy and overcome
environmental problems.
By utilizing rice straw as feed in the integration of cattle and paddy, so that the eco farming system
can be achieved based on the concept of eco farming proposed by Egger [10], (1) Utilization of local
resources to the maximum but still pay attention to sustainability, (2) Use minimal external input, the use
just as a replacement if local resources are not available. Leahy [11] said that transformation to eco farming
is the only way to end hunger and face the challenges of climate change and rural poverty.
CLOSING
Farming system at farmer household in Jambi Province is still separate between crop and
livestock farming, so the system have a high risk for environment and food safety. Total production of dry
matter of rice straw in Jambi Province is 849,622 tons (DM), with a carrying capacity as cattle feed sources
as much as 1,937,139 LU. Carrying capacity of rice straw as cattle feed sources as much as 1,937,139 LU.
Thus, the population of cattle can be added till 30% of the cattle population at this time (412 229 LU),
amounted to 1,067,439 LU without need the land for pasture and the manure can be used for paddy area.
Application of the use of rice straw as feed, a few things to note are a). Implementation of
eco-farming through of application of rice straw waste feed technologies to strengthening the capacity
of farmers need a) the increased of farmers’ knowledge, attitudes, and skills, b). build feed industry
based raw materials rice straw waste, c) providing means of transport and storage (silos) of rice straw
in the countryside, and d) capital support from government and financial institutions through
institutional cooperation with farmers.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author would like to acknowledge the beneficial help and support for the completion of this paper from
UI and Jambi Province Government. The author would also like to acknowledge the advisors for their
thoughts and advise.
Reference
[1] Reed, D. 2002. Poverty and the environment: can sustainable development survive globalization?.
Natural Resources Journal, 26: 176 - 184.
[2] Steinfield,H., Pierre Gerber, Tom Wassenaar, Vincent Castel, Mauricio Rosales dan Cees de Haan. 2006.
Livestock’s long shadow, environmental issues and options. FAO. [3] Statistics of Indonesia. 2011. Formal News, Jakarta.
[4] Diwyanto, K. and B. Haryanto. 2001. Importance of integration in sustainable farming system. In:
Integration of Agricultural and Environmental Policies in an Environmental Age. KREI/FFTC–ASPAC,
Seoul, Korea. pp. 97−111.
[5] Statistics of Jambi Province. 2008. Jambi in Figure, Jambi
[6] Joint Technical Committee Australian and New Zealand, 1999. Australian and NewZealand Standards.
Council of Standards Australia and Council of Standards New Zealand.
[7] Riethmuller P. 199. The Indonesia feed anf livestock sector: a statistical overview. in: Livestock
industries of Indonesia prior to the Asian financial crisis. RAP Publication 1999/37. Bangkok: FAO
Regional Officer for Asia and the Pacific. Pp 107-198.
[8] Syamsu, J.A., L.A.Sofyan., K.Mudikdjo., E.Gumbira Sa'id. E. B. Laconi. 2005. Analisis potensi limbah
tanaman pangan sebagai sumber pakan ternak ruminansia di Sulawesi Selatan. Jurnal Ilmiah Ilmu-ilmu
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Peternakan, Vol.VIII (4).
[9] Salim,E. 2010. Paradigma pembangunan berkelanjutan. Dalam Pembangunan Berkelanjutan peran
dan kontribusi Emil Salim. Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia. Jakarta. [10] Egger,K. 1990. Ecofarming: a Synthesis of old and new. www.Metafro.be/leisa/1990/6.2.3pdf
[11] Leahy S. 2011. Eco-farming: Ending hunger without harming the climate. Global Information Network.
Document View- ProQuest. http//proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?index=o&srd= 1&srching=1&vin…
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PHYSICAL, MECHANICAL AND DURABILITY PROPERTIES OF
PARTICLEBOARD USING ADHESIVES WOOD VINEGAR FROM
OILPALM EMPTY FRUIT BUNCH
H.A. Oramahi1* and Farah Diba1 1Forestry Faculty, Tanjungpura University, Indonesia
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
This research purposed to evaluate the natural resource, wood vinegar from oil palm empty
fruit bunch as adhesives and preservatives to particleboard. Particleboard was made from Acacia
mangium wood. Wood vinegar concentration was 5%, 10% and 15%. Evaluation the quality of
particleboard consist of physical properties (density, moisture content, thickness swelling), mechanical
properties (internal bond) and durability against decay fungi Schicophyllum commune. The result
showed that average of particleboard density was 00.602 g/cm³ ~ 0.633 g/cm³, moisture content was
8.853% ~ 10.390%, thickness swelling was 3.987% ~ 4.988%, internal bond was 2.811 kg/cm2 ~
4.837 kg/cm2 and weight loss of particleboard after exposure to S. commune fungi was 3.954% ~
9.131%. The physical and mechanical properties of particleboard can fulfill the JIS A 5908-2003
standard and the durability of particleboard can fulfill the SNI 01.7207-2006 standard.
Keywords: particleboard, wood vinegar, oil palm empty fruit bunch, schizophyllum commune, acacia
mangium, glue line treatment
INTRODUCTION
Indonesia is a tropical country and has approximately 4.000 species of woods. About 15-20%
of these species are classified into first and second classes (durable wood classes) and the remaining
species are classified as a non durable species. In addition, the future of wood supply will be coming
from plantation forest which dominated by fast growing species, like Acacia mangium. These woods
are mainly undurable woods; therefore it has to be treated with chemical preservatives before used. On
the other hand, the use of conventional preservatives would be a big problem from the environmental
dimension. According to the above conditions, the development of the new type of preservatives will
be one of the most socially demanded subjects. One of the new types of preservatives which can be
explored is wood vinegar. Wood vinegar is one of organic compound and by product from charcoal
production. It is a liquid generated from the gas and combustion of fresh wood burning in airless
condition. Utilization of wood vinegar has been used in several purposes such as industrial product,
livestock, household, and agriculture [1, 2, 3, 4, and 5]. Although several ways to use wood vinegar
have been known from olden times, there have been few detailed studies of utilization of wood
vinegar as wood preservatives.
Meanwhile the demand of wood product such as furniture and building material was increase.
Particleboard was a famous of wood product to facing the problem. Particleboard can be used for
furniture, kitchen set, panel product, and other building material. In other hand, particleboard was
often disturbed by wood destroying organisms, such as fungi and termites, because no preservative
treatment on the process of particleboard. Decay fungi Schizophyllum commune causes decay in
particleboard and creates a significant economic loss to wood industries. Many control strategies are
used to inhibit decay fungi, including chemical and biological protection methods. Wood vinegar is
favorable natural resource materials to be used as antifungal agents [6]. Wood vinegar is one of
organic compound which is a byproduct from combustion or charcoal production. These extracts are
diluted with water and used as disinfection, antibacterial and deodorization materials in the field of
agriculture, horticulture, medical and civil engineering [7, 8, 9, 10, and 11].
It is several ways of treatment for preservatives the particleboard. One of the treatment
methods was glue line treatment, the method that mix the preservatives agents with the adhesive then
applied to wood particle and press the particle for making particleboard. This method has an advantage
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because the wood particle can absorb the preservatives agents easily. Nowadays, the use of natural
adhesives as a binder has increased in the wood based panel industry. The objective of this research
were application the wood vinegar from oil palm empty fruit bunch as adhesives and preservatives to
particleboard and evaluate the physical, mechanical and durability of particleboard against decay fungi
Schizophyllum commune.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Preparation of oil palm empty fruit bunch vinegar
Oil palm empty fruit bunch was crush to particle then air dried in oven with temperature
60oC for 24 hour. Then 1000 gram of particle of oil palm empty fruit bunch was burn at carbonization
temperature 450oC for three hours in laboratory furnace. The smoke from carbonization was cooled by
the outside air when passing through the chimney occurs to produce pyroligneous liquor. The hot
steams condensed into liquid were collected. The process was held in Laboratory of Agriculture
Engineering in Technology of Agriculture Faculty, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia.
The oil palm empty fruit bunch vinegar then analyzed using GCMS (gas chromatography mass
spectra).
Preparation of particleboard
Target of particleboard density was 0.7 g/cm³. Particleboard is made from Acacia mangium
particle (fill 8 mesh and up to 20 mesh, with moisture content ± 6%). Acacia mangium wood was from
the arboretum (education forest) of Faculty of Forestry, Tanjungpura University West Kalimantan
Indonesia. The adhesives were Urea Formaldehyde with catalyst NH4Cl and emulsion paravin wax.
The vinegar concentration was 5%, 10% and 15% (v/v) from the total volume of adhesives. The
vinegar was add to adhesives and mix to particle then the compound were press in hot press at
temperature 150ºC with pressure 27 kg/cm² for 15 minute. Particleboard then conditioning in room
temperature for one week before evaluates the physical, mechanical and durability properties.
Evaluation particleboard properties
Evaluation the physical and mechanical properties (density, moisture content, thickness
swelling and internal bond) was follow JIS (Japanese Industrial Standard) A 5908-2003 [12] because
this standard was used in particleboard industries in Indonesia, and durability against decay fungi
Schizophyllum commune was evaluate using SNI (Standard National Indonesia) 01.7207-2006 [13].
The sample test for durability against fungi was 50 mm × 25 mm; internal bond was 50 mm × 50 mm;
swelling thickness was 50 mm × 50 mm; density and moisture content was 100 mm × 100 mm. The
evaluation of particleboard properties was conducted in Wood Technology Laboratory, Faculty of
Forestry, Tanjungpura University.
