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Ecology,Decision-Making,and

Environmental Education. Overview

disciplineapproach-report3JanCincera,MasarykUniversityBrno(CzechRepublic),ClaraVasconcelos,UniversityofPorto,(Portugal),JoanaFaria,UniversityofPorto(Portugal),AlexKoutsourisAgriculturalUniversityofAthens (Greece), Alexandra Smyrniotopoulou, Agricultural University of Athens (Greece),KatarzynaIwinska,MagdalenaKraszewska,CollegiumCivitas(Poland),MichaelJones(SwedishBiodiversity Centre, Uppsala), Peter Aspengren, Swedish University of Agricultural Science(Sweden)

2017

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Tableofcontents:

INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................................3

INFORMATION-ASSIMILATIONAPPROACHES..................................................................................4

ISSUEINVESTIGATIONMODELS.......................................................................................................4

ACTIONCOMPETENCEANDCRITICALPLACE-BASEDEDUCATIONMODELS.......................................7

GAMEANDDISCUSSION-BASEDAPPROACHES................................................................................9CASE-BASEDMETHODOLOGY.....................................................................................................................9DRAMAEDUCATION...............................................................................................................................10GLOBALEDUCATIONANDSYSTEMTHINKINGEDUCATION..............................................................................11

QUALITYASSESSMENTCRITERIAFORISSUE-ORIENTEDEEPROGRAMSANDEDUCATIONALMATERIALS....................................................................................................................................16

DISCUSSION..................................................................................................................................23

CONCLUSION.................................................................................................................................25

REFERENCES..................................................................................................................................25

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IntroductionSincetheverybeginning,environmentaleducation(EE)hastendedtobeorientedtowardmotivating

peopletoparticipateinsolvingenvironmentalproblemsandissues.AccordingtotheTbilisiDeclaration

(1977),thepurposeofEEshouldbetoraisepeople’sawarenessoftheeconomic,social,political,and

ecological interdependence of things, and to “emphasize the complexity of environmental

problems…todevelopcriticalthinkingandproblem-solvingskills”(TbilisiDeclaration,1977).Toachieve

thisgoalinademocraticsociety,peopleshouldobtaincertainknowledge,skills,andattitudes(later

reframedas“competence”)thatwouldallowthemtofacetheseenvironmentalproblemsonboththe

individualandthecollectivelevels.

Theaimofthisreportistoprovideabasicoverviewofrelevanteducationalapproachesforteachers

interestedinincludingenvironmentalorsustainabilityissuesintheircurricula.Althoughthemainfocus

of the report is an educational one, the report is a result of the cooperationof a diverse teamof

scholarsfromdifferentdisciplinesacrossthenaturalandsocialsciences.Duringtheirdiscussions,there

wasopportunitytotacklethe issuesofcapitalism,governanceanddecisionmakingprocesses. The

reportcombinesaliteraturereviewwithexamplesfromthepersonalexperienceoftheauthors,and

it provides both international and national (country-specific) perspectives on the main topic. The

reportalsoreflectsthedifferentneedsofthevarioustypesofthelearningenvironment:whilesome

ofthedescribedapproachesaremoresuitableforsecondaryschooloruniversitystudents(i.e.,case-

basedmethodology,simulationgames),othersmaybemoresuitableforelementarystudents(issue

investigationmodels)orevenforprimaryschoolstudents(dramaeducationmodels).Thepedagogical

approachescanbeusedasaformofinspirationforalreadyexistingEEcurriculaaswellasaformof

fulfillmentofsustainabilitypillarsinthecoursesthatwerenotfocusingonthistopic.

In the contemporary world of global challenges and uncertainty, teaching environmental and

sustainabilityissues1isacrucialimperativeforallteachersaswellasnon-formaleducators.Wehope

thatthisreportwillhelpthemtofindthebestwayhowtointegratethisareaintotheirteaching.

1Inthereport,wedifferentiatebetween“problems”(=situationsinwhichsomethingthatwevalueisatrisk)and“issues”(=situationsinwhichdifferentopinionsexistonhowtosolveaproblem).IntheEEcontext,bothperspectivesmaybeusedwhiledescribingdifferentcontent(whatproblemsexistandshouldbesolvedvs.whatthepossiblesolutionsareandhowtheyarebasedontheattitudesandvaluesofthedifferentstakeholders).

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Information-assimilationapproachesWhile theearlyapproachesemphasized the roleofprovidingproblem-relevantknowledge, it soon

became clear that knowledge itself does notmotivate people toward pro-environmental behavior

(Hungerford&Volk,1990).TheoriginalassumptiontypicalfortheEEprogramsofthe1970’s,called

the K-A-B theory (see image 1), has not been proven, and the EE programs based on it have not

demonstratedtheireffectivenessforincreasingthepro-environmentalbehavioroftheirparticipants

(Hungerford&Volk,1990).

Image1TheK-A-Btheory

However,instructionalstrategiesbasedontheK-A-BtheoryarestillveryfrequentintheEEfieldas

manyprogramstransmitahugeamountofproblem-relevantknowledgetotheirstudents.Although

thisapproachmaybeconsideredverytime-efficient,itisclearthatitopensseriousareasofconcern.

Problem-orientedknowledgemayhaveephemeralimportanceonly.Withoutfurtherelaboration,the

received information can be easily misinterpreted, which may lead to the creation of persistent

misconceptions.Furthermore,ashasbeenalreadydiscussed,newknowledgeitselfdoesnotmotivate

peopletopracticeresponsiblebehavioranditdoesnotdevelopthestudents’competence.Because

of this, K-A-B-based instructional strategies shouldbeusedwith careand, inmost situations, they

shouldbeavoided.

Sincethe1980’s,severalinstructionalapproacheshavebeenlaunchedwhichaimtoincreasepeople’s

motivationtoparticipateindecision-makingprocessesrelatedtosolvingtheemerginglocalandglobal

environmentalproblems.Someoftheseapproacheswillbepresentedinthefollowingchapters.

IssueinvestigationmodelsTwoparticularlyinfluentialmodelsweredevelopedbytheteamledbyH.R.Hungerfordinthe1980s.

