1.Knowledge Teachers must be knowledgeable about the subject they are teaching. They must understand the concepts thoroughly and be able to explain and articulate them in detail. They must have the knowledge to engage students and to judge where and how to be of assistance. They also ideally have practical, hands-on experience with the subject matter.Enthusiasm The best teachers care about their students and are passionate about thematerial. If a teacher is bored with the material, then the students will also be bored and less likely to learn. Passion and enthusiasm draw students in to learning. It excites their minds, creates curiosity and inspires them to raise their energy levels in class. Sponsored Linkso Parent/Teacher ConferenceOnline Parent/Teacher Conference Sign Up. Quick, Simple, Web basedwww.teeso.comFairness Humans have an innate sense of what is just and what is not. Favoritismand unfair treatment can scar students for a lifetime. The best teachers do everything they can to ensure their classroom is fair and just. Students can only grow and learn in an environment they feel is safe and honest.Preparedness Students quickly disrespect teachers who are unprepared. Being unprepared shows your lack of care about the students and the material. It makes you appear incompetent. Be prepared for every class in order to win andmaintain your students' respect.Creativity Creativity lets teachers think outside the box and work around problems.Creativity helps teachers reach students in enjoyable, memorable ways. It curesboredom and raises moral and enthusiasm in the classroom.Sense of Humor Students learn best in a positive atmosphere. Humor is the best way to break the ice and dispel awkward or negative situations. Teachers who are comfortable enough to laugh at their own mistake are strong examples of confdent, witty individuals. Humor is also an efective way to teach students difcult and dry concepts.Respect Respect others to gain respect in return. Teachers who respect their students are respected themselves. Teachers who respect their students' privacy, who speak to students individually after class and who are sensitive to their students' needs and feelings tend to be the most respected.Leadership Being in a position of authority, teachers must know how to take the lead. There is no room for shyness and timidity. Leaders must have a vision, a goal toward which they are directing the students. They must inspire and encourage students to implement action. The best leaders are the best listeners.1.Read more: What Personal & Professional Characteristics Are Necessary for Efective Teaching? | eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/info_7870344_personal-characteristics-necessary-efective-teaching.html#ixzz2NBEmodIgThis list will let you know what qualities employers look for in a teacher candidate. Practice developing these skills / qualities, and remember to portraythem in your interview.Positive - Thinks positively and enthusiastically about people and what they arecapable of becoming. Sees the good in any situation and can move forward to make the most of difcult situations when confronted with obstacles. Encourages others to also be positive.Communicative - Shares with others in a manner that encourages efective two-way communication. Communicates personal thoughts and feelings on a wide spectrum of issues and can listen to students in an empathetic manner, assuring each that conversations will be held in confdence.Dependable - Honest and authentic in working with others. Consistently lives up to commitments to students and others. Works with them in an open, honest, and forthright manner.Personable - Establishes and maintains positive mutual working relationships. Likes to be with others. Has many ways of getting to know students as persons while building trust and appreciation through personal interaction and involvement.Organized - Makes efcient use of time and moves in a planned and systematic direction. Knows where he or she is heading and is able to help students in their own organization and planning. Can think in terms of how organization can be benefcial to those served.Committed - Demonstrates commitment to students and the profession and is self-confdent, poised and personally in control of situations. Has a healthy self-image. Encourages students to look at themselves in a positive manner, careful to honor the self-respect of the students, while encouraging them to develop a positive self-concept.Motivational - Enthusiastic with standards and expectations for students and self. Understands the intrinsic motivations of individuals, and knows what it is that motivates students. Takes action in constructive ways.Compassionate - Caring, empathetic and able to respond to people at a feeling level. Open with personal thoughts and feelings, encouraging others to do likewise. Knows and understands the feelings of students.Flexible - Willing to alter plans and directions in a manner which assists peoplein moving toward their goals. Seeks to reason out situations with students and staf in a manner that allows all people to move forward in a positive direction.Individually Perceptive - Sees each student as a unique and valuable individual. Looks for the diferences among students. Quickly diagnoses student difculties and assists in the management of individual situations.Value Based - Focuses upon the worth and dignity of human beings. Is sensitive to community values. Strives to work in an environment consistent with his or her belief system. Recognizes the importance and power of modelingconstructive behavior.Knowledgeable - Is in a constant quest for knowledge. Keeps up in his or her specialty areas, and has the insight to integrate new knowledge. Takes knowledge and translates it to students in a way which is comprehensible to them, yet retains its originality.Creative - Versatile, innovative, and open to new ideas. Strives to incorporate techniques and activities that enable students to have unique and meaningful new growth experiences.Patient - Is deliberate in coming to conclusions. Strives to look at all aspects of the situation and remains highly fair and objective under most difcult circumstances. Believes that problems can be resolved if enough input and attention is given by people who are afected.Sense of Humor - Knows how to take the tension out of tight situations. Uses humor, spontaneously, in a tasteful manner. Builds togetherness in the classroom, through the use of humor.Source(s):https://www.uwec.edu/Career/students/jobQualities of a good teacherTeaching is a career that provides challenges, excitement, personal reward and a chance to encourage and support others to achieve their goals.There are many personal qualities and skills that make someone a good teacher.These include: being good at explaining things; being a people person and enjoy working with a wide range of people; enthusiasm; having a strong knowledge in particular subject areas; being a good time manager; ability to work in a team as well as using your own initiative; keeping your cool under pressure; having patience and a good sense of humour; being fair-minded; coping well with change; and enjoying a challenge.Good teachers know that by listening to and working with colleagues, parents, other professionals and community members that they can inspire students and improve their learning.^A teacher requires a number of personal as well as professional qualities. To become an efective teacher the teacher has to gain some personal qualities.If a teacher is lazy and lacks enthusiasm and lie will to do hard work, he cannot be expected to inculcate these values in pupils. Pupils arc keen observer. They are intelligent enough to observe discrepancies between what a teacher preaches and how he actually behaves. If a teacher is smoker, he has no right to advise his pupils to avoid smoking. If the teacher dishonest and avoids his/her duty, he/she has no right to advise his/ her pupils to be honest and sincere.Values like honesty, truthfulness, loyalty, punctuality, cleanliness, dedication, afection etc. are imbibed, through observations of other's behaviors rather than taught. A teacher has to stand as a model for his/her pupil so as to provide a lasting and inspiring example of ever they arc to have in them these qualities of personality and character. Some of the important personal qualitiesof a teacher are the following:(i) Afection:It is the basic traits that a teacher needs to have. Every one of us expects a certain amount of afection in every teacher. There is no human being on the earth who does not crave afection from those around, especially from parents and teachers. A teacher should show love and concern for his pupils. Without afection a teacher cannot feel for his pupil wanted and accepted.(ii) Empathy:Empathy enables us to feel concerned with our pupils' problems and the efortswe make to cope with them. This quality enables us to understand our pupils better both emotionally as well as intellectually. On the child's eye view we needa lot of emotional, fexibility. Empathy enables us to be judicious, impartial andobjective.It will engender us the requisite understanding to avoid stereotyping and prejudices and treat all pupils with equanimity irrespective of the background from which they come. Empathy creates in us a better awareness of the functioning of a child's mind which in term would permit us to avoid the use of words that insult and actions that hurt. As a teacher we must has empathy as a personal quality.(iii) Concern and Commitment:In a teacher there must be two more qualities viz. genuine concern and commitment to the tasks. As dedicated and concerned about the development of our pupils as their parents generally arc and then try to do all within our ability to see that they are given an opportunity for their growth and development.As a teacher, we must remember that the improvement seldom occurs spontaneously. It is attained through deliberate efort. To reach a child's mind, we must reach and capture his/her heart. Only when a child feels right, he/she can think right.If we want to improve our relations with children, we need to unlearn our habitual language of rejection and a new language of acceptance. If we are genuinely interested in the well being of our pupils, we need to be authentic, genuine and sincere. We do not have to demonstrate hypocrisy by acting nice, when we feel nasty.(iv) Humour:The sense of humour is a good trait in a teacher. Whenever we combine elements in a way that is diferent, unexpected and incongruous, we wind up with humour. As a teacher, we should develop the ability to play spontaneouslywith ideas, concepts and relationships.We should have the ability to juggle elements into impossible juxtaposition and express the ridiculous. All of these can bring in an atmosphere of humour in the classroom. It can arouse laughter or a smile on their lips, which would make their mind lighter. Humour can turn out to be a good tool in the hands ofan enlightened teacher.