Evaluate the durability of particleboard against S. commune fungi was as follow: glass
chamber (height 150 mm, Ø 50 mm) was fill in potatoes dextrose agar for 10 ml then inoculate with
S. commune fungi hypha (Ø 10 mm, age 7 days). Then wood sample was put at the top of fungi. The
glass chambers then sealed and keep in laboratory for three months. After three months the wood
sample was clean and weight to know the percentage of wood loss. Then the durability of
particleboard was classified based on SNI 01.7207-2006.
Table 1. Durability Class of Wood against Fungi based on SNI 01.7207-2006
Class Durability Percentage of Wood Weight Loss (%)
I Very durable ≤ 1
II Durable 1 – 5
III Susceptible 5 – 10
IV Non Durable 10 – 30
V Perishable > 30
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Characteristics of oil palm empty fruit bunch vinegar
Oil palm empty fruit bunch vinegar was characterized for the acid content, phenol, pH,
specific gravity and temperature. The value of acid content was 6.31%, phenol content was 3.63%,
specific gravity 1.010, pH was 4.0, and temperature 29oC. Analysis GCMS on oil palm vinegar was
shown in Figure 1. The chemical compound consists of ethanoic acid, dimethyl ketone, butanoic acid,
2-propenyl ester, phenol and furanone. The chemical compound of oil palm vinegar was similar to
Moso Bamboo vinegar [6].
Figure 1. Gas chromatogram of Oil palm Vinegar with carbonization 450oC .
Table 2. Chemical Compound and Retention Time of Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch Vinegar with
Carbonization Temperature 450oC
No Peak No Retention Time
[minute]
Area
[%] Height Chemical Compound
1 4 2.381 46.39 1540383 Ethanoic acid (C2H4O2)
2 3 2.067 21.04 832117 Dimethyl ketone (C3H6O)
3 5 2.626 9.68 135403 Butanoic acid,2-propenyl ester(C7H12O2)
4 15 8.094 7.04 113090 Phenol (C6H6O)
5 13 6.032 3.09 58151 Furanone (C4H6O2)
Particleboard physical and mechanical properties
The average value of particleboard properties which adhesives has been added by oil palm
empty fruit bunch vinegar was better than particleboard without oil palm empty fruit bunch vinegar.
The average of particleboard density was 0.602 g/cm³ ~ 0.633 g/cm³, moisture content was 8.853% ~
10.390%, thickness swelling was 3.987% ~ 4.988%, internal bond was 2.811 kg/cm2 ~ 4.837 kg/cm2.
Meanwhile on particleboard control the average value of density was 0.639 g/cm³, moisture content
was 8.932%, thickness swelling was 5.579%, and internal bond was 4.837 kg/cm2. The physical and
mechanical properties of particleboard (density, moisture content, thickness swelling and internal
bond) can fulfill the JIS A 5908 – 2003 standard. This result revealed that the preservatives methods
using glue line treatment was improve the physical and mechanical properties of particleboard. Oil
palm empty fruit bunch vinegar can be used as adhesives to particleboard and have improved the
physical and mechanical properties of particleboard. The particleboard physical and mechanical
properties were shown in Table 3.
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Table 3. Physical and Mechanical Properties of Particleboard
Particleboard with adhesives from
oil palm empty fruit bunch vinegar
Density
[g/cm3]
Moisture Content
[%]
Thickness
Swelling [%]
Internal Bond
[kg/cm2]
Control 0.639* 8.932* 5.579* 4.837*
5% oefb vinegar 0.631* 8.853* 4.988* 4.137*
10% oefb vinegar 0.633* 9.086* 3.987* 3.007*
15% oefb vinegar 0.602* 10.390* 4.754* 2.811*
Requirement of JIS A 5908-2003 0.4~0.9 Max 15 Max 12 Min 1.5
Particleboard durability properties
The average weight loss value of particleboard which adhesives has been added by oil palm
empty fruit bunch vinegar was lower than particleboard without oil palm empty fruit bunch vinegar.
The weight loss of particleboard after exposure to Schizophyllum commune fungi was 3.954% ~
9.131%. Meanwhile on particleboard control the average value of particleboard weight loss was
12.610%. The durability properties of particleboard according to SNI 01.7207-2006 standard were
categorized as follow: concentration 5% was susceptible, concentration 10% and 15 % was durable,
meanwhile on control was non durable. This result showed that oil palm vinegar has antifungal effect,
as reported by other researcher [14, 15 and 4]. The weight loss of particleboard after exposure within
three months to S. commune fungi was shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Weight loss of particleboard after exposure to Schizophyllum commune
Wood vinegar is an acidic by-product from combustion that contain more than 200 ingredients
including phenolic, polyphenolic, organic acids and carcinogenic agents such as wood creosote,
benzo[a]pyrene, benzo[a]anthracene, and 3-methylcholanthrene (3-MCA) [16].The toxicity of oil palm
empty fruit bunch vinegar to S. commune fungi was depend on the compound inside the vinegar.
Wood vinegar mostly consisted of acid and phenol. Some researcher believe that this acid has an
important role on inhibition the fungi growth. But, still there is a controversy that whether the acidic
nature of wood vinegar is responsible for antifungal activity or polyphenolic compounds. Further
research is needed to know the main compound from oil palm empty fruit bunch vinegar which has a
role on inhibition the growth of S. commune fungi and the mechanism of inhibition.
CONCLUSION
Oil palm empty fruit bunch vinegar can be used as preservatives with glue line treatment to
particleboard. The physical and mechanical properties of particleboard can fulfill the requirements of
JIS A 5908 – 2003. Meanwhile the durability of particleboard was increase and classified as durable
class according to SNI 01.7207-2006 standard.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors are grateful to Ministry of Education and Culture, Directorate of Research and
Development Community, Directorate General of Higher Education for funding this research in
Weigh
t loss (%
)
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Program National Strategic Batch II.
References
[1] Pangnakorn U., 2008, Utilization of Wood Vinegar by Product from Iwate kiln for Organic
Agricultural System, Technology and Innovation for Sustainable Development Conference (TISD
2008), Faculty of Engineering, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
[2] Xinxi, 2004, Wood Charcoal and Pyroligneous Liquor Technology,
http://www.cn/dz/en/charcoal-tech.htm (accessed 2011-05-103)
[3] International Bio-Energy, 2003, Wood Vinegar, http://bioenergy.com.sg/products/wood
vinegar.php (accessed 2011-05-03)
[4] Tongdeethare S, 2002, Wood Vinegar, the new Organic Compound for agriculture. Kehakaset
Journal 26 (9):96-101
[5] Apai, W., and Tongdeethare, S., 2001, Wood Vinegar the New Organic Compound for Agriculture
in Thailand 4th Conference Toxicity Division, Department of agriculture, pp 166-169
[6] Lin H.C, Y. Murase, T.C. Shiah, G.S. Hwang, P.K. Chen and W.L. Wu, 2008, Application of
Moso Bamboo Vinegar with Different Collection Temperatures to Evaluation Fungi Resistance of
Moso Bamboo Materials. Journal Fac Agr Kyushu University 53 (1), 107-113.
[7] Imamura, E., 2007, Anti-allergy composition comprising wood vinegar or bamboo vinegar
distilled solution. United States Patent 7214393.
[8] Kimura, Y., Suto, S., Tatsuka, M., 2002, Evaluation of Carcinogenic/Co-carcinogenic activity of
chikusaku-eki, a bamboo charcoal by-product used as folk remedy, in BALAB/c 3T3 cells., Biol.
Pharm. Bull., 25 (8),1026-1029.
[9] Lu, K. C., Kuo, C. V., Liu, C. T., 2007. Inhibition efficiency of a mixed solution of bamboo
vinegar and chitosan against Ralstonia solanacearum., Taiwan J. Forest Sci., 22 (3), 329-338.
[10] Yatagai, M., Unrinin, G., 1987, By-products of wood carbonization III. Germination and growth
acceleration effects of wood vinegars on plant seeds. Mokuzai Gakkaishi, 35 (6), 564-571.
[11] Sulaiman, O., Murphy, R. J., Hashim, R., Gritsch C. S., 2005. The inhibition of microbial growth
by bamboo vinegar., J. Bamboo Rattan, 4 (1), 71-80.
[12] JIS A 5908. 2003. Particle Board. Japanese Industrial Standard Association Japan.
[13] SNI 01.7207-2006. Uji Ketahanan Kayu dan Produk Kayu Terhadap Organisme Perusak Kayu.
Badan Standarisasi Nasional Indonesia.
[14] Oramahi, H.A, Diba F, Wahdina, 2009, Components and Antifungal Efficiency of Wood Vinegar
from Wood Wastes and Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch. Proceeding The 1st International
Symposium of Indonesian Wood Research Society, Bogor, Indonesia. [page 190-194].
[15] Halim M.P, Darmadji, R. Indrati. 2006. Aktivitas Biopreservatif Asap Cair Cangkang Sawit
Dalam Menghambat Bakteri Patogen Dan Pembusuk. Agrosains 19 (1) :67 – 79
[16] Velmurugan, N., Han, S.S and Lee, Y.S. 2009. Antifungal Activity of Neutralized Wood Vinegar
with Water Extracts of Pinus densiflora and Quercus serrata Saw Dusts, International Journal
Environment Research, 3(2):167-176
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ANALYSIS OF FATTY ACID TYPE AND QUANTITY IN SEA SLUG (DISCODORIS
SP.) FROM SERIBU ISLANDS-INDONESIA AS SOURCE OF FOOD
DIVERSIFICATION FOR THE FUTURE.
