ecological threats caused by improper disposal and ... · ecological threats caused by improper...

International Review of Chemical Engineering (I.RE.CH.E.), Vol. 3, N. 1

January 2011

Manuscript received and revised December 2010, accepted January 2011 Copyright © 2011 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved

36

Ecological Threats Caused by Improper Disposal and Incineration of Municipal Solid Waste

Mikhail Krasnyansky Abstract – The paper discusses a critical situation regarding municipal solid waste (MSW) in Donetsk city (Ukraine) as a suitable example. Special attention is given to such problems as bio-degradation and self-ignition of MSW dumps as well as the hazard of dioxins that might be present in the emitted gases. The paper describes the materials as well as techniques used for experiments and calculations of results. The paper offers theoretical calculations of biogas emissions from MSW landfill bodies as well as the results of experimental measurements performed within laboratory conditions of a “MSW micro-landfill”. Dynamics of development of microorganism colonies within the body of MSW has been studied experimentally and a mathematical model of these processes was developed. There was calculated a volume of leachate (“MSW-sewage”) produced at MSW landfills as well as migration of toxic waste from the leachate to underground water and soil surrounding MSW landfills of Donetsk. MSW self-ignition processes taking place within waste layers and diffusion of toxic fire-hazardous gases have been studied both theoretically and experimentally. There have been developed and proposed techniques of forecasting and prevention of MSW self-ignition within MSW layers. Processes of MSW incineration together with resinous industrial waste have been studied within the framework of experiments, namely: there were measured emissions of toxic combustion gases and heavy metals as well as “distribution” of the latter in combustion gases and ash. Copyright © 2011 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved. Keywords: Municipal Waste, Landfill, Biogas, Toxic Gases, Leachate, Self-ignition

I. Introduction For countries similar the Ukraine with "transitional"

economics, the MSW management is a particularly critical problem. Approximately 5 billion m3 (over one billion tons) of MSW have been accumulated in Ukraine; it are disposed at 800 big municipal landfills, their surface being more than 50 thousand hectares (including a 500 m landfill sanitary zone). Many of them are 60-90% full. Some landfills are overfilled and should have been closed a long time ago. About 400 million m3 of MSW have been accumulated in the Donetsk region; approximately 80 landfills are operational, and most of them are about to be 100% full. As a result, each year in the Donetsk region there appear around 700-900 unauthorized (“wild”) MSW dumps.

Almost none of these 800 waste disposal sites have biogas or leachate collection or other engineering equipment ensuring public health and safety. At present some areas of more than 50% of MSW dumps of the Donetsk region are permanently smoldering or even burning, especially during summer time.

It has been shown that the maximum quantity of dioxin is produced under the temperature of 250°C to 450°C [1], and in some cases, dioxins were formed in landfills when the temperature was slightly higher than 160ºС [2].

These temperature ranges are reached at hundreds of burning or smoldering MSW waste disposal sites throughout Ukraine [3].

When wastes are disposed in a landfill, the available oxygen may be quickly used up, so that the subsequent microbial activities are anaerobic. These biological processes of MSW degradation have been described in [5], [6], [7], [8]. The first stage of anaerobic decomposition is hydrolysis of organic polymers, such as cellulose, which is a high molecular compound, into less soluble compounds: (С6Н10О5)n + nН2О → n(C6H12O6); the second stage is a biochemical decomposition of smaller compounds, such as glucose, into short-chained volatile fatty acids (VFAs) such as acetic or propionic acids: С6Н12О6 → 3(СН3СООН); and the third stage is an anaerobic decomposition of VFAs into methane and carbon dioxide: СН3СООН → СН4 + СО2. These processes result in production and emission of biogas and other toxic gases, which in their turn slightly increase the temperature of microbial activities.

MSW can cause a significant damage to the environment if they are not stored in a properly engineered system. Some of the problems that might occur are the following: emission of biogas and other toxic gases, spread of pathogenic bacteria [9], [10], and pollution of soil and groundwater by leachate. Leachate

Mikhail Krasnyansky

Copyright © 2011 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved International Review of Chemical Engineering, Vol. 3, N. 1

37

is formed when precipitation (rain, spring melting snow) passes through the waste where chemicals are dissolved and transported. These chemicals might include toxic organic compounds and heavy metals, thus the leachate can become a highly toxic substance.

Usually landfill gas (biogas) emitted into the atmosphere contains about 40-60% of СН4 and 60–40% of CO2 [11]. However, gaseous landfill emissions also contain a 1% -hydrogen, 0.5% of hydrogen sulfide, up to 0.5% of ammonia and numerous trace toxic aromatic and chlorinated hydrocarbons [11].

The water added with rains not only increases the quantity of toxic leachate produced, but also the quantity of biogas [12], [13]. Moisture increase can stimulate microbial activity in a waste layer. Such an activity can also increase the temperature of the wastes, especially if oxygen is present. In wastes disposed at the depth of 2-4 m, after three years of disposal the temperature reached 40-45°C even if the ambient temperature was 1-3 °C [14]. MSW burning on poorly-equipped (illegal) disposal sites and in containers of residential zones is responsible for up to 10% of the global atmospheric dioxin [15], which can be adsorbed by flying ash and fire dust [16]. Concentration of dioxins in the ground layer of air, 2 m above the ground level, where one ton of waste combusted considerably exceeded the accepted European Union value of 0.1 ng/m3 [17].

Considering the number of solid waste disposal sites in Donetsk as well as the fact that so many of them are not properly engineered, it is necessary to assess their impact on the environment. The purpose of this research was to provide a qualitative and quantitative estimation of the degree of environment pollution caused by MSW dumps in the Donetsk region of Ukraine.

World experience of MSW thermal processing shows that the best results are achieved when MSW are burned not by heaps but by fuel briquettes. In such a case some additives are entered into MSW improving their technological and power characteristics (a so-called "Refuse Derived Fuel" (RDF) technology) [18]. As a world practice, it appeared that the most wide-spread technology for MSW burning is the boiler equipped with grid-iron lattices [19].

The list of toxic gases emitted by MSW incineration plant depends on conditions of burning and structure of MSW. A wrong burning process leads to a sharp increase of unburnt combustibles in plant gas emissions. The list of unburnt combustibles [20] has more than one hundred identified hazardous substances.

The process of the so-called secondary synthesis of dioxins is of special interest. It takes place while combustion gases leaving a plant boiler cool off. Secondary synthesis of dioxins occurs under the temperature ranging from 200 to 450 °С [21].

