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www.kalvisolai.comwww.Padasalai.Net - Page No - 1

K.Karnan P.G.Economics, Govt. Hr.Sec.School, Samayanallur, Madurai District.

rhpahd tpilia Njh;T nra;jy;:

ghlk;-11 nry;t ,yf;fzj;jpd; Mrphpah; m)My;/gpuL khh;\y; M),yady; uhgpd;]; ,)Mlk; ];kpj; <)rhKNty;rd; (,)

2 fpilg;gUik ,yf;fzj;jpd; Mrphpah; m)Mlk; ];kpj; M)rhKNty;rd; ,) My;/gpuL khh;\y; <)),yady; uhgpd;]; (<)

3 epfu nghUshjhu eyk; gw;wpa fUj;ij vLj;Jiuj;jth; m)rhKNty;rd; M)My;/gpuL khh;\y; ,)Mlk; ];kpj; <),yady; uhgpd;]; (m)

4 nghUshjhuk; vd;gJ m),ay;Giu mwptpay; )newpAiu mwptpay; M),uz;LNk <)vJTkpy;iy (,)

5 nghUshjhuj;jpy; ehk; gad;gLj;JtJ m)gFj;jha;T Kiw M)njhFj;jha;T Kiw ,),uz;LNk <)vJTkpy;iy (,)

ghlk;-2

1 mbg;gilg; nghUspay; gpur;ridfis nghJthff; fhzg;gLk; r%f mikg;G. m)Kjyhspj;Jtk; M)rkjh;kk; ,)fyg;Gg; nghUshjhuk; <)midj;Jk; (<)

2 goik nghUshjhuk; vd;gJ

m)jd;dpiwTg; nghUshjhuk; )re;ijg; nghUshjhuk; ,)fl;lisg; nghUshjhuk; <)gztpay; nghUshjhuk; (m)

3 Kjyhspj;Jtj;ij ,af;Fk; mbg;gil rf;jpahf tpsq;FtJ m)jpl;lkply; M)njhopy;El;gk; ,)muR <),yhgk; (<)

4 rkjh;kg; nghUshjhuj;jpy; cw;gj;jp gfph;T kw;Wk; jPh;Tfis KbT nra;tJ m)re;ij M)kj;jpa jpl;lf;FO ,)gof;ftof;fKk;,kuGfSk; <)jdpahh; Jiw (M)

5 nkJthd NtiyAk; ifA+l;Lk; fPo;fz;ltw;Ws; vjw;F fhuzkhf tpsq;FfpwJ.

m)cw;gj;jpapd; jpwikf; FiwT M)tUkhdk; kw;Wk; nrt;tj;jpy; Vw;wjho;T ,)njhopy; El;gkpd;ik <)tsq;fisj; jpwikahfg; gad;gLj;Jjy; (m)

ghlk;-3

1 ,d;wpaikahj trjp Mlk;gu gz;lq;fs; vd;gJ.

m),ytr gz;lq;fis tifg;gLj;JtJ M)tpUg;gq;fis tifg;gLj;JtJ ,)gad;ghl;bid gphpg;gJ <)vJTk; ,y;iy (m)

2 rkNehf;F tisf;Nfhl;bd; mZFKiwia mwpKfg;gLj;jpath;

m)khh;\y; M),yady; uhgpd;]; ,)J.R.`pf;]; kw;Wk; R.G.D.Myd; <)Mlk; ];kpj; (,)

3 gad;ghL vd;gJ

m)r%f fUj;J M)cs;Szh;T rhh;e;j kw;Wk; cstpay; fUj;J (M) ,)murpd; fUj;J <)mwptpay; fUj;J

4 xd;iwg; gz;l Efh;T vij czh;j;Jk;

m)cw;gj;jp tha;g;G tisf;NfhL M)rk ,Wjp epiy gad;ghl;L tpjp ,)mspg;G tpjp <)Fiwe;Jr; nry; ,Wjpepiy gad;ghl;L tpjp (<)

5 Efh;Nthh; vr;rk; vd;gJ m)jFtpiy--cz;ik tpiy M)MUN=TUN-TUN-1 ,)Njit=mspg;G <),y;iy (m)

1



ghlk;-41 gz;lj;jpw;fhd Njit ,jid rhh;e;jJ

m)gz;lj;jpd; tpiy M)rhh;e;j gz;lq;fspd; tpiy ,)tUkhdk; <)Nkw;$hpa midj;Jk; (<)

2 Njit tpjp czh;j;JtJ

m)tpiy gz;lq;fSf;F cs;s jiyfPo; cwT M)tpiy gz;lq;fSf;F cs;s Neub cwT ,),uz;Lk; <)vJTkpy;iy

(m)3 Njitapd; mjpfhpg;ig ,jd; %yk; fhzyhk;

m)Njit tisf;NfhL ,lk; ngah;tJ M)xNu Njit tisf;Nfhl;by; efh;e;J nry;Yjy;

,)Njit tisf;Nfhl;bd; cr;rGs;sp <)Njit tisf;Nfhl;bd; fPo;Gs;sp (M)

4 tpiyapy; Vw;gLk; khw;wj;jpw;F Vw;g Njitapd; khw;wj;ij Njhw;Wtpf;Fk; msT.

m)tUkhd Njit nefpo;r;rp M)FWf;F Njit nefpo;r;rp ,)tpiyj; Njit nefpo;r;rp <)Nkw;$wpa midj;Jk; (,)

5 mspg;ig jPh;khzpf;Fk; fhuzpfs;

m)cw;gj;jp njhopy;El;gk; M)cw;gj;jp fhuzpfspd; tpiyfs; ,)thpfSk; rYiffSk; <)Nkw;Fhpa midj;Jk; (<)

ghlk;-5

1 rkepiy Gs;spay;

m)xNu tpiy epyTk;/tpiy epiyahdJ M)NjitAk; mspg;Gk; rkk; ,)mg;Gs;spay; Njitf;NfhL mspg;Gf;Nfhl;il ntl;Lk; <) Nkw;$hpa midj;Jk; (<)

2 rkepiy tpiyf;Fk; Nky; m)S<D M)S>D ,) S=D <)VJkpy;iy (m)

3 Njitapd; mstpy; khw;wk; Vw;gL;k;

m)tpiy kl;Lk; khWk; nghOJ M)Ritapy; khw;wk; Vw;gLk; nghOJ ,)Nkw;$wpa ,uz;Lk; <)VJkpy;iy (m)

4 rkepiy tpiyapy; fhyj;jpd; gq;if mwpKfg;gLj;jpath; m)J.R.`pf;]; M)J.M.fPd;]; ,) My;/gpuL khh;\y; <)J.S.kpy; (,)

5 ePz;l fhyj;jpy;

m)vy;yh fhuzpfSk; khWk; M)khWk; fhuzp kl;Lk; khWk; ,)khwh fhuzp kl;Lk; khWk; <)khWk; kw;Wk; khwh fhuzpfspd; epiyahf ,Uf;Fk; (m)

ghlk;-6

1 cw;gj;jp vd;gJ

m)gad;ghl;bd; mopT M)gad;ghl;il cUthf;Fjy; ,)khw;W kjpg;G <)VJkpy;iy (M)

2 epyj;jpd; Muk;g mspg;G tpiy

m)G+[;ak; M)xd;Wf;Fk; mjpfkhdJ ,)xd;Wf;Fk; FiwthdJ <)xd;Wf;Fk; rkkhdJ (m)

3 ciog;ig --------- ,Ue;J gphpf;f KbahJ m)Kjy; M)ciog;ghshplk; ,),yhgk; <)cw;gj;jp mikg;G (M)

4 KjYf;F mspf;fg;gLk; Cjpak; m)tl;b M),yhgk; ,)$yp <)thlif (m)

5 .---------Vw;Fk; xUtNu ntw;wpfukhd njhopy; KidNthh; Mthh;

2



m)Gj;jhf;fk; Gidjy; M),lh;ghLfis ,)cw;gj;jp myfpd; ,lj;ijj; Njh;e;njLj;jy; <)VJkpy;iy (M)

3



ghlk;-7

1 cz;ik nryT vd;gJ

m)Jd;gk; kw;Wk; jpahfKk; M)cs;Szh;T ,)Kaw;rpAk;.jpahfKk; <) Nkw;$hpa midj;Jk; (<)

2 gzr;nrytpd; cs;slf;fkhdJ ntspNaWr; nryT kw;Wk; m)cs;shh;e;j nryT M)r%f nryT ,)khwhr; nryT <)gzr;nryT (m)

3 r%f nryT vd;git

m)epWtdq;fs; Vw;Wf; nfhs;tjpy;iy M)rKjhak; Vw;Fk; nryT ,)cly;eyj;jpw;F jPq;F tpistpg;gJ <)Nkw;fhZk; midj;Jk; (<)

4 ruhrhp khwhr; nryT ,jdhy; tFf;Fk; NghJ fpilf;Fk; m)TC/Q M)TFC/Q ,)TVC / Q <)vJTk; ,y;iy (m)

5 ,Wjpepiy tUtha; vd;gJ ,jDld; Nrh;e;jhy; fpilg;gJ m)ruhrhp tUtha; M)nkhj;j cw;gj;jp ,)nkhj;j tUtha; ;<)vJTk; ,y;iy (,)

ghlk;-8

1 epiwTg; Nghl;b mq;fhbapy; fhzg;gLk; epiy

m)xNu tpw;gidahsh; M),uz;L tpw;gidahsh; ,)vz;zpf;ifapy;yh tpw;gidahsh;fs; <) (,)

2 ve;epiyapy; xU epWtdk; rkepiyg; ngWk; m)MC =MR M)MC=AC ,)MR=AR <)MR=AC (m)

3 epWtdk; kw;Wk; njhopw;rhiy xd;whf miktJ m)epiwTg; Nghl;b M),Utpw;gidahsh; ,)rpy;Nyhh; <)Kw;Whpik (<)

4 tpw;gid nrytpd; kpf Kf;fpakhd tbtk; vd;gJ

m)tpsk;guq;fs; M)tpw;gid ,)xNu khjphpahd gz;lq;fs; <)vJTk; ,y;iy (m)

5 epiwTg; Nghl;bapy; Njitf;NfhL ,t;thW ,Uf;Fk;.

m)Nky; Nehf;fp rhpe;Jnry;Yk; M)fpilkl;lkhf ,Uf;Fk; ,)fPo;Nehf;fp rhpe;J nry;Yk; <)nrq;Fj;jhf ,Uf;Fk; (M)

ghlk;-9

1 thuk; vd;gJ ,jDs; xd;iw gad;gLj;jpajw;fhf nfhLf;fg;gl;l tpiy m)%yjdk; M)mikg;G ,)ciog;G <)epyk; (<)2 ,yhgk; ,jw;fhd ntFkjp m)epyk; M)%yjdk; ,)ciog;G <)mikg;G (<)

3 ciog;Gf;fhd Njit m)cWjp Njit M)Neub Njit ,)ngwg;gl;l Njit <)nefpo;r;rp Njit (,)

4 Nghypthuk; vd;w fUj;jpd; Mrphpah; m)Mlk; ];kpj; M)khh;\y; ,)hpf;fhh;Nlh <) rhKNty;rd; (M)

5 ePh;ik tpUg;gNfhl;ghl;bd; Mrphpah; m)J.M.fPd;R M)khh;\y; ,)rhKNthy;rd; <)iel; (m)

4



ghlk;-10

1 Nghpay; nghUspapay; rpe;jidapy; xU Gul;rpia Vw;gLj;jpath; m)Nltpl; hpfhh;Nlh M) J.M.fPd;]; ,)Mlk; ];kpj; <)khy;j]; (M)

2 njhd;ikg; nghUspay; Nfhl;ghL ------------- epyTtjhf fUJfpwJ.

m)Ntiyapy;yh epiy M)kiwKf Ntiyapd;ik ,)KONtiy epiy <)Fiw Ntiyapd;ik (,)

3 Nghpay; nghUshjhuj;jpd; ikag; gpur;rid

m)tUkhdKk;,Ntiytha;g;Gk; M)tpiyAk;,ntspaPLk; ,)tl;bAk;,gzKk; <)VJkpy;iy (m)

4 tUkhd eph;zak; gw;wpa vspa Nfhl;ghl;il tpsf;f fPd;R ------------- gad;gLj;jpdhh;

m)Efh;itAk; KjyPl;ilAk; M)xl;Lnkhj;j NjitiaAk; xl;Lnkhj;j mspg;igAk; ,)cw;gj;jpiaAk; nryitAk; <)midj;Jk; (M)