1Abdul Rahman Putra*, 2Saraswati, 2Monica Agustina Ameliawati, 2Putriana Sari Sirait, 2Nur Syafiqoh
1Departement of Science and Marine Technology, Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Sciences, Bogor
Agricultural University 2Departement of Aquatic Product Technology, Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Sciences, Bogor
Agricultural University
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Fishery commodities have known as a source of fatty acid which may useful as nutrition
compound in daily life. One of sea commodities is sea slug (Discodoris sp.), it has unsaturated fatty
acid and high protein that good for body. The aim of this paper was to give information to public about
the compound of fatty acid in sea slugs from Seribu Island-Indonesia that could be the alternative
source of food diversification by using fatty acid analysis according to AOAC 1999 method. The
content of lauric acid and myristic acid in sea slug are 2.98% and 5.76%. The content of palmitic acid,
stearic acid, and oleic acid at 10.01%, 8.88%, and 12.81%. The content of linoleic acid and linolenic
acid at 7.69% and 3.98%. The content of EPA and DHA at 8.85% and 19.29%. The result represents that
sea slug has a high polyunsaturated fatty acids content such as EPA, DHA, linoleic, and linolenic acid,
and it have some beneficial to human health.
Keywords: Discodoris sp., fatty acid analysis, food diversification, unsaturated fatty acid.
INTRODUCTION
Sea slug (Discodoris sp.) is one of fishery commodities pretty much at sea, especially on the
island of Madura, the island of Buton, Belitung Island, and Seribu Island. It has not been optimally
utilized by the community. Sea slugs (Discodoris sp.) do not have a shell, live in coastal areas,
especially mangroves. Live on rocks or muddy sand and produce mucus to prevent dryness and it has
slow movements. Sea slugs thought to contain substantial nutritional components, because they have
complete amino acid composition, and they also known rich in unsaturated fatty acids. The evident
explains that nutrient content in sea slug are very good.
One of the beneficial nutritional components in life is a fatty acid. Fatty acids are long chain
monocarboxylic acid with [3]. Fatty acids are divided into saturated fatty acids and unsaturated fatty
acids. Unsaturated fatty acids are most in fishery commodities linoleic and linolenic acid. Derivatives
of linolenic acid are EPA and DHA. Unsaturated fatty acids used to maintain the structural parts of cell
membranes and play an important role in brain development. Fishery commodities is a source of
omega-3 fatty acids with 5-6 double bond in it [5]. The expected content of unsaturated fatty acids
(especially Omega-3) sea slug is high.
This study is important because the initial information about the sea slug (Discodoris sp.) is
very useful as a basis for sustainable use of sea slugs for alternative food sources in the future and this
study could give us knowledge about the nutrient composition of the aquatic products that could
improve human health through a nutritious diet.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Tools used include mortars, labels, plastic, tubing, whirlpool, Rotavapor, bowls, ovens,
desiccators, gas chromatography, furnace, Kjeldahl flask, erlemenyer, destilator, homogenizer, filter
paper, pipettes, gas chromatography (gas chromatography) and extraction Soxhlet equipment.
Materials used in this study include marine leeches, n-hexane, sodium chloride, BF3, H2SO4, NaOH,
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H3BO3, HCl, and the hexane solvent.
The study began with a sampling of the sea slugs (Discodoris sp.) from the sea of Seribu
Islands. The flesh from the sea slugs is separated then washed with clean water to remove foreign
objects that are still stuck like sand, gravel and other debris. Once clean, the flesh of sea slugs are
dried in the sun for 2-3 days. After that, the fatty acids of sea slugs are analyzed according to fatty acid
analysis method AOAC 1999. Fatty acid analysis carried out by gas cromatography. First obtained by
fatty acids and Soxhlet methods weighed as much as 0.02 g of fat in the form of oil. Then methylation
stage is done, this step intended to form a compound derived from fatty acids into methyl esters. Fatty
acid methyl ester is transformed into alkyl or others before injected into gas chromatography [4].
Methylation carried out by reflux of fat over a water bath with successive reagent 0.5 N
NaOH-methanol, BF3 and n-hexane. A total of ± 0.02 g of oil sample is inserted into a test tube and
add 5 ml of methanol-0.5 N NaOH and then heated in a water bath for 20 minutes at 80oC. The
solution is then cooled. Add 5 ml of BF3 into the tube and heat the tube back to back on waterbath
with a temperature of 80oC for 20 minutes and cooled. Then add 2 ml of saturated NaCl and then
shaken. Add 5 ml of hexane, then shaken well. Hexane solution of the above solution was transferred
by pipette aid drops into the reaction tube. A total of 2-5 mL of sample is injected into the gas
chromatograph. Fatty acids present in the methyl ester will be identified by a flame ionization detector
(FID) or flame ionization detectors and the response will be recorded through the chromatogram
(peak). Then identified by gas chromatography.
Identification of fatty acid start by injecting methyl esters in gas chromatography equipment
with the following conditions: type of gas chromatography equipment used was Hitachi 263-50 GC, gas
used as the mobile phase with a stream of nitrogen gas is 1 kg/cm2 pressure and a hydrogen gas burner
and oxygen with a flow of 0.5 kg/cm2, the column used was DB 23 capillary column of length 50 mm
inner diameter of 0.32 mm and 0.25 pM thick film coating. The temperature used was programmed
temperature of 150oC, the temperature increased 7.5°C per minute until a final temperature of 180oC.
For quantitative analysis can be calculated by:
Fatty Acid (%) = Sample Concentration X 100 %
100-(Solvent Concentration)
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Fatty acids are long chains that make up the components of lipids, consisting of a straight
hydrocarbon chain having a carboxyl group (COOH) at one end and a methyl group (CH3) at the other
end. Injection of a mixture of fatty acids produces standard chromatogram, each peak indicate certain
types of fatty acids.
Table 1. The retention time of fatty acids of sea slug (Discodoris sp.)
No. Types of fatty acids The Average Value of Sample The Standard Value of Sample
Meat Meat
1 Lauric acid 3,04 3,80
2 Myristic acid 5,73 4,66
3 Palmitic acid 9,94 7,36
4 Stearic acid 8,94 12,21
5 Oleic acid 12,83 13,12
6 Linoleic acid 7,76 15,83
7 Linolenid acid 4,03 19,28
8 EPA 5,75 6,12
9 DHA 7,50 7,84
Value of fatty acids contained in sea slugs’ meat obtained by comparing the retention time
standard with a retention time of fatty acid samples tested. At the peak fatty acid samples, the resulting
value of retention time close to the value of retention time with standard fatty acids. Fatty acid
composition in dried sea slugs’ meat can be seen in Table 2 and 3.
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Table 2. Average composition of saturated fatty acids of sea slugs’ meat (Discodoris sp.)
Saturated fatty acids Dry Sea Slug (Discodoris sp.)
Meat (%)
Lauric (C12: 0) 2,98
Myristic (C14: 0) 5,76
Palmitic (C16: 0) 10,01
Stearic (C18: 0) 8,88
Table 3 Average composition of monounsaturated fatty acids and polyunsaturated fatty acids in sea
slugs’ meat (Discodoris sp.)
Monounsaturated fatty acids Dry Sea Slug (Discodoris sp.)
Meat (%)
Oleic (C18: 1) 12,81
Plural unsaturated fatty acids
Linoleic (C18: 2) 7,69
Linolenic (C18: 3) 3,98
EPA (C20:5) 8,85
DHA (C22:6) 19,29
Based on Tables 2 and 3, it appears that fatty acids contained in dried sea slugs’ meat consist of
saturated fatty acids, namely lauric, myristic, palmitic and stearic. Monounsaturated fatty acids, namely
oleic acid, polyunsaturated fatty, namely linoleic and linolenic acid, and polyunsaturated fatty acids that
have long chain, namely EPA and DHA. The content of lauric acid (C12: 0) by 2.98%. Lauric acid is
responsible for the increase of LDL (Low Density Lipoprotein) in blood and it is associated with heart
attacks [7]. The content of myristic acid (C14: 0) by 5.76%. Myristic acid needed in the retina and
photoreseptor [7]. The content of palmitic acid (C16: 0) by 10.01%. Palmitic acid is used as raw material
of shampoo, soft soap and cream [7]. The content of stearic acid (C18: 0) by 8.88%. Stearic acid can
cause trombogenik or blood clots, hypertension, cancer, and obesity [7].
The content of oleic acid (C18: 1) by 12.81%. Oleic acid is more stable than linoleic and
linolenic acid, oleic acids have a role in increasing HDL cholesterol greater and lower LDL cholesterol
in the blood [6]. The content of linoleic acid (C18: 2) and linolenic (C18: 3) at 7.69% and 3.98%.
Linoleic acid used in the manufacture for cosmetics and vitamins [7]. Essential fatty acids are used to
maintain the structural parts of cell membranes and to make materials like hormone called eikosanoid.
Essential fatty acid deficiency in the body can cause neurological disorders and vision as well as inhibit
growth [2]. The content of EPA (C20: 5) and DHA (C22: 6) at 8.85% and 19.29%. EPA and DHA serve
as the builder of most of the cerebral cortex of the brain and other organ growth [1]. EPA is required in
the conduct of blood vessels and regulating the circulation of the heart in adulthood [6].
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, we would like to thank God, for having made everything possible. Especially, we
would like to give our special thanks to our family whose patient love enable us to complete this study.