Thesemodels,called“IssueInvestigationandActionTrainingModel(IIAT)”and“ExtendedCaseStudy

Knowledge Attitude Behavior

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Model(ECM),”werebasedonasynthesisofanin-depthliteraturereviewofthefactorsshapinghuman

behavior and the on-going process of evaluation of newly developedmodels. On the basis of the

literaturereview,HungerfordandVolk(1990)designedatheorycalled“ResponsibleEnvironmental

Behavior”(REB),identifyingasetofvariableswhoseinterplaywassupposedtoshapehumanbehavior

(seeImage2).Thetheorylistedotherimportantvariablesinadditiontoknowledge,especiallyaffective

variablesandskills,anditdiscriminatedamongdifferenttypesofknowledge(ecologicalknowledge,

issueorientedknowledge,actionknowledge).

Image2ResponsibleEnvironmentalBehaviortheory

Themainimportanceofthetheorywasnotinitsimpactonconservationpsychology(asithasbeen

partiallyreplacedbyotherbehavioralmodelsinthefollowingdecades)butinitsbenefitforEEpractice.

The significance of emotions, attitudes, skills, and action-oriented beliefs expressed by themodel

resonatedininstructionalmodelsthatweremorefinelyelaboratedandmoreeffectivethantheformer

K-A-B-orientedEEprograms.

BoththemodelsdevelopedbyHungerford’steamhavebeenproventobehighlyeffectiveinchanging

the participants’ understanding, skills, attitudes, and behavior (Hungerford& Volk, 1981; Ramsey,

1993;Culen,1994;Hsu,2004;Volk&Cheak,2005;Marcinkowski,2001;2004),andsotheyhavebeen

appliedinmanycountries.

Thesemodelsusea4-stepsequenceofactivitiesthatrangefromaninitialteacher-orientedfocustoa

veryopenstudent-orientedproject(seeImage3).

Entry-level

• Environmen-talsensitivity

• Ecologicalknowledge

Ownership

• In-depthknowledgeabout anissue

• Personalinvestment

Empowerment

• Actionknowledgeandskills

• Internallocusofcontrol

• Intentiontoact

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Image3IssueInvestigationmodels

An important aspectof both thesemodels (thatdiffermainly in the third stepof the sequence in

regards to the level of the students’ independence in the inquiry process) is that they provide

experiencewithdealingwitharealissue,preferablyanissuefromthestudents’localenvironmentand

community.Thestudentsmayfeelthatthe issuestheyare investigating(theymaychoosewhatto

investigateintheIIATmodel)arepartoftheirfamiliarworldand,becauseofthis,theycouldbecome

attachedtothemandmotivatedtotakearesponsibleaction. Inthe laststep, thestudentsusually

chooseanactionconnectedwithadirectoran indirecteffort to influencesomerelevantdecision-

makingprocesses,e.g.theypresenttheirfindings(e.g.,apublicopinionsurveyabouttheissue)tothe

municipality,participateinpublichearings,orpresenttheirargumentsinpublic.

Althoughboththemodelsmaybeconsideredasneedingaslightupdate,theystillpresentaviable

approach. In theCzechRepublic, theECSmodelwas applied for the Forest in Schoolprogram (7th

grade) conducted by the educational organization Tereza. Although this experience revealed the

limitations connectedwith applying themodel in a different educational environment (the lack of

teacherskills,timeconstrains,etc.),theevaluatedprogramwassuccessfulininfluencingthelocusof

control2oftheparticipatingstudents(sothatmorestudentsbelievedtheywerecapableofaltering

2Locusofcontrolexpresses„thedegreetowhichpeoplebelievethattheyhavecontrolovertheoutcomeofeventsintheirlives,asopposedtoexternalforcesbeyondtheircontrol.“(Wikipedia)

Problemsandissues

•Learningdifferencesbetweenproblemsandissues•Learninghowtoanalyzeissue-orientednewspaperarticles•Learninghowtoanalyzeattitudesandvaluesofissuestakeholders

Skillsdevelopment

•Developinginquiryskillsandknowledge•Learninghowtodesignaresearchplan

Inquiryproject

•Independentinquiryofselectedissues(IIAT)•Groupinquiryofselectedissues(ECS)•Presentation

Responsibleaction

•Voluntarycivicactiontosolveanissue•Presentationofresults

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thestateoftheirlocalenvironmentattheendoftheprogramthanbefore)(Cincera&Simonova,in

press).

Actioncompetenceandcriticalplace-basededucationmodels

Intheearly1990’s,theissueinvestigationmodelswerecriticallyassessedbyagroupofscholarsfrom

Nordiccountries(Jensen&Schnack,1997;Mogensen&Schnack,2010;Breiting&Mogensen,1999).

According to these critics, EE (as representedby the issue investigationmodels) tended to be too

stronglybehavioristic,withanemphasisonindividualbehavioranddirectaction,whileitwasindirect,

collective action and less strictly formulated action competence thatwere seenasneeded for the

societyattheendofthe20thcentury.AccordingtoJensenandSchnack(1997),actioncompetence

consists of components such as knowledge/insight, commitment, vision, and action experiences.

Therefore, the approaches that were recommended highlighted the meaning of the participants’

reflectedexperienceandoftheemancipatory(participative)approachbasedonthestudents’choices

anddecisionsaboutshapingtheirprograms.

IncomparisonwithIIETandECS,theteachersdonotdominateevenintheinitialstepsoftheaction

competencemodels. Rather than transmitting knowledge, they should play the role of facilitators

developing the students’ interpersonal competence (including cooperation, communication, or

decision-making)andprovidingthestudentswiththeopportunitytosolveissuesoftheirownchoice.

Learningshouldoccurasaresultofthestudents’actionandreflection,inarepeated4-stepsequence

basedon theexperiential learning theoryas formulatedbyKurt LewinandDavidKolb (1984) (see

Image4).

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Image4TheExperientialLearningcycle

Although such a critical-thinking approach is still rare in the Czech Republic (it seems to bemore

common in Sweden and some other European countries), a few examples have been recently

mentionedinCinceraetal.(2016).Forinstance,afterparticipatinginadiscussion-basedlessononthe

palmoilissue,elementaryschoolpupilsdecidedtoinvestigatewhichoftheirfavoritebiscuitscontain

palmoil.Afterthis,theywrotealettertotheproducer(whichwastheCzechbranchofaninternational

company)withacomplaintandarequesttoalterthepractice.

