Building Technologies in Dublin; Outlining policy and a suggested method of implementation

Ciaran O’ Sullivan

Niall O’ Byrne

John Carty

Catriona Lynch

Table of Contents:

1. Introduction2. Dublin in Context3. Energy Efficiency Policy

a. International Levelb. European Union Level

i. Energy Performance of Buildings Directiveii. Directive 27/EU/2012 on Energy Efficiency

c. National Leveli. Ireland’s Second National Energy Efficiency Action Plan to 2020

(NEEAP II)d. County Level

i. Dublin City Sustainable Energy Action Plan 2010-20204. Evaluating Policy and Planning instruments currently available in respect of energy5. Building Technologies and Low Carbon Infrastructure: a case for Dublin City.

a. Low Carbon Infrastructureb. Technology and Information Management for low-carbon building

i. Development of New Buildingsii. Retrofitting Existing Buildings

6. Recommendations7. Conclusion

1) Introduction

The EU directive on energy efficiency (2012/27/EU) is due to be transposed into Irish Law by the 5 th

June 2014 and is just one parcel of the myriad studies, guidelines and statutory directives emanating from the EU in relation to energy efficiency in recent years. This directive was deemed necessary due to the assessment of the European Commission that the Union is unlikely to reach its target of a 20% reduction in energy emissions by 2020 based on the current policy mix. Ireland meanwhile, was recently referred to the European Court of Justice for failing to meet emission reduction targets (Lynch, 2014). This is a indication of the countries stuttering record in meeting emission reduction and energy savings targets. Ratifying extensive policy documents, laden in energy efficiency rhetoric and idealistic targets has proven to be the easy part in Ireland, while implementing this and affecting real environmental change has proven difficult, time and again.

It is the intention of the paper to firstly outline the existing policy relating to energy efficiency at various spatial levels from EU to local Irish level. This will provide a clear indication of the existing framework within which initiatives to reduce emissions and increase energy efficiency operate. Ireland has outlined its intended means of meeting the latest energy targets in the National Energy Efficiency Action Plan 2, and will soon publish the provisions by which the country will adhere to the recent Energy Efficiency Directive (2012/27/EU).

It has almost become clichéd to describe Dublin as a low-rise city, characterised by low density residential development, urban sprawl, dispersed settlement patterns and of having an over reliance on private transport modes. Well meaning policy and initiatives have long since been established in order to reverse these trends, such as an increase in minimum density standards, the construction of the city’s first city tram line (LUAS) and the development of vast swathes of apartment blocks. Recently a decision was taken to reduce minimum densities in a number of key development areas in order to kick start development, and to allow lower density housing. It has also been predicted that Dublin will require almost 40,000 homes by 2018. These predictions together with the aforementioned move to reduce densities pose a threat to the national energy efficiency goals. It remains to be seen how much emphasis will be placed on energy efficiency and related technologies when plans for the 40,000 new homes begin (Housing Agency, 2014). With all buildings worldwide using a combined 40% of global energy, and are responsible for 1/3 Green House Gas emission (Dalene, 2012), it is imperative that increasing energy efficiency and reducing emissions in buildings remains a primary national policy priority.

As a result, in addition to outlining and assessing the existing and proposed policy in relation to energy efficiency in Dublin, a goal of this paper is to explore the possibilities that exist of introducing a Low Carbon Infrastructure methodology to the city. While policy offers targets and structure, it was felt that a tangible method of improving urban energy efficiency needed to be outlined as a recommendation, if the EU 2020 targets are to be met. Various technical solutions can be adopted to reduce fossil-fuel dependency and carbon emissions from cities. Low-carbon infrastructure (LCI) can be integrated into a city at a range of scales assisted by the planning policy and process, the viability of which will be addressed for Dublin.

It has almost become clichéd to describe Dublin as a low-rise city, characterised by low density residential development, urban sprawl, dispersed settlement patterns and of having an over reliance on private transport modes. Well meaning policy and initiatives have long since been established in order to reverse these trends, such as an increase in minimum density standards, the construction of the city’s first city tram line (LUAS) and the development of vast swathes of apartment blocks. Recently a decision was taken to reduce minimum densities in a number of key development areas in order to kick start development, and to allow lower density housing. It has also been predicted that Dublin will require almost 40,000 homes by 2018. These predictions together with the aforementioned move to reduce densities pose a threat to the national energy efficiency goals. It remains to be seen how much emphasis will be placed on energy efficiency and related technologies when plans for the 40,000 new homes begin (Housing Agency, 2014). With all buildings worldwide using a combined 40% of global energy, and are responsible for 1/3 Green House Gas emission (Dalene, 2012), it is imperative that increasing energy efficiency and reducing emissions in buildings remains a primary national policy priority.