We want to thank the Departement of Science and Marine Technology and Departement of of Aquatic
Product Technology, Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Sciences, Bogor Agricultural University. The last
but not the least, our sincere thanks to all people who have contributed in this study.
References
[1] Ackman RG, 1994, Seafood lipids. Di dalam: Shahidi F, Botta JR, editor, Seafoods: Chemistry,
Processing Technology & Quality, London: Blackie Academic & Professional.
[2] Almatsier S, 2000, Prinsip Dasar Ilmu Gizi, Jakarta: PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama.
[3] Davenport JB, Johnson AR, 1971. The nomenclature and classification of lipids. Davenport JB,
Johnson AR, editors. Biochemistry and Methodology of Lipids. Sydney : Wiley-Interscience.
[4] Fardiaz D, 1989, Kromatografi Gas dalam Analisis Pangan, Bogor: Pusat Antar Universitas,
Institut Pertanian Bogor.
[5] Grosch B, 1999, Food Chemistry, Second Ed. Di dalam: Burghagen MM, Hadziyev D, Hessel
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P, Jordan S, Sprinz C, Fourth German Edition, Berlin: Springer. [6] Muchtadi D, Palupi NS, dan Astawan M, 1993, Metabolisme Zat Gizi, Pusat Antar Universitas,
IPB, Bogor : Pustaka Sinar Harapan
[7] Witjaksono HT, 2005, Komposisi Kimia Ekstrak dan Minyak dari Lintah Laut (Discodoris
boholensis) [tesis], Program Pasca Sarjana. Institut Pertanian Bogor.
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LAND AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITION AFFECTING THE GROWTH OF
TENGKAWANG TELOR (Shorea macrophylla) PLANTED IN THREE DIFFERENT
SITES in PT. SARI BUMI KUSUMA
Widiyatno1*, Arom Figyantika1, Haryono Supriyo1, Eny Faridah1 , Susilo Purnomo2
and Yeni Widyana Ratnaningrum1 1 Forestry of Faculty-Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta
2 PT Sari Bumi Kusuma, Central Kalimantan
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Shorea macrophylla, an indigenous Borneo species, is one of the fastest growing Shorea spp which
produce both timber and tengkawang oil, a non-timber forest product. In 2006 PT Sari Bumi Kusuma has
planted S. macrophylla in various site types, including (1) logged over area (LOA), (2) open area and (3) ex
shifting cultivation area. Recently, it was reported that the growth of S. macrophylla varied widely in the
three locations. The aim of this study was to identify land and environmental factors that affected S.
macrophylla growth.
The best growth of S. macrophylla was at open area/progeny test followed by logged over area and
the lowest was at ex shifting cultivation area. Two important factors that have major influences in S.
macrophylla growth were light intensity and soil properties. The highest biomass forest floor was at logged
over area, followed by open area/progeny test, and the lowest at ex shifting cultivation area. The colors of
top soil at open area (progeny test) and logged over area were darker than the layer of soil below it,
indicating the accumulation of organic material in the top soil. The general texture at three locations was
sandy loams. Generally Bulk Density (BD) is less than 0,85. Decreasing BD followed by increasing
aeration and water infiltration. Soil pH under S. macrophylla was varied from 2.32 to 6.04. The soil pH at
ex shifting cultivation area slightly higher than at the other area, while Al content was the lowest. C and N
content decreased with the increasing of the depth of soil at three different locations. Available P at progeny
test was categorized as high level, while at ex shifting cultivation area and logged over area were low.
Keywords: Shorea macrophylla, soil fertility, growth
INTRODUCTION
Much of the knowledge on the use of dipterocarp NTFPs is concentrated in two main regions,
South Asia and Southeast Asia (mainly Indonesia, Malaysia, and Philippines). In both regions, four
broad classes are predominant, including resins, dammar, camphor and butter fat. Besides these
principal products, other plant parts, such as leaves and bark, are used to derive certain products.
These NTFPs from dipterocarps have a larger impact on the economies of the rural people and forest
dwellers. Soe of Shorea species produce illipe nuts which are called engkabang and tengkawang in
Malaysia and Indonesia, respectively. The nuts are generally collected in the wild but some
experimental plantations of S. macrophylla, S. stenoptera, S. mecistopteryx, S. aptera and other related
species exist in Sarawak and Kalimantan. The fruiting is somewhat a periodic but at about four year
intervals the forests fruit heavily. The natives of Borneo extract oil from the nuts for use as cooking oil.
The kernels are exported to Europe, Japan and West Malaysia. The illipe fat extracted from the kernel
is used in the confectionery industry, especially in the manufacture of chocolate, and added to
cosmetics such as lipstick as well. The illipe nuts have a high value with prices from US $2300-2700
per tone in the 1980s, and during peak fruiting years exports from Borneo can reach 50 000 tones. The
kernels, constituting 72% of the nut weight contain 14-20% of fatty oil known as sal-butter. Sal seed
oil has assumed great importance for use as a cooking medium, industrial oil, illuminant, lubricant,
soap and as a substitute for coco a butter.
Facing a serious problem caused by deforestation and habitat alteration, the effective in-situ
and ex-situ conservation strategies are required to conserve the existing genetic resources. To conserve
genetic resources, it is essential not only to maintain existing diversity, but also to understand the
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ecological and evolutionary processes that have been responsible for the origin, evolution, and
maintenance of diversity at intra-specific and higher taxonomic levels [1]. The recent status of
Shorea macrophylla that is listed as an endangered species, implied that this species and its population
faced a high risk of extinction. Based on this consideration, it is recommended to combine both in situ
and ex situ conservation [2].
This study aims to identify the most-effective methods for managing treatments to prepare the
good quality of growth of dipterocarp especially Tengkawang on rehabilitating on three types of area
that are (1) logged over area, (2) land cleared (open) area and (3) ex shifting cultivation area. The
experiment conducted to obtain objectives of this research divided into 3 sub activity: (1) Plant growth,
(2) Chemical and physical soil properties, and (3) Environmental conditions.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
Study site
Soil samples were collected in PT, Sari Bumi Kusuma, Central Kalimantan. The area is LOA of
tropical rain forest which is dominated by Diptercarps species. While chemical and physical soil
properties analyses will be done in Forest Soil Laboratory Faculty of Forestry University of Gadjah
Mada. The object of the research are S. macrophylla that are planted in three types various site,
including (1) logged over area, (2) land cleared (open) area and (3) ex shifting cultivation area (Figure
1).
Figure 1. (a) Logged over area, (b) open area (progeny test) and (c) ex shifting cultivation area
Chemical And Physical Soil Properties Analyze
To obtain litter accumulation of forest floor litter samples were collected from quadrangle (1 X 1
m) at each plot. Then it was separated into leaf, branch/twig, and fruits in each decomposition level.
Three replicate samples were collected for each plot. Then the samples were oven-dried until the dry
weight was obtained.
Figure 2. (a) Litter accumulation taken (b) Intact soil samples taken and (c) Disturbed soil samples
taken.
a b c
a b c
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Soil samples were collected from every horizon of the soil profile in each land use (logged
over area, land cleared (open) area and ex shifting cultivation area) quantitatively by taking a
continuous and uniform slice from the surface horizon down to the lowest (Figure 3.). Soil samples
for chemical and physical soil properties analysis were collected from Horizon A1; under horizon A1
up to - 10 cm, 10 - 30 cm, and 30 – 50 cm depth at each plot. Three replicate samples were collected
for each plot. Intact soil samples were taken using ring sample. Samples were oven-dried to obtain
bulk density of soil and soil samples were air dried and screened through a 2 mm stainless steel
sieve.The soil samples will be collected along soil profile and analyzed of physical and chemical soil
properties will be done in the laboratory. The soil physical properties involve soil texture, bulk density,
porosity, and soil humidity. The chemical soil properties involve litter/organic matter (total C and N,
and also C/N ratio) and mineral soil (soil pH, total C and N; available-P; exchangable of Ca, Mg,
Al, K and Na; and CEC/cation exchange capacity).
Figure 3. Soil profiles observation
Soil pH was measured with pH meter. Organic C was determined by walkley-black
method[3]; total N by Kjeldahl method [4]. Available Phosphorus determined by Olsen Method.
Available N was determined by Kjehdahl Method. Available K was determined by Morgan Method,
while that of organic carbon by Walkley and Black method. Fe and Al content was determined by
Morgan Wolf Method. Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) was determined on selected samples by the
leaching method. Particle-size analysis was determined by the pipette method [5].
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Tree growth was resultant from interaction between environmental and genetic factor which
affecting its physiological interaction. The best growth of S. macrophylla was at open area/progeny
test (15.4 cm), then at logged over area (14.54 cm) and the lowest at ex shifting cultivation area
(11.58) (Table 1). Two important factors that have major influences in S. macrophylla growth were
light intensity and soil properties. Light and soil resources limit growth and influence competitive
responses in tropical forests [6].
Foresters have always relied on knowledge of chemical and physical properties of soils to
assess capacity of sites to support productive forests. Recently, the need for assessing soil properties
has expanded because of growing public interest in determining consequences of management
practices on the quality of soil relative to sustainability of forest ecosystem functions in addition to
plant productivity. The concept of soil quality includes assessment of soil properties and processes as
they relate to ability of soil to function effectively as a component of a healthy ecosystem. Specific
functions and subsequent values provided by forest ecosystems are variable and rely on numerous soil
physical, chemical, and biological properties and processes, which can differ across spatial and
temporal scales [7].