5 ,Wjpepiy Efh;T ehl;lk; m)∆S/∆Y ,M)C/Y ,) ∆P/∆Q∆ <)C/∆Y (<)

ghlk;-11

1 gzf;nfhs;ifia mky;gLj;JtJ m)ika muR M)khepy muR ,)ika tq;fp <)jdpahh; Jiw (,)

2 nghJ kf;fsplk; cs;s Gof;fg;gzk; vd;gJ m) M1 M) M2 ,) M3 <) M4 (m)

3 tq;fp tPjk; vg;NghJ cah;j;jg;gLfpwJ m)gzthl;lk; M)gztPf;fk; ,)tpiy epiyahf ,Uj;jy; <)Ntiyapd;ik (M)

4 gztPf;fj;jpd; NghJ vd;d epfOk;

m)tpahghhpfs; ,yhgk; <l;Lth; M)Cjpak; <l;Lth; ,yhgk; ngWth; ;,)khj rk;gsk; ngWth; ,yhgk; ngWth; <)thliff;F tpLgth; ,yhgk; ngWth; (m)

5tpiyfs; caUk; NghJ cs;s #o;epiyAk; kw;Wk; Njit Njf;fKk; miof;fg;gLfpwJ.

m)nryT ce;J gztPf;fk; M)Njit <h;g;G gztPf;fk; ,)Njf;f epiyj;jd;ik gztPf;fk; <)$yp ce;J gztPf;fk; (,)

ghlk;-12

1 nghJ epjpahdJ---------- tUkhdk; kw;Wk; nryTld; njhlh;GilaJ m)jdpahh; Jiw M)Ntshz;ik Jiw ,)nghJj;Jiw <)njhopy;gphpT (,)

2 thp tUtha; m)fl;lzk; M)thpfspd; tiffs; ,)tUtha; <)thpaw;w tUtha; (M)

3 $l;lhr;rp FbauR ,jidf; nfhz;lJ

m)ika khepy kw;Wk; cs;shl;rp mikg;Gfs; M)ika kw;Wk; khepy muRfs; ;,)khepy kw;Wk; cs;shl;rp mikg;Gfs; <)Nkw;$wpa midj;Jk; (m)

4 m-urpdhy; tpjpf;fg;gLk; fl;lha fl;lzk; vd;gJ m)chpkk; M)ntFkjpAk; kw;Wk; khdpak; ,)fld; <)thp

5G+[pa epjpepiy mwpf;ifapy; xt;nthU Mz;Lk; xU ---------- Mz;lhf Vw;Wf;nfhs;sg;gLfpwJ.

m)mbg;gil Mz;L M)epjpahz;L ,)Gjpa Mz;L <)fy;tpahz;L (,)

5



Nfhbl;l ,lj;ij epug;Gjy;ghlk;-1

1 Ez;zpay; vd;gJ-----MFk;. rpwpa2 cw;gj;jp vdg;gLtJ----cUthf;FtjFk;. gad;ghLfis3 gz;lq;fSf;Fk; gz;lq;fis khw;wpf; nfhs;tJ----MFk;. gz;lkhw;W Kiw4 nghUshjhuk; vd;gJ----mwptpayhFk;; r%f

5 gy jug;gl;l nryltj;jpw;F vLj;Jf;fhl;L----. rKj;jpuk;ghlk;-2

1goikg; nghUshjhuj;jpy; mbg;gil nghUspay; gpur;ridfid----kw;Wk;-----------jPh;j;J itf;fpwJ. kuGfSk;> gof;ftof;fq;fSk;

2Kjyhspj;Jtj;jpy; midj;Jtif nghUshjhu eltbf;iffSk;---ikakhff; nfhz;Nl nray;gLfpwJ. tpiyf;fUtp

3 cw;gj;jp tha;g;G tisNfhL----vdTk; miof;fg;gLfpwJ. cw;gj;jp tha;g;G vy;iy

4 rkjh;kg; nghUshjhuj;jpd; Kf;fpa Nehf;fk;----; r%f / $l;Leyk;

5fyg;G nghUshjhuj;jpd; nghUshjhu eltbf;iffis fl;LgLj;JtJ----MFk;. jdpahh; kw;Wk; nghJ

ghlk;-3

1 .----------vd;;gJ gz;lfis,gzpfis gad;gLj;JtjhFk; Efh;T

2 tpUg;gq;fs; vd;gJ----kw;Wk;----MFk;.Nghl;bapLgit>xd;iwnahd;W rhh;e;jit

3 khh;\ypd; gad;ghl;L mZFKiw vd;gJ----gFg;gha;thFk;. ,ay;ngz; gad;ghl;L Ma;T

4,Wjpepiyg; gad;ghL g+[;[pakhFk; NghJ nkhj;j gad;ghL----MFk;; cr;rk;

5 rkNehf;F tisf;NfhL ikaj;ij Nehf;fp----fhzg;gLk;. Ftpe;Jghlk;-4

1 Njitf;NfhL fPo;Nehf;fp tUtjw;F fhuzk;-----.Fiwe;Jnry; ,Wjpepiy gad;ghl;Ltpjp

2 jdpegh; Efh;T ml;ltizfis xd;W Nrh;f;Fk; NghJ----MFk;. mq;fhbj; Njit ml;ltiz

3 rKjha me;j];Jf;fhf Njitg;gLk; gz;lq;fs;----tpisthFk.; ntg;sd; tpisT

4 Njit nefpo;r;rp vd;w fUj;ij mwpKfg;gLj;jpath;----. My;gpuL khh;\y;

5 tpiy khw;wj;jhy; Vw;gLk; mspg;G khw;w tPjk;----vdg;gLk;. mspg;gpd; nefpo;r;rp

ghlk;-5

1 .-------mspg;igj; jPh;khdpf;Fk; Kf;fpa fhuzpahFk;. tpiy2 Ntshz;ik njhopy; tsh;r;rp kw;Wk; gfph;T Nghd;wit----MFk;. cgKiwfs;

3.----tpiyapy; ve;j rf;j;jpAk; tpiyiaNah msitiaNah khw;w KbahJ. rkepiy

4 etpd nghUspay; ty;Yeh; fhyj;ij----kw;Wk;----fhykhf gphpj;jdh;.FWfpa fhyk; kw;Wk; ePz;l fhyk;

5 mq;fhbf; fhyj;jpy; mspg;Gf;NfhL----.nrq;Fj;jhf Y ;mr;Rf;F ,izahf

6



ghlk;-6

1 epyKk; ciog;Gk;----cw;gj;jpf; fhuzpfs; MFk;;. mbg;gilf;fhuzpfs;

2ehLfspd; nry;tKk; mij cUthf;Ffpd;w fhuzpfisg; gw;wpa Ma;T vd;w Eiy vOjpath;----. Mlk;];kpj;;

3 Xh; mq;fthbapd; tphpT----Kiwapy; msit jPh;khdpf;fpwJ. Ntiyg;gFg;Gkiw

4.--------vd;gJ NtW gy gz;lqlfis cw;gj;jp nra;jpl kdpj Kaw;rpfshy; cUthf;fg;gl;lJ. %yjdk;

5.--------vd;gJ xU epWtdj;jpd; cs;sPL ntspaPLfSf;F ,ilNa cs;s ,ay;ghd njhlh;ghFk;. cw;gj;jp rhh;G

ghlk;-7

1 gzr; nrytpid---- vd;Wk; miof;fyhk;. ngausT nryT

2nghUshjhu ,yhgk; vd;gJ nkhj;j tUtha;f;Fk;----cs;s NtWghL. nghUshjhu nryT

3;khwhf; fhuzpfs; khWk; fhuzpfis----y; kl;LNk NtWgLj;j ,aYk; FWfpafhyk;

4 nkhj;j nryT vd;gJ----.nkhj;j khwhr; nryT + nkhj;j khWk;nryT

5 ,Wjpepiy nryT tisf;NfhlhdJ----tbtj;jpy; ,Uf;Fk;. U tbtk;ghlk;-8

1 epiwTg; Nghl;bapy; epWtdq;fs;----nghUis cw;gj;jp nra;fpwJ. xj;jg;gz;lk;

2epWtdj;jpd; ruhrhp tUthahdJ ruhrhp nryit tpl mjpfkhf ,Ug;gpd; me;epWtdk;----<l;Lk;. mjpfgl;r ,yhgk;

3 epiwTg; Nghl;bapy; xU epWtdk;----. tpiy Vw;gth;

4Kw;Whpik rf;jpapd; %yk; nghUis tbtikf;Fk; chpik----vd;wiof;fg;gLk;. rl;lhPjpahd Kw;Whpik

5rpy;Nyhh; Kw;Whpik mq;fhbapy; cs;s epWtdq;fs; jq;fSf;Fs;Ns --------nray;gl Ntz;baij czh;e;jpUf;Fk;. Xw;WikAld; $l;Lwthf

ghlk;-9

1 ,Wjpepiy cw;gj;jp jpwd; Nfhl;ghL vd;gJ----gfph;T Nfhl;ghL. nghJthd

2,Wjpepiy cw;gj;jp jpwd; Nfhl;ghL -------Nghl;b re;ijapd vLf;Nfhis mbg;gilahff; nfhz;lJ. epiwT

3 khw;W Cjpak; vd;gJ----nryit Fwpg;gJ. tha;g;G

4 gzpf;$yp vd;gJ ----$yp vd;Wk; miof;fyhk;. ngausT

5 mikg;ig Vw;;gLj;Jgth;----. njhopy; Kay;Nthd;ghlk;-10

1Efh;T rhh;G vd;gJ----kw;Wk;----Mfpa ,uz;Lf;Fk; ,ilNa cs;s njhlh;ig tpsf;FfpwJ. tUkhdk; kw;Wk; Efh;T

2.--------vd;gJ tUkhd khw;wj;jpdhy; Vw;gLk; khw;w tpfpjj;ijf; Fwpf;Fk;. ,Wjpepiy Nrkpg;Gehl;lk;

3 .----------1930d; cyfg; ngUke;jj;jpw;F fhuzkhfTk; mike;jJ. KjyPL tPo;r;rp4 .----------vd;gJ kf;fspd; ifapUg;G(nuhf;fk;)gzk; MFk;. ePh;ik tpUg;gk;

5Muk;g KjyPl;bdhy; tUkhdj;jpy; Vw;gLk; tphpthf;fj;jpd; tpisT ----------- MFk;. KLf;fp

7



ghlk;-11

1gz;lq;fisf; nfhLj;J gz;lq;fis thq;FtJ--------vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ. gz;lkhw;W thzpfk;

2 gz thl;lk; vd;gJ tpiyfs;--------Fwpf;Fk;; tPo;r;rp

3 ghpkhw;wr; rkd;ghL MV=PT vd;gij mspj;jth;------- ,h;tpq; gp\h;

4 jhTk; gztPf;fj;ij--------- vd;Wk; miof;fyhk;.kpifNtf gztPf;fk;/XLk; gztPf;fk;

5 gzf;nfhs;if---------fl;LgLj;j cjTfpwJ. gz;l NtWghL

ghlk;-12

1 .-------vd;gJ gy;NtW topfspy; muRf;F tUk; tUtha;. murpd; epjp

2Neub kw;Wk; tpfpjhr;rhu rYif ngwhky; Nghtij ,t;thW-------vd;W miof;fpd;Nwhk;. rhpaPL

3 thptpjpg;gpd; mbg;gil Nfhl;ghil------vd;Wk; miof;fpd;Nwhk;. thptpjpg;Gf; nfhs;if

4Neub kw;Wk; kiwKf thp tpjpg;G Kiw--------mbg;gilahf nfhz;L tpjpf;fg;gLfpwJ. epfOk; khw;wk;

5.--------thp vd;gJ tsh;tpj thpiaAk; tpfpjr;rhu thpiaAk; cs;slf;fpaJ MFk;. kPj tsh;tPj

nghUj;Jfghlk;-1

1 Gdpj thp tpjpg;Gkiw Mlk;;;];kpj;2 Kjy; Nehgy; ghpR bk;gh;fd; kw;Wk; gphp;;;\;3 epjpf;nfhs;if js;SgbAk; cjtpj; njhifAk;4 nry;tk; ,Ug;G5 rkr;rPh; epjpepiy mwpf;if tUthAk; nryTk; rkkhf ,Uf;Fk;

ghlk;-21 fld; msT fl;Lg;ghL tl;btPjk;2 tha;g;Gr; nryT mLj;j rpwe;j khWgl;l gz;j;jij nfhLj;jy;3 kypTg; gzf;nfhs;if Fiwe;j tl;btPjk;4 Ml;rpahshpd; Mjpf;fk; rkjh;kk;5 gzj;jpd; kjpg;G gzj;jpd; thq;Fk; rf;jp

ghlk;-3

1 xl;Lnkhj;j Njit C+I+G+(X-M)2 nghUshjhuf; Nfhl;ghLfs; khh;\y;3 K 1/1-MPC4 rkNehf;F tisNfhL rhjhuzjuk;5 fPd;R ePh;iktpUg;gk;

ghlk;-41 vr;rchpik $ypf;Nfhl;ghL thf;fh;2 NjdPh; kw;Wk; fhgp gjpyPl;Lg; gz;lq;fs;3 fld;epjpf; Nfhl;ghL Gjpa njhd;ik fhy Nfhl;ghL4 ePz;lfhy mspg;Gf;NfhL mjpf nefpo;r;rpAilaJ5 ,lh;jhq;Fk; ,yhgf; Nfhl;ghL `hNy