II. Materials and Techniques 1. A “laboratory composition” of MSW was obtained

by crushing and mixing various components (food,

paper, plastic, wood, glass, etc.). An assumption was made that they represent an average composition of MSW disposed at Donetsk landfills (in accordance with Table II, column 2). We refused from using “natural” MSW as in such a case the results of experiments were badly reproduced. The study of MSW composition at 4 landfills of Donetsk city has been conducted with participation of students of the ecological department of the Donetsk National Technical University. At three or four sides (in case there was an access) of each landfill 2 holes were dug with the help of an excavator at the distance of 50 m from the border. Then MSW samples were taken at the depth of 10 m, 5 m and 1 m. The samples selected have been averaged through quartering and after that the components were sorted and weighted and the “bulk wastes” were measured. In parallel, there has been measured (volume + weight) the quantity of secondary raw materials (waste paper, glass, plastic, non-ferrous metals) in “home” MSW in families with a relatively high life level (centre of Voroshilovsky sub-district of Donetsk city), an average life level (Kalininsky sub-district of Donetsk city) and a low life level (micro-region of Kirovsky) sub-district which is the most remote from the centre of Donetsk city). At each apartment 3-4 measurements were done with an interval of 3-5 days, so that each figure in columns “MSW volume” and “MSW weight” of Table III is the average value of 3 or 4 measurements.

2. In order to study MSW biodegradation processes we have calculated a maximum theoretical biogas production at MSW landfills of Donetsk city by using the following formula for first order reactions:

1

0k tV V Qe−= ∑ (1)

where: - V0 is the theoretical MSW methane production

potential, m3/t; - Q is the average quantity of MSW received at a

landfill, t/year; - k is an average constant of methane production,

l/year; - t is the time of landfill operation, year.

It should be noted that MSW biodegradation process is a super-complicate multifactor process, and all the mathematical models available such as Euro-Union [11], US-EPA [22] , ADEME [23], TNO [24] contain quite rough simplifications, that’s why the results of the calculations done with the help of different models can differ considerably.

3. For more detailed examinations of MSW gas emissions, within laboratory conditions an artificial «closed MSW micro-dump» was created. It is a 10 cm-layer of synthetic MSW (180 gs of dry MSW) and 20 gs of “seeds” from bacteria and mushrooms (it is about 10 %, that in the sum with already available nitrogen approximately corresponds to its quantity in natural food refuses) and 100 ml of water so that the “natural”

Mikhail Krasnyansky


38

humidity of MSW was about 30%) was placed in a glass jar with, its diameter being 15 cm. At the top of the layer a 2 cm soil-layer was placed. A polyethylene (untight) cap sealed the jar, leaving a 20 cm air-space above the soil (under the cap). The average MSW composition was in line with the results of the studies that have been previously carried out at MSW landfills of Donetsk city (see Table II below). The number of "mesophilic aerobic and facultatively anaerobic microorganisms" (MAFAM) was calculated using the following procedure: a MSW sample was inoculated into a beef-extract (agar) and maintained at 37 °С for 24 hours. The grown colonies were counted after incubation (by means of a microscope) and reported as "colony forming units" (CFU) per 1 g of dry MSW. The capacity of the experimental chamber and weight of MSW were adjusted based on preliminary experiments so that the period of “laboratory biodegradation” of MSW was about 2-4 months.

4. Measurement of biogas (CO2 + CH4) emissions at real landfills was conducted with the help of an individual multi-channel gas analyzer “MX-21-Plus” (France), which can simultaneously measure up to four gases in a sample (O2, CO2, CO, CH4, etc.). The measurements were done in 8 boreholes of 2 m deep at the surface of 20 x 20 m. An average value was used, received on the basis of 3 measurements performed with an interval of 10 minutes.

5. The analysis of gas samples (for laboratory researches) was carried out with the help of a “Model-3700” chromatograph (Russia; molecular sieve column of 2 m long with a diameter of 3 mm), a “Poisk-2” chromatograph used for rescuing operations in mines (Russia; 2 columns of 1m long with a diameter of 2 mm, molecular sieve and activated carbon) and a photoelectrocolorimeter (FEK-56, Russia). The average mistakes for chromatographs and FEK-56 were 6-8%. For the analysis of the atmosphere over real landfills there were also used chemical gas-display "Drōger" tubes (Germany). The average mistake was 12%. The samples were taken at each landfill at 6 points at the site of 20 x 20 m. Sampling was done at each point 3 times with an interval of 10 minutes. Based on 18 analyses an average result was registered for each gas. The relative error was 15%.

6. The quantity of leachate Vf which might be produced at the working area of the landfill (dump) depends mainly on the amount of annual precipitation (P) of the region in question, evaporation (V), and water absorption by landfill wastes (W) (see, for example, [1]. However, we added to this formula another summand R:

Vf = [(P-I-W-F)•S•10-3] + R (m3/y) (2)

where: - Vf stands for leachate production, m3/y; - Р is precipitation, mm/y-m2; - V is an evaporation rate, mm/y•m2; - W is the water absorbed by solid waste, mm/year•m2;

- F is the water drained, mm/year•m2; - S is the landfill working area, m2; - R is the water produced during MSW degradation,

m3/year, which is 0.3 m3 (tons) of H2O for every 1000 m3 of natural biogas emitted.

7. Underground water samples were taken at the landfill border at the depth of 10-15 m. Altogether there were 8 wells: 2 at each of 4 sides. From each well 3 samples were taken. The result of the analysis is an average value received for 3 samples. Then for all wells an average value was obtained. Soil samples were taken at the distance of 500 m from the landfill border at the depth of 0.2-0.3 m also from four sides. From each side 3 samples were taken. After that all samples were averaged through quartering and the analysis was conducted.

8. Flame emission atomic absorptive spectrophotometer (SPECTR-5, Russia) was used to measure toxic metals in soil, water and ash. The inaccuracy of the analysis did not exceed 8%. Concentration anions and cations in water and soil have been measured by using classical chemical techniques. The relative error was 7%.

9. A laboratory device was designed to study MSW self-ignition (see Fig. 1).

1 - thermostat; 2 - reactor with MSW; 3 - fitting for sampling with a cock (tap); 4 – regulating valve; 5 – counter of gas consumption GSB-

400; 6 – smoke exhaust, 7– membranous compressor.

Fig. 1. Laboratory unit for studying MSW self-ignition processes

A MSW sample (225 g) was pre-weighed (precision - up to 0.1 g) and loaded into an aluminum hollow tube of 75 mm in diameter and 288 mm long – a so-called reactor (capacity of 1.23 l). The reactor was placed in thermostat; for this purpose there has been used a “Model-3700” chromatograph thermostat with its temperature-adjusting unit (precision - 0.5-1 °С). The air was supplied into an inlet fitting, where it was heated in the chromatograph thermostat and sucked through a reactor with the help of a smoke exhaust 6; the consumption rate was established by regulating valve 4 and controlled by a stop watch and gas meter. Gases were sampled from fitting while opening cock 3. The speed of air supply into reactor was constant, being 1 l/min.

The measurement error was 12%. It is necessary to note, that microorganisms in fact do not participate in this experiment. Within real conditions they only initiate

Mikhail Krasnyansky


39

this process, heating a MSW mass up to 70-80 °С; smoldering (with participation of air oxygen) of the most easily-ignited MSW components begins afterwards, but at such a temperature the microorganisms are dead already.