At each location growth of S. macrophylla varied. Growth of four years old S. macrophylla
Under Horison A up to 10 cm
Horison A1
10 –30 cm
30 –50 cm
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showed difference even in the same light intensity (progeny test and at ex shifting cultivation area).
While at logged open area (with limited light intensity) the growth of S. macrophylla as good as at
open area (progeny test). Furthermore we will discuss the soil physical and chemical characteristic,
which might have role in S. macrophylla growth.
Table 1. Growth of four years old S. macrophylla in three different sites in PT. SBK
Location DBH (cm) Height (m) Light Intensity
(%)
Open area/Progeny Test
A 15.4 10.00 80-100%
B 12.3 9.30 80-100%
C 8.0 5.80 80-100%
Ex shifting cultivation
D 7.83 4.44 100%
E 7.58 4.16 100%
F 11.58 6.70 100%
LOA (Logged Over Forest)
G - - 11-40%
H 8.96 6.31 30-60%
I 14.54 11.06 0.80
The range mean annual increment (MAI) of DBH of open area; ex-shifting cultivation and
LOA respectially were 2-3,9 cm/year; 1,9-2,9 cm/year and 2,2-3,6 cm/year. This result at three types
site was higher than growth of S.macrophylla in Malaysia where the range of growth was 0,58-1,9
cm/year [8]. The average MAI will exceed 2,5 cm/year in annual diameter increment. At the rate of
growth, a period of about 20 years is required to produce commercial logs with diameter 50 cm in
DBH.
The growth of S. macrophylla at site C was the lowest in open area/ progeny test (8 cm). One
of the environmental factor influences the growth of S. macrophylla was water table depth, that was
only 60 cm in site C. Site A and B (with water table more than 2 m), showed better growth of S.
macrophylla than site C. In the ex shifting cultivation area and logged over area the water table depth
also more than 2 m
Physical soil properties
Physical soil properties that had been analyzed in three different sites were soil colors,
texture, and bulk density. The colors of top soil at open area (progeny test) and logged over area were
darker than the layer of soil below it. This is indicates the accumulation of organic material in the top
soil. The colors of top soil (0 – 3 cm) varied from dull yellow brown until grayish yellow brown.
Soil color at 10 – 30 and 30 – 50 cm depth dominated by dull yellow orange. In the plot ex shifting
cultivation the amount the distribution of loams in the top soil is less, possibly indicating
anthropogenic disturbance as consequence of clearcutting and land preparation of agriculture
plantation [9].
The colors of top soil at open area (progeny test) and logged over area were darker than the
layer of soil below it (Table 2). This is indicates the accumulation of organic material in the top soil.
The colors of top soil (0 – 3 cm) varied from dull yellow brown until grayish yellow brown. Soil at 10
– 30 and 30 – 50 cm depth dominated by dull yellow orange color.
The textures of soil at three different sites were varied. At open area (progeny test) in site A
the texture dominated by silts (48%) and loams (48%). While in top soil 0 – 2,5/3 cm at site A, B, C.
(progeny test): G, H, I (logged over area); were dominated by sands (30 – 71 %). The general texture
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at three locations was sandy loams. Generally Bulk Density (BD) is less than 0,85 (Table 4). The best
growth of S. macrophylla was at site A supported by the Lowest BD (0.54). Decreasing BD followed
by increasing aeration and water infiltration. While at the other location at various soil depth the BD
was more than 0.85. The soil of plot G and H display a higher bulk density (BD) throughout the
profile, this condition will affect toward decreasing of S.macrophylla growth [10] (Table 1).
Chemical soil properties
Soil pH, C - organic, N available, P available, K available, cation exchange capacity (Ca, Mg,
K, Na), cation base, Al and Fe content were had been analyzed in three different at various soil depth.
Forest soils are important sources of nutrients for vegetation, including N, P, S, K, Na, Ca, Mg, and
some micronutrients. In some cases, soil properties (for example, soil acidity and nutrient availability)
also affect the vegetation types [11].
In the humid tropics, the vast majority of soils are highly weathered and acidified because of
intensive leaching over long periods of time (11). Soil pH under S. macrophylla was varied from 2.32 to
6.04. The behavior of pH in the soil profile under the different land use is shown figure 1. It can be
seen, there is a tendency for pH to be slightly higher in the disturbed or ex-shifting cultivation site than
in the LOA or in the open area/progeny test. A higher pH in ex-shifting cultivation may be the effect of
ash in the case cultivated sites since burning was an integral part of farming practices [12].
Note: A = Progeny test high growth; E = ex-shifting cultivation low growth; and I = Logged over
area high growth
Figure 1. Soil pH under four years old S. macrophylla in three different sites in PT. SBK at various soil
depths.
Al (5 – 11 ppm) and Fe (35 – 126 ppm) content at this site was the lowest (Figure 2). Soil
fertility decreases rapidly following land clearing and this is accelerated by erosion of the exposed soil,
an increase in the mineralisation of soil organic matter and litter due to elevated temperatures, the
leaching of nutrients, and the deterioration of the soil structure as a consequence of decreased activity
of soil macro-organisms [13].
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Note: A = Progeny test high growth; E = ex-shifting cultivation low growth; and I = Logged over
area high growth
Figure 2. Fe and Al ratio under four years old S. macrophylla in three different sites in PT. SBK at
various soil depths.
Land use history may have a large influence on the availability of soil nutrients. For example,
depletion of organic matter is of prime importance in the changes in the chemical properties of soils
following conversion of forests to other land uses as discussed in detail in several studies. Forest
conversion to other land uses such as pastures, grasslands and bushlands decreased the organic matter,
total and available N, available K but increased pH and available Ca and Mg [14].
Note: A = Progeny test high growth; E = ex-shifting cultivation low growth; and I = Logged over
area high growth
Figure 3. C, N and C/N ratio under four years old S. macrophylla in three different sites at various soil
depths.
Soils play a crucial role as a sinks of nutrients [15]. C and N content decreasing with
increasing the depth of soil at three different locations (Table 5). The best growth at site A/progeny test
(5.04% and 0.23 %) and site I/logged over area (4.12% and 0.27 %) supported by high content of C
organic and N available.
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Cation exchange capacity (CEC) is the capacity of a soil for ion exchange of cations between
the soil and the soil solution. CEC is used as a measure of fertility, nutrient retention capacity, and the
capacity to protect groundwater from cation contamination. The higher the amount of exchangeable
base cations, the more acidity can be neutralized in the short time perspective. Although the content of
Al and Fe were high at site A, F, and I but the base cation also high (76%, 99%, and51%). It can
neutralized the Al and Fe content, which promoted better growth of S. macrophylla than the other site.
Note: A = Progeny test high growth; E = ex-shifting cultivation low growth; and I = Logged over
area high growth
Figure 4. CEC of Ca, K, Mg and Na under four years old S. macrophylla in three different sites at
various soil depths.
Phosphorus availability is commonly lower in strongly acidic and alkaline soils because of
increased P reactivity with soil and formation of insoluble compounds with aluminum and iron in acid
soils and with calcium in alkaline soils. The pH associated with the maximum P availability in soils
usually is between roughly pH 6.0 to 7.0. Available P at progeny test was categorized as high level (21
– 30 ppm), while at ex shifting cultivation area and logged over area categorized at low level (9 – 15
ppm).
Note: A = Progeny test high growth; E = ex-shifting cultivation low growth; and I = Logged over
area high growth
Figure 5. P and K under four years old S. macrophylla in three different sites at various soil depths.
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CONCLUSIONS
Physical soil properties
The colors of top soil at open area (progeny test) and logged over area were darker than the layer
of soil below it, indicating the accumulation of organic material in the top soil. The colors of
top soil (0 – 3 cm) varied from dull yellow brown until grayish yellow brown. Soil at 10 – 30
and 30 – 50 cm depth dominated by dull yellow orange color.
At open area (progeny test) in site A the texture dominated by silts (48%) and loams (48%).
While in top soil 0 – 2,5/3 cm at site A, B, C. (progeny test): G, H, I (logged over area); were
dominated by sands (30 – 71 %). The general texture at three location was sandy loams.
Generally Bulk Density (BD) is less than 0,85. The best growth of S. macrophylla was at site A
supported by the Lowest BD (0.54). Decreasing BD followed by increasing aeration and water
infiltration. While at the other location at various soil depth the BD more than 0.85.
Chemical soil properties
Soil pH under S. macrophylla was varied from 2.32 to 6.04. The soil pH at ex shifting
cultivation area slightly higher than at the other area, caused by ash remained after this area
was being burned. Al (5 – 11 ppm) and Fe (35 – 126 ppm) content at this site was the
lowest.
C and N content decreased with the increasing of the depth of soil at three different locations.
The best growth at site A/progeny test (5.04% and 0.23 %) and site I/logged over area (4.12%
and 0.27 %) supported by high content of C organic and N available.
Although the content of Al and Fe were high at site A, F, and I but the base cation also high
(76%, 99%, and51%). It can neutralized the Al and Fe content, which promoted better growth
of S. macrophylla than the other site.
Available P at progeny test was categorized as high level (21 – 30 ppm), while at ex shifting
cultivation area and logged over area categorized at low level (9 – 15 ppm).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank the management and R&D (Research and Development) staff of PT Sari Bumi Kusuma at
Central Kalimantan for assistance with care of soil and growth measurements. Our research was
funded by IMHERE of Faculty of Forestry-Universitas Gadjah Mada.