As a result, in addition to outlining the policy in relation to energy efficiency in Dublin, a goal of this paper is to explore the possibilities that exist of introducing a Low Carbon Infrastructure methodology to the city. While policy offers targets and structure, it was felt that a tangible method of improving

urban energy efficiency needed to be outlined as a recommendation, if the EU 2020 targets are to be met. Various building technologies can be adopted to reduce fossil-fuel dependency and carbon emissions from cities. This paper specifically outlines methodologies for technology for the development of new low carbon buildings as well as retrofitting existing buildings.

2) Dublin In Context

With the urban environment of the city of Dublin becoming a more and more attractive living space for young professionals and a growth spurt in the technological sector from the benefits of a highly educated workforce, the city is getting ready for a surge in population and development.

Recent reports have predicted that up to 40,000 new homes will be required in Dublin by 2018 (Housing Agency, 2014), while output in the construction sector is forecast to increase by 30% in the next four years (SCSI, 2014). This demand represents an opportunity to oversee a new era of energy efficiency in the built environment in Dublin. Ensuring these homes implement the latest in building technologies will guarantee Ireland meet, and possible even exceed EU energy targets. Enforcing greater energy standards in residential and commercial development will provide long term energy and monetary savings, both at home, and internationally.

Due to the reduced building activity over the past few years, the government felt it necessary to returning the focus on retrofitting older building stock in order to meet energy efficiency targets (SEAI, 2012: pg 87). With the recent reports of an upturn in construction activity, and a need for significant home building, it remains to be seen if retrofitting older buildings remains a priority.

3) Energy Efficiency Policy

Local authority planners are primarily guided by the policies in development plans when making decisions on planning applications. Proposals for development must be seen to be adhering to the existent policy at national, regional, and local level in order to be given approval. Much of the policy effecting energy efficiency in Dublin and Ireland is influenced, or is in response to International, and particularly EU policy. For the purposes of understanding the mechanisms available to planners in encouraging increased energy efficiency, the existent policy at the various spatial levels is outlined here. It is important to understand what instruments are available to planners in order to recommend improvements or changes that will ensure planners can affect meaningful change in respect of energy efficiency in Dublin.

a. International Level

The UN actively encourages the rehabilitation of existing buildings because they represent significant energy saving opportunities because their performance level is frequently below current efficiency potentials (unep.org). The Programmes’ website also states how residential and commercial buildings consume approximately 60% of the world’s electricity and that the building sector is the largest contributor to global GHG emissions. Investment in building energy efficiency is accompanied by significant direct and indirect savings which help offset incremental costs, providing a short term return on investment period. The Initiative produce annual reports seeking to promote the worldwide adoption of sustainable buildings and construction practices and to develop tools and strategies for achieving greater acceptance and adoption of sustainable building policies and practices worldwide.

b. EU Level

A wealth of policy documents relating to energy efficiency and climate change has been ratified by the European Union. It is not within the scope of this study to analyse every morsel of policy, but to assess recent and relevant directives and initiatives as they relate to Dublin, and the role and possibilities of planners in reducing emissions and increasing energy efficiency.

The need to increase energy efficiency is part of the triple goal of the '20-20-20' initiative for 2020, which means a saving of 20% of the Union's primary energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions, as well as the inclusion of 20% of renewable energies in energy consumption (Ec. europa.eu.)

In 2014, negotiations about binding EU energy and climate targets until 2030 are set to start (Fischer and Geden, 2013). European parliament voted in February 2014 in favour of binding 2030 targets on renewables, emissions and energy efficiency: a 40% cut in greenhouse gases, compared with 1990 levels; at least 30% of energy to come from renewable sources; and a 40% improvement in energy efficiency (Guardian, 2014).

Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD)

This required Ireland to ensure that (DCENR, 2013):

building energy ratings are included in all advertisements for the sale or lease of buildings;

inspections of heating and air-conditioning systems are introduced and advice to consumers on the optimal use of appliances, their operation and replacement, if necessary, is provided;

energy performance certificates and inspection reports are of good quality, prepared by suitably qualified persons acting in an independent matter and are underpinned by a robust regime of verification

Minimum energy performance requirements are established for new buildings and for existing buildings undergoing major renovation

the threshold (currently at 1,000 m2), at which minimum energy efficiency levels must be achieved when existing buildings undergo major renovation, be reduced (to 250 m2) on a phased basis

a national plan is developed to increase the number of low or nearly zero-energy buildings with the public sector leading by example.

