ecosystems: questions,concepts, theories and indicators · ecosystems: questions,concepts, theories...
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Ecology Centre, University of Kiel
Ecosystems:Questions,Concepts, Theories
and Indicators
Outline• Questions referring to the ecosystem approach
– Operational guidance– Malawi principles
• Concepts to link theory and practice– Orientor theory– Ecosystem indicators– Ecosystems as parts of human-environmental
systems Applications will be shown by W. Windhorst
Ecosystem Approach, Salzau 2006Structure of the paper
Operational guidance 1-5• Focus on relationships and processes within
ecosystems, e.g. stores and flows of energy, water, nurients)– Ecosystem resilience– Causes of biodiversity loss– Determinants for management decisions
• Enhance benefit-sharing– Environmental security– Sustainability– Valuation of ecosystem goods and services
How to quantify? How to treat irreversible processes?
Ecosystem Approach, Salzau 2006Guidelines and questions
How to conceive? How to apply?
How to quantify?How to link to ecosystem processes?
Operational guidance 1-5• Use adaptive management practices
– Managing uncertainties– Management as a learning process– Flexible ecosystem management– Long-term orientation
• Select the appropriate scale and improve decentralization
• Ensure intersectoral cooperation
Ecosystem Approach, Salzau 2006Guidelines and questions
How to realize theseimportant demands in a conservative „managementenvironment“?
How to receive anappropriate supportfor LTER activities?
How to find theappropriate scale?
The objectives of management of land, water and living resources are a matter of societal choice
• How to investigate the relevant societal preferences?• How to realize participative approaches?• How to translate scientific concepts into every-days-
language and how to educate stakeholders?
Many questions for social scientists and environmental planners
Ecosystem Approach, Salzau 2006Principle 1
Management should be decentralized to the lowest appropriate level
• How to reduce the influence of centralized and hierarchical institutional settings?
• How is this assumption correlated with the scale approach in other principles?
• How will high-level constraints be implemented?
Apply hierarchy theory in environmental mangement
Ecosystem Approach, Salzau 2006Principle 2
Ecosystem managers should consider the effects (actual or potential) of their activities on adjacent
and other ecosystems
• How to implement risk analysis concepts which indeed take into account indirect and de-localized effects?
• How to couple ecosystem processes with landscape dynamics?
• How to convince managers to use systems analysis approaches?
Link ecosystem science with landscape ecology
Ecosystem Approach, Salzau 2006Principle 3
Ecosystem managers should consider the effects (actual or potential) of their activities on adjacent
and other ecosystems
Ecosystem Approach, Salzau 2006Principle 3
Recognizing potential gains from management, there is usually a need to understand and manage the
ecosystem in an economic context• How to quantify (existing and potential) ecosystem
goods and services?• How to compare environmental values with economic
values?
Investigate the structures and functions in human-environmental systems
Look for innovative ecosystem based evaluation systems
Ecosystem Approach, Salzau 2006Principle 4
Recognizing potential gains from management, there is usually a need to understand and manage the
ecosystem in an economic context
Ecosystem Approach, Salzau 2006Principle 4
Contextualconstraints
__________social change
political changetechnological change
cultural change
Human well-being__________basic supply
healthsocial security
education. . .
Ecosystemservices
__________Provisioning Regulating
Cultural
Landscapestate / integrity
__________
structuralfunctional
Land use__________
spatial (structural)intensity (functional)
Contextualconstraints
__________external
environmentalchanges
Pressure State
Im
pact
Driv
ers
Response
Decisionprocess
__________formation of opinions
governanceparticipation
Drivers__________
socioeconomicsociopoliticaldemographictechnological
cultural/religious
supp
ortin
g
Conservation of ecosystem structure and functioning, in order to maintain ecosystem services, should be a
priority target of the ecosystem approach.
• How to measure ecosystem functioning?• How are structures and functions interrelated?• How to evaluate ecosystem organizations of future
states?• How to indicate ecosystem services?
Do research on linkages between structures and functions (ecosystem organization, ecosystem theory)
Derive ecosystem indicators Investigate ecosystem services
Ecosystem Approach, Salzau 2006Principle 5
Conservation of ecosystem structure and functioning, in order to maintain ecosystem services, should be a
priority target of the ecosystem approach.