References
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Turnbull, J.M (eds): A Review of Dipterocarps: Taxonomy, Ecology and Silviculture. CIFOR.
Bogor. Indonesia
[2] Young A.,D. Boshier and T. Boyle. 2000. Forest Conservation Genetics: Principles and Practice.
CSIRO Publishing. Australia.
[3] Nelson, D.W. and L.E. Sommer. 1982. Total Carbon, organic carbon and organic matter, in A.L.
Page: Methods of Soil Analysis. Part II. Chemical and Micribiological properties. Second Eds.
Ame. Soc.Argon.Incand Soil Sci.Soc.Amer., Medison, Wisconsin. P.530-594.
[4] International Soil References and Information Center. 1986: Prosedures For Soil analysis (van
Reeuwijk P.ed.). ISRIC, Wegeningen. The Netherland.
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[6] Heineman, Katherine D. Ethan Jensen, Autumn Shapland, Brett Bogenrief, Sylvester Tan,
Richard Rebarber, Sabrina E.Russo. 2011. The Effects of Below Ground Resources on Above
Ground Allometric Growth in Bornean Tree Species. Forest Ecology and Management
[7] Schoenholtza, S. H, H. Van Miegroetb, J.A. Burgerc. 2000. A Review of Chemical and Physical
Properties as Indicators of Forest Soil Quality: Challenges and Opportunities. Forest Ecology and
Management 138: pp. 35±356.
[8] Tan, S.S., R.B. Primack, E.O.K.Chai, and H.S. Lee. 1987. The Silviculture of Dipterocaps Trees in
Serawak Malaysia. Malaysian Forester. Vol 50 No.2 April 1987.
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Branstatter,A., and Blum, W.E.H. 1998. Hydrology of Acrisols Beneath Dipterocarp Forest
Plantation in East Kalimantan Indonesia. In A.Schule and D.Ruhiyat (Eds): Soil of Tropical Forest
Ecosystem: Characteristic, Ecology and Management. Springer. P.62:72
[10] Tsuia, Chun-Chih, Zueng-Sang Chen, Chang-Fu Hsieh. 2004. Relationships Between Soil
Properties and Slope Position in a Lowland Rain Forest of Southern Taiwan. Geoderma 123 :
131–142.
[11] Fujii, Kazumichi, Arief Hartono, Shinya Funakawa, Mari Uemura, Sukartiningsih, Takashi
Kosaki. 2011. Acidification of Tropical Forest Soils Derived from Serpentine and Sedimentary
Rocks in East Kalimantan, Indonesia. Geoderma 160: 311–323.
[12] Asio, V.B., R.Jahn, K. Stahr and J. Margraf. 1998. Soil of the rtopical forests of Leyte, Phylippines
II: Impact of different land Uses on Status of Organic Matter and Nutrient Availability. In A.Schule
and D.Ruhiyat (Eds): Soil of Tropical Forest Ecosystem: Characteristic, Ecology and
Management. Springer. P.37:44.
[13] Geissen, Violette, KarinaPena-Pena, Esperanza Huerta. 2009. Effects of Different Land Use on
Soil Chemical Properties, Decomposition Rate and Earthworm Communities in Tropical Mexico.
Pedobiologia 53 ; 75—86.
[14] Eshetu, Zewdu, Reiner Giesler, Peter Hogberg. 2004. Historical Land Use Pattern Affects the
Chemistry of Forest Soils in the Ethiopian Highlands. Geoderma 118 : 149–165.
[15] Barthold, Frauke K., Robert F. Stallard, Helmut Elsenbeer. 2008. Soil Nutrient–Landscape
Relationships in a Lowland Tropical Rainforest in Panama. Forest Ecology and Management 255 :
1135–1148.
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IMPACT OF CANOPY COVER CHANGES TO FOREST INTERCEPTION
IN THE INTENSIVE FOREST MANAGEMENT SYSTEM IN TROPICAL
INDONESIA RAINFOREST*
Hatma Suryatmojo1*, Masamitsu Fujimoto2, Ken’ichirou Konsugi1 and Takahisa Mizuyama1
1Laboratory of Erosion Control, Division of Forest and Biomaterials Science, Graduate School of
Agriculture, Kyoto University 2Educational Unit for Adaptation and Resilience for a Sustainable Society, Center for the Promotion of
Interdisciplinary Education and Research, Kyoto University, Japan
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Tropical Indonesia rainforest is managed by intensive forest management system. The main
activity is selective logging for timber harvesting and intensive line planting for enrichment the
standing stock. Those activities are significantly alters the forest canopy cover, vegetation structure
and the hydrologic response of watersheds, including the rainfall interception. Understanding the
hydrologic effects in intensive forest management system is helpful to develop forest management
system strategy. The aim of this study was to measure the rainfall interception and canopy interception
that affected by intensive forest management system. This study was conducted in a natural tropical
rainforest of Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. Forest interception was investigated at three small
catchment plots, a virgin forest catchment, a 1-year-old line plantation (2008 catchment) and a
10-year-old line plantation (1999 catchment). Canopy interception was investigated in the virgin forest
catchment. Canopy cover density in the virgin forest catchment, 1999 catchment and 2008 catchment
were 80.1%, 76.3% and 49.3%, respectively. Maximum canopy interception in the virgin forest
catchment was 21.11 mm with various 11-70% of per rainfall event. The canopy interception in the
virgin forest catchment, 1999 catchment and 2008 catchment were 23.76%, 23.6% and 10.98% of
rainfall, respectively. The forest interception in the virgin forest catchment, 1999 catchment and 2008
catchment were 91.71%, 62.66% and 69.6% of rainfall, respectively. The reducing forest canopy cover
by TPTII activity has reduced the canopy interception and forest interception was 53.8% and 24.1% of
virgin forest, respectively. As these results indicate, the change of forest cover density has significantly
change hydrologic responses in the small catchment. Implementation of intensive forest management
system has changed the forest canopy cover density and decreased the forest interception. Those
activities will trigger a negative impact of hydrologic responses such as runoff and soil erosion.
Controlling canopy cover density and combining ecological based vegetation structure design would
be an effective way to control the hydrologic cycle.
Keywords: tropical rain forest, throughfall, stemflow, canopy interception, forest interception
1. INTRODUCTION
In the forested area, movement of water between the atmosphere and the soil plays a
diversified role in the storage capacity. Hydrologic processes in the forested catchment start from
rainfall interception in the forest vegetation structure. Forest canopies stand up in the air, serving as a
barrier against precipitation reaching the ground. A portion of precipitation is inevitably intercepted by
the canopy (canopy interception), flow along the stem to the ground surface (stemflow), drips from the
foliage and branches or passes through canopy openings to the ground (throughfall), or is further
intercepted by forest floor (litter interception). These processes cause a reduction in precipitation
quantity and a redistribution of precipitation toward the soil. Forest interception is an important event
in the hydrologic cycle because of its effects on rainfall deposition, soil moisture distribution, wind
movement, heat dissipation and impact energy of raindrops on soil erosion (particle detachment) [5].
Hydrologic cycle in the tropical rainforest have a unique system and interdependent between its
component. Disruption of one component will impact to others and instability the hydrologic cycle.
Vegetation cover change has a profound influence on the hydrological cycle. Forest harvesting, or
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other reductions to vegetative cover, generally increases the average surface runoff volume and total
water yield of a watershed. These vegetation cover alterations potentially decrease time of
concentration of flow, increase the intensity of peak flows for a given precipitation event, and increase
the frequency and intensity of extreme flow events, especially channel-forming flows. These
alterations tend to deteriorate water quality by transporting sediment and other pollutants from the
landscape and increasing erosive forces within the stream channel. Our previous study indicated that
forest structures are a principal cause of hydrological differences between watersheds [12]. Thus, an
understanding of relationships between forest structure and runoff processes is essential for the
quantitative prediction of the effects of deforestation and changes in vegetation [2, 3, 7].
Different land use practices affect the infiltration rate of soil in different ways, depending on
their effects on the intrinsic properties of the soil [10], and selective logging and intensive line planting
systems are suspected to dramatically impact soil and reduces the forest cover. The loss of forest
cover from forest harvest reduces interception of raindrops (increasing drop impact energy and soil
detachment), reduces evapotranspiration, increasing the amount of water available for infiltration, soil
storage, and runoff. Therefore, soil moisture capacity is reached with less rainfall, and any excess can
produce surface runoff and increase peakflows and streamflow volumes. In a previous study, the
infiltration capacity of a tropical rainforest 1 year after selective logging and intensive line planting
treatment decreased to 81.8% of that of a virgin forest [11]. Implementation of intensive forest
management system will reduce the forest canopy cover. Many studies indicated that forest vegetation
covers are a principal cause of hydrological differences between catchments (1, 8, 15, 16).
Indonesia is one of the countries which have a large of forest area. It covered 60% of total
area or 10% of total world tropical rainforest. One key resource from tropical rainforests is the forest
timber. Land conversion and timber extraction were threated the environment such as biodiversity and
hydrologic responses. Tropical Indonesia rainforest is managed by intensive forest management
system or Tebang Pilih Tanam Indonesia Intensif (TPTII), started in 2002. The main activity of TPTII
is selective logging for timber harvesting and intensive line planting for enrichment the standing stock.