8



ghlk;-51 cyf mq;fhb jq;fk; kw;Wk; nts;sp2 kpifj;Njit D>S3 njd;Mg;gphpf;fh ituk;4 Ed>1 kpifj;Njit nefpo;r;rp5 Kw;Whpikahsh;Nghl;b E.H.Nrk;gh;spd;

ghlk;-61 ruhrhp njhiyT Xh; myF nryT2 Ntiy gFg;Gkiw Mlk; ];kpj;3 ePz;lfhy ruhrhp nryT tisNfhL jpl;ltisNfhL4 Nja;TtPj thp thptpjpg;GtPjk; FiwAk;5 ,yhgk; TR-TC

ghlk;-71 njhopy; KidNthh; Xh; Gj;jhf;fg;gzp Nguhrphpah; Rk;gPl;lh;2 nkhj;jnryT TFC+TVC3 cw;gj;jprhh;G fhg; lf;s;];4 ,lh;ghLfspd; njhFg;G `hNy5 cly; my;yJ mwpT ciog;G khh;\y;

ghlk;-81 rkepiy tpiy kw;Wk; mstpd ,iz2 Efh;Nthh; Nfhyhr;rk; epiwTg; Nghl;b3 js;Sgbtpiy my;yJ fopT tpiy Mz;L ,Ug;ig tpw;W jPh;f;f4 MCn TCn-TC(n-1)5 Fwfpafhy tpiy NjitAk; mspg;Gk;

ghlk;-91 tpiy Njit Neubahd cwT ntg;sd; tpisT2 fhj;jpUj;jy; tl;bf; Nfhl;ghL khh;\y;3 ,U Gs;spfSf;fpilNaAs;s ghpT tisT4 njhopy;El;g Kw;Whpik Nfh-Nfh-Nfhyh5 FWf;Fj; Njit nefpo;r;rp G+[;ak; X kw;Wk; Y mspg;Gilad my;y

ghlk;-101 tpUg;gq;fs; tpsk;guq;fs;2 rhpTf;Nfhl;ghL nrq;Fj;J kw;Wk; fpilkl;lk;3 mjpfgl;r ed;ikfs; P̀f;]; kw;Wk; lhy;ld;4 ,aq;Fepiy ,yhgNfhl;ghL fpshh;f;;5 Mlk;gu gz;lq;fs; itu Mguzq;fs;

ghlk;-111 Fiwe;jgl;r cw;gj;jp nryT mjpfgl;r ed;ikfs;2 fld;jd;ik fl;LghL mwpTWj;jy;3 jdpahh; nrhj;Jhpik jiyaplhf; nfhs;if4 Y C+S5 re;ij rf;jpfs; mspg;G> Njit> tpiy

ghlk;-121 nghUshjhuf; Nfhl;ghLfs; khh;\y;2 tsh;tpjthp rpwe;j thpKiw3 ,aq;Fepiy mZFKiw fhyfl;lk;

4$ypAk; tpiyAk; xd;iwnahd;W js;SfpwJ Ch;e;J nry;Yk; gztPf;fk;

5 tUkhdk; Xl;lk;

9



xhpU thh;j;ijfspy; tpilasp

ghlk;-1

1 nghUshjhuj;jpd; NtW ngah; vd;d? murpay; nghUshjhujk;

2vf;dhnkl;hpf;]; vdg;gLtJ ve;nje;j ghlq;fis cs;slf;fpaJ? Gs;spay;> fzf;Fg;nghUspay;

3 hpf;Nfhh;lh ve;j Kiwiag; gad;gLj;jpdh;? gFj;jha;Tkiw

4,ytr gz;lq;fSf;F ,uz;L vLj;Jf;fhl;Lfs; jUf? fhw;W> #hpa xsp

5 gz tUkhdj;jpw;F NtW ngah; vd;d? ngausT tUkhdk;ghlk;-2

1goikg; nghUshjhuk; Xh; jd;dpiwTg; nghUshjhukh? Mk;

2Kjyhspj;Jtj;jpy; cw;gj;jp Vd; mjpfhpf;fg;gLfpwJ? ,yhgNehf;F

3 msTf;fjpfkhd cw;gj;jpapd tpisT ahJ? tPo;r;rp

4nghJTlikg; nghUshjhuj;jpy; ntw;wpngw;w ,UehLfisf; $Wf? rPPdh> fPA+gh

5 fyg;G nghUshjhuj;jpy; jpl;lkpLjy; cz;lh? Mk;ghlk;-3

1 gad;ghl;il tiuaW? tpUg;gq;fis epiwTnra;Ak; rf;jp

2rk - ,Wjpepiyg;; gad;ghl;bw;F NtW ngah; vd;d? fh]d; ,uz;lhk;tpjp

3 rkNehf;F tisNfhL vd;why; vd;d?

rkNehf;F tisNfhL vd;gJ ,uz;L gz;lq;fspd; gy;NtW ,izg;Gfspd; %yk; fpilf;Fk;

4 rkNehf;F njhFjp vd;why; vd;d?

rkNehf;F njhFjp vd;gJ ,uz;L gz;lq;fSf;fhd ntt;NtW epiyahd gad;ghl;il tpsf;Fk;

5 epjpepiy Nfhl;bw;F NtW ngah; vd;d? tpiy tpfpjNfhLghlk;-4

1nghUshjhu Nfhl;ghl;bd; mbg;gil vLf;Nfhs;fs; ahit? kw;wit khwhjpUf;Fk;NghJ

2nrOikapd; NghJk;>ke;jj;jpd; NghJk; Njit vt;thW khWgLfpwJ?

nrOikapd;NghJ Njit mjpfhpf;Fk; ke;jj;jpd;NghJ Njit FiwAk;

3 Gs;sp Kiwapd; tha;ghLfs; vd;d?ep=Njitf;Nfhl;bd; fPo;gphpT/NjitNfhl;bd; Nky;gphpT

4 tUkhd Njit nefpo;r;rp vd;why; vd;d?tUkhdj;jpy; Vw;gl;l khw;wj;jhy;> Njitapy; Vw;gl;l khw;w msT

5

ciog;gpd; Njit nefpo;tjw;wjhf ,Uf;Fk;NghJ>xU njhopw;rq;fk; Cjpaj;ij cah;j;j KbAkh? Mk;

ghlk;-5

1 nghJ rkepiy vd;why; vd;d? khw;wj;jpw;fhd #oy; fhzg;glhjepiy

2Njitf; Nfhl;bid ,lk; ngaur; nra;Ak; fhuzpfs; ahit? tUkhdk;>Rit>gjyPl;Lg; gz;lj;jpd;tpiy

3 fhyj;jpd; gq;fpid mwpKfg;gLj;jpath; ahh;? khh;\y;

4 epiyahd KjyPl;bw;F xU cjhuzk; nfhL?fl;blk;>fduf ,ae;jpuq;fs;> KjyPl;L rhjdq;fs;

1



5 mq;fhbf; fhyj;jpy; mspg;G epiyahdjh? Mk;ghlk;-6

1 rKjha khw;wk; fhZk; Kfth; ahh;? njhopy;KidNthh;2 mfr;rpf;fdq;fs; vt;thW Njhd;WfpwJ? epWtdj;jpd; cs;spUe;J3 rk msT cw;gj;jpf; Nfhl;bw;F NtW ngah; ahJ? rk cw;gj;jpNfhL

4cw;gj;jpahsh; rkepiyia mila epge;jid ahJ? MRTSxy=Px/Py

5 fhg;-lf;y]; cw;gj;jp rhh;gpidf; $Wf? Q=bLaCbghlk;-7

1ruhrhp tUtha; khwhky; ,Uf;Fk; NghJ>,Wjpepiy tUthapd; epiy vd;d?

MR khwhky; ,Uf;Fk; /ARTld; nghUe;jptUk;

2 ,Wjpepiy tUtha; vd;gJ vd;d? nkhj;jtUthAld; Nrh;e;j $Ljy;

3 rkKwpTg; Gs;sp vd;why; vd;d? ,yhgKk;>e\;lKk; ,y;yhepiyg;Gs;sp

4 ciw tbt tisf;NfhL vd;gJ vd;d?FWfpafhy nryT Nfhl;bd; xUnjhFjp / jpl;l tisNfhL

5 ruhrhp nryit vt;thW fzf;fpLtha;? TC/Qghlk;-8

1 njhopw;rhiy vd;why; vd;d? gyepWtdq;fisnfhz;lJ2 nghJ gad;ghLfis Nkw;nfhs;gth; ahh;? murpay; nghUshjhujk;3 murhq;fk;>Kw;Whpikia vt;thW fl;LgLj;Jk;? thptpjpg;G / rl;lKiw

4Kw;Whpik Nghl;bapd; Kf;fpakhd rpwg;gpay;Gfs; vit? gz;l NtWghL

5 MRTP-rl;lk; ve;j Mz;L ,aw;wg;gl;lJ? 1969ghlk;-9

1hpf;fhh;Nlhtpd; $w;Wg;gb vy;yh epyq;fSk; tsk; ngWfpd;wd? ,y;iy

2midj;J epyq;fSk; rk mstpy; tsk; nghUe;jpa epykhf ,Ue;jhYk;> thuk; vOkh? Mk;

3 V[pNah tl;b Nfhl;ghl;bd; Mrphpah; ahh;? Nghk;-NghFth;f;4 ,yhg-thuNfhl;ghl;bd; Mrphpah; ahh;? thf;fh;

5 Rk;gPl;lhpd; ,yhg Nfhl;ghl;bd; ngah; vd;d? Gj;jhf;fk; Nfhl;ghLghlk;-10

1,q;fpyhe;J kw;Wk; mnkhpf;fhtpd; jilapy;yh thzpf nghUshjhuj;ij Klf;fpaJ ahJ? ngUke;jk;

2 J.B Nrapd; re;ij tpjpiaf; $Wf? mspg;G mjd; Njitia cz;lhf;Fk;

3Ntiytha;g;G>tl;b kw;Wk; gzk; gw;wpa nghJf; Nfhl;ghl;il cUthf;fpath; ahh;? fPd;R

4xl;Lnkhj;j NjitAk;>>xl;Lnkhj;j mspg;Gk; re;jpf;Fk; Gs;spf;F vd;d ngah;? fPd;RFWf;F

5 ngUf;fpapd; tha;g;ghl;il vOJf? K=1/1-MPCghlk;-11

1 ehl;bd; gz mspg;igf; fl;LgLj;Jk; tq;fp vJ? ikatq;fp

2mUikg; gzf; nfhs;if vg;nghOJ filgpbf;fg;gLfpwJ? gztPf;ffhyj;jpy;

3tpiyapy; khw;wkpy;yhj NghJ Vw;gLk; gztPf;fk; ahJ? fl;LgLj;jg;gl;l gztPf;fk;

4 ‘$yp’Fiwg;G gzthl;lj;jpw;F xU jPh;T MFkh? ,y;iy

5 kpifNtf gztPf;fj;jpid re;jpj;j xU ehL vJ? n[h;kdp

1



ghlk;-12

1 thp vd;gJ vd;d? fl;lhak; nrYj;;jy; Ntz;Lk;2 VAT vdlwhy; vd;d? kjpg;G $l;Lthp3 tpfpjr;rhu thp tpjpg;GKiw vd;why; vd;d? XNu khjphpahd thptpfpjk;

4 epjpepiy mwpf;ifapd; tiffs; ahit?rkepiy kw;Wk; rkepiyaw;w epjpepiy mwpf;if

5 nghJf;fld; vd;gJ vd;d? nghJkf;fsplkpUe;J fld;ngWtJ

%d;W kjpg;ngz; tpdhf;fs;:-ghlk; -2

mbg;gilg; nghUspay; gpur;ridfs;

1. ve;j xU rKjhaj;jpYk; fhzg;gLk; mbg;gilg; gpur;ridfs; ahit?

ve;j xU rKjhaKk; fPo;f;fhZk; gpur;ridfis Kd; itj;Nj njhpTfis Nkw;nfhs;sy; Ntz;Lk;.