Theserecommendationsresonatedwithmanyapproachesthathavebeenusedworld-wideandthat

are relevant for the fieldofEEaswellas forEducation forSustainableDevelopment (ESD),anew,

popularconceptsincetheearly1990s.Anotherpopularapproach,alsoknownintheCzechRepublic,

isplace-basededucation(PBE),whichhighlightstheideaoflinkingtheschoolcurriculawiththelocal

environment and community (Sobel, 2005; Smith, 2007).Given the scopeof this quite broad field

encompassingavarietyofparticularapproaches,DavidGruenewald(2008)calledfor“thecriticalPBE”.

The critical PBEwas supposed to be oriented toward teaching students to critically reflect on the

problems and issues in their community, to identify how these problems and issues are rooted in

hiddenpowerstructures,andtobeactivelyengagedinsolvingtheissuesbydirectorindirectactions.

In this approach, schools should become an agent of change. They should develop the students’

Experience

ReflectionGeneralisation

Transfer

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citizenship competence rather than just transmitting knowledge or preparing the students for the

demandsoftheglobalmarket.

Unfortunately,thiskindofpracticeisstillnewintheCzechRepublic,andthesekindsofschoolactivities

areoftenmetwithmisunderstandingoranimosityfromtheimplicatedmunicipalbodies.Asaresult,

teacherstendto“choose”non-controversialissuesfortheirstudents,issuesthatareoftenbasedon

“greening”thewasteareas,increasingsafetyontheroadsneartheirschools,etc.(Cinceraetal.,2016).

Formanyschools,itseemstobesafertoengageinvariousgameordiscussion-basedscenariosrather

thantodealwithreal-lifeissues.Asthisapproachmayalsohaveitsmerits,itwillbeanalyzedinthe

nextchapter.

Gameanddiscussion-basedapproachesAlthoughitistheinstructionalstrategiesbasedonactualparticipationinreal-lifeproblemsthatseem

tohavethehighestimpactonstudents’competence,fartoooftenthisapproachisnotmanageable

forteachers.Limitedtime,lackofexperience,orthecomplexnatureofglobalproblemsmayincrease

theneedforalternative,lessdemandingapproaches.Sound,evenifprobablylesspowerful,strategies

arebasedonprovidingindirectexperiencewiththeinvestigatedissuesthroughdiscussionactivities,

textanalysis,andvariousrole-playingorsimulationgames.

InthecontextofEE,thesetypesofactivitieshavebeenfrequentlyusedsincetheveryfoundationof

thefieldinthe1970s.Whileinthisfieldtherearemanyoverlappingapproachesthatprovidestudents

with indirectexperiencewithEE/ESD-relevant issues, justa fewof themwillbedescribed inmore

detailhere.

Case-basedmethodology

A case-basedmethodology stands for a socio-constructivist perspective in which the teacher is a

mediatorandstudentsworkingroupsandlearnfromtheirpeers.Firstappliedin1870,inaLawSchool

intheUnitedStatesofAmerica(HarvardGraduateSchoolofBusinessAdministration),whereanewly

appointedDean,ChristopherLangdell,beganteachingbyreferringtorealcases,brokeawaydecades

ofteachingthroughlecturesandtransmissiveapproachestoteaching.Thesuccessandeffectiveness

ofthisnewapproachwasduetothequalityofthematerialsprovidedandthecommitmentofthe

institutioningainingexpertiseinthenewteachingmethod.

The use of real-life cases (actual or historical) allows students to developmore complex levels of

cognitive learning, which will lead to the development of analytical skills and evaluation and

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application competences. Is has also beenproven that casebasedmethodology can alsopromote

criticalthinkingandenhancedecisionmakingcapabilities.

Thisteachingmethodologyrequiresthatstudentshaveapriorknowledgeofthesubject,inorderto

facilitate thereflectionandresolutionof realcases, inoppositiontoother teachingmethodologies

whichdon’trequirepreviousexperienceorunderstandingofthesubjectunderstudy(e.g.problem-

basedlearning)(Williams,2005).So,acase-basedteachingmethodologyisbasedontheideathatnew

knowledgeisbuiltuponpreviousknowledge,byaddingexperiencetoit(Harrington&Garrison,1992),

thus closing the gap between the complex reality and the theoretical principles taught in the

classroom.Byprovidingareal-lifecontext,thestudentstendtoputthemselvesintotheroleofthe

actorsinthecase,whichwillfacilitatestudent’sengagementintheactivityandinthelearningprocess.

It isalsooftenmentionedbystudentsthatthismethodologypromotesanddevelops interpersonal

skillsbyenablingactivediscussionandinteractionbetweenstudents(Williams,2005).

Dramaeducation

Other approaches introduce EE/ESD-relevant issues through playing roles in a kind of educational

drama.Theideaofmergingtherolesoftheaudiencewiththoseoftheactorsinaco-created,critically

engagedplaymaybetracedbacktotheworksofPauloFreire(2005)andAugustoBoalwhoorganized

the so called “theatre of the oppressed”. In this kind of a “street show”, the public, usually the

membersof the low-class society living in poor suburbsof developing countries,weredepicted in

varioussituationsreflectingtheexistingsocialoppressionandtheassociateddilemmas.Afterseeing

thenegativeconsequencesofoneofthepossiblechoicesinsuchadilemma,theaudiencewasinvited

to take the role of actors and solve the issue in anotherway,with a positive result. This concept

highlightedtheimportanceofempowermentasapreconditionoffutureresponsiblebehavior.

Despite the on-going discussion about fromwhat age exactly the students aremature enough to

accepttheemotionalburdenconnectedwithglobalproblems,therearesomeapproachesfocusedon

presentingglobalissueseventoprimaryschoolpupils.Amongthem,theGlobalStorylinesmaybeseen

asoneofthemostinterestingones.ThemethodisbasedonmergingEE/ESDanddramaeducation

discourses.Studentsareencouragedtoplayacharacterinapartiallypre-designedplaypresentinga

selected issue (e.g., immigration, the exhaustion of the natural sources, water scarcity etc.)