(v) Other Characteristics:Personal values like cleanliness, punctuality and honesty are the ornaments of a teacher. The presence of these personal values enable him transmit then to the pupil like a lamp which lights another lamp into equal brightness. A pupil can be inspired with a teacher to be honest, punctual, and truthful. Mercy can be taught only mercifully. The other characteristics arc smartness with the work, alertness and quality in the views etc. 6. each content in a multitude of ways; reteach it until it is learned. communicate regularly with parents via e-mail, phone, in-person conferences, and newsletters. assess papers and tests to inform next instructional steps. balance the demands of schedule changes and conficts. regularly provide and receive feedback to colleagues who work with the same students. provide data of various forms at various intervals to administrators. read professional literature. attend conferences and professional development. write and direct plays and other performances. lead charitable endeavors, including reaching out to the community and managing donations. scout and book feld trips. collect appropriate materials from a variety of sources, such as stores and the library. collect money for trips, book orders, and more. work with colleagues to better their pedagogy or understanding. hold meetings with a variety of professionals in the school who can assistin various roles (ie. psychologist, administrators, parent coordinators, etc.) participate in union activities. remain calm and make decisions in the event of a medical or other emergency. coordinate with guidance counselors to address various issues in students lives. here are many duties and responsibilities a teacher has. The following is a general overview. prepare lessons, making them as interesting as possible prepare homework, assignments and assessment research information to ensure the knowledge they impart is current mark homework and pieces of assessment identify the needs of individual students in their classes, and work to help each child develop his or her own potential prepare resources for the classroom confer with students over their work assist children to learn, not judge their inability to learn identify emotional, intellectual, physical, etc issues which may be hindering the student from learning to his/her best potential, and research andrecommend courses of action conduct parent-teacher interviews provide a sounding board (for both students and teachers) and allow for open discussion attend professional development sessions to improve his/her own teaching methods and curriculum present a professional but caring persona at all times Treat students with respect, and teach them to treat others with respect2.Pre-service Teacher Education is the education and training provided to student teachers before they have undertaken any teaching.3.Before entering into any pre-service education most students will have obtained a previous degree, either a general or honours, in a subject of their choice, (e.g. English, Math, Science, Religion). In the US, students are often required to take a test prior to acceptance into an accredited program, and/or upon graduation in order to earn certifcation. Commonly, the PRAXIS I or PRAXIS II are required for this purpose. Common topics include classroom management, lesson plans, and professional development. A major focus during such education programs are the practicum where the pre-service teacher is placed within a school setting (either elementary, or senior) and shadows an experienced teacher. The pre-service teacher will be given opportunities to develop skills through lesson plans, teaching lessons and classroom management.4.Not all pre-service programs are designed the same and a certifcate obtained in one country may not be recognized within another. Within the US, state-to-state reciprocity is limited.5.LearInborn Tendencies-The Basis of Teaching and Learning (by Reden R. de Jesus7/16/2012)The initial point of teaching and learning is the biological equipment of the learner. The child's original nature, or what he inherits is the capital with which education must work. His intelligence, attitudes, interests, and desires underlie the educative process.. His acquisition of knowledge, his formation ofhabits and skills, and his development of abilities and attitudes are conditioned and limited by his biological equipment. The innate tendencies become available as a drive to teaching or stimulus to learning. It is the function of the school to provide the necessary conditions and opportunities by which these innate tendencies or biological equipment can be developed and applied. In other words, the school sets the teaching-learning situations which will be favourable to the child's growth and development. The teacher may know many things and be ready to touch them, but he will have little success unless he has knowledge of the mind of his students and ofwhat goes on there, which knowledge he can only learn by patient observation. The teacher becomes a learner, for he has to study the minds of the young, their ways of looking at things, their habits, their difculties, likes and dislikes. He learns how these things are stimulated to exertion, how they are discouraged, and how one mood succeeds another. The primary concern of his innate tendencies, not the knowledge of child's specialty, but knowledgeof the laws and principles of child growth and development. There are many facts concerning the psychology of these inborn tendencies that are important and interesting from a purely theoretical point of view, but only those of primary importance to teaching and to learning will be considered. Some of the innate tendencies are intelligence, emotions, curiosity, interest and attention. Intelligence and ability to learn are very important. Teaching and learning processes are conditioned by intelligence. Both activities must meet certain conditions if they are to take place successfully. Learning is impossible without intelligence. In other words, intelligence is the basis of learning. The efectiveness of learning is conditioned by the degree of intelligence. It is an accepted fact that students with high intelligence are easier to teach or to direct and guide than students with low intelligence. The importance of emotions in teaching and in learning cannot be ignored. Teaching depends upon emotions for the motivation of learning. In teaching, the emotions of fear, anger, and love can be used as drives to greater activity on the part of the learner. They can also be used as checks on the students' behaviour, in or outside the classroom. Curiosity is a valuable agent in education when it is rigidly valued and employed. Curiosity is highly important because it is a starting point of interest. Attention can be held only by arousing the interest of the students. Curiosity enlarges also the circle of interest. When rightly valued and utilized,curiosity and attention can be made valuable agents in education. The problem of interest and attention, from the point of view of teaching, is not simply to arouse curiosity and to secure attention, but rather to have the attention fxed upon these activities which are desirable from the standpoint of teaching and learning; to give attention and to engage in mental activity or refective thinking. We seek, in our work as teachers, not only to secure a maximum of attention to the feld of work in which the students are engaged, but also to arouse interest and enthusiasm which will last after school days are over. 9. Seven Principles of Facilitative Instruction:Guiding Students to LearningHigher education is going through a transformation from being teacher-centered to being learner-centered. The emphasis is on what students learn, not on what faculty teach. (Students, unfortunately, don't learn everything weteach.) Research suggests that students who are actively engaged in their courses learn more, and teachers facilitating this "active learning" mode are "guides on the side" rather than "sages on the stage." Their role is to facilitate learning, rather than transmit information."'Guiding' Students to Learning," an article in the October 2000 issue of The Teaching Professor (p. 5-6), summarizes seven principles for facilitating learning. As in most endeavors, balance is important. It is not that learner-centered teachers act entirely diferently than teacher-centered teachers, but their approach changes the balance of what they and their students do when they interact.Seven Principles of Facilitative Instruction1. "Teachers do fewer learning tasks." Learner-centered teachers are less likely to provide closing summaries and preliminary reviews, ask questions, ofer examples, solve problems, make graphs, etc. They encourage students to learn by doing these tasks, not by watching theirteachers perform them.2. "Teachers do less telling." Learner-centered teachers spend less time telling the students everything. They encourage students to fgure out how to do things and to discover what things mean.3. "Teachers do more design work." Learner-centered teachers carefully design assignments and class activities to help students learn.These assignments and activities are appropriately motivating, challenging, and focused so students become engaged, are proud of their progress, and master learning objectives.4. "Faculty do more modeling." Learner-centered teachers are mastersof their discipline, and student "apprentices" learn by observing how disciplinary experts attack the problems they encounter.5. "Get students working with each other." Learner-centered teachersunderstand group dynamics and carefully structure activities that generate the synergy of cooperative and collaborative learning.6. "Faculty work to create climates for learning." Learner-centered teachers recognize that classroom climate can stife or foster learning. They provide a climate which encourages students to look forward to class and to take responsibility for their own learning.7. "Faculty focus less on grading and do more with feedback." Learner-centered teachers, like all faculty, are responsible for assigning valid grades, but they are more likely to use graded coursecomponents and other course activities to provide formative feedback tofoster student learning.10. Twelve Principles of Efective Teaching and Learning(Source: Tiberius & Tipping, 'Twelve Principles of Efective Teaching and Learning For Which There Is Substantial Empirical Support, University of Toronto, 1990 )(As with the "Faculty Inventory", you can use these twelve principles to help identify your areas of strength and areas for improvement.)These twelve principles are intended as guidelines to faculty and administrators interested in the improvement of teaching and learning. The list is derived, in part, from a study co-sponsored by the American Association for Higher Education and the Education Commission of the States (AAHE Bulletin,March 1987). That study reported seven principles of good practice and six powerful forces in higher education which has been extracted from ffty years ofresearch on teaching and learning in higher education. The study was conducted by a team of prominent educators, including Alexander W. Astin, Howard Bowen, Carol H Boyer, K Patricia Cross, Kenneth Eble, Russel Edgerton, Jerry Gaf, Joseph