1. ve;jg; nghUis cw;gj;jp nra;tJ> vt;tsT cw;gj;jp nra;tJ?

2. gz;lq;fs; vt;thW jahhpf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk;?

3. gz;lq;fs; ahUf;fhf jahhpf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk;?

2. nghJthd nghUshjhu Kiwfspd; ngaHfisf; $Wf.

1. gioikg; nghUshjhuk;

2. Kjyhspj;Jt / mq;fhbg; nghUshjhuk;

3. nghJTilik / fl;lisg; nghUshjhuk;4. fyg;Gg; nghUshjhuk;

3. nghJTilikapd; mbg;gilr; rpwg;gk;rq;fisf; $Wf.

nghJTilikapd; rpwg;gk;rq;fs;:

1. ,yhg Nehf;fpd;wp r%f eyNd Kf;fpaf; Fwpf;Nfhs;

2. jdpahH nrhj;Jhpikapd;ik

3. nghUspay; nfhs;if KbTfis ikaj; jpl;lf;FO Nkw;nfhs;Sjy;

4. mq;fhbr; rf;jpfs; ,y;iy

4. ,e;jpag; nghUshjhuk; fyg;Gg; nghUshjhukh? tpthp;.

Mk;. ,e;jpag; nghUshjhuk; fyg;Gg; nghUshjhuNkahFk;. Vnddpy; xU fyg;Gg; nghUshjhu mikg;gpd; nghUshjhur; nray;ghLfspy; murpd; ,af;fKk;/ mq;fhb rf;jpfspd; ,af;fKk; xU Nruf; fhzg;gLk;. ,e;jpahtpy; jdpahUk;> muRj; JiwfSk; xU Nruf; fhzg;gLtjhy; ,e;jpah xU fyg;Gg; nghUshjhu ehlhFk;.

5. tha;g;Gr; nryT vd;why; vd;d?

tha;g;Gr; nryT vd;gJ rpy tha;g;Gfis ,og;gjhy; Vw;gLk; nrythFk;. mjhtJ me;j tha;g;Gfspd; %yk; ngw;wpUf;f$ba ed;ikfs; MFk;. (v.fh) njhiyf; fhl;rpapy; fphpf;nfl; ghHf;f Ntz;Lnkdpy; gbf;Fk; Neuj;ij ,of;f Ntz;Lk;. ,jd; %yk; $Ljyhf ngwf;$ba kjpg;ngz;fis ,of;f NehpLk;.

1



ghlk; - 5 - rkepiy tpiy

6.rkepiy tpiy vd;why; vd;d? xU Fwpg;gpl;l tpiyapy; thq;FgtHfspd; tpUg;gKk; tpw;gtHfspd; tpUg;gKk; rkkhFk;. ,e;epiyapy; thq;FgtHfs; thq;f tpUk;Gk; msTk;> tpw;gtH tpw;f tpUk;Gk; msTk; rkkhFk ;. ,t;tpiyNa rkepiy tpiy vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ. xU Fwpg;gpl;l tpiyapy; Njitf;NfhLk;> mspg;gf; NfhLk; re;jpg;gJ rkepiyahFk;. gy mq;fhbfspy; Njit>mspg;G rkepiyNa nghUshjhur; rkepiyahFk;.

7.Njitapy; khw;wk;> Njitf;NfhL ,lk; ngaHjy; Ntw;Wikg;gLj;Jf. tpiy khWk; NghJ Njit khWk; ,J Njit khw;wkhFk;. ,jdhy; Njitf;NfhL khwhJ. Njitapd; mstpy; kl;Lk; khw;wkpUf;Fk;. Mdhy; tUkhdk; Rit> gjpypg; gz;lq;fspd; tpiy Nghd;w Njitiaj; jPHkhdpf;Fk; fhuzpfspy; Vw;gLk; khw;wk; Njitf; Nfhl;il ,lk; ngaur; nra;Ak;.

8.mspg;Gf; NfhL ,lk; ngaHjYf;fhd fhuzpfs; ahit? re;ijapy; mspg;gtH my;yJ tpw;Nghhpd; vz;zpf;if cw;gj;jpf; fhuzpfspd; tpiy Nghd;wit mspg;ig ghjpf;Fk; fhuzpfspy; mlq;Fk;. ,f;fhuzpfs; tpiyapy; khw;wk; Vw;glhtpl;lhYk; mspg;gpy; khw;wj;ij Vw;gLj;Jk;.

9.. ePz;l fhyk;> FWfpa fhyk; vOJf?ePz;l fhyk;: ePz;l fhyk; vd;gJ midj;J cs;sPl;Lg; nghUs;fisAk; khw;wpf; nfhs;sf; $ba fhy fl;lj;ijf; Fwpf;Fk;.FWfpa fhyk;: xU epWtdj;jpd; FWfpa fhyk; vd;gJ cs;sPl;Lg; nghUs;fspy; VNjDk; xd;iw khwhj cs;sPlhf itj;Jf; nfhs;Sk; fhy msitf; Fwpf;Fk; FWfpa kw;Wk; ePz;l fhyk; epWtdj;jpw;F epWtdk; khwhFk;.

10. mq;fhbf; fhyk; rpW Fwpg;G tiuf.mq;fhbf; fhyk;: mq;fhbf; fhyk; vd;gJ> Njitapy; Vw;gLfpd;w khw;wq;fSf;Nfw;g mspg;gpy; vt;tpj khw;wKk; nra;a ,ayhj epiyiaf; Fwpf;Fk;. mq;fhbf; fhyj;jpy; mspg;gpd; mstpy; khw;wk; epfohJ . ,f;fhyj;jpy; Njitapy; khw;wk; Vw;glf;$Lk;. ,t;tq;fhbf; fhyj;jpy; rkepiy tpiyahdJ Njit. khw;wj;jpdhYk;> epiyahd mspg;gpdhYk; epHzapf;fg;gLfpwJ. (v.fh) fha;fwpfs;> goq;fs;> kyHfs; Nghd;wtw;wpw;fhd mspg;Gfs;.

ghlk;. 6. cw;gj;jp

11. gad;ghl;bd; tiffisf; $Wf? tbtg;gad;ghL: xU nghUspd; mikg;ig khw;Wk; NghJ mjd; gad;ghL mjpfhpf;ff; $Lk;.

,lg;gad;ghL : xU gz;lkhdJ xU ,lj;jpypUe;J NtnwhU ,lj;jpw;F nfhz;L nry;tjhy; mjd; gad;ghL mjpfhpf;Fk;.

fhyg;gad;ghL : gz;lkhdJ xU ,lj;jpypUe;J NtnwhU vjpHfhyg; gad;ghl;bw;fhf NrHj;J itf;fggLk;NghJ mjd; gad;ghL caHfpwJ.cilikg; gad;ghL;: cilik my;yJ gz;lq;fspd; cilik xUthplkpUe;J kw;nwhUtUf;F khWtJ cilikg; gad;ghL MFk;.

12. ciog;G vd;why; vd;d? cw;gj;jpg; ghijapy; ciog;G vd;gJ kdpj ,LnghUs; MFk;. “xU gzpia xUtH nra;jpLtjhy; mtUf;Ff; fpilf;Fk; kdepiwT kl;Lkpd;wp mjid nra;tjw;fhf ifkhW vjpHghHj; J kdpjd; jd; cly; my;yJ mwpit KOikahfNth gFjpahfNth gad;gLj;jp Nkw;nfhs;Sk; Kaw;rpNa ciog;ghFk;” vd My;gpul;khH\y; $WfpwhH.

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13. Ntiyg; gFg;GKiw vd;gjd; nghUs; ahJ? Mlk; ] ;kpj ; jdJ ‘ ehLfspd; nry;tk; ’ vd;w E}ypy; Ntiyg; gFg;G Kiwia mwpKfg;gLj;jpAs;shH. xU cw;gj;jp Kiwia ed;F tiuaWf;fg;gl;l ntt;NtW cl;gphpTfshfg; gphpj;J me;j cl;gphpTfs; xt;nthd;iwAk; xt;nthU jdpg;gl;l ciog;ghsp my;yJ ciog;ghsH FOtpdhplk; xg;gilj;jNy Ntiyg; gFg;G Kiw vdg;gLk;. (v.fh)Ma;j;j Mil> jahhpg;gpy; ifg;gFjp> cly;gFjp> fOj;Jg;gFjp vd jdpj;jdpahf itj;J xd;whf;fp rl;ilahf;Fjy;.

14. %yjdj;jpd; tbtq;fs; ahit? 1. gUkg; nghUs; %yjdk; (m) nghUl;rhH %yjdk; (v.fh) ,ae;jpuq;fs;> fUtpfs;> fl;blq;fs;

2. gz %yjdk; (m) gztpay; tsq;fs; Mjhuq;fs; (v.fh) gzk;>tq;fp> ,Ug;g> gq;F gj;jpuq;fs;

1. kdpj %yjdk; (m) kdpjj;jpwd; tsq;fs;: fy;tp> gapw;rp> cly;ey KjyPL.15. cw;gj;jp rhHG vd;why; vd;d?cw;gj;jp rhHG: cw;gj;jprhHG vd;gJ xU epWtdj;jpd; cs;sPL ntspaPLfSf;F ,ilNa cs;s ,ay;ghd njhlHghFk;. cs;sPL vd;gJ cw;gj;jp;f;Fg; gad;gLk;. epyk;> %yjdk;> ciog;G> njhopyikg;G Mfpa cw;gj;jpf;fhuzpfshFk;. ntspaPL vd;gJ cw;gj;jppad; nkhj;j msitf; Fwpf;fpwJ.

ghlk; - 7nryTk; tUthAk ;

16. FWfpa kw;Wk; ePz;lfhyj;jpw;F cs;s NtWghL ahJ? FWfpafhyj;jpy; rpy cw;gj;jp fhuzpfis khw;wKbahJ. vdNt Njit khw;wjpw;Nfw;g>%yjdf; fUtpfs; ,ae;jpuq;fspd; msit me;epWtdk; khw;wKbahJ. ePz;lfhyj;jpy; midj;Jf; fhuzpfis khwf;$bait. vdNt Njitapd; khw;wjpw;Nfw;g>%yjdf; fUtpfs; ,ae;jpuq;fspd; msit me;epWtdk; khw;wpf;nfhs;Sk;.

17. tha;g;Gr; nryT vd;why; vd;d? xU gz;lj;jpd; rpwe;j gad;ghL Njh;e;njLf;fgLtjhy; mLj;j rpwe;j gad;ghL tpl;Lf; nfhLf;fgl Ntz;bAs;sJ. vLj;Jfhl;lhf NfhJikiag; gapupLk; coth; jd;dplk; cs;s mNj cw;gj;jp fhuzpfisg; gad;gLj;jp cUisfpoq;if rhFgb nra;ayhk;. xU Ftpz;lhy; NfhJikapd;;; gpwtha;Gr; nryT ahnjdpy; tpl;Lj;je;j cUisf;fpoq;fpd;; cw;gj;jp msNtahFk;.