(McNaughton, 2004, 2006, 2012). They start to be emotionally engaged and are asked to solve

dilemmaspostulatedbytheteacherthroughtheplay’sscript.

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Thisapproachhasprovedtobeeffectivemainly in increasingthepupils’ issueawarenessandtheir

empathytowardmarginalizedandoppressedgroups(e.g.,theindigenouspeoplelivinginadestroyed

tropical forest). It has also had some positive impact on the pupils’ interpersonal competence

(communication and cooperation skills) (McNaughton, 2004, 2006, 2012, 2014; Vaďurová &

Slepičková,2015).

Globaleducationandsystemthinkingeducation

AnotherapproachbasedonprovidinganindirectexperiencewithEE/ESDproblemsisglobaleducation

(GE),whichwasfoundedintheearly1980s.Inthisapproach,theissuesarepresentedbyvarioustypes

ofdiscussiontechniquesandeducationalgames,e.g.role-playing,simulationgames,etc.(Greig,Pike

& Selby, 1987; Pike& Selby, 1994). InGE, awareness of the issues and competence development

occupyacentralposition,whiletheothervariablesdefinedbyREBarerarelyused.Thisapproachmay

be related to Freire’s conceptof “consciousness” as theprecondition for critical reflectionand for

challengingtheexistingformsofsocialoppression(2005).Anotherconnectionmaybefoundwiththe

Mezirow(2001)conceptoftransformativelearning,orwiththeMeadowsandSweeney(2010)concept

ofsystemsthinkingeducation.Alloftheseapproacheshighlightthe ideaofaradicalchange inthe

students’understandingofthesocialreality(mentalmodels,mentalparadigms,framesofreference)

causedbytheirexposuretoanemotionalexperienceandtoadifferentperspective(seeimage5).This

experiencemaybemediatedwiththehelpofvariousgames:playingadifferentrolemayprovidea

newperspectiveandchallengethewaytheparticipantsinterprettheinvestigatedphenomenon.

Suchatheorymaybewell illustratedbytheexampleoftheFishBanks,a famoussimulationgame

developedbyD.Meadows (1999). Theactivity is intended toexplain the tragedyof the commons

systemicarchetypebyG.Hardin(1998)and,morebroadly,theconceptofmentalmodelspresented

bytheIcebergmodel(seeImage5)(Sweeney&Meadows,2010).

TheIcebergmodelrepresentstheoverlyingassumptionofthesystemsthinkingeducationalapproach.

According to this model, educational games help students to realize that the individual events

occurringinthegame(andrepresentingsimilareventsinreallife)areoftenpartofalargerpattern.

Thispatternmaybegeneratedbythe(oftenunexamined)organizationalstructureappliedforsolving

thesituation.Theorganizationalstructureitselfisaresultof(oftenunexamined)mentalmodels,the

way we think and assess social phenomena. Through an initiating experience and a follow-up

reflection,theorganizationalstructureandmentalmodelsarediscoveredandthestudentsmayassess

themodels’relevancefortheirfuturedecision-making.

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Inthegame,theparticipantsplaytherolesofsmallindependentcompaniesresponsibleforfishingin

asharedseaarea.Inthefrequentlyusedgamescenario,studentsoftendonotrealizethatfish,while

beingarenewablesource,maybeexhaustedbyoverreachingthenumberoffishingboatsbeyondthe

carrying capacity of the ecosystem (a mental model). Because of this lack of awareness, the

participantsunnecessarilycompetewiththeothercompaniesandgraduallyincreasethenumberof

boatsintheirfleet(anorganizationalstructure)beforetheydetectthefirstsignsofcollapse(anevent,

apattern).Thisexperience,oftenemotionallyloaded,isassumedtochallengetheparticipants’mental

modelsand,asaresult,itshouldleadthemtoadoptadifferentorganizationalstructureinsimilarreal-

lifesituations.

Howthe“Fishbanks”simulationgamewasreflectedbyitsparticipantsanduniversityteachers:

“Itwasfunnyandinvolvinggame.Allgameplayers(includingmyteam)weresofocusedontheirown

business,thatonlyintheveryendallnoticedthatthecompetitivegameisleadingtoadeadendfor

us.”KatarzynaIwinska,(CollegiumCivitas,Poland)

“Myteamhadaresponsibleattitudetowardnaturalresources.Wewereverycarefulwithourdecisions

andweweretryingtolimitthevolumeoffishingwhenwehadaguessthatthebaybecamedepleted.

Wewerebewilderedwiththebolddecisionsofotherteams.Intheendourapproachdidn’tsavethe

bayaswewereonlyoneamongmany.”MagdalenaKraszewska,(CollegiumCivitas,Poland)

“Tome,theFishbankGameisnotjustanimportantlessonintheTragedyoftheCommonsArchetype,

italsopointstotheinadequacyofthethreepillarsmetaphorofsustainability.IntheFishbankGame

wefocusedoneconomicsustainabilitywithoutknowinganythingabouttheresourcebase.Thistells

methatthethree-layercakemetaphorisabettermodelforunderstandingsustainability.Thethree-

layercakemodelisconsistentwiththesystemthinkingcompetencethatweaimtodevelop.Whileon

thesubjectofarchetypaltraps, Ithinkthatwecouldusesomeofthematerial inDonellaMeadows

“SystemThinking”forteachersnotesandorfurtherreading.Herbookincludesachapteronsystem

traps and how to spring them, and a chapter on levers for change in complex systems. The core

competenciesweaimtoachievereflectaparadigmshiftineducationaboutsustainability.Thismirrors

someoftheparadigmshiftcurrentlyhappeninginfieldslikeeconomicsandecosystemmanagement.

Peopledonotchangeparadigmseasilybecauseoftheirvaluesandcognitiveframes.”MichaelJones

(SwedishBiodiversityCentre,Uppsala)

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Image5TheIcebergmodel

Another learningmodeldrivesthesimulationgameTheForest,which isbasedonareworkingand

extendingofanearlieractivityproposedbyPikeandSelby(1994).Thegameissupposedtobeused

as part of a short educational program consisting of an initial discussion, the game itself, and a

reflectionandafollow-uponthestudents’investigationoftheissueofdeforestation(seeImage6).