Ecosystem Approach, Salzau 2006Principle 5
Ecosystems must be managed within the limits of their functioning.
• Which functions have to be taken into account?• How to quantify those limits?• How to cope with adaptation and constraints‘
dynamics?
Search good ecosystem indicatorsApply those indicators and link them with functioning
ecosystem modelsUse and develop scenario techniques
Ecosystem Approach, Salzau 2006Principle 6
Ecosystems must be managed within the limits of their functioning.
Ecosystem Approach, Salzau 2006Principle 6
Throughfall
1
2
3
4
5
2Measured variablesModelledvariables
Precipitation
Interception
Stemflow
Infiltration (h)
Seepage
Groundwater
Stand andatmosphere
Humic soil layer
Mineral soil layers
Unsaturated zone
Aquifer
Aquatic system Influent
DischargeWater balance
Infiltration (m)
Precipitation
4
1 3 8
2 7
5
6
12
11
4
10
9
R
RP C
DS
H P
A
E G F
Biologicallydominated
energy flows;foodwebs
Meteorologicallydominated
energy flows
Global radiation
AbsorptionRefelexion Long wave
radiationEvapo-
transpiration
Verticaltemperature
gradients
Soilheat flux
Soiltemperature
P A R
Respiration
RespirationConsumption
Assimilation
Sec. Production
Prim. Production Litter fall Faeces
HumicSubstances
Elimination Growth Reproduction
Harvest
Y
Y
Meat
Emission - Immission
DepositionRainfall Fog
DepositionDry
Deposition Application
Interception AssimilationLeaching Plants Animals
DetritusThroughfall Stemflow
Litter
Adsorption
Precipitation
MicrobialDecomposit.
Vertical
LateralTransport
AssimilationAnimals
AssimilationPlants
Runoff
Interflow
Percolation
Basin
Inflow
Discharge
Sediment
MetabolismSubstances / Elements of InterestCalcium, Sodium, Potassium, MagnesiumOxigen, Nitrogen, Phosphorous, SulfurChloride, Hydrocarbons
Metabolism
Mobility
Detritus
Ground-Flow
GroundwaterDynamics
Gasexchange Transport
SuspendedLoad
Detritus
Dynamics
Atmosphere Stand
Litter
Soil
AquiferSediment
Transport
Heavy Metals, Pesticides, other Pollutants
Dynamics
Hydrochem.
MicrobialDecomposit.
AssimilationAnimals
AssimilationPlants
Plants Animals
water
Aquatic ecosystem
P
PK
SK
TK
Min
PK/SP
SK
Respiration
AktivesNahrungs-netz
Detritus/
- leicht zersetzbar
- schwer zersetzbar
Akt
ivit
ät &
Fre
qu
enz
ReichweiteEmergie
Kontrollfunktion
Speicher
Frequenz
water
nutrients
energy
community
ecosystem organization
The ecosystem approach should be undertaken at the appropriate spatial and temporal scales.
• How do different scales interact?• How to find the appropriate scales?• How to correlate spatial and temporal features?
Intensify research on hierarchies and scale interactions
Ecosystem Approach, Salzau 2006Principle 7
Holon Level (-1)
Holon Level (+1)
Holon Level (0)
Spatial Extent: SmallFrequencies: High
Constraints
Spatial Extent: HighFrequencies: Low
Minor Interactions Multiple Interactions
Filter
The ecosystem approach should be undertaken at the appropriate spatial and temporal scales.
Ecosystem Approach, Salzau 2006Principle 7
Focal level
Recognizing the varying temporal scales and lag-effects ..of.. ecosystem processes, objectives for ecosystem
management should be set for the long term.
• How to foresee the outcome of long-term processes?
Intensify long-term ecological research
Ecosystem Approach, Salzau 2006Principle 8
Recognizing the varying temporal scales and lag-effects ..of.. ecosystem processes, objectives for ecosystem
management should be set for the long term.
Ecosystem Approach, Salzau 2006Principle 8
http://www.lter-d.ufz.de/
Management must recognize that change is inevitable.
• How to convince managers that stability is not the primary target any more?
• Where do we want ecosystem to develop towards?
Find quantitaive examples for Holling‘s adaptive cycleImprove models to cope with structural changes
Ecosystem Approach, Salzau 2006Principle 9
Management must recognize that change is inevitable.