10. The activation energy of the reaction can be calculated using the Arrhenius equation:

[K=AT·ехр(-E/RT)] (3)

where: A is the pre-exponential factor; R is the gas constant; E is the activation energy; and T is the temperature, °K

2

1 1 2

K E ElnK RT RT

= − , 2

1 1 2

1 1K ElnK R T T

⎛ ⎞= −⎜ ⎟

⎝ ⎠

2

1

1 2

1 1

Kln RK

E

T T

×=

−

11. Based on MSW of Donetsk city we have studied

the properties of fuel briquettes mixed with the wastes of the coke-chemical plant as well as their combustion products. 40-g briquettes were received through pressing. Sample incineration took place at the laboratory unit at the temperature of 700 and 1100 °С. This unit consisted of a shaft furnace, reaction vessel, in which a crucible with a briquette was placed, thermocouples, a hotwell and collector of exhaust gases.

The analysis of gas samples was carried out with the help of the chromatograph and photoelectrocalorimeter (see item 5).

The analysis of heavy metal concentrations was performed with the help of SPECTR-5 (see item 5) (2-g ash samples were taken). A “mobile” part of heavy metals contained in the ash (which can pass from ash to soil in case of precipitation) has been singled out by treating the ash with a hydrochloric acid solution (0,1 N).

12. Measurement of combustion heat of laboratory samples of 1.5 g-fuel briquettes was done an isothermal calorimetric bomb in the atmosphere of compressed oxygen mixed with water steam.

III. Results and Discussions III.1. General Research of Donetsk MSW Landfills

The following studies have been carried out: А) The location and used-up capacities of landfills

were examined. B) An average component MSW composition of

Donetsk dumps was established. С) There were measured the quantities of secondary

raw materials (waste paper, glass, plastic, ferrous metals) in MSW, produced by families with a relatively high life level (center of the Voroshilovsky sub-district of Donetsk city), an average life level (Kalininsky sub-district of Donetsk city) and a low life level (panel multi-storied buildings of “Tekstilshik” micro-region located in the Kirovsky sub-district of Donetsk city which is the most remote from the centre).

D) The volume and composition of gases emitted into atmosphere by Donetsk landfills have been calculated and measured.

The results of the measurements are shown at Figures 2, 3 and Tables I-III.

The data of the study concerning the share of secondary raw materials in Donetsk MSW are provided in Table III.

TABLE I

DONETSK’S LANDFILLS CHARACTERISTICS Landfills

name Years of operation Average quantity of MSW

received each year (tons)* Working area,

hectares Depth, m (average)

Larinka 11 (since 1993) 135000 20 15 Chulkovka 25 (since 1979) 40000 3.1 6 Petrovka 32 (since 1972) 44000 3.5 10 Мakeevka 42 (since 1962) 112000 11 25

*The bulk density of incoming MSW is assumed to be 0.25 t/m3, after landfill compaction it is 0.6 t/m3.

TABLE II AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF MSW AT DONETSK CITY LANDFILLS

Average composition of MSW at Donetsk city landfills and their "gross" chemical formula Mass (%) K (1/day) Biogas volume (avg)

m3/t of MSW Food waste (С320,3Н507,9О188,4N14,9S0,5) 28 0,35 250 Waste paper and cardboard (С580,6Н635,9О440,8N3,49S) 18 0,1 150 Wood, branches, leaves (С1321Н1904О855,6N4,6S) 7 0,1 140 Metal 4 - - Textiles (С978,8Н1396О416,8N70,2S) 3 0,05 100 Glass 9 - - Plastic, leather, rubber (С404,4Н634,9О58,1N57,2S) 11 0,01 60 Stones 3 Sweepings* 17 - -

* Approximately 1/3 of sweepings are of an organic matter.

Mikhail Krasnyansky


40

Fig. 2. Scheme of MSW landfill locations in Donetsk city

TABLE III

AVERAGE SHARE OF SECONDARY RAW MATERIALS IN MSW Sub-district of Donetsk city MSW volume

(m3/person/year) MSW density

(kg/m3) MSW composition

(weight, %) Voroshilovsky sub-district - center (market cost of apartments/houses:

1 m2 – USD 1500)

1.83

158.0 Paper - 27.3 Glass - 14.5 Plastic - 12.0 Metal - 9.7

Kalininsky sub-district: (market cost of apartments/houses:

1 m2 – USD 800)

0.99 217.1 Paper - 10 Glass – 5.5 Plastic – 4.6 Metal – 2.8

“Tekstilschik” (outskirts) (market cost of apartments/houses:

1 m2 – USD 350)

0.51 245.4 Paper – 2.3 Glass – 1.2 Plastic – 2.4 Metal – 0.2

The data of Table III show that the volume and

structure of household waste depends greatly on a family life level. It also follows from Table III that the growth of well-being of Donetsk city (and Ukraine) inhabitants will be accompanied, first of all, by the increase of MSW volumes, and secondly, the share of secondary raw materials in MSW such as paper, plastic, metal, etc. will also grow. These conclusions are of great importance for a proper strategic planning of MSW collection, sorting, transportation and disposal in Donetsk city (population is one million inhabitants) for 2008-2020.

The calculation of gas emissions from Donetsk landfills is illustrated at Fig. 3.

The data about average MSW quantities (Q) stored annually at each of 4 landfills of Donetsk city are provided in Table I. However, in fact, these annual quantities are rather different.

For example, the Petrovka landfill, which was opened in Donetsk in 1972 and the surface of which is small, was already almost full by 1985.

(1 - "Larinka", 2 - "Makeevka", 3 - "Petrovka", 4 - "Chulkovka") ("a" stands for the year when MSW delivery to "Petrovka" and

"Chulkovka" landfills will be limited, "b" is the year when delivery of MSW to "Makeevka" landfill will be limited)

Fig. 3. Calculated (theoretical maximum possible) volumes of biogas

emitted from Donetsk landfills

Mikhail Krasnyansky


41

MSW disposal was not stopped there, but decreased significantly; the same happened to a small Chulkovka landfill (opened in 1979 and filled by 1990). Therefore, such landfills as Petrovka and Chulkovka (and, to a smaller extent, Makeevka) are actually neither closed, nor opened; they are sort of "half-closed". That’s why, we recalculated biogas emission for these landfills by using a first-order equation, however, we did not use the data concerning average annual MSW quantities; the calculation of emissions was made for each landfill year by year, based on the actual MSW received by landfills.

As three of the four Donetsk landfills have already been 100% full for a long time, the idea of the calculations was to estimate annual emissions of greenhouse and toxic gases (as well as leachate discharges) taking place during the previous decades at each of the Donetsk landfills, since such kind of the monitoring has never been done by anybody.

The emissions of Makeevka landfill, for example, are relatively insignificant as it is in operation for 42 years (see Table I and curve 2 on Fig. 3). It means that all bio-processes taking place within the body of Makeevka landfill are almost over. Thus, during 42 years huge quantities of biogas as well as admixtures of other toxic gases have been emitted into the atmosphere over Donetsk city. Measurements of biogas emissions at 4 landfills of Donetsk city carried out with the help of an automatic gas analyzer MX-21-Plus (see Fig. 4) are in line with our calculations. The composition of the biogas was the following (see Fig. 4): "Makeevka" - 69% of CО2 and 31% of CН4; "Petrovka" - 65% of CО2 and 35% of CН4; Chulkovka" - 52% of CО2 and 48% of CН4; "Larinka"- 59% of CО2 and 41% of CН4. In fact, the data of Fig. 4 have confirmed the data of Figure 3: at such landfills as Makeevka, Petrovka and Chulkovka the process of biodegradation has almost finished, while at Larinka landfill it is still active. At the depth of 20-25 m, from the bottom layers of Makeevka landfill there have been also taken samples of “residual” MSW. The age of these MSW layers corresponds to 25-30 years. The samples were tested for the level of moisture (heating at 105 °C) and the share of organic components (combusting at 700 °C). The average result received on the basis of three samples is the following: level of moisture - 5.1%, the share of organic components - 13.5% (considering that the initial share was 70% - see Table II). Thus, during 25-30 years MSW have been

considerably mineralized as a result of a deep biodegradation of MSW organic components.