Katz, C. Robert Pace, Marvin W. Peterson, and Richard C. Richardson Jr.We have added fve principles, based on our review of the literature (including review articles such as T.M. Shermin et.al. "The quest for excellence in university teaching" in the Journal of Higher Education, Vol 58, No 1, 1987, pp.66-84; and John Centra et. Al. "A guide to evaluating teaching for promotionand tenure", 1987, a publication of Syracuse University).1. Teachers' knowledge of the subject matter is essential to the implementation of important teaching tasksTeachers who know their subject matter thoroughly can be more efective and efcient at organizing the subject matter, connecting the subject with the students' previous knowledge, fnding useful analogies and examples, presenting current thinking on the subject, and establishing appropriate emphases.2. Active involvement of the learner enhances learningLearning is an active process which requires that the learner work with and apply new material to past knowledge and to everyday life. Some of the methods that encourage active learning in the classroom are: discussion, practice sessions, structured exercises, team projects, and research projects. Inthe words of William James:Teaching without an accompanying experience is like flling a lamp with water. Something has been poured in, but the result is not illuminating.3. Interaction between teachers and students is the most important factor in student motivation and involvementInteraction between students and faculty, particularly informal interaction, is one of the most important factors in student motivation for learning. The opportunity to know a few faculty well often enhances students' intellectual commitment and provides valuable rolemodeling.4. Students beneft from taking responsibility for their learningStudents are more motivated when they take control of their own learning. Thisis the belief which has stimulated active interest in self-directed learning.5. There are many roads to learningStudents learn in diferent ways and vary in their abilities to perform certain tasks. Understanding that each student has unique strengths and weaknesses related to the ways in which they approach learning is an important componentof efective education. Providing a variety of learning activities for a class enables individual students to choose the activity which is the most efective forthem at the moment.6. Expect more and you will achieve moreSimply stated, if an educator conveys to students that he or she believes in their ability to succeed learning is enhanced.7. Learning is enhanced in an atmosphere of cooperationLearning is enhanced when it is perceived as a collaborative and cooperative efort between students. The opportunity to share ideas without threat of ridicule and the freedom to respond to the ideas of others increases complexity of thinking and deepens understanding.8. Material must be meaningfulIf new material is presented in a pattern or framework that the learner can perceive, it is more readily learned and retained. New material will be more easily learned if the learner is helped to see its relationship to what s/he already knows. Material which is seen by the learner as relevant to his or her own problems and experiences will be more readily learned.9. Both teaching and learning are enhanced by descriptive feedbackWithout feedback neither learner nor teacher can improve because they will notknow what they need to know or to what extent they are fulflling their goals. The learners' behavior will more quickly reach the objectives if they are informed (or given feedback) frequently about the correctness of their responses. Correct responses should be immediately reinforced to increase the "permanence" of learning. A positive reinforcer is anything that will increase the probability that the desired behavior will be repeated. A smile or comment to let the learner know he or she has successfully completed the task is especially good because awareness of successful completion is, in itself, the most efective of all reinforces.Feedback about progress is helpful because learning is facilitated when the learner is aware that he or she is progressing towards the goals.10. Critical feedback is only useful if the learner has alternatives to pursueThere is no use giving teachers or students feedback about their performances unless they can do something about it, that is, unless they have some alternative course of action or behaviour.11. Time plus energy equals learningLectures or seminars that are canceled will not help the learner. Conversely, teachers who arrive at their lecture or small group setting a little before the scheduled time and stay around for a few minutes afterward provide opportunities for valuable interaction between students and teachers. Ofce hours also help students to arrange time to talk with teachers. Students must learn how to organize their time so that they can fnd time to study. And the curriculum must be organized to allow students time to study.12. Experience usually improves teachingExperience is associated with increasing teacher efectiveness for some teachers, probably for those teachers who obtain feedback about their teaching and who are fexible enough to modify their methods in response to the feedback.11.1 he theory of B.F. Skinner is based upon the idea that learning is a function of change in overt behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of an individual's response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment. A response produces a consequence such as defning a word, hitting a ball, or solving a math problem. When a particular Stimulus-Response (S-R) pattern is reinforced (rewarded), the individual is conditioned to respond. The distinctive characteristic of operant conditioning relative to previous forms of behaviorism (e.g.,connectionism, drive reduction) is that the organism can emit responses instead of only eliciting response due to an external stimulus.Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner's S-R theory. A reinforcer is anything that strengthens the desired response. It could be verbal praise, a good grade or a feeling of increased accomplishment or satisfaction. The theory also covers negative reinforcers -- any stimulus that results in the increased frequency of a response when it is withdrawn (diferent from adversive stimuli -- punishment -- which result in reduced responses). A great deal of attention was given to schedules of reinforcement (e.g. interval versus ratio) and their efects on establishing and maintaining behavior.One of the distinctive aspects of Skinner's theory is that it attempted to providebehavioral explanations for a broad range of cognitive phenomena. For example, Skinner explained drive (motivation) in terms of deprivation and reinforcement schedules. Skinner (1957) tried to account for verbal learning and language within the operant conditioning paradigm, although this efort was strongly rejected by linguists and psycholinguists. Skinner (1971) deals with the issue of free will and social control.ApplicationOperant conditioning has been widely applied in clinical settings (i.e., behavior modifcation) as well as teaching (i.e., classroom management) and instructional development (e.g., programmed instruction). Parenthetically, it should be noted that Skinner rejected the idea of theories of learning (see Skinner, 1950).ExampleBy way of example, consider the implications of reinforcement theory as applied to the development of programmed instruction (Markle, 1969; Skinner, 1968)1. Practice should take the form of question (stimulus) - answer (response) frames which expose the student to the subject in gradual steps2. Require that the learner make a response for every frame and receive immediate feedback3. Try to arrange the difculty of the questions so the response is always correct and hence a positive reinforcement4. Ensure that good performance in the lesson is paired with secondary reinforcers such as verbal praise, prizes and good grades.Principles1.Behavior that is positively reinforced will reoccur; intermittent reinforcement is particularly efective2.Information should be presented in small amounts so that responses canbe reinforced ("shaping")3.Reinforcements will generalize across similar stimuli ("stimulus generalization") producing secondary conditioning11.2HORNDIKE'S LAWS OF LEARNINGThe basis of Edward Thorndike's approach to problems of behavior lay in his belief that human behavior could be analyzed and studied in terms of S-R units. The essence of behavior was to be found in the initiation of an even and an individual's reaction To them. As a behaviorist, Thorndike views learning in terms of establishing connection or bond between stimulus and responses. Humans only difer from other animal their greater capacity to make associations.EDWARD THORNDIKE'S EXPERIMENTSThorndike investigated learning in animals by using cats. A hungry cat was confned in a puzzle box with food visible on the outside. He presented it a problem, which required the cat to manipulate some devices, which would openthe gate of the puzzle box. Bits of food were placed outside the box as an incentive for the cat to open the gate. From such experiments, Thorndike made the following observations.The cat frst behaved aimlessly as if doing things by trial and error. It then responded correctly by accident (chance success) and fnally, repeated the successful operation Consuming the food (satisfer) rewarded it. Getting the reward strengthens the connection between the stimuli and the response made just before the reward (satisfer) was given.From the above observations. Thorndike formulated three major laws, namely: law of efect, law of readiness and law of exerciseLAW OF EFFECTThe law of efect states that the association between a stimulus and a responsewill strengthen or weakened depending on whether a satisfer or an annoyer follows the response (Gibson, 1980). An act, which is followed by satisfaction ina given situation, will generally Become associated with that situation; so that when it recurs the act will also be likely to recur (Curzon, 1981). On the other, an act, which results in discomfort, tends to be disassociated from the situation, so that when the situation recurs, the act will be less likely to recur. The greater the satisfaction or discomfort experienced, the greater the degree towhich the S-R bond will be strengthened or loosened. After research studies have showed that this explanation was inadequate, Thorndike propounded another law, the truncated law of efect. This law added the idea that while satisfers always strengthens the bond between a stimulus and a response, the efect of annoyers Is much less predictable; sometime they weaken the bond, but sometimes they do not.LAW OF EXERCISEThe law of exercise states that response to a situation may be strongly connected with the situation depending on the number of times it has been so connected and to the average strength and duration of the connection. The exercise here refers to practice. Practice they say makes Perfect. In a later revision of the law, Thorndike asserts that practice in itself did not make perfect, but