Ecosystem Approach, Salzau 2006Principle 9
Exergystored
Connectedness
exploitation
conservation
releasereorganization
Resiliance Alliance
The ecosystem approach should seek the appropriate balance between, and integration of, conservation
and use of biodiversity.
• How to derive and compare ecosystem services?• How to integrate conservation and land use (outside
of preserved areas)?
Intensify research on ecosystem servicesInvestigate human-environmental systems
Ecosystem Approach, Salzau 2006Principle 10
The ecosystem approach should seek the appropriate balance between, and integration of, conservation
and use of biodiversity.
Ecosystem Approach, Salzau 2006Principle 10
Reindeer herding:
Recommendations for sustainable land use
RENMAN
land use integrity
economysocial welfare
The ecosystem approach should consider all forms of relevant information, including scientific, indegeneous
and local knowledge, innovations and practices.
• How to make all these forms of knowledge available?
Build up comprehensive information systems
Ecosystem Approach, Salzau 2006Principle 11
The ecosystem approach should involve all releant sectors of society and scientific disciplines.
• How to realize this demand, e.g. in national administration?
• How to organize such a complex attempt?
Strengthen interdisciplinary cooperationBuild up interdisciplinary structures in environmental
administration
Ecosystem Approach, Salzau 2006Principle 12
• Items to be observed: Ecosystem structures – functions – organizations
• Spatial levels to be integrated: Ecosystems – ecotones – landscapes – watersheds• Hierarchies to be involved: Scale interactions (short-long, small-large)• Destruction and decay to be included: Management of change – ecosystem dynamics• Humans to be integrated: Conservation – land use – services• Conventions to be realized: Sustainability – risk – health - integrity - security• Strategies to be followed: Interdiciplinary cooperation and participation
Ecosystem Approach, Salzau 2006Interim balance
Dem
ands
Applying ecosystem concepts –a (first) case study
What is ecosystem integrity?
What is ecosystem integrity?
PoliticalTarget:
SustainableDevelopment
An alternative formulationfor the ecological component of sustainable development:
...“Meet the needs of future generations“....
= Keep available
the functions of nature(ecosystem services)
intergenerational (long-term)
intragenerational (global)
PoliticalTarget:
SustainableDevelopment
ProductionFunctions
RegulationFunctions
InformationFunctions
CarrierFunctions
Processual Provision of Services
- Protection cosmic influences- Regulation energy balance- Regulation chemistry atmosphere- Regulation chemistry ocean- Regulation climate- Regulation runoff & flood prevention- Regulation groundater recharge- Regulation waterbalance catchments- Regulation erosion and sedimentation- Regulation soil fertility- Regulation biomass production- Regulation organic matter- Regulation nutrient budgets- Regulation waste storage- Regulation biological control- Regulation habitat maintenance- Regulation diversity maintenance
ProductionFunctions
RegulationFunctions
InformationFunctions
CarrierFunctions
Processual Provision of Services
ProductionFunctions
RegulationFunctions
InformationFunctions
CarrierFunctions
- Protection cosmic influences- Regulation energy balance- Regulation chemistry atmosphere- Regulation chemistry ocean- Regulation climate- Regulation runoff & flood prevention- Regulation groundater recharge- Regulation waterbalance catchments- Regulation erosion and sedimentation- Regulation soil fertility- Regulation biomass production- Regulation organic matter- Regulation nutrient budgets- Regulation waste storage- Regulation biological control- Regulation habitat maintenance- Regulation diversity maintenance
Basic processesof ecological
self-organisation
Processual Provision of Services
The „functions of nature“ build up the framework for the ecological focus of sustainable development.
Providing the functions of nature results in anappropriate performance of the regulation functions
The „functions of nature“ are based upon self-organizing processes.
The „functions of nature“ build up the framework for the ecological focus of sustainable development.
Providing the functions of nature results in anappropriate performance of the regulation functions
The „functions of nature“ are based upon self-organizing processes.
To maintain the „functions of nature“ the ability for future self-organization of ecosystems
must be supported.
The „functions of nature“ provide the framework for the ecological focus of sustainable development.
Providing the functions of nature results in anappropriate performance of the regulation functions
Eco-target „ecological integrity“:
preservation against non-specific ecological risks
The „functions of nature“ are based upon self-organizing processes.