(1 - "Makeevka", 2 - "Petrovka", 3 - "Chulkovka", 4 - "Larinka")

Fig. 4. Typical measurement results of biogas emission from Donetsk landfills

III.2. Toxic Gas Emission

Gases sampled above the real Donetsk landfills (at the height of 1 m) were tested for dust, H2S, NO2, NH3, SO2 and carbon monoxide with the help of chemical display Drōger tubes (Table IV).

These results show that the local atmospheric concentrations above the landfills were often far behind the norm. At landfills with smoldering waste generating heat (Petrovka and Makeevka dumps) the share of carbon monoxide sharply increases. In addition, we have made a gas analysis of air coming out of hatches of refuse chutes at the entrance of 9-12-storied buildings of Donetsk city (Table V).

TABLE IV

ATMOSPHERE COMPOSITION AT THE LEVEL OF 1 M ABOVE THE LANDFILL GROUND IN DONETSK CITY, MG/M3

Para-meter

Larinka Petrovka Chulkovka Makeevka MPC*

Dust 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.8 0.15 H2S 0.003 0.053 0.05 0.01 0.005 NH3 0.023 no 0.04 0.013 0.04 NO2 0.052 0.05 0.06 0.09 0.04 SO2 0.018 0.05 0.012 0.14 0.05 CO 0.7 5.6 (smoldering) 1.6 6.1 (smoldering) 3.0

*) MPC - maximum permitted concentration in air of settlements (average daily)

Mikhail Krasnyansky


42

TABLE V CONCENTRATION OF SOME TOXIC GASES

IN BUILDING REFUSE CHUTES

Chemical Concentration, mg/m3

MPC*, mg/m3

Ammonia 201 0.04 Methanol 70 0.5

Hydrogen sulfide 85 0.005 Formaldehyde 45 0.003

*MPC - maximum permitted concentration in air of settlements (average daily)

The data of Table V show that a badly operated shaft

of refuse chutes of apartment buildings can be very dangerous for the health of the inhabitants.

III.3. Leachate Pollution

Despite of the fact that none of the 4 Donetsk landfills has a leachate collection system, at each landfill you can see places where the leachate “visualizes”. We have analysed leachate composition at Chulkovka landfill; the data are provided in Table VI.

We have studied the composition of underground water the samples of which were taken from the wells surrounding Donetsk and Makeevka landfills – see Tables V-VII. The sampling was done from the depth of 10-15 m. The analyses were carried out in accordance with item 7 of the chapter “Materials and Techniques”.

TABLE VI

LEACHATE COMPOSITION AT CHULKOVKA LANDFILL Parameter Concentration (mg/l)

COD 6620 BOD 2130

Total organic carbon

2100

Ammonia nitrogen 512 Chloride 1960

Fe 190 Сu 0.2 Zn 11.4 Pb 4.1 Cd 0.03 Cr 0.4 Ni 0.2

The calculation of leachate produced at Chulkovka landfill has been done by formula (Eq. (2), pt. 6). The atmospheric precipitation for Donetsk is provided in Table VII.

TABLE VII

TYPICAL PRECIPITATION FOR DONETSK LANDFILLS Parameter Quantity (mm*)

P 500** V 200 W 100 F 10

*) 1 mm = 10 tons of precipitation per hectare **) An annual average value for Donetsk city

If to apply the equation to Chulkovka landfill in

Donetsk, which occupies 3.1 hectares (Table I), using R = 300 m3/y (see Fig. 3) and the values shown in Table VI, the expected annual leachate production will be 6180 m3/y:

Vf = [500 – 200 – 100 – 10] = 190 х 3,1 х 104 х 10-3 =

5890 + 300 = 6180 m3/year

Uncontrolled production of such big volumes of toxic leachate should inevitably worsen ecological conditions of nearby underground water and soil [12].

It follows from Table VIII that because of the leachate infiltration the groundwater pollution is high and the majority of parameters exceed the MPC.

As it is seen from Table V-VII, the level of groundwater pollution is especially high in the area of Chulkovka MSW landfill. Therefore, it was interesting to examine the state of soil in the sanitary zone (SZ) of this landfill (see Fig. 5). As it follows from Figure 5, the soil salinity is increasing, while concentrations of hydrogen sulfide and some heavy metals are decreasing.

Thus, the data of Tables IV,VI,VIII and Figures 3,4,5 show that Ukrainian MSW landfills that are not equipped with biogas (including toxic gases) and leachate collection systems present a big threat for the environment. The landfills with MSW smoldering (burning) areas are also hazardous.

TABLE VIII

CONCENTRATION OF NON-ORGANIC AND ORGANIC COMPOUNDS IN UNDERGROUND WATER NEARBY DONETSK LANDFILLS, MG/L (SPRING 2004)

Component Cd Fe Mn Co Ni Zn Pb SO4 NH4 NO3 SSAM*

MPC→ 0.001 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.1 1.0 0.03 500 2.0 45 0,01 Sampling point↓

Petrovka 0.0015 0.4 0.14 0.5 0.20 0.7 0.02 797 1.8 19.4 0,03 Larinka 0.0015 0.6 0.15 0.06 0.17 0.5 0.01 590 1.9 42.2 0,03

Chulkovka 0.003 2.9 0.20 0.1 0.30 2.2 0.15 888 2.6 18.6 0,02 Makeevka 0.0010 0.4 0.10 0.2 0.1 0.4 0.01 894 4.8 81.5 0,02

*Synthetic superficially-active materials.

Mikhail Krasnyansky


43

Fig. 5. Dynamics of harmful metals and ions concentration in soil at the SZ-border (500 m) of Chulkovka MSW landfill of Donetsk City

III.4. Microbial Activity

As the process of biodegradation is determined by development (i.e. growth and death) of bacteria colonies in the landfill body (waste layers), it might be interesting to try to develop a mathematical model of monocolony inside a “closed” MSW layers. In order to study theoretically the dynamics of changes in the number of monocolonies of microorganisms within a “closed” (i.e. non-renewable) MSW mass there has been offered a mathematical model which is described by the following system of equations:

dN N N RddR Nd

β γτ

λτ

= −

= (4)

where: - N(τ) is the number of active microorganisms in

MSW; - R(τ) is the factor of "reverse catalysis", i.e. the sum of

all factors inhibiting or stopping the growth of bacteria colonies: poisoning by products of vital activities, reduction of the access to food, etc.;

- β, γ, λ are the constants which are defined on the basis of experimental examination of the dynamics of propagation of microbial cells N(τ).