Directive 27/EU/2012 on energy efficiency

Member states are required to create long-term strategies aimed at mobilising investment for improving overall energy efficiency of housing through initiatives such as renovating existing residential and commercial buildings. This has manifested itself in Ireland’s second National Energy Efficiency Action Plan (2012). The directive amends and replaces the Cogeneration Directive (2004/8/EC) and Energy Services Directive (2006/32/EC) (kildarestreet.com). The aim is to remove barriers and overcome market failures that thus far impeded efficiency in the supply and use of energy (ec.europa.eu). It obliges member states to set an indicative national energy efficiency target in a form of their preference (e.g. primary/final savings, intensity, consumption. The statutory indicative national energy efficiency target for 2020 that Ireland has set in response to the directive is as follows (ec.europa.eu):

‘‘20% energy savings in 2020 along with a public sector energy saving target of 33%’’

Irelands targets, progress and ambition as of April 2013 in response to directive 27/EU/2012 (DCENR, 2013).

The Irish government is targeting energy savings and CO2 savings by 2016, and 2020 in the following (among other) areas:

The Department of Communications, Energy and Natural Resources in Ireland outlined its intentions of how to implement the directive in its Consultation report, published in October 2013, entitled ‘Implementation of the Energy Efficiency Directive in Ireland’. In response to the requirement to implement a long-term investment strategy to mobilise investment in the renovation of the national stock of public and private buildings, a National Renovation Strategy is to be developed in respect of the residential sector. Based on the National Building Energy Rating database, an estimated 990,000 properties could avail of a deep form of retrofit, whereas a far larger number of c.1,500,000 could absorb at least a shallow form of retrofit (DCENRii, 2013). The non-residential sector remains relatively unexplored regarding the volumes of retrofitting that are required.

The directive requires an assessment of existing conditions of a building through an energy audit. This requires only large enterprises to participate in Ireland. Small and medium enterprises (SME’s) are not required to participate, however member states are required to develop programmes to encourage SME’s to undergo energy audits.

c. National Level

Ireland’s second National Energy Efficiency Action plan to 2020 (NEEAP II)

The plan analyses the city’s current energy use and carbon dioxide emissions and sets out how the city can reduce its energy consumption. The report examines both the cost and the potential of these proposed measures.

It aims to go beyond the targets of 20% reduction by 2020. The plan contains 97 actions and measures that will contribute to meeting Ireland’s obligations under the Energy Efficiency Directive, as well as the national energy saving target. This plan provides a detailed explanation of specific policy actions (DCENRii, 2013). The plan proposes 5 Key Action Plan measures in order to deliver the national targets, one of which is to establish a national Energy Performance Contracting (EPC) process to deliver (SEAI, 2012):

‘‘….innovative models of retrofitting and financing of energy efficiency measures in the commercial and public sectors’’.

Energy Performance Contracting

The EPC framework is being introduced in order for public and commercial organisations that want to implement energy-saving retrofit projects using EPC or non-Exchequer financing (Seai, 2012). The framework is therefore a voluntary initiative.

Pay-As-You-Save

The Pay-As-You-Save scheme is designed so that the existing home energy efficiency programme can continue without impacting on public funding:

‘‘PAYS is a financial model that would allow energy consumers to finance energy Efficiency upgrades through the energy savings generated.’’ (SEAI, 2012).

The Better Energy InitiativeIrelands second National Energy Efficiency Plan to 2020 states that the ‘‘realisation of the ambition of the Better Energy programme is the next big challenge for energy efficiency in Ireland’’. The plan says that the initiative will be key to realising a sustainable model for upgrades within the residential sector. Domestic customers will be able to apply for state-supported incentives through their energy supplier (SEAI, 2012). The plans states that voluntary agreements are already in place with a number of the largest energy suppliers.

Key Sectoral MeasuresThe following are a sample of the Key Sectoral Measures which are considered to be most relevant to some of the goals of this paper, ie. Exploring the possibilities for planners to increase urban energy efficency:

Residential: ‘‘…encourage industry to work towards the building requirements outlined in the framework for achieving low-or nearly zero energy housing on a voluntary basis from 2013.

Business:’’… ensure that the SME sector has access to the necessary supports reap the financial benefits from investment in appropriate energy management

practices.’’