The use of heavy equipment tends to compact topsoil, setting in motion a negative spiral of reduced
infiltrability and increased frequencies of overland flow and sheet erosion, thereby hindering the
establishment of a new protective layer of vegetation and litter [13]. TPTII activity will decrease the
forest canopy cover and forest interception. These will increase net precipitation and potentially
increase the runoff and soil erosion. The aim of this study was to measure the forest interception and
canopy interception in the catchment that affected by intensive forest management system.
2. METHODS
2.1 Study site This study was conducted in tropical rainforest at the Sei Seruyan block of Sari Bumi Kusuma
concession area, a private forest company in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia (00º36’–01º10’ southern latitude and 111º39’–112º25’ eastern longitudes). This location is part of the high-biodiversity area known as the ―Heart of Borneo‖. The study site was located in the headwater region of the Katingan watershed, one of largest watersheds in Central Kalimantan (Fig. 1). The Katingan watershed has a total catchment area of 1,908,297 ha and the length of the main river is 650 kilometres. This location is approximately 400 km northwest of Palangka Raya, the provincial capital of Central Kalimantan, and approximately 500 km east of Pontianak, the provincial capital of West Kalimantan. The forest cover in this watershed is 1,179,985 ha or 61.83% of the total area, most of which is found in the headwaters. This upstream catchment is a hilly region with an altitude ranging from 150 to 1,278 m above sea level.
The mean annual precipitation for the period 2001–2010 was 3,708 mm, with the highest average monthly precipitation (367 mm) occurring in November and the lowest average monthly precipitation (183 mm) occurring in August. According to the forest climate classification system of Schmidt and Ferguson [28], the area is a type A (very wet) tropical rainforest (monthly average rainfall > 100 mm). The number of rainy days varies from 95 to 112 days, and the mean temperature is 30ºC–33ºC at noon and 22ºC–28ºC at night [12].
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Figure 1: Research site in the headwater of Katingan watershed, Central Kalimantan (Sari Bumi Kusuma company concession area)
The vegetation in Kalimatan is dominated by Shorea spp., Eugenia spp., Eusideroxylon zwageri,
Shorea laevis, Calophyllum inophyllum, Litsea firma, Anthocephalus chinensis, Macaranga hypoleuca, Durio lissocarpus and Octomeles sumatrana. The average number of trees in natural forest is 228 per hectare [12].
Based on USDA classification, the soil which is classified as Ultisol, remains continuously
moist. Ultisol is the most weathered type of soil, and it shows that the ultimate effects of leaching.
Ultisol is characterized by mineral soil with a B2 horizon with 20% more clay than the upper B1.
Runoff hydrograph analysis from one particular catchment to other catchments is difficult
since hydrologic impacts depend on the types of forestry management systems, catchment
characteristics (e.g., vegetation, and soil types), climate, physical catchment characteristics, and other
land-use practices. Small catchments (usually < 1 km2) have demonstrated that streamflow increased
following deforestation and that afforestation decreased streamflow [3, 4]. Larger catchments (usually
> 100 km2) have much spatial variability tending to be a mosaic of different land uses and practices,
with heterogeneous geology, topography and soils, which will moderate the integrated hydrological
response [14]. The larger scale catchment studies have not found a consistent pattern of hydrological
response to changes in vegetation cover.
This research was conducted at three small catchments with different forest canopy cover
densities: a virgin forest, a 10-year-old line plantation, and a 1-year-old line plantation. Hereafter,
these catchments are referred to as the ―virgin forest catchment‖, the ―1999 catchment‖ and the ―2008
catchment‖, respectively. Intensive forest management system with selective logging and intensive
line planting has implemented in the 1999 catchment and the 2008 catchment. The research catchment
maps are shown in Fig. 2. Physical characteristics were shown in Table 1 [6].
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(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 2. Research catchments: (a) virgin forest catchment; (b) 1999 catchment;
(c) 2008 catchment (DEM interval: 10 m)
2.2 Intensive forest management system
Intensive forest management system or TPTII is a silviculture technique to maintain the
potency of forest standing stock. The main activities are selective logging and intensive line planting.
The TPTII system is done by selective logging of trees with 40 centimeter diameters up (Fig. 3b) and
make line clearing for 18% of forest land to enrichment the standing stock with intensive line planting
system (Fig. 3d).
Typically, about 200 seeds per hectare are planted, and the expected standing stock at the end
of the rotation (30 years) is around 400 m3 per hectare, assuming 160 trees per hectare with an average
diameter of 50 centimetres (or 2.5 m3 per tree) [9].
Selective logging and line clearing for intensive line planting have increased the open area in
forest and decreased the forest canopy cover. The changes of forest canopy cover by the TPTII process
is shown in Fig. 3.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Figure 3: The changes of canopy cover by the TPTII process: (a) virgin forest; (b) selected trees to logging
(noted as black circle); (c) canopy cover after selective logging; (d) design of clear cutting line; (e) canopy cover after TPTII process
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2.3 Field observation and analysis Canopy cover density in the research catchment was measured in 1 hectare permanent sample plot. At
each catchment, we installed a flume with water level logger in outlet catchment and an automatic raingauge. During research period (June 2009 – April 2011) we selected an individual rainfall and single hydrograph data at each catchment. We analysed the hydrograph by divided the runoff into direct runoff and baseflow using a straight-line method, and then calculated the direct runoff volume for each hydrograph. Direct runoff was calculated by separate the runoff hydrograph into direct runoff and baseflow using a straight-line method, and then calculated the direct runoff volume for each runoff hydrograph. We measured the canopy interception in the virgin forest catchment using 9 units of throughfall gage and 9 unit of stemflow gage during July – August 2009.
Forest interception (IF) is the sum of canopy interception (IC) and forest floor interception (IFF) using Eqn. (1):
IF = IC + IFF (1) Net precipitation (PN) is the sum of throughfall (PTH) and stemflow (PS) using Eqn. (2): PN = PTH + PS (2) Forest floor interception calculated using Eqn. (3): IFF = PG – PN – DRO (3) Canopy interception (IC) is the difference between gross precipitation in the open (PG) and net precipitation
(PN) using Eqn. (4): IC = PG – PN = PG – (PTH + PS ) (4)
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 3.1 Forest canopy cover changes
Selective logging and intensive line planting significantly has decreased the forest canopy cover by reducing the number of trees as shown in Table 1. The results show that in the 2008 catchment, one year after TPTII implementation, the number of trees and poles was lower than that in the virgin forest and 1999 catchment and that the number of sapling and seedling was larger. These results indicated that selective logging and clear cutting line in the TPTII has increased the open canopy area and encouraged the growth of understory vegetation.
Table 1. Vegetation structure of the three catchments
Catchment Individual amount per-hectare (N/ha)
Treea Poleb Saplingc Seedlingd
Virgin Forest 212 208 1,027 690
1999 153 181 1,472 8,600
2008 113 152 3,226 18,433 aTree is vegetation with diameter > 20 cm (at 1.3 m above land surface) bPole is vegetation with diameter 10-20 cm cSapling is vegetation with diameter < 10cm and high > 1.5 m dSeedling is vegetation with high < 1.5 m
(a)
(b)
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(c)
(d)
Figure 4: Trees canopy cover in virgin forest and after TPTII implementation: (a) virgin forest; (b) 1
year after TPTII; (c) 10 years after TPTII; and (d) percentage of canopy cover density 1–10 years after
TPTII from Hatma et al. (2009)
Intensive forest management system or TPTII has significantly changes the forest canopy
cover. The canopy cover conditions in the catchment area are shown in Fig. 4. In the virgin forest, the
percentage of canopy cover was 80.1% (Fig. 4a). In the 2008 catchment, the canopy cover decreased
to 49.3% (Fig. 4b). Thus, TPTII has reduced the canopy cover approximately by 38.5% [12].
3.2 Direct runoff
To understand the direct runoff response, we selected an individual rainfall and single
hydrograph data at each catchment during November 2010-April 2011. We analyzed the response of
rainfall and direct runoff shown in Fig. 7. The results showed the direct runoff in the virgin forest
catchment was lower than that in the 1999 and 2008 catchments. Accordingly, the average direct
runoff ratio for rainfall in the virgin forest, 1999 catchment and 2008 catchment was 8.6%, 17%, and
18.6%, respectively. Hence, the direct runoff level in the 1999 catchment and 2008 catchment was 2.8
and 3.4 times that of the virgin forest catchment, respectively. Runoff coefficient in the virgin forest
catchment, 1999 catchment and 2008 catchment were 0.13, 0.15 and 0.33, respectively. Virgin forest
catchment has smallest runoff coefficient than that in the 1999 catchment and 2008 catchment.
Intensive forest management activity has change the percentage of rainfall as direct runoff more 3
times than in the virgin forest catchment.
Figure 5: Relationship between rainfall amounts per event and direct runoff.
3.3 Canopy and forest interception We measured the canopy interception using 9 point sets of throughfall and
stemflow in the virgin forest catchment. During research period, we found 34 paired data of
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throughfall and stemflow. The relationship between rainfall amounts per event with throughfall and stemflow shown in Figure 6 and 7.
(a)
(b)
Figure 6: Relationship between rainfall and throughfall (a); and stemflow (b)
Variation of canopy cover density influenced the hydrologic process in runoff response. The
average canopy interception in the virgin forest catchment shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Canopy interception in the virgin forest catchment
Rainfall (PG)
Throughfall (PTH) Stemflow (PS) Net rainfall (PN) Canopy interception (IC)
(mm) (mm) % of PG (mm) % of PG (mm) % of PG (mm) % of PG
15.03 11.29 75.08 0.17 1.15 11.46 76.24 3.57 23.76
From the relationship between rainfall and throughfall-stemflow (Fig. 6), direct runoff (Fig. 5) and canopy cover density (Fig. 4d) we calculated the canopy interception, direct runoff, forest floor interception to find the forest interception among the three catchments shown in Table 3.