practice in circumstances that allowed the learner to be informed or given comments about his progress could be valuable in strengthening the S-R linksLAW OF READINESSThe law of readiness states that a learner's satisfaction determined by the extent of his preparatory set, that is, his readiness for action. This law was summarized into two:When someone is ready to perform an act to do so is satisfying.When someone is ready to perform some act, not do so is annoying. An interference with goal-directed behavior causes frustration and making someone to do something he does not want to do is frustratingSUBSIDIARY LAWSThorndike also outlines other subsidiary law (Curzon, 1981). They include the following:Law of Multiple Responses. A response, which fails to produce satisfaction, will trigger of another until success results and learning becomes possibleLaw of Set. The individual's total attitude or disposition afects learning.Law of Response Analogy. A Person's response to a novel situation is determined by innate tendencies to respond and by elements in similar situations to which he has acquired responses in the past.Law of Selectivity of Response. As an animal learns, it becomes capable of ignoring some aspects of a problem and responding to others.Law of Associative Shifting. A learner frst responds to a given stimulus, then transfers the responses, but association, to another stimulus.Law of Spread Efect. If an act had pleasurable consequences, the pleasure tended top become associated with not only the act and the eliciting stimulus, but also with other actions, which occurred approximately, the same point in time.IMPLICATION OF THORNDIKE'S THEORY TO THE CLASSROOMReward is important in learning. It strengthens the occurrence of behavior a follows.Practice and repetition is vital in the learning process. However, practice efortsshould accompanied by feedbackThe law of readiness stresses the importance of preparation for learning. The teacher must wait until learner is ready to learn and should give those experiences which help to enhance readiness. Preparatory experience that will hasten the development Of readiness can be provided in elementary classes.OPERANT CONDITIONING THEORY OF LEARNINGB.F. Skinner propounded the operant conditioning theory of learning. Operant conditioning describes learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on its positive or negative consequences (Feldman, 1996). The procedure is based On the principle of reinforcement whereby the consequences of a response determine whether that response will persist. The law of operant conditioning states that if the occurrence of an operant is followed by the presentation of a reinforcing stimulus, the strength/ Probability is increased. An operant is a set of acts, which constitutes an organism's voluntary behavior. Examples of operant acts include an animal raising it head, pressing a lever, lifting of leg, etc, and the approach is operant conditioning because an organism operates On the environment in order to cause certain consequences. It is also called instrumental conditioning because certain responses or instruments are essential in leading or reward. Skinner classifed behavior into respondent and operant. The respondent behavior is the summation of those responses, which can be identifed with specifc eliciting stimuli. The operant refers to that behavior which is consistently elicited by particular stimuli. Rather the organism operates or acts on the environment to generate specifc consequences. In operant conditioning, the important stimulus is that which immediately follow the responseB . F. Skinner used an apparatus, the Skinner box, to demonstrate operant conditioning in animals. A hungry ( unconditioned) rat is allowed explored the box, when the rate spontaneously presses a small lever, the experimenter dropsa pellet of food from an aperture Into a try for the animal to eat. Repeatedly the animally acquires the habit of pressing the lever presentation of food.SKINNER AND LEARNING PROCESSLearning according to Skinner is the creation of conditioned connection between the learner's operant behavior and its reinforcement. An organism learns by production changes in it environment. The changes are followed by a particular consequence. The consequence (Pleasant or unpleasant) determines whether that operant behavior will be repeated. The strength of a learned response is generally determined by the amount of reinforcement that it receivesPRINCIPLES OF REINFORCEMENTThe basic principle of operant conditioning is that response that are reinforce are more likely to be repeated that those that are not reinforced. All behaviors are accompanied by certain consequences, and these consequences strongly infuence whether or not these behaviors Are repeated and at what level of intensity. The consequences follow behavior iseither positive or negative. When consequences strengthened a preceding behavior, the term reinforcement is used. There are positive and negative forms of reinforcement. When the consequences Weaken a preceding behavior, the terms punishment and extinction is used.NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENTThis is the termination or withdrawal of an aversive stimulus (negative reinforce) contingent upon the performance of a desired behavior. A negative reinforce is a stimulus which, when taken away from a situation, increases the probability of a response occurring. The negative reinforce refers To those things the organism dislikes such as electric shock, pinching, scolding, nagging, etc. The efect of negative reinforces depends on their termination (Silverman, 1978)The Cessation of negative reinforces increases the frequency of a response that leads to escape from the negative reinforces. Negative reinforces are efective only when there is a change to escape them. That chance according to Gibson (1980) is obvious to the individual. For example, When a bell is sounded, a shock is applied to a dog's leg. The dog can stop the shock by lifting its leg. With time, the dog learns to quickly lift its leg whenever the bell sounds. The dog is negatively reinforced if it lifts its leg in order to cancel the electric shock.PUNISHMENTTo punish is to present unpleasant or painful stimuli in order to decrease the probability that a preceding behavior will occur. Punishment is a consequence that decreases the future occurrence of the behavior that produces it. Punishment can be administered in two forms (Smith, Sarandon, and Sara son, 1986). The frst, aversive punishment, is carried out by applying aversive (unpleasant) stimuli, such as painful slaps , shaming, scolding, verbal reprimands, etc. The second is done by taking awaking positive reinforces, such as privileges, social interactions, or possessions. This Second form of punishment is known as Response cost.Punishment and negative reinforcement both involve the use of aversive stimuli. While negative reinforcement requires the termination aversive stimuli, punishment is a presentation of aversive stimuli. Negative reinforcement strengthens a response while punishment weakens or suppresses it.GENERAL DEVELOPMENT PROBLEMS AND NEEDS OF ADOLESCENTS IS TRANSITION FROM CHILDHOOD TO ADULTHOODThe period of adolescence is termed "the Crisis period" with its attendant stressand conficts which are exhibited in diferent forms of worries and concern. Some of these concerns according to Havighurst (1972) are as listed below.Achieving new and more mature relation with age mates of both sexesAchieving masculine and feminine social rolesAccepting one physique and using the body efectivelyAchieving emotional independence from parents and other adultsAchieving assurance of economic independenceSelecting and preparation for an occupationPreparing for marriage and family lifeDevelopment skills and concepts necessary for epic competenceDesiring and achieving social responsible behaviorAcquiring a set of values and ethical system as a guide to behavior i.e. development an ideology. Apart from the above enumerated concerns there are some basic and fundamental problems that confront adolescent which includeIDENTITY FORMATION: This is the frst crucial concern of Adolescents. The search for self is unending and at the same time frustrating. The self is the sum total of a person's idea and attitude about whom and what he is. His problem is compounded When sometimes he behaves like adult and he is accepted and at mother time he is told that he is not matured for such yet.EFFECT OF PEER ON ADOLESCENCEAdolescent have lesser dependent on parents but draws comfort from members of his age group and they provide support and security for him The infuence ofpeers may be negative or positive especially when the needs of adolescents are not met. Teachers and parents Are advised to watch the peer group which the children belong to. Eforts should be made to disband peer where there are bad elements.ABNORMAL USE OF ALCOHOL AND DRUGSThis is a behavior some adolescents learn from their peers or infuence by signifcant others. Once this habit starts it becomes difcult to stop and it may lead to drop addiction and it s attendant problem like mental disorder may follow.FACTORS AFFECTING LEARNING READINESS1. Maturation. A child who has not reached a sufcient stage of mental and physical development when he tries to Perform school tasks characteristic of that stage and that, which entails a higher level of development. However With proper readiness building procedure, normal development difculties can be over come.2. Experience. Previous experience determines a child's readiness for learning prior exposure to basic skills is necessary Before complex tasks are tackled.3. Relevance of materials and methods of instruction. Research has shown thatchildren are more ready to learn materials that Meets their needs and fts their already established interests. Children are more ready to learn skills of spelling, reading and Writing when they are having fun doing4. Emotional attitude and personal adjustment. Emotional stress blocks readiness for learning especially those resulting from Unmet needs, overprotection, rejection in the home, previous experience of school failure, and other home difculties.Building Learning ReadinessThis process begins before the child even enters school. The parents should provide books, drawing, reading, and writing materials at Home. The children should have knowledge about books, pictures, and rudiments of writing. From childhood through school, children should Be exposed to skills both for their immediate usefulness and for their preparation for new learning. Building learning readiness necessitates The following steps:1. Analyze the skills, understanding and knowledge required in studying a given material.2. Use diagnostic pre-tests and other devices to determine the level each prospective learner possesses the requisite skills, understanding And knowledge as well as the specifc areas of strengths and weaknesses3. Design the instructional programmed to match the individual needs and abilities of each learnerCLASSICAL CONDITIONING THEORY OF LEARNINGThis theory was propounded by a Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov (1849 - 1936). He was primarily interested in the circulation of the blood and the Processes of the gastrointestinal system. He showed little interest in psychologyuntil his later years. For him, the so called "mental events" were no more Than refex units of behavior. The study of the nervous systems of animals led him to methods of investigation from which he discovered the techniques of the Condi- Toning of behavior.Classical conditioning can be defned as learning resulting from the pairing anyartifcial stimulus over a number of trials until the artifcial stimulus begins to Produce responses similar to the response, which follows the natural stimulus. Classical conditioning depends on the association of a response an individual makes Automatically (unconditioned responses) with a previously neutral stimulus (conditioned stimulus). This association is accomplished through pairing the conditioned stimulus With an unconditioned stimulus that automatically elicits the unconditioned response. After enough pairings, the individual will make the conditioned response when the When the conditioned stimulus is presented alone. Classical conditioning is also called respondent conditioning because the individual does not respond until after the stimulus Has been presented ( Gibson, 1980). Pavlov discovered the technique of conditioning by accident as he was experimenting with dogs to learn about their digestive and salivary functions (Silverman, 1978). He wanted To determine the connection between the presences of food in a dog's mouth and the dogs salivary fow. Pavlov inverted the parotid gland of the dog so that its secretions could be accumulated In a calibrated glass and measured externally. The dog was placed in a harness. Initially the dog salivated at the sight of food. Pavlov discovered that the dog salivated not only at the sight of food But at also when it heard the sound of a bell before it received food. After some trials, the sound of the bell alone elicited the salivating response. Thus, the doghad learnt that sound of the bell Would soon lead to it being given something to eat.Variables in Classical Conditioning Experiment1. Conditioned stimulus (CS). This is neutral stimulus, which evokes a particular response after conditioning. In Pavlov's experiment, the CS (bell) originally did not produce salivation.2. Unconditioned Stimulus (US). The unconditioned stimulus (US) on presentation produces a refexive unconditioned response (UR). In Pavlov's experiment, food (US) evokes salivation (UR) in dogs3. Unconditioned Response (UR). Before conditioning, the dogs salivate when food (US) is presented.4. Conditioned Response (CR). Salivation became a conditioned response when it has been associated to a neutral stimulus (CS) that did not originally elicit it.According to Pavlov, if the conditioned Stimulus and unconditioned stimulus (CS + US) were presented repeatedly, theconnection between the conditioned stimulus and conditioned response is strengthened. The more the CS - US pairings, The stronger.Pavlov and Learning Process Pavlov believes that humans learn as a result of conditioning. Learning is an association of paired stimuli and response. Association is therefore very vital tolearning. Learning has taken place when a person Is conditioned to associate a conditioned response to a conditioned stimulus. Learning occurs when the unconditioned stimulus and conditioned stimulus occur together in time, and a response is madeConcepts in Pavlov's TheoryExtinction. The process by which an established conditioned response is weakened. Extinction occurs when the CS is presented frequently without being paired with the US.Spontaneous Recovery. The reappearance of a previously extinguished response after a period of time during which the conditioned stimuli has been absent. Usually, however, responses that returns through Spontaneous recovery is weaker than they were initially and can be extinguished more readily.Stimulus generalization. This takes place when a conditioned response follows a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus. The greater the similarity between two stimuli, the greater likelihood Of stimulus generalization. Once a US is learned, a CS that is similar to the original CS will also elicit the CR. For example, Pavlov found that a dog that was conditioned to salivate at the tone of tuning fork would Also response to ringing of a bell, buzzing bees, etcStimulus Discrimination. This is the process by which an organism learns to diferentiate among stimuli, and restricts its response to one particular stimulus. The ability to make discrimination is the essential factor in human Learning.Pavlov and the Teacher1. Learning tasks should be presented in a form that is interesting or pleasant to the learner and meet his interests.2. The teacher should try to start from known to unknown, that is, establish anassociation between what the learner already knows and the new topic to be taught for meaningful learning to take place.3. The feelings anxiety associated with failure in school may create an aversion to problem solving situations outside of school. The principles of classical conditioning can be used to develop favorable and unfavorable attitudes towards Learning.THORNDIKE'S LAWS OF LEARNINGThe basis of Edward Thorndike's approach to problems of behavior lay in his belief that human behavior could be analyzed and studied in terms of S-R units. The essence of behavior was to be found in the initiation of an even and an individual's reaction To them. As a behaviorist, Thorndike views learning in terms of establishing connection or bond between stimulus and responses. Humans only difer from other animal their greater capacity to make associations.EDWARD THORNDIKE'S EXPERIMENTSThorndike investigated learning in animals by using cats. A hungry cat was confned in a puzzle box with food visible on the outside. He presented it a problem, which required the cat to manipulate some devices, which would openthe gate of the puzzle box. Bits of food were placed outside the box as an incentive for the cat to open the gate. From such experiments, Thorndike made the following observations.The cat frst behaved aimlessly as if doing things by trial and error. It then responded correctly by accident (chance success) and fnally, repeated the successful operation Consuming the food (satisfer) rewarded it. Getting the reward strengthens the connection between the stimuli and the response made just before the reward (satisfer) was given.From the above observations. Thorndike formulated three major laws, namely: law of efect, law of readiness and law of exerciseLAW OF EFFECTThe law of efect states that the association between a stimulus and a responsewill strengthen or weakened depending on whether a satisfer or an annoyer follows the response (Gibson, 1980). An act, which is followed by satisfaction ina given situation, will generally Become associated with that situation; so that when it recurs the act will also be likely to recur (Curzon, 1981). On the other, an act, which results in discomfort, tends to be disassociated from the situation, so that when the situation recurs, the act will be less likely to recur. The greater the satisfaction or discomfort experienced, the greater the degree towhich the S-R bond will be strengthened or loosened. After research studies have showed that this explanation was inadequate, Thorndike propounded another law, the truncated law of efect. This law added the idea that while satisfers always strengthens the bond between a stimulus and a response, the efect of annoyers Is much less predictable; sometime they weaken the bond, but sometimes they do not.LAW OF EXERCISEThe law of exercise states that response to a situation may be strongly connected with the situation depending on the number of times it has been so connected and to the average strength and duration of the connection. The exercise here refers to practice. Practice they say makes Perfect. In a later revision of the law, Thorndike asserts that practice in itself did not make perfect, but practice in circumstances that allowed the learner to be informed or given comments about his progress could be valuable in strengthening the S-R linksLAW OF READINESSThe law of readiness states that a learner's satisfaction determined by the extent of his preparatory set, that is, his readiness for action. This law was summarized into two:When someone is ready to perform an act to do so is satisfying.When someone is ready to perform some act, not do so is annoying. An interference with goal-directed behavior causes frustration and making someone to do something he does not want to do is frustratingSUBSIDIARY LAWSThorndike also outlines other subsidiary law (Curzon, 1981). They include the following:Law of Multiple Responses. A response, which fails to produce satisfaction, will trigger of another until success results and learning becomes possibleLaw of Set. The individual's total attitude or disposition afects learning.Law of Response Analogy. A Person's response to a novel situation is determined by innate tendencies to respond and by elements in similar situations to which he has acquired responses in the past.Law of Selectivity of Response. As an animal learns, it becomes capable of ignoring some aspects of a problem and responding to others.Law of Associative Shifting. A learner frst responds to a given stimulus, then transfers the responses, but association, to another stimulus.Law of Spread Efect. If an act had pleasurable consequences, the pleasure tended top become associated with not only the act and the eliciting stimulus, but also with other actions, which occurred approximately, the same point in time.IMPLICATION OF THORNDIKE'S THEORY TO THE CLASSROOMReward is important in learning. It strengthens the occurrence of behavior a follows.Practice and repetition is vital in the learning process. However, practice efortsshould accompanied by feedbackThe law of readiness stresses the importance of preparation for learning. The teacher must wait until learner is ready to learn and should give those experiences which help to enhance readiness. Preparatory experience that will hasten the development Of readiness can be provided in elementary classes.OPERANT CONDITIONING THEORY OF LEARNINGB.F. Skinner propounded the operant conditioning theory of learning. Operant conditioning describes learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on its positive or negative consequences (Feldman, 1996). The procedure is based On the principle of reinforcement whereby the consequences of a response determine whether that response will persist. The law of operant conditioning states that if the occurrence of an operant is followed by the presentation of a reinforcing stimulus, the strength/ Probability is increased. An operant is a set of acts, which constitutes an organism's voluntary behavior. Examples of operant acts include an animal raising it head, pressing a lever, lifting of leg, etc, and the approach is operant conditioning because an organism operates On the environment in order to cause certain consequences. It is also called instrumental conditioning because certain