Cross Sectoral: ‘‘Ensure that the Better Energy Programme will upgrade Ireland’s building stock to high standards of energy efficiency, thereby reducing fossil fuel use, running costs and greenhouse-gas emissions’’.

Consolidated Building Regulations 2011The NEAAP(2) describes how new building regulations have been introduced, delivering a 60% improvement in new-housing energy efficiency standards (SEAI, 2012: 92).

.

d. County Level

Dublin City Sustainable Energy Action Plan 2010-2020

Dublin City Council realises that the current trend of energy consumption within the city is unsustainable and a clear and ambitious plan was needed both to halt and to reverse this trend of rising energy consumption. The ultimate aim of the SEAP is to have a positive impact on the environment through the reduction of CO2 and other pollutants. The report examines sustainable energy actions both in terms of (a) their potential to reduce the citys’ carbon footprint and (b) the cost of the measures.

The following graph highlights the approaches that can be taken, the green indicating low cost effective measures of reducing emissions whilst the blue requires more costly investments e.g new Windows and demolition of old houses. It follows that the economically most attractive measures are to the bottom-left of the chart, while the most expensive measures are at the top-right.

(DCC, 2010)

According to the Dublin City SEAP, implementing all of these measures would be a net cost of €2.4billion. Renewable energy, demolition of older houses and window replacement have a high carbon abatement cost. Implementing the other 15 measures together bring significant carbon reductions at a fraction of the cost of implementing the aforementioned 3 measures. In relation to the efficiency measures and cost, the Dublin City SEAP states:

‘‘It is relatively inexpensive to include extra insulation and more energy-efficient equipment at the design and construction stage of a building but much more costly to retrofit into existing buildings. For this reason Dublin City Council has, through a variation to the City Development Plan, specified high energy standards in all new residential and commercial building developments (DCC, 2010).’’

The SEAP recognises the importance of existing buildings: ‘‘Residential and Commercial buildings account for 55% of total CO2 emissions and represent the biggest possible opportunity for CO2 abatement in Dublin’’. The plan suggests simple insulation, efficient boilers and replacing older light bulbs as cost effective, energy saving measures. Initiatives such as the Energy Smart Community have also been implemented.

While a Draft Sustainable Energy Action Plan exists for South Dublin County, no Sustainable Energy Action Plans have been produced in draft form or otherwise for Counties Fingal and Dun Laoghaire Rathdown .

4. Evaluating policy and planning instruments currently available in respect of energy

Irelands second National Energy Efficiency Action Plan cites recent initiatives which have improved the energy efficiency outlook and states that most of the initiatives of the first NEEAP have been progressed. A programme to place energy savings targets on energy suppliers who supply more than 75 GWh of energy per annum has been introduced. Only 16 companies had signed voluntary agreements to deliver energy savings between 2011 and 2013 (SEAI, 2012). The objective is to enter into mandatory obligations. This is a welcome initiative.

The Plan also refers to the introduction of a carbon tax of €20 per tonne on non-Emissions savings scheme as providing an incentive for energy efficiency in all sectors. Mandatory minimum requirements for buildings are among the highest in Europe, according to the Plan (SEAI, 2012). There is recognition that the economic uncertainty at the time of publication may affect the ability to meet targets. Based on the estimates contained in the Plan, Ireland will surpass its 2016 target, assuming a full roll out of the measures contained therein (SEAI, 2012: pg 12). The government actually targets a rate of energy savings larger than the EU target of 20%. These are ambitious targets, and must be admired, however with issues in relation to finance, and willpower of stakeholders, it remains to be seen if these are achievable targets.

The existing difficulties in installing energy efficiency measures primarily centre around market failures such as the upfront cost of measures, the length of time required for measures to pay back savings, and the ‘hassle’ involved in planning and carrying out work (SEAI, 2012 pg: 85). The NEAPP2 states:

‘‘Many people have never thought about retrofitting their homes and aren’t aware of the energy savings available to them.’’ (SEAI, 2012: pg 85).

The National Energy Efficiency Action Plan (2) describes how the SEAI is supporting the development of Sustainable Energy zones from 2015. It is argued that the programme has the potential to stimulate a national move towards sustainable energy practice, creating savings for homes and businesses, and attracting investment (SEAI, 2012: pg 91).

Changes introduced in new building energy standards have resulted in the reduction in the permitted primary energy usage for a typical new dwelling has decreased from 200kWh per m2 to 90kWh per m2

between houses built in 2002 and 2008. A reduction to 60kWh per m2 is now the target. It is a policy of the NEEAP to develop a framework for achieving zero-energy housing by 2020. It is considered that an appropriate framework can be established that reflects the individual attributes of. Dublin. Section 3 of this report outlines the recommendations of this paper in respect of introducing what is felt is an appropriate framework for Dublin.