18. nghUshjhu nryT vd;why; vd;d?nghUshjhu nryT: ntspAW nryTfs; kl;Lkpd;wp cs;shHe;j nryTfisAk; NrHe;j nkhj;jf; njhifNa nghUshjhur; nrythFk;. jd;Dila Ra ciog;G> Kaw;rp> rpe;jid kw;Wk; jdf;Fr; nrhe;jkhd fhuzpfis xU njhopy; KidNthH cw;gj;jpapy; gad;gLj;Jtjhy; mr;Ra Nritf;fhd ntFkjpNa cs;shHe;j nrythFk;. ,jw;F kiwe;jpUf;Fk; nryT vd;w ngaUk; cs;sJ. nghUshjhur; nryT = ntspAW nryTfs; + cs;she;j nryTfs;

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19. ,Wjp epiy nryT vd;;;;why; vd;d?,Wjpepiy nryT Vw;fdNt cs;s cw;gj;jp mstpy;> xU myF cw;gj;jp mjpfhpg;gpdhy;> nkhj;j nrytpy; Vw;gLk; $Ljy; epfu msT nryNt ,Wjpepiy nryt vd;w tiuaiw nra;ag;gLfpd;wJ. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf xU epWtdk; 99 myFfs; cw;gj;jp nra;a &.9000k; nrythfpwJ. 100 myFfs; cw;gj;jp nra;a &.10>000k; nrythfpwJ vdpy; ,Wjpepiyr; nryT &.1000/-k; MFk;. MCn = TCn – TC(n-1)

MCn = ,Wjp epiyr; nryTTCn = n myFfs; cw;gj;jp nra;a MFk; nkhj;j nryTTCn-1 = n-1 myFfs; cw;gj;jp nra;a MFk; nkhj;jr; nryT

20. MC kw;Wk; AC-f;Fk; ,ilNaAs;s cwTfisf; $W.

MC & AC -f;F ,ilNaAs;s njhlHG:

1. ,Wjpepiy nryT ruhrhp nryittpl Fiwthf ,Uf;Fk; NghJ> ruhrhp nryT Fiwfpd;wJ.2. ,Wjpepiy nryT ruhrhp nryit tpl mjpfkhf ,Uf;Fk; NghJ ruhrhp nryT

mjpfhpf;fpd;wJ.3. ,Wjpepiyr; nryT tisNfhL ruhrhp tisNfhl;by; jho;e;j (Fiwe;j) Gs;spapy; fPopUe;J

ntl;l Ntz;Lk;. ,t;thW ruhrhp nrytpd; (AC) Fiwe;j Gs;spapy; MC. AC f;F rkkhf ,Uf;Fk;.

gj;J kjpg;ngz; tpdhf;fs;

1) ePz;lfhy ruhrhhp nryT gw;wp Fwpg;G tiuf. ePz;l fhyj;jpy; midj;Jf; fhuzpfSk; khwf; $bait. vdNt Njitapd; khw;wj;jpw;Nfw;g> %yjdf; fUtpfs; kw;Wk; ,ae;jpuq;fspd; msit me;epWtdk; khw;wpf; nfhs;sf; $Lk;. ePz;l fhy ruhrhp tisNfhL ntspapL cw;gj;jpf;Fk;> ePz;l fhy cw;gj;jp nrytpw;Fk; ,ilNa cs;s njhlHgpid tpsf;FfpwJ.

1



ePz;lfhyj;jpy; cw;gj;jp mstpy; xU epWtdk; gy;NtW gjpypfisf; nfhz;Ls;sJ vd;w vLNfhspd; mbg;gilapy; mike;Js;sJ. SAC – NfhL xU epWtdj;jpd; FWfpa fhy nryitAk;> mjd; cw;gj;jpf;Fk; cs;s njhlHigf; Fwpf;fpwJ.

Nkw;fhZk; tiuglj;jpy; SAC1 – rpwpa epWtdj;ijAk;

SAC2 – eLj;ju epWtdj;ijAk;SAC3 – nghpa epWtdj;ijAk; Fwpf;Fk;

FWfpa fhyj;jpy; OA – msT cw;gj;jp Njitg;gLk; Nghy Fiwe;jsT cw;gj;jpiaAk;> OB – msT Njitg;gLk; NghJ eLj;ju cw;gj;jpiaAk;> OD- msT Njitg;gLk; NghJ nghpa msT cw;gj;jpiaAk; NjHe;njLf;Fk;. ePz;l fhyj;jpy; me;epWtdk; xU njhopw; rhiyapypUe;J kw;nwhd;wpw;F khWfpwJ. cw;gj;jpasT khWgLk; nghOJ xU Gjpa epWtdk; NrHf;fg;gLfpwJ. epWtdj;jpd; msT cl;gl midj;J cs;sPLfSk; khWk; nghOJ> xU Fwpg;gpl;l msTcw;gj;jp epiyf;F> ePz;lfhy cw;gj;jpr; nrythdJ Fiwe;jgl;r cw;gj;jp nrythf ,Uf;Fk;. ePz;l fhy ruhrhpr; nryT tisNfhL jpl;l tisNfhL vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ. Vdnddpy; ,t;tisNfhL xU epWtdj;jpw;F ntt;Ntwhd cw;gj;jp msit jpl;lkplg; gad;gLfpwJ. ,J ciw tbt tisNfhL vdTk; miof;fg;gLfpwJ. Vnddpy; ,J gy FWfpa fhyr; nryT NfhLfis cs;slf;fpaJ. Nkw;fz;l tiuglj;jpypUe;J> ePz;l fhy ruhrhp nryT tisNfhL Kjypy; xt;nthU myF mjpf cw;gj;jpAld; Fiwe;J xU Fwpgpl;l Gs;spf;F gpwF mjpfhpj;J xU glF tbt tisNfhl;il Vw;gLj;JfpwJ.

2) AR kw;Wk; MR NfhLfspd; ,ilNaAs;s cwTfs; vOJf.

ruhrhp tUtha; (AR) ,Wjpepiy tUtha; (MR ) tisNfhLfSf;F ,ilNa cs;s njhlHG : ruhrhp tUtha; (tpiy) epiyahf ,Uf;Fk; NghJ ,Wjpepiy tUthAk; epiyahf ,Ue;J ,uz;Lk; XNu tisNfhlha; NrHe;J tpLk;.

tpw;gid nra;ag;gLk; myFfs;

tpiy nkhj;j tUtha;(TR)

ruhrhp tUtha;(AR)

,Wjpepiy tUtha;(MR)

1 10 10 10 102 10 20 10 103 10 30 10 104 10 40 10 105 10 50 10 106 10 60 10 10

P AR = MRtpiy

O msT X

1



Fiwe;j tpiyapy; kl;LNk xU epWtdk; mjpfgl;rk; nghUl;fis tpw;ff;$Lk;. me;epiyapy; ruhrhp tUtha; (tpiy) Fiwe;J nfhz;Nl nry;Yk; AR FiwAk; NghJ MR k; FiwAk; Mdhy; ,Wjpepiy tUtha; ruhrhp tUthia tpl $Ljyhff; FiwAk;. ,jdhy; ,Wjpepiy tUtha;f;F fPo; mikj;J tpLk;.

tpw;gid nra;ag;gLk; myFfs;

tpiy nkhj;j tUtha;( TR)

ruhrhp tUtha;(AR)

,Wjpepiy tUtha;(MR)

1 10 10 10 102 9 18 9 83 8 24 8 64 7 28 7 45 6 30 6 26 5 30 5 0

3. FWfpa fhy ruhrhp tisTf;Nfhl;il tpthpf;fTk;?

FWfpa fhy ruhrhp tisTf;NfhLfs;: ruhrhp nryT vd;gJ> cw;gj;jpapd; xU myfpw;fhd nrythFk;. ,Jnkhj;j nrytpid cw;gj;jp myFfshy; tFf;Fk; NghJ> fpilf;Fk; <thFk;.

ruhrhp khwhr; nryT(AFC) ruhrhp khwhr; nryT vd;gJ cw;gj;jpapd; xU myfpw;fhd khwhr; nrythFk;. ,J nkhj;j khwhr; nrytpid cw;gj;jp myFfshy; tFf;Fk;NghJ fpilf;Fk; <thFk;.ruhrhp khWk;; nryT(AFC) ruhrhp khWk; nryT vd;gJ cw;gj;jpapd; xU myfpw;fhd khWk; nrythFk;. ,J nkhj;j khWk; nrytpid cw;gj;jp myFfshy; tFf;Fk;NghJ fpilf;Fk; <thFk;.

FWfpafhy nryT ml;ltiz:---------------------------------------------------------

nkhj;j myFfs;

nkhj;j khwh nryT

nkhj;j khWk; nryT

nkhj;j nryT

ruhrhp khwhr; nryT

ruhrhpkhWk; nryT

ruhrhp nryT

0 120 0 120 -- -- --1 120 100 220 120 100 2202 120 160 280 60 80 1403 120 210 330 40 70 1104 120 240 360 30 60 905 120 400 520 24 80 1046 120 880 1000 15 110 125

1



FWfpa fhy ruhrhp nryT tisNfhLfs;:

ruhrhp nryTf;NfhL ruhrhp khWk; kw;Wk; khwhr; nryTf; Nfhl;bd; mbg;gilapy; mikAk;. Jtf;fj;jpy; ruhrhp khWk; kw;Wk; khwhr; nryT Fiwtjhy; ruhrhp nryTk; FiwfpwJ. ruhrhp khWk; nryT mjpfhpf;Fk; NghJ ruhrhp khwhr; nryT nrq;Fj;jhf rhpfpwJ. cw;gj;jp mjpfhpf;Fk; NghJ ruhrhp khWk; nryT mjpfhpf;fpwJ. ruhrhp khwhr; nryT njhlHe;J rhpfpwJ. ,jdhy; ruhrhp nryT NfhLk; mjpfhpf;fpwJ. ruhrhp nryTf; NfhL ruhrhp khwhr; nryTf; Nfhl;il Nghd;W Kjypy; Fiwe;J xU FiwTg; Gs;spia vl;baTld; cauj; njhlq;FfpwJ. ,J ‘U’ –tbtj;jpy; mikfpwJ.

4. ,Wjpepiyr; nrytpid rhpahd tpsf;fj;Jld; $Wf.

,Wjpepiyr; nryT (Marginal cost) :

Vw;fdNt cs;s cw;gj;jp mstpy;> xU myF cw;gj;jp mjpfhpg;gpdhy;> nkhj;j nrytpy; Vw;gLk;> $Lfpd;w epfu msT nryNt ,Wjpepiy nryT vd;W tiuaiw nra;ag;gLfpd;wJ.

,Wjpepiyr; nryT fzf;fPL:

cw;gj;jp myFfs; nkhj;jr; nryT ,Wjpepiyr; nryT0 20 --1 40 202 50 103 55 54 65 105 85 20

vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf xU epWtdk; 100 myFfs; cw;gj;jp nra;fpwJ. ,Wjpepiyr; nryT vd;gJ 100 myFfs; cw;gj;jp nra;a MFk; nkhj;j nrytpypUe;J 99 myFfs; cw;gj;jp nra;a MFk; nrytpid fopj;jhy; fpilg;gNj MFk;. me;epWtdk; 99 myFfis cw;gj;jp nra;a &.9000/= nkhj;j nrythfpwJ vd;W itj;Jf; nfhz;lhy; 100 myFfs; cw;gj;jp nra;a &.10>000 nrythFk; NghJ &.1000/= ,Wjpepiy nrythFk;. me;epWtdk; xU myF nghUs; $Ljy; cw;gj;jp nra;a &.1000/= nryT nra;Js;sJ FwpaPLfspy;

MCn = TCn – TCn-1 MCn = ,Wjp epiyr; nryT TCn = n myFfs; cw;gj;jp nra;a MFk; nkhj;j nryT TCn-1 = n-1 myFfs; cw;gj;jp nra;a MFk; nryT

1



,Wjpepiy tisNfhL U tbtj;ijf; nfhz;Ls;sJ. ,t;tbtj;ij khWk; tpfpj tpisT tpjp jPHkhdpf;fpwJ. tsHe;J nry; tpisT tpjpapd; ,af;fj;jpdhy; ,Wjpepiy tisNfhL rhpe;J tpLk;. Vdnddpy; cw;gj;jp myFfs; $Lk; nghOJ nryT Fiwe;JtpLk;. Fiwe;J nry; tpisT tpjp ,aq;FtjhYk; cw;gj;jp mstpy; rpf;fdkpd;ikahYk; ,Wjpepiy tisNfhL mjpfhpf;Fk;. Vdnddpy; tsHe;J nry; nrytpd; fhuzkhf Vw;gLfpwJ.

5. SAC kw;Wk; SMC –f;Fk; cs;s cwtpidf; $Wf. FWfpa fhy ruhrhp tisNfhl;bw;Fk; FWfpa fhy ,Wjpepiy nryT tisNfhl;bw;Fk; ,ilNa cs;s njhlHG fzpj hPjpapy; tpsf;Fjy; vspjhf mike;Js;sJ.ruhrhp nryT: ruhrhp nryT vd;gJ nkhj;j nryit cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gl;l myFfshy; tFj;jjhy; fpilf;ff; $baJ MFk;.,Wjpepiyr; nryT: Vw;fdNt cs;s cw;gj;jp mstpy;> xU myF cw;gj;jp mjpfhpg;gpdhy;> nkhj;j nrytpy; Vw;gLk;> $Lfpd;w epfu msT nryNt ,Wjpepiy nryT vd;W tiuaiw nra;ag;gLfpd;wJ.

ml;ltiz : tiuglk;

,tw;wpd; njhlHfis fPo;fz;lthW mspf;fyhk;.

1. ,Wjpepiy nryT ruhrhp nryit tpl Fiwthf ,Uf;Fk; NghJ ruhrhp nryT Fiwfpd;wJ.2. ,Wjpepiy nryT ruhrhp nryit tpl mjpfkhf ,Uf;Fk; NghJ ruhrhp nryT

mjpfhpf;fpd;wJ3. ,Wjpepiy nryT tisNfhL ruhrhp tisNfhl;bd; jho;e;J (Fiwe;j) Gs;spapy; fPopUe;J

ntl;l Ntz;Lk; ,t;thW ruhrhp nrytpd; (AC) Fiwe;j Gs;spapy; MC> AC f;F rkkhf ,Uf;Fk;.