responses or instruments are essential in leading or reward. Skinner classifed behavior into respondent and operant. The respondent behavior is the summation of those responses, which can be identifed with specifc eliciting stimuli. The operant refers to that behavior which is consistently elicited by particular stimuli. Rather the organism operates or acts on the environment to generate specifc consequences. In operant conditioning, the important stimulus is that which immediately follow the responseB . F. Skinner used an apparatus, the Skinner box, to demonstrate operant conditioning in animals. A hungry ( unconditioned) rat is allowed explored the box, when the rate spontaneously presses a small lever, the experimenter dropsa pellet of food from an aperture Into a try for the animal to eat. Repeatedly the animally acquires the habit of pressing the lever presentation of food.SKINNER AND LEARNING PROCESSLearning according to Skinner is the creation of conditioned connection between the learner's operant behavior and its reinforcement. An organism learns by production changes in it environment. The changes are followed by a particular consequence. The consequence (Pleasant or unpleasant) determines whether that operant behavior will be repeated. The strength of a learned response is generally determined by the amount of reinforcement that it receivesPRINCIPLES OF REINFORCEMENTThe basic principle of operant conditioning is that response that are reinforce are more likely to be repeated that those that are not reinforced. All behaviors are accompanied by certain consequences, and these consequences strongly infuence whether or not these behaviors Are repeated and at what level of intensity. The consequences follow behavior iseither positive or negative. When consequences strengthened a preceding behavior, the term reinforcement is used. There are positive and negative forms of reinforcement. When the consequences Weaken a preceding behavior, the terms punishment and extinction is used.NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENTThis is the termination or withdrawal of an aversive stimulus (negative reinforce) contingent upon the performance of a desired behavior. A negative reinforce is a stimulus which, when taken away from a situation, increases the probability of a response occurring. The negative reinforce refers To those things the organism dislikes such as electric shock, pinching, scolding, nagging, etc. The efect of negative reinforces depends on their termination (Silverman, 1978)The Cessation of negative reinforces increases the frequency of a response that leads to escape from the negative reinforces. Negative reinforces are efective only when there is a change to escape them. That chance according to Gibson (1980) is obvious to the individual. For example, When a bell is sounded, a shock is applied to a dog's leg. The dog can stop the shock by lifting its leg. With time, the dog learns to quickly lift its leg whenever the bell sounds. The dog is negatively reinforced if it lifts its leg in order to cancel the electric shock.PUNISHMENTTo punish is to present unpleasant or painful stimuli in order to decrease the probability that a preceding behavior will occur. Punishment is a consequence that decreases the future occurrence of the behavior that produces it. Punishment can be administered in two forms (Smith, Sarandon, and Sara son, 1986). The frst, aversive punishment, is carried out by applying aversive (unpleasant) stimuli, such as painful slaps , shaming, scolding, verbal reprimands, etc. The second is done by taking awaking positive reinforces, such as privileges, social interactions, or possessions. This Second form of punishment is known as Response cost.Punishment and negative reinforcement both involve the use of aversive stimuli. While negative reinforcement requires the termination aversive stimuli, punishment is a presentation of aversive stimuli. Negative reinforcement strengthens a response while punishment weakens or suppresses it.GENERAL DEVELOPMENT PROBLEMS AND NEEDS OF ADOLESCENTS IS TRANSITION FROM CHILDHOOD TO ADULTHOODThe period of adolescence is termed "the Crisis period" with its attendant stressand conficts which are exhibited in diferent forms of worries and concern. Some of these concerns according to Havighurst (1972) are as listed below.Achieving new and more mature relation with age mates of both sexesAchieving masculine and feminine social rolesAccepting one physique and using the body efectivelyAchieving emotional independence from parents and other adultsAchieving assurance of economic independenceSelecting and preparation for an occupationPreparing for marriage and family lifeDevelopment skills and concepts necessary for epic competenceDesiring and achieving social responsible behaviorAcquiring a set of values and ethical system as a guide to behavior i.e. development an ideology. Apart from the above enumerated concerns there are some basic and fundamental problems that confront adolescent which includeIDENTITY FORMATION: This is the frst crucial concern of Adolescents. The search for self is unending and at the same time frustrating. The self is the sum total of a person's idea and attitude about whom and what he is. His problem is compounded When sometimes he behaves like adult and he is accepted and at mother time he is told that he is not matured for such yet.EFFECT OF PEER ON ADOLESCENCEAdolescent have lesser dependent on parents but draws comfort from members of his age group and they provide support and security for him The infuence ofpeers may be negative or positive especially when the needs of adolescents are not met. Teachers and parents Are advised to watch the peer group which the children belong to. Eforts should be made to disband peer where there are bad elements.ABNORMAL USE OF ALCOHOL AND DRUGSThis is a behavior some adolescents learn from their peers or infuence by signifcant others. Once this habit starts it becomes difcult to stop and it may lead to drop addiction and it s attendant problem like mental disorder may follow.11.3Social learning theory is a perspective that states that people learn within a social context. It is facilitated through concepts such as modeling and observational learning.[1] People, especially children, learn from the environment and seek acceptance from society by learning through infuential models. Social learning theory is a perspective that states that social behavior (any type of behavior that we display socially) is learned primarily by observing and imitating the actions of others. The social behavior is also infuenced by being rewarded and/or punished for these actions. Social learning theory was derived in an attempt by Robert Sears and other scholars to merge psychoanalytic and stimulus-response learning theory into an inclusive explanation of human behavior. Sears and the others draw their conclusions of of the clinical richness of the former and the rigor of the latter. Albert Bandura, conversely, abandoned the psychoanalytic and drive features of the approach. His approach emphasized on cognitive and information-processing capabilities that facilitate social behavior. Both theories proposed were envisioned as a general context for the understanding of human behavior, but Banduras theory provided a stronger theoretical beginning.[2]Contents[hide] 1Theory2Human development3Criminology4Serial murder and social learning theory5Applications6References7External links[edit]TheoryAccording to Social Learning theory, models are an important source for learning new behaviors and for achieving behavioral change in institutionalized settings.[3] Social learning theory is derived from the work of Albert Bandura which proposed that observational learning can occur in relation to three models:[4] Live modelin which an actual person is demonstrating the desired behaviour Verbal instructionin which an individual describes the desired behaviour in detail, and instructs the participant in how to engage in the behavior Symbolicin which modeling occurs by means of the media, including movies, television, Internet, literature, and radio. This type of modeling involves areal or fctional character demonstrating the behaviour.An important factor of Banduras social learning theory is the emphasis on reciprocal determinism. This notion states that an individuals behaviour is infuenced by the environment and characteristics of the person. In other words, a persons behaviour, environment, and personal qualities all reciprocally infuence each other.[4]Bandura proposed that the modeling process involves several steps:[4]1.Attention: In order for an individual to learn something, they must pay attention to the features of the modeled behaviour.2.Retention: Humans need to be able to remember details of the behaviour in order to learn and later reproduce the behaviour.3.Reproduction: In reproducing a behavior, an individual must organize his or her responses in accordance with the model behavior. This ability can improve with practice.4.Motivation: There must be an incentive or motivation driving the individuals reproduction of the behaviour. Even if all of theabove factors are present, the person will not engage in the behaviour without motivation.Bandura is known for his 1961-1963 experiments utilizing an infatable clown known as a Bobo doll in order to test modeling behaviours in children. Children were divided into three groups one of which was exposed to an aggressive adult model, one which was exposed to a passive adult model, and a control group, which was notexposed to an adult model. Adults in the aggressive group were askedto verbally and physically attack the doll, while those in the passive group were asked to play peacefully. Once the children were given theopportunity to play, results showed that those exposed to the aggressive model were more likely to imitate what they had seen, and to behave aggressively toward the doll. It was found that boys were four times more likely than girls to display physical aggression, but levels of verbal aggression were about the same. The results of Banduras studies provided support for the infuence of modeling on learning. Further, a later study in 1965 showed that witnessing the model being punished for the aggressive behavior decreased the likelihood that children would imitate the behaviour.[5]Julian Rotter moved away from theories based on psychosis and behaviourism, and developed a learning theory. In Social Learning and Clinical Psychology (1954), Rotter suggests thatthe efect of behaviour has an impact on the motivation of people to engage in that specifc behaviour. People wish to avoid negative consequences, while desiring positive results or efects. If one expectsa positive outcome from a behaviour, or thinks there is a high probability of a positive outcome, then they will be more likely to engage in that behaviour. The behavior is reinforced, with positive outcomes, leading a person to repeat the behaviour. This social learning theory suggests that behaviour is infuenced by these environmental factors or stimuli, and not psychological factors alone.