To maintain the „functions of nature“ the ability for future self-organization of ecosystems
must be supported.
The „functions of nature“ provide the framework for the ecological focus of sustainable development.
Providing the functions of nature results in anappropriate performance of the regulation functions
Barkmann et al. 2001
How to indicate integrity?
NormativeArguments
System-analytical Arguments
NormativeArguments
System-analytical Arguments
Risk Minimization and
Ecological Integrity
Thermodynamics,Gradient Principle
andOrientor Theory
Indicatorsof the
Capacityfor Self-
Organization
Landuse-Intensity
Orientorsas
Indicators
Natural(primary)Sucession
MinorEcological
Risk
MajorEcological
Risk
Maturity
Pioneer Stage
NormativeArguments:
Risk Minimization andEcological Integrity
System-analytical Arguments:
Thermodynamics,Gradient Principle and
Orientor Theory
Structural Gradients
Functional Gradients
Structural Gradients
Functional Gradients
• Abiotic Gradients
• Biotic Gradients
• Hydrological Gradients
• Energetic Gradients
• Nutrient Gradients
Structural Gradients
Functional Gradients
• Abiotic Gradients
• Biotic Gradients
• Hydrological Gradients
• Energetic Gradients
• Nutrient Gradients
• Inputs• Outputs• Efficiencies• Storages
Structural Gradients
Functional Gradients
• Abiotic Gradients
• Biotic Gradients
• Hydrological Gradients
• Energetic Gradients
• Nutrient Gradients
• Biotop Heterogeneity
• Species Abundances
• Biotic Water Flows• Exergy Capture• Entropy Export• Metabolic Efficiency• Nutrient Loss• Storage Capacity
Proposed Indicators:
DÄNEMARK
Ostsee
Kiel
HAMBURG
0 50
[km]
N
Amrum
Föhr
Sylt
MECKLEN-BURG -
VOR-POMMERNSchmalensee
BornhövederSee
BelauerSee
Alte Schwentine
0 600[m]
Schwer-
raumpunkt-
Stolper See
Fuhlen-see
Schie-ren-see
SCHLESWIG-
HOLSTEIN
Location of the Bornhöved Lakes District
Case studyecosystem comparison
Examples from Barkmann et al. (2001): GAIA 10/2 and Müller (2005): Ecological Indicators 5/4
• Biotic Water Flows• Exergy Capture• Entropy Export• Metabolic Efficiency• Nutrient Loss• Storage Capacity
• Biotop Heterogeneity• Species Abundances
Proposed Indicators:
Beech ForestArable Land
Baumann (2001), Barkmann et al. (2001)
Exergy Capture
Biodiversity
Abiotic Heterogeneity
Storage
Biotic Water Flows
Nutrient Loss -1
Entropy Export
MetabolicEffiency -1
Capacity for Self-OrganisationCapacity for Self-Organisation
Baumann et al. 2001
Exergy Capture
Biodiversity
Abiotic Heterogeneity
Storage
Biotic Water Flows
Nutrient Loss -1
Entropy Export
MetabolicEffiency -1
50 %
100 %
150 %
Capacity for Self-OrganisationCapacity for Self-Organisation
Beech Forest
Exergy Capture
Biodiversity
Abiotic Heterogeneity
Storage
Biotic Water Flows
Nutrient Loss -1
Entropy Export
MetabolicEffiency -1
50 %
100 %
150 %
Beech Forest
MaizeMaizeFieldField
Capacity for Self-OrganisationCapacity for Self-Organisation
Case studyland use scenarios
Examples from Schrautzer et al. (i.p.): Ecological Studies and Müller et al. (2006): Ecological Indicators 6/1
Ecosystem types and modelled landscape units
- nitrogen balance- carbon balance
- chemical budgets storage capacity
- nitrogen net mineralization- nitrate leaching- denitrification
- chemical budgets nutrient loss
- evapotranspiration / transpiration- hydrological budgets biotic water flows
- NPP/soil respiration- energy budgets metabolic efficiency
- microbial soil respiration (MSR)- energy budgets entropy production
- net primary production (NPP)- energy budgets exergy capture
- number of plant species- plant strategy types