Since 1st January 2008 all planning applications submitted to Dublin City Council must include a statement certifying that the proposed development conforms with the energy rating targets for Dublin City Council. The council also has introduced fiscal incentives in the form of congestion charges and free parking for electric vehicles (DCC, 2010: 19). The council has also supported the provision of Carbon Neutral Housing programmes within Dublin City, such as in Raleigh Square, Dublin 12, and York Streets (DCC, 2010: 20). Local Authorities have a very important role to play in achieving these targets. Local Authorities can further contribute towards the achievement of these targets through the preparation of robust, co-ordinated and sustainable Renewable Energy Strategies. It is considered that further measures and responsibilities could be placed in the hands of planners in attempting to achieve further efficiency targets.

The NEEAP states that is not a simple case of the council to adapting to these changes but also there is major responsibility on the private sector. It goes on to say how that “the combination of behavioural changes and new technology can reverse the present upward trend in energy consumption, and associated CO2 emission significantly towards meeting the Irish and EU target of a 20% reduction by

5. Building Technologies and Low Carbon Infrastructure: a case for Dublin City.

Cities currently account for 80% of anthropogenic CO2 emissions produced globally (Hornwegg et al, 2011). They consume approximately 60% of global energy, are highly dependent on fossil fuel, which in turn, means that they are the single largest contributor to fossil fuels (IEA and OECD, 2008).

a. Low Carbon Infrastructure

Various technical solutions can be adopted to reduce fossil-fuel dependency and carbon emissions from cities. Low-carbon infrastructure (LCI) can be integrated into a city at a range of scales assisted by planning policy and process. The success of such an approach in Dublin is dependant of contextual factors within the Irish planning system. To date planning's role in supporting energy supply infrastructure has not been sufficiently well documented (Williams, 2011). Dublin, like other cities, is influenced by global processes, institutions, networks, and trends rather than by urban governance (Amin, 2007), which could potentially undermine the role of urban planning in the delivery of LCI. The situation is made worse by the deregulation and privatisation of network services. (Lowe, 2007; 2009; Lowe and Oreszczyn, 2008; Williams, 2008; 2011), which weakens the powers of local and regional authorities to implement LCI within Dublin. The local context of any given city is likely to influence the way in which new infrastructural systems develop due to the processes and stakeholder involved (Willimas, 2011). However, there exists a tendency to implement technological innovation processes without reference to spatial context (Berkhout et al, 2004; Monstadt, 2009; Raven, 2007; Rip and Kemp, 1998; Smith et al, 2005). Therefore, if Dublin's planning system is to be effective in the delivery of LCI, it will need to reflect the local context in which it operates.

It is suggested that plans policy and process could help deliver LCI in three ways: a collaborative approach; a systemic approach; and a market shaping approach (Williams, 2010). Regardless of the approach taken, political stability and long term policy goals, supportive institutional structures, municipal ownership of resources, municipal leadership, public subsidies, and supportive regulation are important for successful application of LCI. However, there are certain requirements that each approach is dependant of to be successful. The presence of community innovators in the local context is essential in the collaborative approach, while the systemic and market approaches rely more on industrial innovators. The systemic approach requires strong municipal leadership and support for the introduction of LCI and effective coordination of key stakeholders in the delivery of integrated low-carbon systems. For the market shaping approach to be successful, demand for LCI needs to be established. This will be influenced by economic, cultural, and institutional context in which systems are embedded (Williams, 2011).

Potentially, all three approaches enable innovation by providing protected spaces, in which industry, citizens, and municipalities can develop low-carbon sociotechnical systems. In the case of Dublin, the whole city may act as protected space or alternatively and perhaps more feasibly, certain areas within the city may offer protected spaces. Significantly however, the success of any typology specific to the introduction of any LCI approach, will not only be dependant of the context in which planning operates but also the function of Dublin city's overall objective(Williams, 2011).

b. Technology and Information Management for low-carbon building

(i) Development of New Buildings

Once an approach to LCI has been established within Dublin, effective technology and information management for low carbon building should be implemented. For the purposes of this paper, the focus will be on energy neutral building technologies for both existing and new commercial and residential building stock.