Thestartingactivity(adiscussiongamecalledTheHipbonegame)isintendedtogivethestudentsan

opportunitytoreflectontheirinitialconceptsconnectedwithdeforestationand,inabroadersense,

withthesystemicinterconnectednessintheworld.Thesimulationgameprovidestheparticipantswith

an indirect experience of the process of deforestation. This process is emotionally loaded and

perceived from different perspectives. The debriefing session follows the logic of the experiential

learningcycle(seeImage4)inwhichtheexperienceisfirstreflectedasastory(whathashappened

fromtheirperspective), then furtheranalyzed (what is similaranddifferent in therealworld),and

finallyitistransferredtothestudents’follow-upinvestigation(intwoconsequentweeks,thestudents

independentlyinvestigatetheareaoftheirconcern,definedinthepreviousstepoftheprogram).

Event

Pattern

Organisationalstructure

Mentalmodel(Paradigm)

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Image6ProcessmodelofTheForestsimulationgame

HowtheForestsimulationgamewasreflectedbyitsparticipantsanduniversityteachers:

“Atthebeginningofthegameeverybodywasmotivatedshowinginterestandenthusiasmintryingto

effectively perform their roles, become aware of their resources and difficulties and therefore set

objectivessuitedtotheirpossibilities.Inthefirstround,playerswereabletoidentifythedifferences

and inequalities atwork, recognize the role of other stakeholders, communicate and interactwith

differentsocialgroupsandcultures,thustocomprehend,tosomedegree,socioculturalandeconomic

relationsand their importance.With thecompletionof the first round,when the first candleswere

extinguished/putout,playersstartedtorealize theconsequencesof theirdecisions,sonegotiations

becametheirprimetarget.Intheconsecutivephases,playersreflectedandemployedstrategiestofind

pointsincommonwithone’sownstandandreachagreementsthroughcarefulplanningandlistening

theotherperson’sversion.Playerswerepressuredbytimeandchangingsituationswhichstimulated

themtorecognizetheirownsuccessesandfailures,thinklogically,integrateintotheirvision,tovarying

degrees (re: roles), environmental ethics, equality and diverse human values and, finally, find

alternativeroutestoachievetheirobjectives…”

“Thegamemotivatedplayerstoperformitwithinterestanddiligence;therefore,thegamewasplayed

withinterest,care,speedandpromptness.Theplayersbecameawareoftheirresourcesanddifficulties

and thus theywere able to set objectives suited to their possibilities; therefore, theywere able to

recognize their own successes and failures. Given the complex, dynamic, contradictory situation,

playerswereabletoidentifythedifferencesandinequalitiesatworkandtocommunicateandinteract

withdifferentsocialgroupsandcultures.TheconnectionsbetweendifferentSHsenabledplayersto

comprehend,tosomedegree,socioculturalandeconomicrelationsandtheirimportance.

Initialdiscussion

•TheHipbonegame

Simulatedexperience

•SimulationgameTheForest

Debriefing

•Reflectionoftheexperience•Comparisonwiththereality

Follow-upassignment

•Studentsinvestigationoftheissue•Presentationoffindings

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Adaptabilitywasalsonecessaryforthegame.Theywerepressuredbytime,disagreements,opposition,

etc.whichdidnotstopthemfromsetting(new)objectivesaswellasfromfindingalternativeroutesto

achievetheirobjectives.Theywerealsostimulatedbythechallengeofchangingsituationsandtriedto

monitortheirprogress.Furthermore,thegamepromotedareflective,criticalattitude,strengthened

(someof)theplayers’(dependingontheroles)capacitytothinklogically,usingreasonasaninstrument

ofdialogueaswellastointegrateintotheirvisionadiversityofknowledge,beliefsandvalues,and

includeethicsasanissue.

Additionally,interpersonalcommunicationwasdevelopedintheframeworkofthegame.Theplayers

wereabletoestablishgooddialoguerelationswithothersandproducecollaborationasaproductof

interactions.Theplayerswereabletoimproveinterpersonalcommunication,conflictmanagementand

theexerciseofleadershipinsmallgroups.

Negotiationwascentraltothegame.Theplayerswereabletolearnandmastersimpletacticssuchas

listeningtotheotherperson’sversionandfindingpointsincommonwithone’sownstand.Theyalso

addressedconflictivesituations,reflectedandemployedstrategiestoreachagreements.Finally,they

wereabletohandleconfrontationsthroughconflictnegotiationorengagingmediation.

Moreover,thegameseemstohavecontributedindevelopingvaluessuchasrespectforhumandignity,

solidarity, global justice, etc. to all the players.” (Alex Koutsouris and Alexandra Smyrniotopoulou,

AgriculturalUniversityofAthens)

“Duringthesimulation“TropicalForest”Iwasastonishedhoweasilywegetintosocalled„capitalist

game” of thinking about particular profits here and now, it saddenedmewhen he lesson was so

realistic:itoccurredthatevenwithverygoodgovernanceintheendthosewhoarebigandrichhavea

greatpower. This experiencemademepessimistic about the futureof theworld…and turned into

thinkinghowtoempowerstudentsthroughactivelearning.Arewegoingtoshowstudents„whatthe

worldis”orshallwealsotrytomakethemmoreactiveandpowerful?Thisisachallengeofsustainable

teachingandteachingsustainability”(KatarzynaIwinska,CollegiumCivitas)

“TheForestsimulationgamewasnotablefortherichnessofthesocialandpoliticaldimensionsofSD

where many stakeholders compete for access to the same resource, and multiple ways in which

stakeholdersderived their livelihood from the forest.Onceagain though, our knowledgeof rateof

changeto the forestwas inadequate forus toplanaheadanddevisebetterwaysofmanagingthe

forestforthebenefitofall.TheForestsimulationisasophisticatedgamewiththepotentialtocreate

lessonplansaroundeachofthecorecompetenciesbyrunningthesimulationindifferentforms,for

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exampleaversionthat isfocusedonvision(anticipatorycompetence)andleadership(interpersonal

competence).”MichaelJones(SwedishBiodiversityCentre,Uppsala)

“Whenplayingand learning inagame like the rain forest simulationgameorFishbanks,onevery

importantpartisthattheendresultwillbedebriefedinawaythatafeelingofhopelessnessisavoided.”