By solving the system of equations (4), we receive:

1 1dNN dNdR

N N d

βτ β

γ γ τ

−⎛ ⎞= = −⎜ ⎟⎝ ⎠

Differentiating (4) and placing the result into the left

part of the second equation of the baseline system, we come to the following:

2 2

2 21 1dN d N N

d NN dγλ

τ τ⎛ ⎞ − =⎜ ⎟⎝ ⎠

(5)

or:

22

22

1d N dN NN dd

γλττ

⎛ ⎞− = −⎜ ⎟⎝ ⎠

(6)

Considering the baseline conditions and the known

value of the function in the peak point, let us draw a system of equations for constant values C:

( ) ( )

0 2 24 41 1

m

m

C

m m mC

C CeN N ; N NC Ce

τ

τ= − = −

− − (7)

From the first equation it follows that:

2

02 1 2 1 0mN

C CN

⎛ ⎞− − + =⎜ ⎟

⎝ ⎠ (8)

Mikhail Krasnyansky


44

The root of the quadratic equation in question has a physical meaning:

0

02 1 1 1m

m

N NC

N N

⎡ ⎤⎛ ⎞= − + − −⎢ ⎥⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎢ ⎥⎝ ⎠⎣ ⎦

(9)

If to assume that:

( ) ( )1 1m

C ln kC kτ

= − = − (10)

As a result, (33):

( )1

14

1

m

m

mN N C

ττ

ττ

−

−

∆= ∆ = −

⎛ ⎞⎜ ⎟∆ +⎜ ⎟⎝ ⎠

(11)

One of the variants of the numeric calculation is

provided at Fig. 5 (β = -0,44 1/day; N0 = 1,5·106). The results of the calculation received show (see Fig.

6) that with time (τ) the number of microorganisms (N) in MSW increases and reaches its maximum when τ = 4 hours, after that N decreases asymptotically reaching zero.

Fig. 6. Theoretical curve of the MAFAM quantity dynamics

We have also conducted experimental studies of this

process for the so-called "MAFAM" group ("mesophilic aerobic and facultative anaerobic microorganism"). When the population of "MAFAM" microorganisms in a "close laboratory MSW dump" (see “Materials and Techniques”) was measured over time, their number reached the peak after 30 days declining over the following 120 days (see Fig. 7).

Such a behavior of the function N (τ) is explained by the fact at the left part of the curves at Figures 6 and 7 (before reaching the maximum) the speed of microorganism propagation prevails over the speed of their self-destruction. At the right part (behind the maximum) it is vice versa. As it can be seen at Figures 6 and 7, both theoretical (see Fig. 6) and experimental (see Fig. 7) results show that the curves reach their maximum

during the first quarter of MSW biodegradation period at disposal sites (for "close" MSW-bacteria systems).

Fig. 7. Dynamics of growth of MAFAM bacteria

in a MSW microcosm

. 1 - carbon dioxide (vol. %); 2 - methane (vol. %); 3 - ammonia (mg/m3); 4 - hydrogen sulphide (mg/m3); 5 - hydrogen chloride

(mg/m3); 6 - formaldehyde (mg/m3).

Fig. 8. Experimental dynamics of toxic and greenhouse gas emissions from a “laboratory” MSW dump

In order to check experimentally the correlation

between the dynamics of microorganism colony development within a “closed laboratory MSW dump” and the character of gas emissions in this “laboratory micro-dump” we have implemented an additional analysis of gas samples within a glass vessel over a MSW layer. The analysis of gas samples was performed in accordance with item 5 (“Materials and Techniques”).

As we can see from Fig. 8, the gases emitted from a “close” layer of MSW during biodegradation remind a theoretical curve at Figure 6 – all curves reach their maximum at 1/4 – 1/3 of the full incubation period. The measurements of the temperature of the “laboratory” dump have shown that during the process of biodegradation the temperature increases up to 50-60 °C.

Mikhail Krasnyansky


45

III.5. MSW Self-ignition Processes

III.5.1. Experimental Study

At the laboratory unit (Figure 1) the tests were conducted with MSW being heated (in the thermostat) by +70°C, +120°C, +170°C, + 220°C and + 270°C (when

the temperature was higher than 300°C some of MSW components started to burn (for instance, the temperature of self-ignition of pressed paper is 250°C). CO and H2 generation rates at 325 °C were also measured; they were 6.1х10-2 and 4.3х10-3 ml/g-sec. correspondingly.

TABLE IX

KINETIC PARAMETERS OF A MSW SMOLDERING PROCESS Tempe-

rature of the experi-ment,

ºC

Gas generation rate at the heat source, ml/g·s.

CO2 CO H2 SO2 CH4 CH2O NO

70 2,2·10-5 - - - - - - 120 3,7·10-5 3,7·10-7 1,5·10-7 - 1,2·10-7 - - 170 8,7·10-5 5,8·10-5 8,8·10-6 2,2·10-7 1,9·10-6 3,0·10-6 - 220 1,1·10-2 5,0·10-4 2,0·10-5 2,9·10-6 1,7·10-5 4,4·10-6 - 270 1,4·10-2 1,5·10-3 4,7·10-5 8,1·10-5 5,1·10-5 7,4·10-6 1,8·10-7

Activ. energy, Kj/mol

93,16 69,1 70,0 50,4 68,5 178,0 -

The results of the experiments are provided in Table

IX and Fig. 9. The data of Table IX show that the generation rate of certain gases typical for the incipient state of “catalytic combustion” (smoldering) increases when the temperature ranges from 100 to 300 °C (except for formaldehyde).

Fig. 9. Dynamic relationship of d [CO]/d [Н2] generation rate

From the data of Table IX and the curve of Figure 6 built on the basis of these data (as well as some other data received under the temperature of 325 °C) it can be seen that during MSW heating within the interval of 120-200°C the ratio between the speed of CO and H2 production sharply increases. This increase can become a basis for predicting self-heating in the depth of waste and the subsequent threat of fire. When the temperature of 300 °C is reached, the quantity and speed of Н2 production start to increase rapidly. It is a typical phenomenon of pyrolysis processes of organic mass. For instance, a coke-oven gas (which is a product of a coal pyrolysis) contains 25-40% of H2.

III.5.2. Calculation of Atmospheric Pollution by "Fire-hazardous Gases"

Since MSW biodegradation reactions are exothermic, there is a potential for self-heating and self-ignition of

dumps (which is often a case). From classical thermodynamic is known that the process of self-heating transforms into burning when the heat flow (+Q) from exothermic reactions of oxidation exceeds natural heat removal (-Q) from the reaction zone. The interrelation of [(+Q) > (-Q)] often takes place during natural MSW biodegradation processes, especially in summer time.

In 2004, a half-hectare area of the Makeevka MSW landfill ignited (see Fig. 10). As a result a toxic fire-gases have penetrated in the nearby coal mine «Shcheglovskaya-Glubokaya» (through an its air-supply shaft).