1

cw;gj;jpr; myFfs;

nkhj;jr; nryT

ruhrhp nryT

,Wjpepiy nryT

1 50 50 ----2 80 40 303 90 30 104 108 27 185 150 30 426 240 40 907 350 50 110



6. Nrapd; mq;fhb tpjpapd; FiwghLfisf; $Wf?

1. cyfg; ngUke;jj;jpdhy; ‘Nr’ tpjpapd; Gfo; kq;fpg; NghdJ.

2. <l;ba tUkhdk; midj;Jk; vg;NghJk; EfHtpw;Nf nrytplg;gLtjpy;iy

3. ,J NghyNt> Nrkpg;G midj;Jk; KjyPL nra;ag;gLtjpy;iy

4. ,t;tpjp mq;fhb gw;wpa jtwhd Ma;tpid mbg;gilahff; nfhz;Ls;sJ.

5. “xl;Lnkhj;jk;” vd;w jtwhd fUj;jhy; ,J ghjpf;fg;gLfpwJ

6. xl;L nkhj;j mspg;Gk;> xl;L nkhj;jj; NjitAk; vg;NghJk; rkkhf ,Ug;gjpy;iy

7. tl;b tpfpjk; rkg;gLj;Jk; fhuzpay;y.

8. Kjyhspj;Jt Kiw vg;NghJk; jd;idj;jhNd rhp nra;J nfhs;shJ.

9. ‘epiwTg; Nghl;b’ vd;gJ cz;ikaw;w xU vLNfhs; MFk;.

10. nghUshjhuj;jpy; ‘gzk;’ xU Kf;fpar; ‘rf;jp’ahFk;.

11. ,t;tpjp ePz;l fhyj;jpw;F kl;LNk nghUe;Jk;

12. gz;lkhw;Wg; nghUshjhuj;jpw;F kl;LNk “Nr” tpjp nghUe;Jk;

7. fPd;R Nfhl;ghl;bd; rhuhk;rj;ij glk; tiue;J tpsf;Ff.tUkhdk; Ntiytha;g;igg; gw;wpa fPd;rpd; jfty; glk;

2



8. EfHTr; rhHig tiuglj;Jld; tpsf;Ff?EfHTr;rhHG:

kf;fs; ngUthhpahd tUkhdj;ij gz;l EfHTfSf;Fr; nrytpLfpd;wdH. rpyHtUkhdj;ij KOtJkhf nryT nra;fpd;wdH. NtW rpyH xU gFjpiar; nryT nra;JkPjj;ij Nrkpf;fpd;wdH. nkhj;jj;jpy; rKjhak; vt;tsT nryT nra;fpwJ? vt;tsT Nrkpf;fpwJ?,J tUkhdj;jpw;Fk; EfHtpw;Fk; ,ilNa cs;s njhlHghFk;> ‘EfHTr; rhHG’ vd;gJtUkhdj;jpw;Fk; EfHtjw;Fk; ,ilNa cs;s njhlHgpid tpsf;FfpwJ. EfHT rhHG vd;gJ,uz;L my;yJ mjw;F Nky; cs;s khwpypfs; njhlHig Fwpf;Fk;.

tUkhd epiyfspy; EfHtpw;fhfr; nrytplg;gl;l tUkhdk; ‘EfHr;rp ehl;lk;’ MFk; tUkhdj;jpw;Fk;>EfHtpw;Fk; Neubj; njhlHGs;sJ vd;fpwhH fPd;];> EfHTr;rhHGmy;yJ EfHr;rp ehl;lk; vd;gJ tUkhdj;jpw;Fk; EfHr;rpf;Fk; ,ilNa cs;s rhHe;jtpfpjhr;rhuNk MFk;. fzpjKiwg;gb ,j;njhlHKiw fPo;fz;lthW Fwpg;gplg;gLfpwJ.

c = a+byc = 4+0.8y

Nkw;gb rkd;ghL $Wtnjd;dntd;why; EfHT vd;gJ tUkhdj;ij (Y) nghUj;J ‘+’ FwpaPLFwpg;gpLtJ tUkhdk; cau EfHTk; caHtilfpd;wJ vd;gJ njspT. Mdhy;> tUkhdk;caHtile;j mstpw;F EfHtpw;F caHT tPjk; mjpfhpf;fhJ. Vdnddpy; nrytopf;fg;glhjtUkhdj;jpd; xU gFjp Nrkpf;f;ggLk;. ,r; Nrkpg;G ‘fPd;];’ EfHTf; Nfhl;ghl;by;tpsf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. ‘ cstpay; hPjpahd rKjhaj;jpy; cz;ik tUkhdk; caUk; NghJ xl;L nkhj;j EfHT mjpfhpf;Fk;. Mdhy; tUkhdk; caHe;j msTf;F my;y ’ vd;fpwhH fPd;];’ C = 4 + 0.8Y –y; tUkhdNk ,y;yhtpl;ljYk; fld; thq;fpahtJ &.4 nryTnra;ag;gLfpwJ. 0.8y –y; tUkhdj;jpy; 80% nrytopf;fg;gLfpwJ. 20% Nrkpf;fg;gLfpwJ.

,Wjpepiy EfHT ehl;lk; vd;gJ “tUkhdj;jpdhy; Vw;gl;l EfHT khw;wj;jpd; tPjk;”MFk;. vdNt ,Wjpepiy EfHT ehl;lk;> EfHT khw;wj;jpy; Vw;gl;l tPjk; msT MFk;.

9. EfHitj; jPHkhdpf;Fk; tUkhdk; jtpu gpw fhuzpfisf; $W?

EfHit epHzapf;Fk; gpw fhuzpfs;: EfHT nra;tjw;F tUkhdk; kpf Kf;fpakhd fhuzpahf ,Ug;gpDk;> NtW rpyfhuzpfSk; EfHT ehl;lj;ij khw;wkilar; nra;aty;yd. mitahtd.

1. tUkhdg; gfpHT

2. nry;tg; gfpHtpd; msT kw;wk; ,ay;G

3. kf;fs; njhifapd; taJg;ghFghL

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4. gztPf;fk; my;yJ tpiymsT

5. murpd; nfhs;iffs;

6. tl;btPjk;

7. tpsk;guq;fs;

8. tho;f;ifj;ju tsHr;rp

9. fyhr;rhu khw;wk;

xl;L nkhj;j Njit ‘EfHTr;rhHG’ kw;Wk; “cw;gj;jpr; rhHG” vd ,UgFjpfisf; nfhz;lJ. vdpDk; FWfpa fhyj;jpy; EfHTr;rhHG my;yJ ,Wjpepiy EfHr;rp ehl;lk; khwhjpUf;Fk; vdNt> fPd;]; KjyPl;Lr; rhHGf;F Kf;fpaj;Jtk; nfhLj;Js;shH.

10. fPd;rpd; tUkhd epHzak; gw;wpa vspa Nfhl;ghl;bd; vLf;Nfhs;fis tpsf;Ff?

vspa tUkhd epHzaf; Nfhl;ghLfs;: FWfpa fhyj;jpy; ehl;bd; tUkhd msT> Ntiy tha;g;gpy; Vw;gLk; khw;wj;ijg; nghUj;J khWtjhf fPd;]; Fwpg;gpLfpwhH. xl;L nkhj;jj; Njitkhw;wk; xl;L nkhj;j mspg;ig nghUj;Nj Ntiy tha;g;gsT Vw;gLk; khw;wj;ijj; nghUj;J khWtjhf fPd;]; Fwpg;gpLfpwhH. xl;L nkhj;j Njitf;Fk; xl;L nkhj;j mspg;gpw;Fk; ,ilNa cs;s xg;gPL> tUkhdj;jpd; rkepiy msT MFk;. ,t;tpuz;Lk; rkkhf ,Uf;Fk; NghJ “KONtiy tha;g;G” epyTfpwJ. ,t;thW tUkhd epHzak;> cw;gj;jp epHzak; kw;Wk; Ntiytha;g;G epHzak; Mfpatw;wpw;F ,J gad;gLfpwJ.

vLNfhs;fs;: tUkhd epHzaj;ij tpsf;f fPo;f;fhZk; vLf;Nfhs;fis fPd;R gad;gLj;JfpwhH.

1. ,U gphptdNu cs;sdH EfHNthH (C) kw;Wk; epWtdq;fs; (I)

2. nghUshjhuj;jpy; murpd; J}z;Ljy; VJk; ,y;iy (G) NtWtifapy; nrhy;tjhdhy; murpd; nryT ’G+[;[pak;’ MFk; ‘thpfs;VJk; ,y;yhjjhy; jdpegH tUkhdk; midj;Jk; nrytplf; $ba tUkhdNkahFk;.

3. nghUshjhuk; %lg;gl;l nghUshjhuk; MFk; may;ehl;L thzpgj;jhy; J}z;Ljy; VJk; ,y;iy(x-m) mjhtJ x-m = G+[;[pak; MFk;.

4. $yp kw;Wk; tpiyapy; khw;wk; VJk; ,y;iy(epiyahf ,Uf;Fk;)

5. Ntiyf;F mkHj;jg;glhj tsq;fs; ,Ug;gjhy; ‘KO Ntiytha;g;G’ epiyiatpl Fiwthd epiyNa epyTfpwJ.

6. tl;b tPjj;jpy; vt;tpjkhd khw;wKk; ,y;iy.

7. ‘KjyPL’ jd;dpr;irahdJ> vdNt tpiykl;lj;ijg; nghUj;Njh tl;b tpjj;ijg; nghUj;Njh mJ miktjpy;iy.

8. EfHT nryT xNu epiyahdJ

Kjy; %d;W vLNfhs;fspd; fhuzkhf mbg;gil rkd;ghL Y = C+I+G+(x-m) vd;w rkd;ghL RUf;fg;gl;L Y = C+I MfpwJ

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11. thptpjpg;Gf; nfhs;ifia tpthp? thp tpjpg;gpd; tpjpfs;: Mlk;];kpj;jpd; thptpjpg;Gf; nfhs;if gpd;tUkhW:

1. rkj;Jt tpjp2. njspT tpjp3. trjp tpjp 4. rpf;fd tpjp

1. rkj;Jt tpjp: ,t;tpjpapd; gb ‘xUtd; jd;rf;jpf;Nfw;g’ thpnrYj;JtNj ,jDila nfhs;ifahFk;. thptpjpf;Fk; NghJ thp nrYj;JNthhpd;> rf;jpNfw;g thp tpjpf;f Ntz;Lk;. Viofs; kpf FiwthfTk;> gzf;fhuHfs; kPJ mjpfkhfTk; thp tpjpj;jy; Ntz;Lk;. thptpjpg;ghdJ epjpapd; mbg;gilapy; mika Ntz;Lk; midj;J jug;G kf;fSk; jq;fsJ rf;jpf;Nfw;g thp; nrYj;j Ntz;Lk;.2. njspT / cWjp tpjp: xt;nthU FbkfDk; jhd; nrYj;j Ntz;ba thpapd; msT> vg;nghOJ thp nrYj;j Ntz;Lk;. ahhplk; thp nrYj;j Ntz;Lk; vd;gij mwpe;jpUf;f Ntz;Lk;. ,JNt njspT / cWjp tpjpahFk;. 3 trjp tpjp:

thp nrYj;Jjy;. thp nrYj;JNthUf;F trjpahfTk; ghuk; Fiwe;jjhfTk; ,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.(v.fh) rk;gsj;jpypUe;J gpbj;jk; nra;ag;gLk; tUkhdthp> gz;lq;fs; kPjhd thpfs; nghUl;fis thq;Fk; NghNj ngwg;gLjy;.cjhuzk;: mWtilNahL ngwg;gLk; epythp.4. rpf;fd trjp: ,t;tpjp thptpjpg;gpYk;> thp t#ypg;gjpYk; mjpf gzk; tpuakhfhkypUf;f Ntz;Lk; vd;w jj;Jtj;ijg; gw;wpaJ. ,r;rpf;fd tpjp thpr;rl;lq;fs; kw;Wk; topKiwfs; vspjhd jhfTk; kf;fsJ tUkhd thpfisf; Fiwe;j mstpy; gad;gLj;JtjhfTk; mikjy; Ntz;Lk;.

