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Howe, Robert W.; And OthersTrends and Issues in Science Education: Curriculumand Instruction.ERIC Clearinghouse for Science, Mathematics, andEnvironmental Education, Columbus, Ohio.Office of Educational Research and Improvement (ED),Washington, DC.Dec 90RI88062006lip.
ERIC Clearinghouse for Science, Mathematics andEnvironmental Education, The Ohio State University,1200 Chambers Rd., Room 310, Columbus, OH 43212($8.50).Information Analyses - ERIC Clearinghouse Products(071)
MF01/PC04 Plus Postage.Academic Achievement; College Preparation; CurriculumDevelopment; Curriculum Guides; *Educational Change;Educational Trends; *Elementary School Science;Elementary Secondary Education; Evaluation; Females;Minority Groups; Resource Materials; ScienceCurrit lum; *Science Education; *Science Instruction;*Secondary School Science; Staff Development;Textbooks
This monograph summarizes selected major activities,trends, issues, and recommendations related to curriculum,instructional materials and instruction related in science educationthat have been documented in the literature. The technique used forselecting trends, issues, and recommendations was to identifyrelevant literature that had published during recent years andselected documents referenced in these sources; determine theagreement or disagreement regarding trends, issues, andrecommendations; select those that appeared most frequently and/orthose that were indimated as possibly most influential; and selectexamples of curricula, programs, materials, and instruction toillustrate trends, issues, and recommendations cited. Sectionsinclude: (1) "What Are the Conditions Creating a Demand for Change?";(2) "What Is the Status of Science Education in Elementary andSecondary Schools?"; (3) "Curricular Frameworks: Goals, Content, andExperiences for Precollege Science Education"; (4) "Research Relatedto Learning, Curriculum, Instructional(5) "Development and Implementation ofMaterials for Precollege Science"; andRecommendations for the Reform of K-12
Materials, and Instruction";Curricula and Instructional(6) "Summary andScience Curriculum,
Instructional Materials, and Instruction." A list of 136 references
is included. (KR)
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Robert W. Howe
Patricia E. Blosser
Stanley L. Helgeson
Charles R. Warren
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TRENDS AND ISSUES INSCIENCE WDUCATION:
CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION
CLEARIN3H0USE FOR SCIENCE, MATHEMATICS, ANDENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION
The Ohio State UniversityCollege of Education
1200 Chambers Road, 3rd Fir.Columbus, Ohio 43212
December 1990
BEST COPY AVAILABLE
P
Acknowledgements
We appreciate the contributions of people who reviewed allor parts of this publication, especially Dr. David Butts. Wealso want to acknowledge the assistance of Mrs. Linda Shinn.
Any errors of omission or interpretation are theresponsibility of the authors.
This document was funded by the Office of EducationalResearch and Improvement, U.S. Department of education under
cou contract no. RI-88062006. Opinions expressed in thisdocument do not necessarily reflect the positions orpolicies of OERI or the Department of Education.
Table of Contents
I. What are the conditions Creating a Demand forChange? 1
Conditions Creating a Demand for Change 1
Trends and Issues 4
II. What is the Status of Science Education inElementary and Secondary Schools? 7
Achievement 7
International Assessments 8
National Elementary and Secondary ScienceEnrollments 8
Correlates of Science Achievement frctNational and International Studies 14
Trends and Issues 14
III. Curricular Frameworks: Goals, Content andExperiences for Precollege Science Education 17
Science for All Americans - Project 2061 18
Scope, Sequence, and Coordination(S, S and C) 20
Elementary School Science Education Framework(National Center for Improving ScienceEducation) 21
State Frameworks and Curriculum Guides 21
Curriculum Development Project Frameworks 22
Goals and Content Statements ofAssociations and Commissions 24
Trends and Issues 25
IV. Research Related to Learning, Curriculum,Instructional Materials, and Instruction 29
Research on Learning 29
Research Related to Curriculum 32
Instructional Materials -ad Delivery ofInstruction 34
Instruction and Classroom Climate 37
Assessment and Evaluation 38
Teacher Characteristics, Behaviors andPrepration 38
School P:7actices and Organization . 39
Community/Home Variables 39
Trends and Issucs 39
V. Development and Implementation of Curricula andInstructional Materials for Precollege Science . . . 43
Revising and Strengthening Science Curriculaand Producing Instructional Materials 43
Modifying Instruction 47
Revising High School Graduation and CollegeEntrance Requirements 48
Devising Programs to Recruit and to HoldMinority and Female Students 48
Expanding the Curriculum and ExtracurricularPrograms to Include Contestsand CompetitionG 48
Developing Programs for Science Outside ofSchool Hours 49
Developing Special Schools that Include anEmphasis on Science 49
Accountability and Evaluation 50
Staff Development 50
Resources for Supporting Development/Dissemination/ and Implementation 51
Trends and Issues 51
VI. Summary and Recommendations for the Reformof K-12 Science Curriculum/ InstructionalMaterials/ and Instruction 55
Conditions Creating a Demand for Change 55
What is the Status of Science Curriculum,Instructional Materials and Instruction inElementary and Secondary Schools? 56
Curricular Frameworks: Goals, Content, andExperiences for Precollege Science Education . . 57
Research Related to Learning, Curriculum,Instructional Materials, Instruction,Evaluation, and School/Community Variables 58
Current Activities to Create DesiredChanges in Curriculum, InstructionalMaterials, and Instruction 59
VII. References 63
6
Preface
This monograph summarizes selected major activities,trends, issues and recommendations related to curriculum,instructional materials and insruction related to K-12science education that have been documented in theliterature during the past few years.