Fig. 10. Fire on the Makeevka landfill

We have calculated dissipation of fire-hazardous gases at the MSW landfill with burning (smoldering) areas that can be compared by scale with burning of the Makeevka landfill. The following initial data have been used: - there are 7 burning places at the landfill, their average

size is 17,5х17,5 m and the thickness is 2 m each; MSW density is 600 kg/m3;

- combustion gases are emitted in accordance with calculated quantities (considering that the mass speed of MSW burning is 0.1 tons/hour) following Table X.

Mikhail Krasnyansky


46

TABLE X VOLUME OF HARMFUL EMISSIONS PER 1 M3 OF COMBUSTED MSW

Gas Emission, m3/sec per 1 m3 of MSW

Carbon monoxide 0.000218 Nitrogen oxide 0.0000087 Sulfur dioxide 0.0000032

The calculation of the maximum concentration limit

Сmcl (g/s), i.e. the amount of harmful substances emitted by the source per unit of time, which in case of unfavourable weather conditions, being diffused in the atmosphere, will create at the surface layer (at the height of 2 m from the ground level) the concentration equal to a maximum allowable concentration of harmful particles in the atmosphere Mmpe (considering a background concentration Cb), can be calculated using the following formula:

( ) ( )0 32

1.

mcl bС С Н V ТМ

A F m n µ− ∆

= (13)

where: - Cm is the maximum surface air concentration of

contaminant, mg/m3; - M is the mass of contaminant emitted into the

atmosphere, g/s; - A is a coefficient which depends on atmospheric

temperature stratification and defines conditions for vertical and horizontal dissipation of contaminants in the atmospheric air (A=140-250 depending on a geographic location);

- F is a dimensionless factor reflecting a contaminant sedimentation rate in the air, its value for gases is 1 and for aerosols it is 2-3;

- m and п are dimensionless factors reflecting conditions of the gas-air mixture efflux and the emission source mouth form (typical values are m = 0.8-1.4, n = 1-2; the greater is the pipe diameter, the lower are m and n);

- µ is a factor considering a relief of moorland (if it is “even”, i.e. the difference of levels at the distance of 1 km from the source of emission is not more than 50 m, µ = 1);

- Н is the emission point (pipe) height above the ground level, m;

- V is the gas-air mixture volume, m3/s; - ∆Т is the temperature difference between the emitted

gas-air mixture Тd, and the ambient air Ta (°С). The calculation was done with the help of the

software, the results are illustrated at Fig. 11. At the border of the SZ (line with a red flag) the concentration of one of the most toxic components of fire-hazardous gases – nitrogen oxide – exceeds MPC almost 17 times; at line 9 (i.e. already behind the SZ border) the concentration of nitrogen oxide exceeds MPC almost 13.5 times.

Fig. 11. Fire gas (NO) dissipation within the SZ limits (500 m) during MSW dump burning

That’s why we have searched for potential

technologies preventing endogenous MSW fires. “Lime milk” has been selected as a reagent, having been successfully used in coal industry for prevention of self-ignition of coal rocks. In order to find out whether it is possible to use a Ca(OH)2 suspension for prevention of MSW self-ignition we have made an experiment (within the same “closed laboratory MSW dump”) treating a MSW layer with a 10%-Ca(OH)2 suspension using 0.1 unit (volume) of suspension per 1 unit (volume) of MSW. As it follows from Figure 12, one day after the treatment the quantity of MAFAM came to zero, i.e. the source of heating of a MSW mass has stopped to exist.

Fig. 12. Dynamics of reduction of MAFAM population after MSW

treatment with a Ca(OH)2 suspension

Therefore, at each MSW landfill of the Donetsk region it is necessary to arrange a regular (at least once per six months) treatment (with the help of a water distribution machine) of MSW surface with a 10% suspension of “lime milk” using 0.02-0.01 m3 of suspension per 1 m2 of landfill surface.

III.6. Threats of MSW Incineration in the Special Factory

As it was mentioned above, almost all of more than 800 big municipal MSW landfills in Ukraine, which are in fact huge anti-ecological dumps, are not equipped with biogas or leachate collection systems. That’s why, the municipal authorities (especially city mayors) in Ukraine consider more and more often different projects referring to construction of incineration plants (IP).

Mikhail Krasnyansky


47

However, the problems (for countries with transitional economies) faced are the following:

а) If to build IPs in the same way as the landfills that exist in Ukraine (i.e. saving on environment protection equipment), then IPs will be not less dangerous, if not more dangerous, for the environment then present Ukrainian MSW landfills;

b) As MSW is a low-calorie fuel (about 1500 Kcal/kg), it is proposed to mix MSW with resinous waste of coke-chemical plants and refineries of Ukraine (there are millions of tons of such waste in Ukraine). However, from the ecological point of view, such "fuel mixtures" (the so-called "Refuse Derived Fuel" – RDF technology) are even more dangerous.

c) MSW incineration is accompanied by the so-called secondary synthesis of dioxins, which presents a particular danger. This process takes place while combustion gases leaving IP boilers get cooled off. The secondary synthesis of dioxins occurs under the temperature ranging from to 200 to 450°С. Dioxin production within such a temperature interval takes place due to reactions of НСL, СL2, chlorine-organic

compounds, etc. (which are present in exhaust gases) and organic carbon at the presence of “occasional” catalysts (Donelly, 1985).

Considering all mentioned above, we decided to answer the following question: how dangerous it is for the environment if the countries with transitional economies with limited budget resources will switch from an “anti-ecological” MSW disposal to an “anti-ecological” incineration?

III.6.1. Study of technical Characteristics

We have carried out the studies for MSW mixed with some of industrial carbon-bearing waste (with minor "sweepings" of coal and coke as well as with acid resin waste of the coke-chemical plant) in order to prepare fuel briquettes for industrial furnaces. First of all, we have measured the share of ash and volatile components in briquettes as well as the highest combustion value. The measurement results are presented in Tables XI-XIII.

TABLE XI

SHARE OF ASH (%) Type of admixture Admixture, % of “dry mass”

10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Coal dust 17,16 17,43 17,81 17,81 18,01 18,29 18,48 Acid resin waste 15,8 15, 48 14,54 14,1 13,56 13,01 12,31

Coke slag 16,01 15,51 15,02 14,6 14,18 13,62 13,28

TABLE XII EMISSION OF "THERMAL" GASES AND VAPORS (%)

Type of admixture Admixture, % of “dry mass” 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Coal dust 32,55 30,86 29,43 27,5 25,55 24,11 22,45 Acid resin waste 41,5 43,33 45,66 47,5 50,41 53,1 54,8

Coke slag 34,69 34,17 32,64 32,91 32,19 31,63 30,21

TABLE XIII THE HIGHEST COMBUSTION HEAT OF FUEL MIXTURES (KJ/KG)

Type of admixture Admixture, %

10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Coal dust 10456,1 11976,8 12346,8 14345,6 15013,1 16346,7 18109,1 Acid resin waste 9753,0 10221,4 12492,2 13861,9 14567,7 16601,2 17970,8

Coke slag 9611,1 9967,67 12208,5 13507,2 14805,9 16104,6 17403,3

These studies have allowed selecting the most promising compositions of briquettes in terms of their properties as a solid fuel. The content of MSW in them was supposed to be not less than 50-60%, otherwise MSW are considered as an admixture but will not be the basic component.