[6]Albert Bandura [7] expanded on Rotter's idea, as well as earlier work byMiller & Dollard,[8] and is related to social learning theories of Vygotsky and Lave. This theory incorporates aspects of behavioral and cognitive learning. Behavioural learning assumes that people's environment (surroundings) cause people to behave in certain ways. Cognitive learning presumes that psychological factors are important for infuencing how one behaves. Social learning suggests that a combination of environmental (social) and psychological factors infuence behaviour. Social learning theory outlines three requirements for people to learn and model behaviour including attention: retention (remembering what one observed), reproduction (ability to reproduce the behaviour), and motivation(good reason) to want to adopt the behaviour.According to Bandura and Walterss 1963 review on Social Learning Theory, human learning takes place as individuals abstract information from observing behavior of others. The factors of social learning are using symbols and engaging with intentional actions. This is proven by the models Bandura used to help build his theory of social learning of attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation. Bandura uses these complex behaviors of reciprocal determinism to help illustrate the interactive efect of various factors such as the environment, behavior, and internal events that infuenceperspectives.[9][edit]Human developmentIn human development there are many other factors that go into understanding how social learning theory afects the growth of a child. For instance, children will look up to those of the same gender and imitate their behavior. The role models could be anyone from their parents to their teachers at school, or perhaps, a character on television. By imitating the behavior of this role model the child will learn what is deemed appropriate for society. When the child learns what is approved by his or her peers, the child is likely to adhere to that standard.Children also learn through positive and negative reinforcement. When a child acts a certain way he/she is searching for approval and acceptance of that behavior. If the reinforcement is positive, it is flling a role or desire that the child might have which will lead the child to continue that action. If the child does not receive the approval that he/she is searching for there is change in behavior. Mutual acceptance is necessary for the behavior to be reoccurring. Also the unconditional love from a parent is necessary for the child tolearn and develop properly. The parent can't simply withhold love from the child because they didn't behave a certain way. Positive and negative reinforcement is important for child development but the parent cannot withhold love simply because the child did something wrong. Social learning theory plays such a large role in reinforcementbecause that is the baseline of every action of a child seeking approval from their peers, parents and teachers alike.This theory was further tested by Akers in 1998. He found that drug usage had a direct correlation with peer association, but only if peer interactions were to occur. Concluding that social learning theory afects human development in the way that we interact with our peers and what we do to be socially accepted.[10]11.4 KNOWLEDGE OF MEANINGFUL LEARNING[edit]David Ausubel (1978) proposed a theory of meaningful reception learning. In his view, learners have to relate the potentially meaningful learning materials totheir prior knowledge. Meaningful learning theory suggests that to make learning meaningful, we need to internalize the information we initially learned,and later used in practice. There are three essential conditions to meaningful learning (Driscoll, 2002): Learner must employ a meaningful learning set to any learning task. The material to be learned must be potentially meaningful. What learners already know and how that knowledge relates to what they are asked to learn.Therefore, knowledge cannot be transmitted from the teachers; rather, learners construct their knowledge when trying to make sense of their experiences based on existing knowledge. In addition, learning materials should be authentic and can be found in real-world situation. However, Ausubel believed that meaningful reception learning occurs when teachers employ expository teaching, transmitting the Anchoring ideas which help the learners build the required cognitive structure for assimilating new information that is potentially meaningful. In this way, learners do not need to organize new information or fgure out the relationship between the new and existing experiences, which takes place in discovery learning.Process of Meaningful LearningBased on Ausubels process of meaningful learning, there are three ways fornew information to be incorporated into the existing cognitive structure: new information can be subordinate to, superordinate to, or coordinate withan existing idea (Driscoll, 1994, p.118).1.Derivative and Correlative Subsumption. (lower in the structure)To have learning occur, we need to have new information work with or be subsumed by (Driscoll, 2000) our previous ideas already in memory. Subsumption can occur in two ways, derivative and correlative. Derivative subsumption refers to the learning of new examples or cases that are illustrative of an established concept or previously learned proposition (Driscoll, 2000). Correlative subsumption refers to the elaboration, extension, or modifcation of the previously learned concept or propositions by the subsumptions of the incoming idea (Driscoll, 2000).Example:Learners during the derivative subsumption process might have a general concept about mammal in mind. Then new information such as elephant, rabbit, and whales are all mammals can be added into our previous idea.Learners during correlative subsumption, instead of learning merely learn that elephants are one kind of mammal, they learn the characteristic or feature about the information and add it into their existing idea.2.Superordinate and Combinatorial Learning. (higher in the structure)Learning processes can be of many types; they can be coordinate, or lateral to the situation. Consequently, Driscoll categorizes them into two parts. Oneis Superordinate learning, that is, a new, inclusive proposition or concept is learned under which already established ideas can be subsumed (Driscoll, 2000).Example:Learners during the superordinate learning process may already contain some existing idea, such as the implementation of motivation in ones careerfeld, in learning theory, or in advertisements. Perhaps, at some point, they will come up with a new idea, such as using motivation theory or motivational techniques in a diferent situation where it has a highly infuential efect. For instance, motivational theory and principles might be used to get dogs to run fast, aliens not to destroy planet Earth, or politiciansto pass a bill that reduces greenhouse gases. That is combinatorial learning.As another example, designers before learning how to design couture, they may need to learn the characteristics of diferent fabrics. Designing couture and knowing fabrics may seem irrelevant, but if a designer lacks precious knowledge of fabric, it may be difcult to produce the fnal products they want; for example, they must know when should they use silk, cotton, lace, and so on.Quotations about meaningful learningMeaningful learning underlies the constructive integration of thinking, feeling, and acting leading to empowerment for commitment and responsibility. (Joseph D. Novak, 1999)11.5 Metacognition is a process by which an individual is aware of his or her own brain processes that occur during learning. In other words, metacognition is thinking about thinking. It can also be described as knowing about knowing.The goal of using metacognitive strategies is to make a persons thinking visibleto themselves and others, as well as to achieve learning outcomes.The theory of metacognition is usually attributed to J.H. Flavell, who frst coined the term in 1979. In recent years, the strategies of metacognition have been increasingly applied in theclassroom environment. Through the use of visible thinking, metacognition can assist students and teachers in tackling projects, approaching reading, and completing assignments across the curriculum.The basic tenet of metacognition is that by understanding what the mind is thinking duringlearning, an individual will be able to focus his strengths and improve upon his weaknesses when tackling a project, assignment, or text. Cognition can be described as an awareness of knowledge, while metacognition is a farther-reaching subject that involves using that knowledge, as well as applying strategies, when cognitive processes fail to serve the learnerin completing a task.Many good students use metacognitive strategies naturally; for others, this is a process which must be learned. Students who use metacognitive strategies, such as awareness, self-regulation, and refocusing, outperform those who dont.11.612. Few things are more important in educating a child than motivation. Teachers must be motivated to teach well. Students must be motivated to learn.In the early years of education, motivation comes easy. Children are naturally inclined to be curious and enthusiastic about learning new things. As childhood turns into adolescence, however motivation wanes. At this point parents and teachers must fnd ways to keep students engaged in the learning process.While some students keep their natural enthusiasm for learning, and are often labeled geeks and ridiculed, most students' interests shift to socializing and status. Many parents and educators panic when faced with the task of motivating students. Panic leads to less than wise tactics. I have seen money being ofered for grades, by schools and parents. I have seen cell phones and other privileges given for good grades. While this may work in the short term, itis my concern that until students understand what a privilege education is, they will never truly be motivated. Motivation needs to come from the heart.While there is no real formula for getting students motivated, there are some approaches that work (for diferent children of course).Interest in subject matter: If a child is interested in the subject matter, he willlearn. I remember when my younger brother was doing miserably in history in the second grade. That was until they got to the topic of the Titanic. He not only aced that unit, but also obsessed about it and made sure the rest of the family was well versed in Titanic history. This not only raised his history grade, but also gave him the self-confdence to do better in history for the rest of the year.Usefulness: How many times have you heard a child say, "What purpose does this have in my life?" Subjects need to be applied for a student to open their minds to learning them. Geometry for example is important to architecture, carpentry, decorating, robotics, art, assembly, computer aided design, video game programming, building models, technology, biology, astronomy, telecommunication, and more. Students need to fnd something they are interested in to help them learn a subject they are not excited about.Self