The embodied Green House Gas (GHG) emissions within the building process comes from the processing of raw materials, manufacturing of products, transportation of materials and products in the supply chain and distribution system until it arrives at the jobsite. Upon completion of construction, the operation stage begins. GHG emissions from operations come from heating, cooling, and electrical uses (Dalene, 2011). These are considered to be the "explicit" energy saving and carbon reducing works (Shaui and Li, 2009). Other GHG emissions come from transporting occupants to and from the building, how waste is handled and maintenance of the building (Dalene, 2012). Carbon reducing measures in this sense are considered to be the "implicit" works. It is advocated that the "implicit" CO2 impact is calculated through Building for Environmental and Economic Sustainability1 (BEES) assessment. Low carbon building technology should take into consideration both the "explicit" and the "implict" low-carbon technology (Shaui and Li, 2009). 80-90% of GHG emissions of buildings are emitted in the operations stage during the construction of building, whilst 10-20% of GHG emissions are produced in the life span of the building (Dalen, 2012).

Dalen 's (2012) paper outlines a methodology for the construction of a building that produces net-zero energy. This methodology has the potential to be applied to new building stock in Dublin. A building that produces equal or more energy than it consumes is net-zero energy. This is preferably done through on site, renewable resources. Moreover, by using heat sources from solar thermal and geothermal energy production systems together with renewable photovoltaic systems and wind generators, fossil fuel based energy is minimised. Typically, the building remains attached to the electric grid with a net meter installed to measure the difference between electrical energy produced and electrical energy consumed over a period of time (Dalene, 2012).

Phase 1 involves a carbon audit to determine the GHG emissions associated with the construction stage of the building. The process of this audit involves counterbalancing GHG emissions with carbon mitigation programs, which allows for a carbon neutral status to be achieved (Dalene, 2012). It is also essential to carry out a life cycle analysis (LCA) which accounts for GHG emissions during the buildings entire life cycle, from the gathering of raw materials to the disposal at the end of the buildings life. However, for the purposes of a claiming a building is net-zero energy, the building need to operate for one year while energy use is monitored. LEED, or Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design2 protocols were also followed, which is an internationally recognised green building certification system. LEED awards points for certain criteria as set out bellow:

Innovation and design process Location and linkages Sustainable sites Water Efficiency Energy and atmosphere Materials and resources Indoor environmental quality Awareness and education

(Darlene, 2012)

Significantly, when integrating new building technologies, communication and collaboration needs to dramatically increase in order to achieve successful outcomes (Dalene, 2012). In other words, the successful delivery of any such project is dependent on effective stakeholder involvement. To this end, the American Institute of Architects (AIA) developed a concept of integrating design known as integrated project delivery (IPD). IPD brings the design team, owner, contractor, and trade contractors together during early stages of design phase to foster collaboration, team-work, information sharing, shared risks, and shared rewards. Ultimately, the process ensures maximum efficiency and successful project delivery from all parties involved (Dalene,2012; Winstanley, 2011). This is especially true, considering, the process fosters a sense of ownership and pride during the design

1 Building for Environmental and Economic Sustainability: http://www.nist.gov/el/economics/BEESSoftware.cfm2 Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design: http://www.usgbc.org/leed

process for all parties, making it difficult to place blame on a single person or entity. Therefore, information is managed more efficiently both during design and construction, which creates a more pleasurable working environment (Figure 1) (Dalene,2012; Winstanley, 2011).

Figure 1 Integrated Project Design Methodology

Source: Winstanley, 2011

The team studied electrical consumption of the house on a systems basis and developed the term Systems Integrated Home (SIH). It is based on the intensified complex interdependence of various building systems required to meet maximum energy efficiency and allows for the integration of multiple methods of design and construction in doing so (Dalene, 2012). Contemporary Engineering techniques is sufficiently advanced to accurately calculate and project energy efficiencies, production and consumption. Weather is a variable in renewable energy production and consumption that cannot be controlled. However, weathers impact on energy consumption can be controlled by reducing energy loss in winter and solar heat gain in summer. Significantly, how occupants operate building is a variable that cannot be controlled. In commercial buildings, the variable can be assigned to the buildings manager instead of the occupants, whilst in homes, energy use habits among occupants are very personal and can vary greatly. Therefore, incorporating optimum design, engineering and green technologies for energy reduction, is highly dependent of how building occupants use energy. It is expected that the owners of green buildings make lifestyle changes through education and awareness (Dalene, 2012). Although, certain changes can be enforced upon building occupants by restricting water faucets and using less water to flush a toilet, for example. Nonetheless, in most cases all that can be done, is install automated energy technologies which automatically turn off lights, air-conditioning etc. (Dalene, 2012).