Then we examined the ecological threats, which might take place in case of their “anti-ecological” incineration.

III.6.2. Environmental Threats Posed by Incineration

We have studied (within laboratory conditions, see item 9 of the chapter "Materials and Techniques")

concentrations of toxic gases produced after MSW incineration and total concentrations of “heavy” (toxic) metals in the ash. We measured the part of heavy metals, which transforms in more “volatile” forms and is emitted into atmosphere together with combustion gases as well as the part of heavy metals that enter the ash. Besides, we studied a part of heavy metals in the ash, which is “labile” (soluble) and can migrate into soils. The results of the measurements are provided in Table XIV-XVI and at Fig. 13.

By comparing the data of Tables XVI and XVII we can see that ash accumulates such heavy metals as, for instance, lead as well as some other ones.

Mikhail Krasnyansky


48

TABLE XIV SCHEME OF EXPERIMENT IMPLEMENTATION

# of expe-

riment

Addition of acid resin waste, %

Addition of coke slag, %

Addition of MSW, %

Temterature of incineration, °С

1 0 0 100 700 2 40 0 60 700 3 0 40 60 700 4 40 40 20 700 5 0 0 100 1000 6 40 0 60 1000 7 0 40 60 1000 8 40 40 20 1000

TABLE XV CONCENTRATION OF EMITTED TOXIC GASES AFTER MSW INCINERATION (MG/M3)

# of expe-

riment*

Concentration of toxic gas

CO CO2 SO2 H2S C6H5OH NO2 HCL HCN CH2O

1 678 203636 8,77 13,67 5,7 41 0,2 0,12 19,78 2 761 194311 144,74 145,78 32,1 51 0,19 0,68 18,89 3 707 215632 34,97 33,6 21,22 47 0,22 1,1 14,45 4 700 181351 177,28 68,1 20,7 38 0,18 1,43 29,07 5 431 319002 12,06 0,34 1,34 98 0,33 0,08 10,06 6 438 268677 158,61 111,6 26,77 101 0,26 0,59 11 7 501 289783 40,03 21,8 18,41 88 0,3 0,91 9,78 8 392 221670 191,06 34,8 19,2 81 0,22 1,21 27,71

*) In accordance with Table XIV.

TABLE XVI TOTAL CONCENTRATION OF HEAVY METALS IN INITIAL COMPONENTS (MG/KG)

Component Total metal concentration, mg/kg

Pb Ni Cr Cu Zn Hg Co

MSW 511 140 190 1270 2410 8 46 Acid resin waste 543 94 270 720 2990 1.5 45 Coke slag 466 105 125 710 2440 0 58

TABLE XVII TOTAL CONCENTRATION OF TOXIC METALS IN MSW ASH (MG/KG)

of experiment*

Concentration of toxic metals in MSW ash

Pb Ni Cr Cu Zn Hg Co

1 4470 120 180 1100 2080 0 36 2 5110 111 222 830 2370 0 41 3 4170 100 151 940 2400 0 33 4 4910 89 180 740 2567 0 38 5 4230 98 110 990 2234 0 40 6 4915 93 204 710 2545 0 32 7 4540 87 140 780 2356 0 35 8 4900 73 110 701 2401 0 41

Quantity of toxic metals that can be washed out into soil from the ash (average)

48.3 8.5 9.9 15.7 23.8 0 1.34

*) In accordance with Table XIV

Mikhail Krasnyansky


49

Fig. 13. Emission of toxic metals into atmosphere (aclinic axis is in

accordance with Table XIV)

Thus, we have established that during incineration of MSW mixed with carbon-bearing waste The plenty toxic gases emission in an atmosphere will take place. Some parts of each of the heavy metals (Hg, Pb, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Cr) are taken to the atmosphere together with combustion gases, the other parts enter the ash. At the same time some parts of heavy metals that have passed into ash are in a soluble form, i.e. they might (in case of precipitation) enter the soil. It is interesting to note that each heavy metal has its own “character”: for instance, Hg is fully emitted into the atmosphere, Pb enters the ash.

IV. Conclusions and Recommendations In their present state the Donetsk landfills resemble

open dumps, as they have no engineering infrastructure ensuring public health and environmental safety. The absence of biogas and leachate collection and MSW smoldering result in air, soil and ground water pollution, posing a threat to human health. Within present conditions the Donetsk landfills (or to be more exact, MSW dumps) represent a great ecological threat to the city environment. The problems studied in Donetsk are representative of all Ukrainian regions, as municipal budgets are not sufficient to be capable to solve similar problems. These problems are also typical for many other countries with transitional economies.

This study has provided qualitative and quantitative assessments of the factors enumerated above and investigated the methods of fire prevention. A significant role in MSW dump biodegradation is played by microorganisms, i.e. they are responsible both for environment pollution and for heating of some of its areas that results in their smoldering.

By measuring the correlation between the speed of CO and Н2 emission from a MSW dump it is possible to predict in advance the self-ignition of a MSW dump area.

It is necessary to arrange a regular treatment of a MSW dump surface with a 10%- suspension of a "lime milk" for prevention of MSW dump self-ignition.

The study of the possibility to create fuel briquettes on the basis of solid household and industrial (carbon-bearing) waste for their joint incineration in industrial furnaces has demonstrated how promising this

technology is. In parallel, there has been established a high ecological hazard of such an incineration in case highly efficient environment protection equipment is not used. That means that the ecological hazard of incineration plants, which are alternative to MSW landfills but are created on the basis of “anti-ecological” principles can even be higher than the hazard of the existing “anti-ecological” Donetsk MSW landfills.

Such a combination as MSW + resinous waste can become a basis of fuel briquettes that can be incinerated in industrial furnaces in Ukraine as a partial alternative of waste disposal at landfills and dumps. But it is necessary to solve carefully all the set of problems dealing with protection of the atmosphere. Otherwise, such a MSW incineration technique will represent a huge threat for the environment.

Thus, the biggest problem is that countries with transitional economies are to learn how to incinerate MSW not only for the benefit of the economy, but and it is the most important, without damaging the environment.

The calculations and experiments stated above allow us to offer following recommendations:

1) In their present state the Donetsk landfills resemble open dumps, as they have no engineering infrastructure ensuring public health and environmental safety. The absence of collection of biogas and leachate, and also smoldering of MSW pollute air, soil and ground water, posing a threat to human health. Within present conditions the Donetsk landfills (or, to be more exact, MSW dumps) present a great ecological threat to the city environment.

2) The problems studied in Donetsk are representative of all Ukrainian regions, as municipal budgets are not sufficient enough to solve similar problems. These problems are also typical for many other countries with transitional economies.

3) This study has provided qualitative and quantitative assessments of the factors enumerated above and investigated the methods of fire prevention. A significant role in MSW dump biodegradation is played by microorganisms, i.e. they are responsible both for environment pollution and for heating of some of its areas that results in their smoldering. By measuring the correlation between the speed of CO and Н2 emission from a MSW dump it is possible to predict in advance the self-ignition of a MSW dump area.