PeterAspengren(SLU,Sweden)

While numerous educationalmaterials with EE-relevant games or discussion-based activities have

been published, they have rarely been the target of rigorous evaluation. In contrast to the issue-

investigationoraction-competencemodels,theyareusuallyconsideredtobepartofalongerprogram

andtheirparticulareffectisusuallynotanalyzed.InthecaseofTheForestprogram,theeffectofthe

simulationgamecannotbeseparatedfromtheeffectofthefullprogramastheinitialdiscussioncould

helpwithframingtheexperienceandthefollow-upinvestigationmightbecrucial forthestudents’

deeper elaboration of the issue. Since the program was aimed to develop the students’ issue

awareness and their systems thinking competence, we could see, on the basis of the students’

reflection,thatsuchadevelopmentlikelyoccurredasthestudentswereabletoreflectontheroleof

newstakeholders in the issue (“Manygroupswithdifferentpreferences,background…”,“also local

timber industry plays its role”) and they became aware of new layers of the social and ecological

mechanismsofdeforestation(“thereasonisnotonlydesirefornewplantationsofpalmtreesbutalso

plantingsoyabeans…”,“governmentplansbuildingnewinfrastructureforestablishingsecurityoflocal

citizens…”,“timbercompaniesmusthavegainsandbecompatibleinglobalmarket”).

Whiletheevaluationresearchoftheissue-orientedprogramsmaybesometimesdifficultorbeyond

thecapacityoftheteachersinvolved,asimplequalityassessmentmayprovideusefulinformationfor

analyzingtherelevanceofsuchprogramsforissue-orientedcurricula.

Quality assessment criteria for issue-oriented EE programs and

educationalmaterialsTheapplicationofqualitycriteriaisoneoftheapproachesdiscussedinassessingEE/ESDprograms.

Assomescholarsassume,notonly theoutcomes,butalso theprocessmatters,andtheprocess is

oftenshapedbyqualitiesthatarehardtomeasure(Mogensen&Schnack,2010).Asaresult,various

setsofqualityassessmentcriteriaexistinthefieldsofbothEE/ESD.Whilesomeofthesetsarerelevant

tospecificprogramsonly(e.g.,thequalitycriteriafortheEco-schoolprogram),othersaredesignedfor

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17

awiderangeofprograms(Reid,Nikel,&Scott,2006;Breiting,Mayer,&Mogensen,2005;Mogensen

&Mayer,2005).

TheRealWorldLearningModel (2015) isanexampleofa recentlypublishedsetofquality criteria

relevantforoutdoorenvironmentaleducationprograms.Themodelrecommendsassessingsixquality

criteria, including ecological concepts, transfer, experience, competence development, values, and

overlyingframes.Whilesomeofthequalitycriteriaarenotnew,theconceptofvaluesandframes,

first expressed in thismodel, provides an interesting perspectivewhich is particularly relevant for

issue-orientedEE/ESDprograms.

“TheuniversalvaluesmodelisvaluableasisthematerialaboutframesfromtheRealWorldLearning

website. Based on my experience as an SD practitioner, understanding values and frames is a

fundamentalpartofresolvingconflict.Understandinghowpeopledevelop,useandchangetheirvalues

andframesisextraordinarilycomplexandisanendlessprocessthatproceedsslowlythroughoutlife.”

MichaelJones(SwedishBiodiversityCentre,Uppsala)

ThevaluesandframescategoriesarebasedonthetheoryofuniversalvaluesexpressedbySchwartz

(1992,1994,2006,2012).AccordingtoSchwartz,thereareuniversalcategoriesofvaluesalloverthe

world(seeImage7).Thecategoriesinfluenceeachother,andsobysupportingsomeofthem(e.g.,by

expressing them as the “message” of an EE/ESD program), we support also the values in the

neighboringcategoriesbutweakenthevaluesintheoppositecategoriesatthesametime.Assomeof

the values (self-direction, universalism, benevolence) support one’s willingness toward altruistic

behaviorandothers(power,achievement)rathertowardegoisticbehavior,thistheoryoffersabroad

scopeofapplicationinalltheaspectsofenvironmentaleducationandcommunication(Blackmoreet

al.,2013).Consideringthis,itmaybeimportanttobecarefulaboutwhatmessagesEE/ESDprograms

communicate.Asanexample,whenaprogramdirectlyorindirectlycommunicatesthefearofglobal

problems, itmay consequently highlight the values of security, and as a result, support calling for

powerandtradition,whileweakeningtheoppositevaluesofself-directionanduniversalism.Thusit

may, paradoxically, support the participants’ tendency toward egoistic behavior andweaken their

motivationtowardresponsibleenvironmentalbehavior.

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18

Image7TheSchwartztheoryofuniversalvalues(Schwartz,1994)

The Guidelines for Excellence EE Materials formulated by the North American Association for

EnvironmentalEducation(NAAEE,2004)offeranexampleofsuchauniversalsetofqualitycriteria.

The Guidelines provide six broad categories of quality, which are further divided into 2-7 specific

qualitycriteria:

• fairnessandaccuracy

o factualaccuracy

o balancedpresentationofdifferingviewpointsandtheories

o opennesstoinquiry

o reflectionofdiversity

• depth

o awareness

o focusonconcepts

o conceptsincontext

o attentiontodifferentscales

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• emphasisonskillsbuilding

o criticalandcreativethinking

o applyingskillstoissues

o actionskills

• actionorientation

o senseofpersonalstakeandresponsibility

o self-efficacy

• instructionalsoundness

o learner-centeredinstruction

o differentwaysoflearning

o connectiontolearners’everydaylife

o expandedlearningenvironment

o interdisciplinarity

o goalsandobjectives

o appropriatenessforaspecificsetting

o assessment

• usability

o clarityandlogic

o easytouse

o long-lived

o adaptable

o accompaniedbyinstructionandsupport

o makesubstantiatedclaim

o fitwithnational,state,orlocalrequirements.