The house was rated with a Home Energy Rating System (HERS)3 Index with a score of 25. This indicates a projected 75% energy reduction from the HERS standard home. The actual energy reduction was 69.42%, which amounted a 51.09% cost saving. (Dalene, 2012). This information was gathered from the calculation of buildings energy usage and cost (Figure 2). Significantly, the pay-back period for the energy reducing technologies used is 15.7 years, if the energy saving usage

3 Home Energy Rating System: http://www.hersindex.com/

continues on the same track as the first year and the energy costs remain the same (Dalene, 2012). Given that a mortgage within Dublin averages around a 30 years, the energy savings begin making a net profit after 15 years or within half the life span of the house, although it is accepted that the lifespan of a houses last longer.

"With currently available and proven technologies, reductions in energy consumption on both new and existing buildings are estimated to achieve 30%-80%. When the costs of implementing the energy reduction technologies are offset by energy savings, there is potential for a net profit over the lifespan of the building" (Dalene, 2012, Pp. 11).

Figure 2 Energy and Cost Saving Results

Source: Dalene, 2012

The CO2 emissions analysis also proved positive. There was a reduction of 11.36 Metric Tonnes CO2 of fossil fuel based energy in the first year, this accounts 43.82% . It is important to note, that the greatest impact in reducing CO2 emissions in building operations is achieved by electricity usage from the grid. An additional benefit of focusing on grid electricity for CO2 emissions is that it will also have the greatest impact on overall energy reduction (Dalene, 2012). Therefore, the focus should be on reducing electrical usage from the grid compared to other energy types. This will have the greates impact over the lifespan of a building. Nonetheless, it is stressed that there is a need for a paradigm change if there is to be a successful transition from fossil fuels to renewable forms of energies (Dalene, 2012).

(ii) Retrofitting Existing Buildings

It is important to consider what is known about existing buildings and their future prospects. How far will the building be fit for its purpose in 50 years? How much can it be adapted and renewed? Four categories should be taken into consideration when making such assumptions:

Physical perspectives - including building form and fabric; building construction and maintenance; climate change impacts, adaptation and mitigation; the physical infrastructure of utilities and transport; green structure and biodiversity; built environment of streets, blocks and pavements.

Geographical and spatial perspectives - including national and regional morphologies of industrial, post-industrial or dormi-tory types; spatial typologies of suburbs, inner city, outer city, etc.; accessibility, mobility and transport network factors.

Socio-economic perspectives - including behavioural issues and lifestyle trends; communications and mobility trends; property market and location values; local community and social economy issues; public or private neighbourhood services.

Policy and governance perspectives - such as ‘urban renaissance’ or ‘sustainable community’ discourse. There are issues of local governance and urban change management, in areas of high or low growth.

(Ravetz, 2008, Pp. 4462)

It is empathised that "form follows function" which effectively means that the life cycle and performance of building stock exceedingly dependant on its role as a combined physical, social , economic and cultural asset. One implication is that the life cycle of physical buildings is a function of their social and economic value, and can be prolonged indefinitely if it is needed. However, structurally sound buildings can be taken down at any time if value falls (Ravetz, 2008). This is because buildings are often a key component to the to the very fabric of everyday lifestyles, communities, cultures and livelihoods. They are also embedded in the spatial form and structure of existing settlements, at various scales, and these too may need to be adapted or re-engineered for future requirements (Figure 3) (Ravetz; 2008;RCEP, 2007).

Figure 3 Scenarios for Existing Building Stock

Source: Ravetz, 2008

8. Recommendations

80,000 houses needed by 2018

Proposed voluntary building standards regulations for apartment building.

Eg more minimal space.

People want to live in Semi D’s.

Saying should build them but also apartments and closer together houses.

Design is key.

Close to public transport. Etc

Voluntary building standards are a recipe for disaster.

Should copy Denmark, Germany and Netherlands, eg. With housing part owned by councils, pension funding housing

Problem of funding in Ireland for new housing development, developers bad reputation,

developers/builders wont have the finances to build with significant energy standards, how do we fun this? – obstacle.

CANT BE VOLUNTARY EFFICIENCY STANDARDS, NEED TO BE OBLIGATORY AND PUNISHABLE

Our housing stock does not reflect the demographic facts. Only 40% at most of our households are families with children, while at least 80% of the stocks are family houses. We need to build stock suitable for 1 and 2 person households and return our Houses to family occupation.