4) The study of the possibility of creating fuel briquettes on the basis of solid household and industrial (carbon-bearing) waste for their joint incineration in industrial furnaces has demonstrated how promising this technology is for Ukraine where it can be used partly as an alternative of waste disposal at landfills and dumps.

5) In parallel, there has been established a high ecological hazard of such an incineration in case highly efficient environment protection equipment is not used. That means that the ecological hazard of the incineration plant, which, being used as an alternative to MSW landfills, will be designed and built on the basis of the

Mikhail Krasnyansky


50

same “anti-ecological” principles as the existing Donetsk MSW landfills can be even higher.

6) At the existing MSW landfills of Donetsk (as well as of other cities of Ukraine) it is urgently recommended to implement the following:

a) to compact a MSW surface layer on a weekly and obligatory basis and to cover the compacted MSW layer with a layer of clay;

b) to arrange a biogas collection in order to burn it, receiving superheated steam and electricity;

c) to collect leachate and render it safe. 7) It is necessary to arrange a regular treatment of a

MSW dump surface with a 10%- suspension of a "lime milk" for prevention of MSW dump self-ignition.

8) New MSW landfills in Ukraine should be designed and built in full conformity with ecological requirements adopted in Europe.

9) Incineration plants in Ukraine should be also designed and built in full conformity with ecological requirements adopted in Europe and with consideration of the world experience. For example, there are simple two-stage “Consumer-type” incinerators which can burn all types of waste efficiently with a minimum of emissions.

Thus, the biggest problem is that countries with transitional economics are to learn how to storage and to incinerate MSW not only for the benefit of the economy, but (and it is the most important!) without damaging the environment.

References [1] E.W. Haltiner, Three Modes of Dioxin Formation.

Verfarenstetechnik 24 (1990) 10-21. [2] Z. Sao, X. Ding, S. Zung, Low-Temperature Dioxin Formation,

Environmental Chemistry 9 (1990) 155-156. [3] M. Krasnyansky, A. Belgasem, Pollution of the Environment by

Donetsk Landfills. The 4-th International Congress on Waste Management «WASTE-TECH», Moscow, 2005, 577-579.

[4] M. Barlaz, D. Schaefer, R. Ham, Bacterial Population Development and Chemical Characteristics of Refuse Decomposition in a Simulated Sanitary Landfill. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 55 (1989) 55-65.

[5] M. Jetten, A. Stams, A. Zehnder, 1992. The Importance of Hydrogen in Landfill Fermentations, Appl. Environ. Microbiol, 62 (1992) 1583-1588.

[6] K. Gurijala, M. Mcinerney, M. Mormile, J. Suflita, The Importance of Hydrogen in Landfill Fermentations, Appl. Environ. Microbiol, 62 (1996) 1583-1588.

[7] F. de Bok, A. Stams, C. Dijkema C., D. Boone, Diversity of Cellulolytic Bacteria in Landfill. J. Appl. Bacteriol 79 (2001) 73-78.

[8] J. Wang, C. Wu, Biodegradation of Chlorinated Solvents in Bioreactor Landfills. Pract. Periodical of Haz., Toxic, and Radioactive Waste Mgmt. 8 (2004) 84-88.

[9] D.G. Wilson, XVII Handbook of Solid Waste Management, Litton Educational, (1977) 12-26.

[10] D. Hanson, Rules Set for Municipal Solid Waste Landfills, Chemical and Engineering News 69 (1991) 6-14.

[11] A. Gendebien, et al, Landfill Gas, (Commission of the European Communities, Brussels, 1992, 865 pp.).

[12] S. Qasim, W. Chiang, Sanitary Landfill Leachate (Technomic, Lancaster-Basel, 1995, 339 pp.).

[13] J.F. Rees, J.F., 2005. Geomecanique environnement sols pollues et dechets traite mim delage, (Hermes Sciences Publications, Paris, 2005, 120 pp.).

[14] Yakov Vaisman, 2001. MSW Management (Permsky State University, Russia, 2001, 133 pp.).

[15] U. S. Environment Protection Agency, XXVII Exposure and Human Health Reassessment of 2,3,7,8Tetrachlordibenzo-p-Dioxin (TCDD) and Related Compounds. Part I: Estimating Exposure to Dioxin – Like Compounds. Volume 2: Sources of Dioxin-Like Compounds in the United States. Draft Final Report. EPA, 2000, Washington, D.C.

[16] K. Horch K., G. Schetter G., H. Falenkamh H., 1991. Dioxinminderung für Abfallverbren-nungsanlagen, Entsong. Prax. Spez., 6 (1991) 15 – 20; K. Heinz, Dioxine in mehrere Schritten zerstören. Energie,44 (1992) 41 – 42.

[17] Council of the European Communities, Council Directive on Waste Landfills (1999/31/EC), Official Journal 11 (1999) 182pp.

[18] Chappell P., 1991. A review of Municipal Waste Combustion Technology, Energy Waste Clean, Green and Profitable. Pap. and Synop. Presentat. Conf., Inst. Energy, London, 1991, p. 11-24.

[19] H.-G. Schimpf, Erfahrungen mit Bau und Betrieb von Mullverbrennungsanlagen, Energietechnic, 1 (1993)41-46.

[20] C. Travis, A. Hattemer-Frey, Gas Emission at MSW Incineration, Chemosphere, 16 (1987) 2331-2342.

[21] J. Donelly, E. Dupuy, Chlorinated Dioxins and Dibenzofuransin the Total Environment (Eds. Kieth Stoneham, Butterworth, 1985, p. 339-354).

[22] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, 1997. Evaluation of Emissions from the open burning of household waste in barrels. Technical Report, EPA – 600/R-97-134a, Washington, D.C., 1 (1997) 3-35.

[23] A. Budka, Comparison of methane emission models, Environmental Chemistry, 22 (2003) 211-215.

[24] J. Oonk, A. Weenk, O. Coops, L. Luning, Validation of landfill gas formation models, NOVEM Progme Energy Generation from Waste and Biomass (EWAB), TNO report, Apeldoorn, Netherlands, 1994, 94-315.

Author’s information Mikhail Krasnyansky – The Independent Scientis (USA) - was born in 1942 in the Ukraine. Education: 1965 – Diploma Engineer-Chemist, Donetsk Polytechnical Institute (Ukraine), Department of Chemical Technology. 1971 - Diploma Ph.D., Rostov State

University (Russia), Dept. of Chemistry; 1993 – Diploma Doctor of Chemistry, Academy Sciences of the Non-Conventional Technologies, Dept. of Energy, ,Nikolaev (Ukraine); 2000 – Certificate Professor, Donetsk National Technical University (Ukraine), Ecology Department. High Skill 1. Energy-Efficiency and Energy Savings. 2. Waste Management and Recycling. 3. Prevention and Suppression of Large Fires and Explosions. Academic Achievements 2001 – Elected as a member of the Academy of Technological Sciences of the Ukraine (Kiev). 2006 - Elected as an academician of the European Academy of Natural Sciences (Hannover, Germany). Dr. Krasnyansky has been the resident of the US since 2007. Now he is the Independent Scientist. E-mail: [email protected]

ecological threats caused by improper disposal and ... · ecological threats caused by improper...

Documents