Esteem: A child with a good amount of self-esteem will be less inclined to look at his peers for approval and so will be less likely to be distracted from learning by outside infuences.Persistence: Sometimes you just have to stay on a child to get keep them motivated. I am not talking about begging or cajoling. Parents and teachers however need to continuously observe and encourage a student through a subject until they can fnd a something about that subject that will allow them to be self-motivated.Instructors have a great deal of power in the motivation of students. They can also unmotivated an otherwise motivated student if they are not careful. In order to motivate their students, they themselves must be motivated to teach beyond the monetary reward.Enthusiasm: Kids know when a teacher is motivated to teach and when they are doing it as a job. I think my least motivated teacher was my typing teacher. She made a subject that one would think students would enjoy, pure hell. It was clear that she did not want to be there, and so none of us wanted to be there either. She spent more time ridiculing students for reasons that had nothing to do with typing than encouraging them.Relevant material: Teachers need to be up with the times in their subject matter. They need to know the modern teen culture and be able to pull things that kids can relate to into the curriculum.Appropriate difculty levels: While asking hard questions make students think, teachers must be careful to lower the bar when appropriate so that students can feel accomplished and then slowly, but surely raise that bar.Student Involvement: When a student feels ownership they become more enthusiastic. This is why science labs are such an important part of teaching science. Teachers should fnd ways to help children apply what they learned in a way that is meaningful to them. This may mean presenting the material back in the form of a song, poem, or even a website.Rapport: Personality is everything. How many times have you heard a parent complain, my child just does not get along with the teacher as the reason the child is not doing well. Once a certain amount of animosity is built up between a student and teacher, the student will begin to mentally shut the teacher out. At this point, they will cease to learn even the simplest concept. While teachers should not be pushovers, and everyone's best friend, they must try to be fun, fair, and approachable.There are various types of motivations that can infuence a person. These include the following:Primary or Basic MotivationThis mainly pertains to motives involved with our need for self-preservation. This includes needs such as hunger and thirst, warmth, sex, avoidance of pain and other primary motives which infuence a persons behaviour at a very basiclevel.Secondary MotivationMore known in psychology as learned motivation, this type of drives difer from one person to another. In many ways they involve a persons own sense of values and priorities in life.Many of the behaviour derived from secondary motivation are conscious ones. That is, a person consciously desires a particular goal or result, and behaves ina way that brings them closer to that particular goal. What drives them to do something or to act in a particular way is the longing for something which they currently do not have or possess.This kind of motivation generally falls into two basic types: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.Extrinsic MotivationExtrinsic motivation is likely to involve the concept of rewarded behavior. Thus, by engaging in a particular type of activity or behaving in a particular manner, you are rewarded by a desired end result.For instance, you are motivated to save money for a vacation. Hence, you resist the urge to make impulsive purchases and in general become more discriminating in how you spend your money. After a time you fnd that you have a steadily growing amount of savings which you set aside. When you fnd that you have saved enough for that trip, you utilize your savings for the intended purpose and go on vacation. The external motivation is the vacation, which is also the reward for your act of saving for it.Internal MotivationOn the other hand, there are other less-visible types of motivation.It would be a mistake to say that such behaviour does not come without its own rewards. To be more precise, the end goal is not a visible or external thing,but more internal and psychological. The achievement of these goals by itself also correctly seen as a reward is in general not visible to other persons.Thus, for instance, a student is motivated to get good grades (external motivation) or simply, he desires to know more about a particular subject (intrinsic motivation). Getting good grades is the reward visible to others. For the student, the fact that he has become an expert in a particular subject or lesson is also a psychological reward for his intrinsic desire to learn.Successful Motivated BehaviourGood and efective actions or behaviour usually involves the harmonizing of these two types of motivation. If one is driven by both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations, then inner confict is reduced and a person is more likely to devoteuninterrupted and harmonious actions towards a particular task.The inner and external rewards too, are good reinforcing mechanisms. For many people, this is really the means towards success. By choosing goals that you desire both in its intrinsic and extrinsic rewards you can harmonize your own actions and devote your energies to your goals. In such instances, thechances of achievement increases greatly.13. Laws of LearningINTRODUCTION:Anyone who intends to guide and direct the learning activities of others requiresa detailed understanding of the nature and processes of learning. Instructors are masters of many skills. What they teach demands a high degree of competence in presenting subject matter. Nevertheless, HOW they teach depends largely on their understanding of the learning process and the ability to apply this understanding.DEFINITION OF LEARNINGWhat is "learning?" Learning takes place when there is a change in a student's behavior. It may not be directly observable. Learning is based on observation of behavior changes that result from a person's interaction with their environment. An individual's learning may involve changes in any of three areas:1.Manner of perceiving and thinking.2.Physical behavior (motor skills).3.Emotional reactions or attitudes.Learning refers to any of these changes when they occur as a result of an experience. Thus, learning cannot be literally described but the conditions under which it occurs can be identifed. The instructor should understand these conditions and apply them when teaching.CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LEARNING PROCESS Purposeful Process. Most people have defnite ideas about what they want to achieve. They have goals or clear objectives. Efective instructors seek ways to create new learning situations to meet the trainees' goals. Motivation, the force that impels a person toward a goal, is the instructor's most efective tool to encourage learning. This can be either weak or strong motivation depending on the situation. Internal Experience. The instructor cannot learn for the trainee, nor canhe or she pour predigested learning into the trainee's head. The trainee can learn only from his or her own experiences. A person's knowledge is aresult of their experiences and manner of perceiving them and reacting tothem. No two people have exactly the same experiences. All learning stems from experience. For example, by repeated drill, a trainee can learnto repeat a list of words or to recite the principles of leadership. However, trainees can make the list an actual part of their lives only if they understand them well enough to apply the ideas that they represent correctly in real situations. Active Process. Since learning comes only through experience, the trainee must be actively involved in the experience. This activity can take many forms. Learning is more than simply exposing a trainee to an idea or a skill. Likewise, one cannot safely assume that trainees can apply what they know just because they correctly quote a paragraph from a textbook. The trainee must become actively involved in the learning situation, but just any kind of involving activity will not sufce. The trainee must engage in the appropriate activity. Obviously, learning a physical skill requires experience in performing that skill. The instructor should understand, however, that mental habits are always learned through practice. Even attitudes are developed or modifed as an individual reacts emotionally to a stimulus. Multidimensional. Learning is multidimensional. Multidimensional develops new concept. In other words, it is possible to learn other things while concentrating on or practicing the main subject. While practicing drill, the trainees learn teamwork and cooperation. While learning dormitory arrangement, they learn attention to details and following explicit instructions. Individual Process. All trainees do not learn at the same rate. New instructors are likely to be discouraged when they discover that a well-planned lesson does not enable them to teach all the trainees with equal efectiveness. They soon recognize this as a natural and predictable problem because trainees seldom learn at the same rate. Diferences in rates of learning are based on diferences in intelligence, background, experience, interests, desire to learn, and countless other psychological, emotional and physical factors. Instructors must recognize these diferences in determining the amount of subject matter to teach, the rateof which they will cover the material, and the appropriate time to teach it.Once the slower trainees are identifed, it is up to the instructor to bring them up to the level of the rest of the fight. You must identify their weak areas, bring the areas to their attention, and show them how to correct them. You may be fortunate and have some trainees who excel. These trainees may be used to help others during their practice. This serves a twofold purpose. The fast learning trainees are relieved from boredom andthe slow learning trainees receive the beneft of the peers' expertise.Laws of LearningEdward L. Thorndike in the early 1900's postulated several "Laws of Learning," that seemed generally applicable to the learning process. Since that time, other educational psychologists have found that the learning process is indeed more complex than the "laws" identifed. However, the "laws" do provide the instructorwith insight into the learning process that will assist in providing a rewarding experience to the trainee.The laws that follow are not necessarily stated as Professor Thorndike frst stated them. Over the years, they have been restated and supplemented, but, inessence, they may be attributed to him. The frst three are the basic laws: the law of readiness, the law of exercise, and the most famous and still generally accepted, the law of efect. The other three laws were added later as a result of experimental studies: the law of primacy, the law of intensity,