WhilemanyqualitycriteriamaybetakenintoconsiderationwhenassessingEE/ESD-issuesrelevant

programs,someofthemseemtobecrucial.Astrongprogramshouldhaveasound“programtheory”,

i.e.thereshouldbeareasonablechancethattheprogrammayachieveitsintendedgoalsthroughthe

plannedsequenceofactivities(Rossi,Lipsey&Freeman,2004;McLaughlin&Jordan,2004,W.K.Kellog

Foundation,2004).Theprogramtheorycouldbevisuallyexpressedbythelogicmodel(seeImage8):

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20

Image8Logicmodel

Onthebasisofawell-articulatedprogramtheory,itispossibletoassessiftheintendedgoalscanbe

achieved. For example, when the “outcomes” (i.e., goals or aims in the educational context) of a

program are “to develop students’ decision-making skills”, the associated activities should likely

provide students with an opportunity to solve a dilemma within which one or (preferably) more

decisionsmustbemade.Thesedecisionsshouldbequitedifficultbutmanageable,andthestudents

should have a chance to reflect on the decision-makingmechanisms (e.g., consent, voting, expert

decision)theyapplied.Whensuchanactivityismissing,thestudentsareaskedtosolveanunsolvable

dilemma,orthereisnotimeforreflection,achievingtheintendedgoalisunlikely.

ThecasefocusedontheorganicfarmingissuedevelopedasthepartoftheWISEprojectaimstodevelop

students’decisionmakingabilitiesandcollaboratingskills.Nevertheless,whentherole-playingdebate

on organic case firstwas tested to the Greek students, these goalswere not clearly stated at the

beginningoftheexercise,consequentlynonegroupwaswillingtoreachanagreementonthereasons

whyorganicfarmingisworthsubsidizing.Thesecondtimetheexercisetookplace,groupsweremore

opentonegotiationsandmutualunderstandingofeachother’sposition.

Another aspect of the instructional soundness of a program is how the program activities are

sequenced.Whilethistopicexceedsthescopeofthisreport,asoundsequenceshouldrespectthe

group’sdynamics(Johnson&Johnson,2006),thestudents’initiallevelofunderstandingofanissue,

anditshoulduseappropriatelearningmodelsdesignedaccordingtosomeoftheexistingtheoriesof

learning(Braus&Wood,1993,Fosnot,2005,Jacobson,McDuff&Monroe,2006,McCarthy,2010).For

examplesoflearningmodels,seeimages3and4,orimage6foranexampleofanalreadyprepared

flowofactivitiesbasedonacombinationoftheconstructivistandexperientiallearningmodels.

Generally,most learningmodelspreferstartingaprogramwithsomekindofdiscussionorwithan

experiential activity, rather thanwith transmitting information,whilenewknowledge is generated

through the whole process (e.g., through the experience, reflection, and application stage).Most

Inputs Activities Outcomes Impact

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21

models also seek the right balance between abstract and concrete learning, experience and

informationtransmission,theoryandapplication.Whenresortingtocase-basedlearningtheteaching

process starts with the presentation of real cases (current or even historical) and in group work

promotereflectionandthedevelopmentofcompetenciessuchascriticalthinkingandself-directed

learning.Still,nolearningmodelcanbeseenastheonlyvalidone,andteachershavetheopportunity

tofindthewayofsequencingtheactivitiesthatworksbestfortheirparticulargroupandgoals.

Forexample,thecasefocusedonorganicfarmingdevelopedasthepartoftheWISEprojectconsists

ofthreestages(seeImage9):

Image9Activitiesflowinthecaseaboutorganicfarming

In thecaseoforganic farmingexercisethe flowofactivitiescomprisesof the followingstages (see

Image9):Atthefirststage,studentsarepresentedbyacomprehensive lecture inorganicfarming,

proposed inorder for the students to acquire thebasic informationonorganic farmingprinciples,

certification, labelling, and financial support. Afterwards, students are divided into groups, and

background informationand supportmaterial aredistributedand further sources indicated. In the

secondstagestudentsparticipateintheirownresearch,groupmeetingsandpreparation(withintwo

weeks’ interval).Finally, theyparticipate ina roleplayingexercise:grouppresentation in theclass,

discussions among and within groups, concluding statements/positions and joint decision making

(basedontheirmutualagreement).

Flowofactivitiesinthecaseonmitigatingfoodwaste:

Intheopeningpartclassisprovidedwithsomefactsthathelptoestablishbackgroundtotheissueof

foodwaste - such as use of resources for agricultural production, demographic data of the world

population,technologicaldevelopmentsthatallowfortheincreaseinfoodproduction,andfinally,the

dataaboutshareofproductionthatisbeingwasted.Withthisopeningagroundforfurtherworkis

Lectureinorganicfarming

Independentresearch

Roleplayingexercise

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22

laid,andtheextentofthesubjectisalsodemarcated.Fromthismoment,classisdividedintogroups

andfurtherworkisperformedingroups.

Inthenextstagegroupsdiscusshowtheproblemofafoodwastecouldbereducedthrougheveryday

consumerchoices.Withthisexercise,participantsexploreandsummarizeexperienceandknowledge

thatexistswithinthegroup.

Thentheentireclassispresentedwiththelistofpossibleconsumeractionsthatmitigatetheproblem

(preparedbyteacher)andgroupsreflectonthatlistbasedontheirpreviousdiscussion.Theitemsfrom

thelistthatwerediscussedingroupsareacknowledgedandthosethatwerenotarebrieflyreferredto

byteacher.Additionalinputfromeachgroup(whichwasnotonthelist)isaddedtothelist.Afterthis

exercise,eachgrouphassimilarknowledgeonpossibleactionsthatcanbetakentomitigatethefood

wastebyconsumers.