The technique used for selecting trends, issues andrecommendations was to: (1) identify relevant literaturethat had been published during recent years and selecteddocuments referenced in these sources; (2) determine theagreement or disagreement regarding trends, issues, andrecommendations; (3) select those that appeared mostfrequently and/or those which were indicated as possiblymost influential; and (4) select examples of curricula,programs, materials and instruction to illustrate trends,issues and recommendations cited.
A selected bibliography used in preparing thepublication is included at the end of the monograph.
I. WHAT ARE THE CONDITIONS CREATING ADEMAND FOR CHANGE?
The recent science education literature stresses theneed for change in the content of science (the curriculum)and the way science is taught (pedagogy).
Conditions creating a demand for change and some of thechanges desired have been documented in reports including ANation, at Zisls (National Commission on Excellence inEducation, 1983); Educating Americans_for the 21st Century(National Science Board Commission on Precollege Educationin Mathematics, Science and Technology, 1983); Apademicpreparation_for College (College Board, 1983); What ScienceIs Most Worth Knowing? (American Association for theAdvancement of Science, 1987); $cience for Ail Americans(American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1989).Other publications documenting the need for change are gnszthirsi_gi_juatign (American Council on Education, 1988),America in Trgnsition (National Governors Association,1989), America's Next Crisis (Aerospace EducationFoundation, 1989), Investing_in_Pepple (U.S. Department ofLabor Commission on Workforce Quality and Labor MarketEfficiency, 1989), Wqrkforce 29Q0: Work and Workers for theTWenty-First Century (Johnston, William B. and Packer,Arnold E. (Eds.), 1987), Educatinacientists andEngineers. Grade Sch2o1 to Grad School (U.S. Congress,Office of Technology Assessment, 1988), and Sciewg_ftndEngineering Indicators (National Science Board, 1987, 1989).
Conditions Creating a Demana for Change
Conditions creating a demand for changes in precollegescience education include seven main areas. These are: (1)
changes in the world society; (2) changes in internationalcompetitiveness; (3) changes in the role of technology; (4)changes in the need for science knowledge and skills; (5)changes in the sciences and how they are used; (6) researchon learning and instruction; and (7) a discrepancy betweenchanges desired and current school programs and studentachievement (the current status of precollege science).
Changes in the World $ociety and thp United Statgs
Several writers including Naisbitt (1982)1 Toffler(1985), and others have indicated that the United States andthe developed world are shifting from an industrial to aninformation society. The new society uses information formuch of the capital and raw material, and communication as anew means of production. Change is being accelerated bydevelopments in communication and computer technology. Theolder industrial economy is changing, and new information-
2
based economies are being developed.
These changes have created the need for individualswith the ability to continue to learn, to adapt to changingconditions, to produce new knowledge, and to acquireknowledge and skills needed in the current societaltransition.
Demographics are also changing in the United States.An increasing percentage of our work force will come fromminorities and white females, rather than white males.Appropriate science education needs to be provided for allstudents if the United States is going to have an adequatework force for the 1990's and beyond.
Changep in International Business. Martptina, andCompetitiveness
During the past 20 years there has been a significantchange in the economic competition among the nations of theworld. Many developed and developing countries are becomingmore productive and developing marketing programs that areglobal in scope. These countries are also developingeducational programs to produce better educated work forcesand citizens.