- biotic structures
Indicator(s)Indicandum
deforestationdrainage
grazingmowing
DE, MO, GR
wet grasslands , weakly drained, mesotrophic wet grasslands , weakly
drained, eutrophic
wet grasslands ,moderately drained
EU, DR, GR, MO
wet grassland ,intensively drained
EU, DR
wet alder carrs,mesotrophic wet alder carrs,
eutrophic
drained alder carrs,mesotrophic drained alder carrs,
eutrophic
EU
DE, MO, GR
EU
DRDR
EU : ploughing
States of development
DE: deforestationDR: drainageEU: eutrophicationGR: grazingMO: mowing
DE, MO, GR
wet grasslands , weakly drained, mesotrophic wet grasslands , weakly
drained, eutrophic
wet grasslands ,moderately drained
EU, DR, GR, MO
wet grassland ,intensively drained
EU, DR
wet alder carrs,mesotrophic
wet alder carrs,mesotrophic wet alder carrs,
eutrophicwet alder carrs,
eutrophic
drained alder carrs,mesotrophic
drained alder carrs,mesotrophic drained alder carrs,
eutrophicdrained alder carrs,
eutrophic
EU
DE, MO, GR
EU
DRDR
EU Pl :
Retrogressional sequence on histosols
Disturbances:
Land
use
int
ensity
Ecosystem Indicators for Wet Grassland Ecosystems(Intensively Drained Ecosystems = 100%)
0
50
100
150
200
ID MD WDEU WDME
Net Primary Production
N Net Mineralization
N Leaching
Denitrification
Microbial Soil RespirationCarbon Balance
Nitrogen Balance
NPP / Soil Respiration
Evapotranspiration /Transpiration
No. of Plant Species
Hem 2
Intensively Drained
Moderately Drained
Weakly Drained, Eutrophic
Weakly Drained, Mesotrophic
Ecosystem Indicators for Wet Grassland Ecosystems(Intensively Drained Ecosystems = 100%)
0
50
100
150
200
ID MD WDEU WDME
Net Primary Production
N Net Mineralization
N Leaching
Denitrification
Microbial Soil RespirationCarbon Balance
Nitrogen Balance
NPP / Soil Respiration
Evapotranspiration /Transpiration
No. of Plant Species
Hem 3
Hem 2
Intensively Drained
Moderately Drained
Weakly Drained, Eutrophic
Weakly Drained, Mesotrophic
Ecosystem Indicators for Wet Grassland Ecosystems(Intensively Drained Ecosystems = 100%)
0
50
100
150
200
ID MD WDEU WDME
Net Primary Production
N Net Mineralization
N Leaching
Denitrification
Microbial Soil RespirationCarbon Balance
Nitrogen Balance
NPP / Soil Respiration
Evapotranspiration /Transpiration
No. of Plant Species
Hem 4
Hem 3
Hem 2
Intensively Drained
Moderately Drained
Weakly Drained, Eutrophic
Weakly Drained, Mesotrophic
Ecosystem Indicators for Wet Grassland Ecosystems(Intensively Drained Ecosystems = 100%)
0
50
100
150
200
ID MD WDEU WDME
Net Primary Production
N Net Mineralization
N Leaching
Denitrification
Microbial Soil RespirationCarbon Balance
Nitrogen Balance
NPP / Soil Respiration
Evapotranspiration /Transpiration
No. of Plant Species
Hem 5
Hem 4
Hem 3
Hem 2
Intensively Drained
Moderately Drained
Weakly Drained, Eutrophic
Weakly Drained, Mesotrophic
0
50
100
150
200
ID MD WDEU WDME
Net Primary Production
N Net Mineralization
N Leaching
Denitrification
Microbial Soil RespirationCarbon Balance
Nitrogen Balance
NPP / Soil Respiration
Evapotranspiration /Transpiration
No. of Plant Species
Loss of Structures
Loss of Cycling Efficiencies
Loss of Metabolic Efficiencies
Management Target and Ecosystem Consequences
Gradient Degradation
Landscape Functional Sink
Landscape Functional Source
Conclusions• Ecosystem states can be indicated on a
holistic level• Ecosystem development can be depicted on
the base of complex models• Ecosystem science is ready for further
applications
• Ecosystem principles provoke many questions to science and practice
Ecosystem Approach, Salzau 2006Guidelines and questions