Table 3. Forest interception in the three catchments
Catchment Canopy interception
(IC) Direct runoff
(DRO) Forest floor
interception (IFF) Forest interception
(IF)
(mm) % (mm) % (mm) % (mm) %
Virgin forest 3.57 23.76 1.25 8.29 10.21 67.94 13.79 91.71
1999 3.55 23.6 2.06 13.73 5.87 39.06 9.42 62.66
2008 0.85 10.98 1.51 19.41 4.55 58.62 5.40 69.60
Table 3 shows the canopy interception in the virgin forest catchment, 1999 catchment and 2008
catchment were 23.76%, 23.6% and 10.98% of rainfall, respectively. Thus, the forest interception in the virgin forest catchment, 1999 catchment and 2008 catchment were 91.71%, 62.66% and 69.6% of rainfall, respectively. As these results indicate, the change of forest cover density has significantly change hydrologic responses in the small catchment. The reducing forest canopy cover by TPTII activity has reduced the canopy interception and forest interception was 53.8% and 24.1% of virgin forest, respectively.
4. SUMMARY AND CONCLUTIONS
We investigated the hydrologic response of intensive forest management system in a tropical Indonesia rainforest using three small catchments. The effect of intensive forest management system on hydrologic response is an important factor in catchment hydrology and forest management. Our monitoring data provided strong linkages between selective logging–intensive line planting and canopy interception and forest interception. We found that the impact of opened forest canopy cover by selective logging and intensive line planting system for 38.5% significantly decrease the canopy interception to 16.85% and canopy interception to 38.44%. These changes will potentially affect to increase the runoff and soil erosion in the catchment.
Forest managers should consider the impact of vegetation structure changes to the canopy
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interception and forest interception, especially in the early years after TPTII implementation. We
recommended controlling canopy cover density and combining ecological based vegetation structure
design would be an effective way to control the hydrologic cycle. References
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Regions. IAHS Publ. no. 216, pp. 203-211. 1993.
[14] Wilk, J., Andersson, L. and Plermkamon, V. Hydrological Impacts of Forest Conversion to
Agriculture in a Large River Basin in northeast Thailand. Hydrological Processes, 15: 2729-2748.
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and Water. 1999.
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of Spatial Scales. 18th World IMACS / MODSIM Congress, Cairns, Australia 13-17 July 2009.
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SUSTAINABLE BIOENERGY AND FEED PRODUCTIONS FROM
PALM OIL MILL EFFLUENT
Hadiyanto
Chemical Engineering Department, Diponegoro University
Young Researcher SEE Forum Indonesia.
Jl. Prof. Sudharto,SH-Tembalang, Semarang 50239, INDONESIA
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Palm Oil Mill Effluent (POME) is waste water from Fresh Fruit Bunch (FFB) processing in
palm oil industries and about 0.6 tones of POME is produced from 1 ton of processed FFB. POME has
high content of COD and BOD concentrations but it also nutrient such as Nitrogen, Phosphor, Kalium
and other mineral which may important for microalgae photosynthetic to produce biomass. This waste
water is currently being treated in a system of anaerobic and aerobic ponds. Ponding system is able to
reduce COD concentration from 50000 mg/L to 1500 mg/L, BOD from 25000 mg/L to 680 mg/L. This
research is aimed to utilize POME as medium for microalgae growth since microalgae needs N,P and
K for their photosynthetic and for production of biomass. Microalgae are micro-species that commonly
used for production of biodiesel, food, feed and pharmaceuticals. Besides nutrient, microalgae requires
carbon source for their growth, and this research describes the potential of flue gas (contain of 15-20%
CO2) and biogas (40-60% CO2) as carbon sources. High amount of COD is used for biogas
production ( 1 ton of POME producing 20-25 m3 ton biogas) while high amount of nutrient (N and P)
is used for microalgae (Spirulina) growth to produce protein as food supplement. This process is well
known as integrated process of microalgae biofixation and waste water treatment.
Keywords: Microalgae, Spirulina, bioenergy, protein, Palm Oil Mill Effluent
INTRODUCTION
Palm Oil Mill Effluent (POME) is well known as one of the major sources of aquatic pollution
due to its high content of COD and BOD (Table 1). With total production of 16 million tonnes of crude
palm oil(CPO) annually, which is accounting for 45% of the world production, Indonesia has a potential
threat of pollution. It is well known that 1 ton fresh fruit bunch (FFB) is able to produce 0.2 ton of CPO
while about 0.6 ton of POME is generated. This large amount of POME is due to high utilization of
water during palm oil processing.
Due to its high content of pollutant, Indonesian government through Environmental Ministry
produced a decree : 51/MEN LH/10/1995 for waste water from palm oil industries. To meet the
regulation, most of palm oil mills use facultative anaerobic ponds in order to reduce COD and BOD
concentration. However, the output of this pond is still over the allowable limit, therefore the current
utilization of this effluent is for watering of biofertilizer and for watering the palm oil palm around the
mill.
Table 1. POME characteristics Parameters value Unit
pH 4-6 -
COD 50000 mg/L
BOD 25000 mg/L
TS 40500 mg/L
TN 750 mg/L
Phosphor 180 mg/L
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However, the ponding systems produce side impacts to the environment. Some literatures
reported that gas methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) release from this ponds due to COD
degradation (Yacob et al,2005; Vijaya et al,2010; Reijnders,2008). It was reported that in this ponds
about 54.8 kg COD is degraded per 1 m3 POME and about 0.234 kg methane will be produced per 1
kg of degraded COD (Yacob et al,2005). In other hand, for each ton of POME will release 19.4 kg
CO2(Vijay et al,2010), so if the mill produce 420 ton/day of POME, the gas emission of CO2 is 8148
kg/day, while methane is 5400 kg/day.
Besides of these problems, POME has potential for nutrient sources since it has high content
of total nitrogen and phosphorous. These compounds are important for photosynthetic reaction for
microalgae. Therefore, this paper describes the potential utilization of POME as bioenergy source as
well as feed production from microalgae.
TECHNOLOGICAL CONCEPT
To utilize POME for bioenergy and food, the concept of integration of CO2 biofixation and
waste treatment is used. Biofixation is a process to reduce CO2 concentration at the atmosphere by
using biological way. Microalgae are currently used for biofixation of flue gas since its ability to
absorb CO2, higher productivity than higher land or aquatic plant and require high nutrient for
photosynthetic. The ability to capture nutrient is a potential to use microalgae for nutrient reduction in
the waste water. These processes can be integrated for POME treatment and microalgae growth to
produce high value of biomass and O2 (Figure 1). POME has high COD content, and it will produce
20-25 m3 biogas per 1 ton of effluent (COD :50000 mg/L). Biogas containing 30-40% CO2 then is
transferred to microalgae pond as carbon sources, while the degraded COD with high content of N and
P is fed to the pond as nutrients.
Figure 1. Biofixation of biogas and waste water treatment using microalgae.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
a. POME as medium of microalgae
POME contains high amount of total nitrogen and phosphorous which are potential for
photosynthetic reaction during algae growth. For photosynthetic, microalgae requires C:N:P = 100:
16:1 (mol ratio) or C:N:P=50:8:1 (mass ratio), while POME contains C:N:P =20:6:1. This section
shows the use of POME as medium for microalgae cultivation. Figure 2 shows the growth of Spirulina
plantesis under different medium. Spirulina is cyanobacteria that contains 50-70% protein and this
algae mostly grows in saline water, while under fresh water medium, spirulina produces lower biomass.
The growth of spirulina under POME medium and by additional nutrient i.e. urea, shows the same
trend as the one grows in fresh water. This result shows that nutrient content in POME can be utilized
for microalgae cultivation.
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Figure 2. Algae growth under various medium
b. CO2 biofixation using microalgae
In order to evaluate the carbon dioxide fixation by microalgae, experiments by using CO2 gas
and mixed with SO2 to mimic flue gas or biogas were conducted. Figure 3 describe the absorption of
CO2 by microalgae. Microalgae biomass is decreasing grow when the concentration of CO2 exceed
than 30%. Effect of SO2 to biomass was determined by varying its concentration in gas. The presence
of SO2 in gas more than 100 ppm could reduce the biomass.
Figure 3. CO2 fixation and effect of SO2 to the algae growth.
CONCLUSSION
Integration of biofixation and waste water treatment is being considered as the efficient way
to reduce pollution of POME. Bioenergy and food supplement recovery from the treatment of POME
therefore not only contributes towards the sustainable growth of the palm oil industry, but also assists
Indonesia in achieving its sustainable development objectives in connection with climate change.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank Mr Ichsan (PT Wirana), Prof Koenraad (KU Leuven) and Ruben van
Maris (Maris Project BV) for being research partners under Consortium of Indonesian Aquatic
Biomass.
References
[1] S. Vijaya, A.N. Ma and Y.M. ChooColliers International, 2010, Capturing Biogas: A Means
to Reduce Green House Gas Emissions for the Production of Crude Palm Oil, American
Journal of Geoscience 1 (1): 1-6
[2] S.Yacob , M.A. Hassan, Y Shirai,M Wakisaka, S. Subash c, 2005, Baseline study of methane
emission from open digesting tanks of palm oil mill effluent treatment, Chemosphere 59
1575–1581.