12. khepy murpd; Kf;fpa thp tUtha; kw;Wk; thpaw;w tUtha; vit?

khepy murhy; tpjpf;fg;gLk; thpfs; ,e;jpa murpay; mikg;G rl;lg;gb khepy muRfs; thptpjg;gpd; %yk; tUkhdk; ngWk; mjpfhuk; ngw;Ws;sd. Mdhy; A+dpad; guNjrq;fSf;fhf Neubahd epjpAjtpia kj;jpa murhq;fNk mspj;jJ cjTk;.

khepy murhy; tpjpf;fg;gLk; thpfs ; 1. epy tUtha; (thp jPHit t#ypg;G cl;gl)2. tpw;gid kw;Wk; nra;jpj;jhs; jtpu kw;w nghUs;fs; kPjhd thpfs;3. Ntshz;ik tUtha; kw;Wk; epyk; Mfpatw;wpd; kPJ tpjpf;fg;gLk; thpfs;.4. epyk; - kidfs; fl;blq;fs; kPJ tpjpf;fg;gLk; thpfs;5. Ntshz;ik epyk; rhHghd Ntshz;gz;iz thpfs;6. kJtiffs; kPJ tpjf;fg;gLk; Maj;jPHitfs;7. xU khepyj;jpypUe;J gphpnjhU khepyj;jpw;Fg; gz;lq;fisf; nfhz;LtUk; NghJ tpjpf;fg;gLk; thpfs;8. fdpkg; nghUl;fspd; chpkq;fs; kPJ tpjpf;fg;gLk; thpfs; 9. kpd;rhu EfHT tpw;gid kPjhd thpfs;10. tpyq;Ffs;> glFfs;> thfdq;fs; kPJ tpjpf;fg;gLk; thpfs;11. ,Ug;Gg;ghij cs;ehl;L ePHtop Mfpatw;wpy; nfhz;Lr; nry;Yk; ruf;Ffs;> gazpfs; kPJ tpjpf;fg;gLk;

thpfs;.12. Kj;jpiuj;jhs; thpfs;> ePjpkd;w fl;lzk; kw;Wk; gjpTf; fl;lzq;fs;13. nghOJNghf;fpd; kPJ tpjpf;fg;gLk; thpfs; 14. tpsk;guq;fs;> nra;jpj;jhs; jtpHj;J gpw tpsk;guq;fs; kPjhd thpfs;15. njhopy;fs;> tHj;jfk; Ntiyfs; kPjhd thpfs;16. ePHg;ghrdk; kw;Wk; fhLfs; %yk; fpilf;Fk; thp tUkhdq;fs;17. kj;jpa murpd; khdpaq;fs; kPjhd thpfs;18. gpw tUkhdq;fs; mjhtJ gjpTf; fl;lzk;> tUkhd thpapy; xU gFjp Rq;f thpfs; kw;wk; fld;fs;

kPjhd thpfs;.

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13. Mz;L epjpiy mwpf;if vd;gij tpsf;Ff? rkepiy kw;Wk; rkepiyaw;w Mz;L epjpepiy mwpf;ifia tpthpf;fTk;?

Mz;L epjpiy mwpf;ifmurpd; thptUtha; kw;Wk; nghJ fld;fisg; gw;wpa jPHkhdq;fs; Mz;L epjpepiy mwpf;ifapy;

tuT nryTj; jpl;lj;jpy; mspf;fg;gLfpd;wd. tsHr;rpf;Fk;> jpl;lk; jPl;LjYf;Fk; tuT nryTj; jpl;lkhdJ ,d;wpaikahjjhFk;. tsHr;rpj; jpl;lq;fspd; Nehf;fq;fis mila jpl;ltl;lkhd nfhs;if topKiwfis ,t;tuTr; nryTj; jpl;lk; tiue;J jUfpwJ. NkYk; tuTk; nryTk; xd;wpw;nfhd;W ,izahf eilngwhjjhy; ,e;j tuT nryTj; jpl;lkhdJ mtrpakhdjhf ,Uf;fpwJ.

tpsf;fk;: tuT – nryT jpl;lk; vd;gJ Mz;L epjpepiy mwpf;ifahFk;. ,J murpd; tuT nryTfNshL $ba xU epjp Mz;bw;fhd mwpf;if “gl;n[l; ” vd;Dk; nrhy; gpnuQ;R nkhopr; nrhy;yhd ngsn[l;b - vd;Dk; gjj;jpypUe;J cUthdJ ,jw;F “ rpwpa ig ” vd;W nghUs;. ehlhSkd;wj;jpy; rkHg;gpf;fg;gl Ntz;ba ,t;thpf;ifia epjp mikr;rHfs; ,g;igapy; itj;Jjhd; nfhz;LtUtJ tof;fk;. kj;jpa> khepy muRfs; xt;nthU epjp Mz;L NjhWk; ,t;thpf;ifiaj; jahhpg;gH. ,e;j jpl;lq;fspy; murpd; epjpf; nfhs;iffs;> thpf;nfhs;iffs;> %yjd Mf;fq;fs; gw;wpa tpsf;fq;fs; ,lk; ngWk;.

tiuaiwfs; : tuT – nryTj; jpl;lj;jpw;F ntt;Ntwhd tiuaiwfs; cUthf;fg;gl;ld. NguhrpaH bkhf; mtHfs; Fwpg;gpLk; NghJ “tuT nryTj; jpl;lk; vd;gJ xU Fwpg;gpl;l fhy fl;lj;jpy; rkkhf fzf;fpl;l tuT kw;Wk; nryT ” vd;fpwhH. NkYk; epHthfj;ijg; nghWj;j tiuapy; Ke;ija nray; ghl;bidg; gjpT nra;jy; epfo;fhyj;jpd; fl;Lg;gLj;Jk; KiwahfTk; kw;Wk; vjpHfhyj;ij gpujpgypf;Fk; xU jpl;lkhFk;. fpshl; ];Nlhd; $w;Wg;gb> “tuT nryTj;jpl;lk; vd;gJ ntWk; vz;zpay; mbg;gilahdJ kw;Wk; my;y. Mdhy; jdpkdpjHfspd; nrOik kw;Wk; tFg;gpdhpilNaahd cwT NkYk; murpd; typik Mfpatw;wpd; NtH tiu Mapuk; topfSf;F Nky; nry;fpwJ”.

14. epjpf; nfhs;ifapd; tiuaiw ahJ?epjpf; nfhs;ifapd; FiwghLfs;:

epjpf; nfhs;ifahdJ jdpahH kw;Wk; nghJj; Jiwfspy; Nrkpg;G kw;Wk; KjyPLfis mjpfhpf;f KLf;fptpLk; Kf;fpa fUtpahf ,Ue;jhYk; ,jpy; fPo;fhZk; FiwghLfs; cs;sd.

1. epjpj; jPHTfspd; msT2. tzpfr; #oy;fisf;fl;Lg;gLj;Jtjpy; epjpf;nfhs;ifapd; Fiwe;j ntw;wp3. muR epHthfj;jpy; fhyjhkjk;4. kw;w FiwghLfs;

1. epjpj; jPHTfspd; msT epjpepiy mwpf;if vd;gJ xU rhjhuz tuT – nryT mwpf;if kl;Lky;y mJ xU nghUshjhuj;jpd; tbtikg;ghFk;. ,t;tiuT ehl;L tUkhdj;jpd; xU rpwpa gFjpahf ,Ug;gjdhy; nghUshjhu tsHr;rpapd; kPJ tpUk;gj;jf;f ghjpg;ig Vw;gLj;j ,ayhJ. ek;ehl;bd; ngUkstpyhd kf;fs; Viofshf ,Ug;gjhy; NeHKf thpia mjpf mstpy; ehk; gad;gLj;j ,aytpy;iy. NkYk; nkhj;j thptUthahdJ ehl;L tUkhdj;jpy; xU rpW gFjpahf ,Ug;gjdhy; ngUksT epjpahf;fk; Njitg;gLfpd;w gpd; jq;fpa epiyapy; ,Uf;fpd;w nghUshjhuj;ij Kd;Ndw;w ,e;epjp Nghjhjhf cs;sJ.

2. tzpfr; #oy;fisf; fl;Lg;gLj;Jtjpy; ePjpf; nfhs;ifapd; Fiwthd ntw;wp: xU ehl;bd; Jiwf;fSf;fpilNa xUq;fpizg;G Vw;glhtpl;lhy; epjpf; nfhs;ifapd; fUtpfs; me;ehl;bd; nghUshjhu tsHr;rpia tpiuTg;gLj;j KbahJ muR Nkw;nfhs;Sk; vy;yh nray;ghLfSk; midj;J JiwfspYk; xNu khjphpahd jhf;fj;ij Vw;gLj;jp ,t;thwhf xU Jiwapy; tpiy Vw;wj;ij Vw;gLj;Jk;. gw;whf;Fiw epjpahf;fj;jpd; %yk; Vw;gl;l thq;Fk; rf;jpapd; mjpfhpg;G 1930;k; Mz;bd; ngUk; ke;jj;ijg; gw;wpa tpsf;fpa J.M. fPd;]; mtHfspd; ke;jk; jOtpa nghUshjhuq;fSf;F ,d;Dk; $Ljyhd tpiy Vw;wj;ijNa mspj;jJ.

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3. muR epHthfj;jpy; fhyjhkjk ; epHthfj;jilfspdhy; ePjpepHthf nfhs;if eilKiwg; gLj;Jtjpy; fhy jhkjKk;> epr;rakw;w

#oy; kw;Wk; Fog;gepiyAk; Vw;glf;$Lk;. ,jd; tpisthf epjpf; nfhs;ifapd; typik nray; ,of;ff; $Lk;.4.kw;w FiwghLfs;: ngUk; mstpyhd Ntiyf; FiwT nghJ kf;fspilNa fhzg;gLk; xw;Wikapd;ik> thp Va;g;Gf;fs; Fiwthd thp tpjpg;Gf;fs; Nghd;wit epjpf; nfhs;ifapd; kw;wf; FiwghLfshFk;.

15. “NeHKfthp kw;Wk; kiwKfthp” ,tw;iw NtWgLj;jpf; fhl;Lf?NeHKf thp kw;Wk; kiwKf thp:

NguhrphpaH lhy;ldpd; $w;Wg;gb “NeHKfthp” vd;gJ ahH kPJ thp tpjpf;fg;gl;lNj mtNu thp nrYj;JtjhFk;. kiwKfthp vd;gJ xUtH kPJ thp tpjpf;fg;gl;L> kw;nwhUtH gFjpahfNth (my;yJ) KOikahfNth thp nrYj;JtjhFk;. NeHKf thpapy; thp nrYj;JgtNu thpr; Rikiar; Rkf;f Ntz;Lk;. Mdhy; kiwKf thpapy; thptpjpf;fg;gl;ltH NtW> thpr; Rikiar; Rkg;gtH NtW. NeHKf thpahdJ kf;fsplkpUe;J Neubahf t#ypf;fg;gLfpwJ. ,t;thpahdJ ahHkPJ tpjpf;fg;gLfpwNjh mthplkpUe;Nj t#ypf;fg;gLfpwJ. ,t;tif thpapy; thp Va;g;G vd;gJ fbdkhFk;. kiwKf thpahdJ gz;lq;fs; kw;Wk; gzpfspd; kPJ tpjpf;fg;gLtJ MFk;. ,jpy; tpjpf;fg;gLk; thpapd; Jtf;fr; Rik xUtH kPJ ,Ug;gpDk; cz;ik thpr; RikahdJ kw;nwhUtH kPJkhw;w ,aYk;. “epfo;T khw;wk;” vd;gJ ahH thpiar; nrYj;JfpwhNwh? cz;ikapy; thpr;Rikia Vw;gtH ahH vd;gijf; Fwpf;fpwJ. NeHKf thpapy; gzr;RikAk;> cz;ikr;RikAk; xUtH kPNj epiy ngWfpwJ. Mdhy; kiwKf thpapy; xU Nkhl;lhH irf;fps; tpw;gidahsH thpr;Rikia Jtf;fj;jpy; Vw;gpDk;> nghUis thq;FgtNu thpr;Rikiag; gpd; Vw;fpwhH.NeH Neh;Kfthp (v.fh)

1. tUkhdthp2. nrhj;Jthp3. ntFkjp thp4. jPHit thp vd;gitahFk;.

Ki kiwKf thpf;F (v.fh)1.1. Rq;fthp2.2. tppw;gid thp vd;gdthFk;.