Data indicate that United States students are notachieving in science as well as students from many countrieswith which the United States competes with which it willcompete for world markets (Jacobson, 1988; Lapointe, et. al,1989). United States business and industry indicate at thecurrent time that many of the workers whom they employ arenot educated sufficiently in science and related thinkingskills. As a result, they spend billions of dollars toeducate workers to a knowledge and skill level they need.In addition, some people believe more people ere needed inthe science pipeline to provide a sufficient number ofquality people at advanced degree levels for highereducation, business and industry, and government.
There is a need to provide all students with scientificknowledge and skills they will require in the new globalenvironment. Preparing students to a higher level ofachievement and maintaining more students in the sciencepipeline are also important needs.
in Schools and in Society
The remarkabledevelopment of new technology during thepast 15 years has changed how science is used, what scienceis important, and how science is pursued. Major changes
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should therefore be made in the way science is taught byincorporating the use of computers and other new technologyinto its teaching and learning. Major changes should alsobe made in the curriculum, both in terms of the contenttaught and how the content is presented.
Technology should be used to illustrate how informationis currently obtained and analyzed in science to helpprepare students for the work 4ind non-work environments inwhich they will be using technology. Technology should alsobe used to individualize instruction to help all studentslearn more effectively and efficiently, to understandconcepts better, and to learn to solve problems moreeffectively.
Changes in tbe Need for Science Ynoyledge and Skillsfor Everyday Living and for Jobb
Major changes have taken place and will continue tooccur in terms of knowledge and skills required for the workforce. Scientific and technical knowledge and skills areincreasingly needed for many jobs. Knowledge of computer-related concepts and processes are also required for manyjobs, and an awareness of these concepts and processes ishelpful in many more positions.
A higher level of scientific knowledge and skills isalso needed for everyday living and for effectivecitizenship in our society. The ability to analyze andinterpret information in the mass media, to use and analyzeinformation contained in a variety of databases, to makeeffective work and business decisions, and to make everydaydecisions in the home and as a consumer requires more depthin scientific and technical knowledge than are frequentlytaught and better skills than are frequently learned.
Changes in the Scienpes am' Now They are llseci
During the past two decades there have been manychanges and new developments in science and technology.Science has become increasingly multidisciplinary, with anincreased use of technology, and scientists have becomeinvolved in more team-based research. In addition,scientific advances have created increased emphasis ondecisions regarding the applied use of scientific knowledgesuch as those related to genetics, medicine, health, and theenvironment.
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Researgb on Learaim±aurriculum. InstructionalNateKials. and Instruction
Knowledge of how students learn and how the curriculum,instructional materials, and instruction can help improvelearning continues to increase. Fundamental ideas regardinghow students construct their own knowledge, the role andsequencing of materials, the effectiveness of someinstructional procedures, and the use of technology requirechanges in science curricula and instruction. Relativelyfew schools are using materials and providing instruction inways that are consistent with research on effective andefficient learning.
A Discrepancy between Changes Depire0 and CurrentErglig-QL-Ers.gramcsacLatudentlichienmiatData presented in Section 2 summarize some of the
information on student achievement and school practices inthe U.S.A. Evidence is clear that many students are notachieving either traditional goals or new goals. Evidenceis also clear that many school programs are not emphasizingor attaining many of the important traditional goals ornewer goals.
Trends and Issues
These changing conditions have created a need toexamine past and current goals, curricula, and programs forprecollege science to determine changes that are desired andpossible. Educational research has been developing aknowledge base for science education that provides a basisfor the improvement of curricula, instructional materials,and instruction. The changing conditions and new goals alsohave created the need for additional research to help guidefuture efforts.
irmiLa
1. There is general consensus that changingconditions create a need for substantialmodification of precollege science education inthe United States.
2. There is growing consensus on the conditionscreating a need for change.
iAMMA
1. What science education is needed for All studentsat the K-12 level?
1 1
2. What science education should be provided forspecial groups at the K-12 level?
3. What changes in current precollege scienceeducation are needed to respond to theseconditions?
4. Is there a need for mechanisms and processes todetermine how successful educational interventionsare providing solutions?
5. Are there other major conditions that shouldinfluence precollege science education that shouldbe considered?
6. Are there emerging conditions that should beconsidered?
7. These conditions are not all unique to scienceeducation. How should the science educationalcommunity and others organize to determine whatshould be done in a systematic way to addressthese conditions?
8. What should be the roles of (1) ferleral, state,and local governments, and (2) the private sectorin guiding and developing changes in precollegescience programs?