The next activity aims to investigate the motives and consequences of (un)sustainable consumer

choices.Thegroupsaregivendescriptionofconsumers,whichincludetheirfoodrelatedbehavior(two

profilesarepresentedtotheclassbutonetoeachgroup-ofasustainabilityorientedperson-Alexander

orconsumptionorientedperson-Anna).Consumerprofilesareemployedbecausediscussingbehavior

of others is easier for people and seem to increase the openness and frankness of the expressed

opinions.Eachgroupreadstheprofileandchoosesaparticularexampleofconsumerbehaviorthat

mitigatesaproblemoffoodwasteonindividuallevel.Agroupdebatesthecostsandbenefitsofthis

actionforAnnaorAlexander.Next,theimplicationsofthisparticularbehaviorforenvironment,society

andeconomyarereviewed.Viathisexercise,studentsrealizehowindividualactionsaffecttheglobal

situation.

Aftercompletingthegrouptaskwithconsumerprofiles,groupspresenttheiroutcomestotheentire

class. As groups were working with different solutions to food waste problem, the outcomes

vary. Basedon the results students try to identify thecostsandbenefitsof sustainablechoices for

individualconsumers,environment,societyandeconomy.

Inthefinalpart,studentsareencouragedtoselectoneofthefoodrelatedsustainableconsumeractions

whichtheywouldliketoapplyintheirlivesforthenexttwoweeks.Theyarealsoinvitedtosharethe

explanationwhythisaction,andifitisgoingtobedifficultforthem(MagdalenaKraszewska,Collegium

Civitas)

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Discussion

As we can see, there is no one way to teach EE/ESD issues. Table 1 compares the instructional

approachesdiscussedabove.

Knowledge

transmission

Issue

investigation

Action

competence

Case

reflection

Drama

education

Role-playing

and

simulations

Associated

discourses

Transmissive

(information-

assimilation)

learning

Social

constructivism,

experiential

learning,

inquiry-based

learning

Emancipatory

approach,

action

competence

approach

Place-based

education

Critical

education

Interactive,

discussionand

sharing

knowledge

Global

storylines

Critical

education

Drama

education

Global

education

System

thinking

education,

Simulation

gametheory

Underlying

theories

K-A-Btheory REBmodel social learning

theory,

Experiential

learning cycle

(Kolb’scycle)

Social

constructivism

Experiential

learning cycle

(Kolb’scycle)

Social

constructivism

Cognitive

dissonance

Social

constructivism,

experiential

learning

Transformative

education

Cognitive

dissonance

Strategies Presentation Presentation,

text analysis,

investigation,

community-

basedproject

Community-

basedproject

Text analysis,

role-play,

inquiry

activities, oral

presentation,

online

research,

games, and

others.

Role-playing Simulation

games, role-

playing games,

discussion

activities, text

analysis

Approved

effect

Issue

awareness

and

knowledge

Issue

awareness and

knowledge,

attitudes, issue

investigation

Issue

awareness and

knowledge,

empowerment,

action

Issue

awareness

and

knowledge,

Issue

awareness

and

knowledge,

empathy,

Issue

awareness and

knowledge,

Empathy,

system

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24

skills, self-

efficacy, locus

of control,

intentiontoact

competence,

self-efficacy

and locus of

control, place

attachment,

impact on

schoolcontext

Empathy,

system

thinking,

anticipatory,

and

interpersonal

competence

interpersonal

competence

thinking,

anticipatory,

and

interpersonal

competence

Experiencing

anissue

Indirectly Indirectly and

directly

Directly Indirectly or

directly

Indirectly indirectly

Age Secondary

schools,

university

students

Elementaryand

secondary

schoolstudents

Primary,

elementary,

secondary

school and

university

students

Middle,

Secondary

schools and

university

students

Primaryschool

students

Secondary

school and

university

students,

adults

Educational

environment

Formal /

nonformal /

informal

education

Formal

education

Formal /

nonformal

education

Formal /

nonformal

education

Formal /

nonformal

education

Formal /

nonformal

education,

training

Time

requirement

Low(hours) High(months) High(months) Generaly low

(hours)

Medium

(weeks)

Low / medium

(hours/weeks)

Tabulka1ComparisonofdifferentapproachestoteachandlearnissuesinthecontextofEnvironmentalEducation

Asthevariousapproachesoftenoverlapwithoneanother,itisdifficulttoclearlydistinguishamong

them.Forexample,role-playingmaybeinterpretedasa“strategy”inthecontextofthecase-based

methodologybutalsointhecontextofglobaleducation,oritcouldbeeveninterpretedasaparticular

approachthatprovidesliteraturefocusingonsimulationandroleplayinggameswithoutreferencesto

any other approach. Teaching EE/ESD issues may call for a broad understanding of different

approaches and for the teachers’ ability to flexibly switch among the discourses or instructional

strategiesassociatedwiththeseapproaches.However,somepatternsseemtobeemerging.Whilethe

approachesdiscussedheredifferintheireffect,oneoftheaspectstohelpdeterminetheirapplication

could be just what the teacher wants to achieve. Even the transmissive, information-assimilation

approachcouldbeusefulsometimes,especiallywhenitisawarenessthatneedstobeincreasedand

when the allocated time is limited. In other cases, the educational environment

(formal/nonformal/informal)andtheirspecialneedsandopportunitiesmaybewhatmatters.

Suchavarietyalsoopensthequestionofhowandwhenteachersshouldbetrainedtoapplythese

approaches intheir teachingpractice. It ispossiblethat,giventhedemandsof thetopic, in-service

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ratherthanpre-serviceteachertrainingmaybringbetterresultsinchangingtheteachingpracticein

schools.Thisformoftrainingwouldmorelikelycallforakindofon-goingcoachingthanaone-shot

course.However,suchanassumptionstillneedstobetestedandconfirmed.

ConclusionTeachers interested in teaching EE/ESD-related issuesmay choose froma large varietyof relevant

educational approaches. The report provided just a brief overview of some of them. The existing

approachesdifferalotintheirtheoreticalbackground,instructionalstrategies,andothercontextual

aspects. Such diversity may be a source of uncertainty, but it can also open space for creatively

designingthebestwaytobeusedinaparticularcontext.

Wehopethatthisreporthelpsteacherstofindtheirownwayinshapingtheirpracticeinthisimportant

educationalarea.

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