2



gpd;tUk; tpdhf;fSf;F %d;W gf;f mstpy; tpilaspf;fTk;:

1. Njit tpjpapid tpgukhf vOJf?

Njit tpjp:

tpiyAk; NjitAk; vjpHkiwj; njhlHGilad vd;gij Njit tpjp $WfpwJ. ,J xU nghUSf;fhd tpiyiaAk;> xU Fwpg;gpl;l fhy mstpy; me;j nghUSf;fhd NjitiaAk; Fwpf;Fk;.

tiuaiw:

My;/gpuLkhH\ypd; $w;Wg;gb> ||epiwa gz;lq;fis tpw;f Ntz;Lkhapd;> tpiy Fiwthf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. mt;thW tpiy Fiwthf ,Ue;jhy; jhd; mg;gzlj;ijg; gyUk; thq;FtH NtW tpjkhff; $wpdhy; tpiy Fiwtjhy; Njitg;gLk; gzlj;jpd; msT $LfpwJ. tpiy $Ltjhy; Njit FiwfpwJ||. /ngH$rd; vd;gthd; $w;Wg;gb> ||tpiyAk; Njitapd; msTk; vjpHfzpaj; njhlHG nfhz;Ls;sd.

Njittpjp:

kw;wit khwhkypUf;Fk; NghJ xU nghUSf;fhd tpiy FiwAk; NghJ kf;fs; mjpfk; mg;nghUis thq;FtH> tpiyVWk; NghJ Fiwthf thq;FtH.

vLNfhs;fs;:

m. EfHNthhpd; tUkhdj;jpy; khw;wk; ,I;iy

M. EfHNthuJ RitapYk; NjHe;njLj;jypYk; khw;wk; ,y;iy.

,. gpw nghUl;fspd; tpiyapy; khw;wk; ,y;iy.

<. gpw gjpypfis fz;Lgpbf;ftpi;iy

jw;Nghija tpiy ,wf;fk; gpd; tpiuAk; A$Ljy; tpiy tPo;r;rpf;F KfTiu vd;W kf;fs; czuhik MFk;.

Njitg;gl;bay; kw;Wk; jdpegh; Njitg;gl;bay;

xU gz;lj;jpd; gy;NtW tpiyfisAk; mt;tpiyapy; xt;nthd;wpw;Fk; Njitapd; msitAk; fhl;Lfpd;w ml;ltizNa Njitg;gl;bay; vd;gjhFk;. jdpegH Njitg;gl;bayhdJ> xU gz;lj;jpd; gy;NtW tpiyfspy; thq;f tpUk;Gk; gy;NtW msit Rlbf; fhl;Lk;.

tpiy(&) MuQ;R Njit msT

5 1

4 2

3 3

2 4

1 5

ml;ltiz tpsf;fk;:

ml;ltizapy; MuQ;R goj;jpd; tpiy &.5 Mf ,Uf;Fk; NghJ xUgoj;ijNa thq;FfpwhH. mg;goj;jpd; tpiy &.4 Mf FiwAk; NghJ> ,U goq;fs; thq;Ffpd;whH. ,t;thW tpiyahdJ Fiwaf; Fiwa Njitapd; msthdJ mjpfhpj;Jr; nry;fpwJ

2



Njit tisNfhL :

,e;j ml;ltizia Njit tisNfhlhf tiuayhk;. Njit tisNfhL vd;gJ Njit ml;ltizapd; tiuglkhFk;.

1 2 3 4 5

Njit msT

DD vd;gJ Njitf;NfhL MFk;. ,j;Njitf; NfhL ,lkpUe;J tykhff; fPo;Nehf;fpr; rhpe;J nry;fpwJ. ,jpy; tpiy khw;wq;fSk; mjw;Nfw;g Njitapd; mstpy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fSk; Rl;bf; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sd. Njitf;NfhL tpiyAk;> NjitAk; vjpHkiwj; njhlHGs;sij fhl;LfpwJ.

Njit tis NfhL fPo;Nehf;fp rhpe;J nry;tJ Vd;:

Njitf; NfhL rhptjw;fhd fhuzk;> Fiwe;J nry; ,Wjpepiy gzd;ghl;Ltpjp. ,t;tpjpahdJ gz;lq;fs; $Ljyhf EfHtjhdhy; gad;ghlhdJ Fiwe;Jr; nry;fpwJ. mJNghy; Njitf;NfhLk; fPo;Nehf;fp rhpe;J nry;fpwJ.

ml;ltiz tpsf;fk;:

ml;ltizapy; MuQ;R goj;jpd; tpiy &.5 Mf ,Uf;Fk; NghJ xUgoj;ijNa thq;FfpwhH. mg;goj;jpd; tpiy &.4 Mf FiwAk; NghJ> ,U goq;fs; thq;Ffpd;whH. ,t;thW tpiyahdJ Fiwaf; Fiwa Njitapd; msthdJ mjpfhpj;Jr; nry;fpwJ.

mq;fhbj; Njit ml;ltiz:

mq;fhbj; Njitg;gl;bay; vd;gJ> mq;fhbapy; cs;s EfHNthH midthpd; Njit msTfis xd;Wf; $l;bdhy; fpilg;gjhFk.; MuQ;R go mq;fhbapy; ,U EfHNthH ,Ug;gjhf itj;Jf; nfhz;lhy;> mq;fhbj; NjitahdJ fPo;fhZk; tifapy; fzf;fplg;gLfpwJ.

,uz;L EfHNthuJ Njitg;gl;bay; kw;Wk; mq;fhbj; Njitg;gl;bay;:

tpiy (MuQ;R) EfHNthH 1 EfHNthH 2 mq;fhbj; Njit

5 1 -- 1

4 2 1 3

3 3 2 5

2 4 3 7

1 5 4 9

2



Efh;Nthh; 1-f;fhd Efh;Nthh; 2-f;fhd mq;fhb Njit

Njit Njit

mq;fhbj; Njit Nfhl;bd; tpsf;fk;: ,U EfHNthhpd; nkhj;j Njit> mjhtJ D1 + D2 = DD vd;w mq;fhbj; Njitf;NfhUk;> jdp EfHT Njitf; Nfhl;ilg; Nghd;Nw fPo;Nehf;fp rhpe;J nry;fpd;wd. ‘DD’ vd;w Njitf;NfhL Njhw;Wtha; Nehf;fp Ftpe;Js;sJ. ,J tpiyf;Fk; Njitapd; msTf;Fk; cs;s jiyfPo; njhlHig tpsf;FfpwJ.

2.tpiyj; Njit nefpo;r;rpapd; Kiwfis tptukhf vOJ?

tpiyj; Njit nefpo;r;rp:

tpiy khw;wj;jpdhy;> Njitapy; Vw;gLtjhd khw;wk; msNt tpiyj; Njit nefpo;r;rp MFk;.

tpiyj; Njit nefpo;r;rp vd;gJ> xU gz;lj;jpd; Njitapy; Njhd;Wk; khw;wj;jpd; tpOf;fhl;bid mg;gz;lj;jpd; tpiy khw;w tpOf;fhl;lhy; tFf;f fpilf;Fk; <T tpiyj; Njit nefpo;r;rp vd;fpNwhk;. mjid fPo;f;fhZk; fkd;hl;lhy; tpsf;fyhk;.

fzpjf; FwpaPL = Δq /q = Δq x p Δp / p q Δptpiyj; Njit nefpo;r;rpia mstpLjy ;:

,J ehd;F Kiwfspy; mstplg;gLfpwJ

1. tpOf;fhl;L Kiw

2. Gs;spKiw (or) rhpT Kiw

3. nkhj;j nryT Kiw

4. tpy; Kiw vd;gitahFk;

1. tpOf;fhl;L Kiw:

Njit khw;w tpOf;fhl;il> tpiy khw;w tpOf;fhl;lhy; tFj;J Njit nefpo;r;rpia mstplyhk;. ,jd; tha;g;ghL ahnjdpy;

2

Njit khw;wj;jpd; tpOf;fhLtpiyj; Njit nefpo;r;rp = gz;lj;jpd; tpiy khw;wk; tpOf;fhL



(v.fh) mhprpapd; tpiy 10 rjtPjk; caUk;NghJ mhprpapd; Njit 15 rjtPjkhf Fiwe;jhy; tpiyj; Njit nefpo;r;rp (ep) vd;gJ ep = 15 = 1.5

10,jd; nghUs;> mhprpapd; tpiyj; Njit nefpo;r;rpAilajhf ,Uf;fpwJ. mJNghy; 10% mstpw;F mhprpapd; tpiy caUk; NghJ mjd; Njit 5% msT kl;LNk Fiwe;jhy; mhprpapd; Njit nefpo;r;rpaw;wjhf cs;sJ vd;w nghUshFk;.

ep = 5 = .5 10

tpiyj; Njit nefpo;r;rpapd; tiffs;:

tpiyj; Njitapd; nefpo;r;rpia 5 tifg;gLj;jyhk;.

1. kpifj; Njit nefpo;r;rp (ed>1)2. Fiwthd Njit nefpo;r;rp (ed<1)3. myFj; Njit nefpo;r;rp (ed=1)4. KO epiwthd nefpo;r;rpaw;w Njit (ed=0)5. KO epiwthd nefpo;r;rpAs;s Njit (ed=α)

kpifj; Njit nefpo;r;rp Fiwthd Njit nefpo;r;rp

Ed > 1 Ed < 1 15

tpiy 10

10 20 7 10 Njit msT Njit msT

2



2. Gs;spKiw :

Neuhf mike;Js;s Njitf;Nfhl;bd; kPJ cs;s xU Fwpg;gpl;l Gs;spapy;> tpiyj; Njit nefpo;r;rpiaf; fzf;fplyhk;.

Gs;spKiwapy; tpiyj; Njit nefo;r;rpapd; #j;jpukhtJ:

Njitf; Nfhl;bd; fPo;gFjp tpiyj; Njitnefpo;r;rp = Njitf; Nfhl;bd; Nky;gFjp

Nkw;fhZk; glj;jpy; AB - vd;gJ 4 nr.kP vdf; nfhs;Nthk;. ,jid 4 rk gFjpahf gphpj;Jf; nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;.

1. ikag;Gs;sp E - apy; tpiyj;Njit Njit nefpo;r;rp = EB = 2 = 1 EA 2 vdNt Ed = 1

2. D vd;Dk; Gs;spapy; tpiyj;Njit Njit nefpo;r;rp = DB = 1 = 0.33 DA 3 vdNt Ed < 1

3. C vd;Dk; Gs;spapy; tpiyj;Njit Njit nefpo;r;rp = CB = 3 = 3 CA 1 vdNt Ed > 1

4. B vd;Dk; Gs;spapy; tpiyj;Njit Njit nefpo;r;rp = 0 = 0 = 0 AB 4 vdNt Ed = 0

5. A vd;Dk; Gs;spapy; tpiyj;Njit Njit nefpo;r;rp = AB = α 0 vdNt Ed = α

3



3. nkhj;j nryT Kiw:xU gz;lj;jpd; tpiy khw;wj;jpdhy;> Vw;gLk; khw;wj;jpidf; nfhz;L

tpiyj;Njit nefpo;r;rpiaf; fzf;fplyhk;.

,t;ntt;Ntwhd tpisTfisf; fPo;fhZkhW ml;ltizg;gLj;jyhk;.

tpiy khw;wk;

tpiyj; Njit nefpo;r;rpapd; tiffis;

ep = 1 ep < 1 ep > 1tpiy ,wf;fk;

nkhj;j xJf;fPL khwhkypUj;jy;

nkhj;j xJf;fPL FiwfpwJ

nkhj;j xJf;fPL mjpfhpf;fpwJ

tpiy Vw;wk; nkhj;j xJf;fPL khwhkypUj;jy

nkhj;j xJf;fPL mjpfhpf;fpwJ

nkhj;j xJf;fPL FiwfpwJ

4. tpy; Kiw: xU Njit tisNfhl;bd; ,uz;L Gs;spfSf;fpilNa cs;s gFjpNa tpy; vdg;gLk;. tpy; Kiwapy; tpiyj; Njit nefpo;r;rpia fPo;fhZk; Kiwapy; fzf;fplyhk;.

xU gz;lj;jpd; tpiy khw;wk; ngUkstpy; ,Ue;jhy; tpiyj; Njit nefpo;r;rpia fzf;fpl ,t;tpy; Kiwiaf; ifahsyhk;. mt;tpy; Kiwia fPo;fhZk; tiuglk; %yk; tpsf;fyhk;.

Nkw;fz;l tiuglj;jpy;> tpy; nefpo;r;rpia A&B vd;w Njitf; Nfhl;bd; ,uz;L Gs;spfSf;fpilNa fzf;fplyhk;. ,jw;F OP1 kw;Wk; OP2 ,e;j ,uz;L tpiyfSf;fpilNaahd ruhrhpia fzf;fpl;L kw;Wk; ,uz;L Njit msTfspd; ruhrhpiaAk; fzf;fply; Ntz;Lk;> ,JNt tpy; nefpo;r;rp MFk;.

3


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