In keeping with the ethos of the 1963 legislation, planning operates in the interests of the common good and society as a whole and must take precedence over a developer-led or market-driven approach. As Department of the Environment Ministers Hogan and O’Sullivan’s foreword to Local Area Plans – Guidelines for Planning Authorities (June 2013) states, we must focus on “settlements and place, rather than just development…We need to plan for communities, not for profit”.

This lays down a challenge, not just for professional planners, but for all disciplines engaged in place making. How do we ensure that good quality, affordable, efficient, well designed houses are built and that place making remains at the forefront of the planning and housing agenda?

Underused planners to be employed as energy auditors for building stock in Dublin

By reducing emissions since 1990 while expanding its economy, the EU has successfully shown that economic growth and emission cuts are not contradictory. > http://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/g-gas/index_en.htm

The case for Dublin - Residential and Commercial building stock

WE SUGGEST OUR LCI AND BUILDING TECHNOLOGY METHOD, AND ALSO TO BRING IT INTO RESIDENTIAL DEVELOPMENT

Delivering low carbon infrastructure in line with 2020 vision of Irish gov and NEEAP 2 ie The Irish energy sector will deliver competitively priced, low-carbon energy to all customers and assist them to use itas efficiently as possible.

(SEAI, 2012: pg 53).

Barriers to implementation

Even though energy efficiency is one of the major potential contributors for dealing with energy-related challenges, particularly in buildings, there are still non-technological barriers that limit wide-scale implementation, including the following:

a. Cost of extra materials & longer time on-site

b. Risk of legal proceedings against architects

c. Developers are not end-users (i.e. capital vs running costs)

d. Lack of existing examples (DCC, 2010:pg 26).

The combination of behavioural changes and new technology can reverse the present upward trend in energy consumption, and associated CO2 emissions, and contribute significantly towards meeting the Irish and EU target of a 20% reduction by the year 2020.

The length of the planning process increases the net build cost of-carbon development. The longer the planning process, the more costly it is for the developer. Thus, reducing the length of the planning process can provide a significant financial incentive to a developer to build a low-carbon development (Navigant Consulting, 2008).

All sectors are necessary

But, Dublin City Council alone cannot meet the challenges. The public service and private sectors will need to work together along with the education and research institutions so that the whole is much greater than the sum of the individual contributions.

Finally, while business and technology are very important, the challenges of climate change cannot be met without the active participation of Dublin‟s local communities.

Regarding directive 2012/27/EU

An opportunity could be encouraged to give planners the skills in order to carry out these audits. Particularly in light of reduced job opportunities for planners, it may offer a new specialisation and expertise. It may be possible for such a responsibility to become part of the services of planning consultants in Dublin. While it may be difficult at first, if funding were to become available for SMEs to engage in these audits, this may be a worthwhile venture. Audits could also be carried out on new development, particularly residential, to ensure the Ireland is meeting EU efficiency targets.

An implementation group is to be established to ensure that all actions contained in the plan are delivered – needs to be robust with punishing responsibilities.

Further Research

Scale up and Climate Finance Interventions

http://www.oecd.org/env/cc/ccxg-globalforum-march-2014.htm

Green infrastructure - Eco Cities (Saved in ECTP folder)

file:///C:/Users/Ciaran%20OS/Downloads/Arup_Cities_Alive.pdf

9. Conclusion

The paper outlined the existing policy relating to energy efficiency at various spatial levels from EU to local Irish level. The intention was to provide a clear indication of the existing framework within which initiatives to reduce emissions and increase energy efficiency operate.

Ratifying extensive policy documents, laden in energy efficiency rhetoric and idealistic targets has proven to be the easy part in Ireland, while implementing this and affecting real environmental change has proven difficult, time and again.

Recently a decision was taken to reduce minimum densities in a number of key development areas in order to kick start development, and to allow lower density housing. It has also been predicted that Dublin will require almost 40,000 homes by 2018. These predictions pose a threat to the national energy efficiency goals. It remains to be seen how much emphasis will be placed on energy efficiency and related technologies when plans for the 40,000 new homes begin (Housing Agency, 2014).

Substantial policy provisions in the EU in Ireland advocate myriad methods and initiatives to promote energy efficiency and reduce carbon emissions. It is argued that Low Carbon Infrastructure methodology focusing primarily on building technologies in respect of new buildings and building retrofitting could be adopted resulting in considerable success in Dublin.

In addition to this, a number of policy provisions are recommended in order to ensure Ireland meets its emissions target for 2020.

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