WHAT IS THE STATUS OF SCIENCE EDUCATIONIN ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS?
Analyses of student science achievement indicate thatAmerican students are not learning several concepts andskills as well as desired. Analyses also indicate the U.S.students are not achieving as well on many desired conceptsand skills as students in several other industrializedcountries.
Additional data indicate that the science curriculum,instructional materials, and instruction do not introducenew concepts as early as those in some other countries norprovide concepts in as much depth and with opportunities forspaced learning. Data also indicate that so3ae of thedesired concepts and skills do not receive sufficientemphasis in U.S. curricula, instructional materials, andinstruction and that the time U.S. students are involN3e inscience instruction is less than the time students inseveral other industrialized countries are involved ininstruction.
Recent data indicate that most U.S. schools followtraditional instructional patterns, provide little hands-oninstruction, and make relatively little use of technology.Very few schools have curricula especially designed tocapitalize on the useful features of hands-on instructionand new technology throughout their programs.
Achievement
Na
National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) tests(National Assessment of Educational Progress, 1988) were
given in 1973, 1978, 1982, 1986, and 1988. Science testscores for age nine have ranged between 220 and 230.Proficiency scores for age 13 have shown a general upwardtrend with scores ranging from the high 240's to the high250's. Proficiency scores for age 17 showed a decline from1973 to 1982, with improvement in 1986 and 1988; the 1988scores were about the same as the 1973 scores at the mid-290level.
In general, gains have been made on items reflectingprocess skills and general concepts. Downward trends havegenerally been on items measuring higher-order learningskills, applications, and problem solving.
The achievement gap between advantaged and disadvantagedgroups has narrowed with gains by Blacks (Westat, Inc.,
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1988). Achievement scores of Hispanic students have notshown the same gains; this is possibly due to an increase inthe number of students for whom the English language was nottheir first language.
Achievement by males was slightly higher than that forfemales for ages 13 and 17. Nine-year-old girls had highermean scores than did boys.
International Assessments
U.S. students have not done well on science tests whencompared with other major industrial countries (Jacobson andDoran, 1988; Miller, 1986; June, 1986, and Helgescn, 1988).Analyses of data obtained in the Second IEA study testedstudents in the fifth, ninth, and twelfth grades in 16countries.
U.S. fifth-graders ranked at about the median among 15countries analyzed. Ninth-grade students were ranked withfive other countries at the bottom of the rankings. U.S.students who had completed biology, chemistry, and physicsranked in the lower third on tests in each of these areas.When 1986 scores were compared with 1970 scores, fifth-gradescores were about the same, ninth-grade scores Ceclined, andtwelfth-grade scores improved.
Data obtained indicate fifth- and ninth-grade studentswere successful at tasks requiring manipulative skills, butless successful on higher cognitive skills such asinvestigating, critical-thinking, synthesis, and probLem-solving. Ninth-graders also had low scores on applicationitems.
National Elementary and SecDndam_acience Enrollments
What sciences have American studenta been experiencing?Reports from several studies provide some generalinformation.
Table 2.1 compares the percentage of high schoolgraduates who took selected science courses in 1982 and1987. (Westat, Inc., 1988).
Table 2.2 compares the percentage of high schoolgraduates by sex who took selected science courses in 1982and 1987 (Westat, Inc., 1988).
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Table 2.1
Percentrirle of High School 4raduatesWho Took Selected ScienceCourses, 1982
Course 'Taken
and 1987
1982 1987
Biology 75.3 88.3Chemistry 30.8 44.8Physics 13.9 19.5
Source: Westati Inc./ 1988
Table 2.2
Perrentage of High School GraduatesWho Took Selected Pcience Courses, by S2X
1982 dnd X967
Courses Male Female1982 GreuatesBiology 73.3 77.1Chemistry 31.7 30.0Physics 18.2 10.0
llai_grAdaftteaBiology 88.5 90.8Chemistry 46.3 44.5Physics 25.3 15.0
Source: Westat, Inc., 1988
Enrollment increases from 1982-1987 were significant atthe .05 level for both males and females for all courses.Enrollments were approximately the same for malas andfemales in biology and chemistry. While the percentages ofboth male and females enrolled in physics increased from1982 to 1987/ more males enrolled in physics.
Preliminary data for 1987-88 and 1988-89 indicateenrollments in chemistry and physics have increased slightly(Council of Chief State School Officers, 1989). Thecontinued increases appear to be due to new and continuinglocal, state, and college and university requirements.
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Table 2.3 compares the percentage of high schoolgraduates who took selected science courses in 1982 and 1987by race and/or ethnic background (Westat, Inc., 1988).Enrollment increases between 1982 and 1987 were significantat the .05 level for all groups of students for all threecourses. Enrollments for Asians was the highest for allthree courses; Whites had the next highest enrollments.
Table 2.3
Percentage of High School Graduates Who TookSelected Science Courses, by Race/Ethnicity,
1982 and 1987*
1982 Gra4patesWhite Black Hispanic Asian
Biology 77.3 70.9 67.2 82.2Chemistry 34.2 20.5 15.4 51.4Physics 16.0 6.9 5.6 33.8
1987 GraduatesBiology 91.0 84.7 85.0 93.3Chemistry 48.0 30.3 31.8 72.3Physics 21.1 10.6 11.2 50.0
Source: Westat, Inc., 1988
*While the percentage of Asian students enrolling in sciencecourses is high, the actual number of students enrolling inscience courses is low because Asians comprise a smallpercentage of the total school enrollment.
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Table 2.4 commares the percentages of high schoolgraduates by track who took selected science courses in 1982
and 1987(Westato Inc. 1988).
Table 2.4
Percentage of High School Graduates Who TookSelected Science Courses/ by Academic Track/
1982 and 1987
Track
Science Courses Academic Vocational Other
982 GraduatesBiology 91.8 58.3 62.2Chemistry 59.2 5.8 9.6Physics 30.0 1.4 1.7
;987 GraduatesBiology 95.8 75.3 77.6Chemistry 67.3 4.6 12.4Physics 31.7 0.9 0.9
Source: Westat, 1988
Enrollments of students in the Academic Track increasedsignificantly between 1982 and 1987 at the .05 level.Enrollment in the Vocational Track increased significantlyin biology and enrollments in the Other Track increasedsignificantly at the .05 level in biology and chemistry.
Table 2.5 provides data on the number of credits earnedby high school graduates in 1982 and 1987 (Weetat, Inc.,1988). The data indicate that the average student earnedabout one semester more credits in 1987 than in 1982.
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Table 2.5
Average Number of Credits Earned byHigh School Graduates in Various Subject Fields,
1962 and 1987
1982Subject Field Graduates
1987 ChangeGraduates 1982-1987
English 3.8 4.05 +0.25History 1.68 1.91 +0.23Social Studies 1.42 1.44 +0.02Mathematics 2.54 2.98 +0.45Computer Science 0.11 0.42 +0.31Science 2.19 2.63 +0.44Foreign Language 1.05 1.47 +0.44Non-Occup. Voc. Ed. 1.84 1.66 -0.19Occup. Voc. Ed. 2.14 2.09 -0.05Arts 1.39 1.41 +0.02Physical Education 1.93 2.00 +0.07
Source: Westat, Inc., 1988
Oppgrtuniy to LeAKn
Several studies (Jacobson and Doran, 1988; Anderson, et.al., 1982; Lapointe, et. al, 1989; Oakes, 1987; IEA, 1988;and others) have indicated that studying specific content,prior knowledge (having studied content), and time forlearning the subject relate to achievement.
rational Data oj Time Qeyoted to Science in Schools
Approximately 25 states had requirements related tothe amount of time required for elementary school science asof 1989. Recemmendations ranged from 20 to 30 minutes perday for grades K-3 and from 35 to 45 minutes per day forgrades 4-6. The average reported time was about 19 minutesper day in grades K-3 and about 38 minutes per day in grades4-6 (Weiss, 1987).
Science recommendations for grades 7-8 varied from 45 to60 minutes per day. The average reported time was about 45minutes per day in grades 7-8.
In 1988 it was estimated that schools required an averageof two years of science for high school graduation. Thiswas up from 1.5 years in 1982 and 1.8 years in 1985 (pcienceand Engineerina Indigators, 1989).
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In 1986 nearly all high schools offered biology andnearly all large and medium-sized high schools offeredchemistry. About 9 percent of the schools, mostly smallrural schools, did not offer chemistry. Although mostschools offered physics, about 19-20 percent did not. Mostof these schools were'also small rural schools (less than800 students). While many schools offer such courses aschemistry and physics, some of these schools do not teachthe courses because of lack of interested or availablestudents.
The percent of students who graduated having enrolled invarious courses was presented earlier in this section.
Comparisons of VIM fgr Science in K-12 Education for theU.S. and Other Countries
Science requirements in the other countries tend to behigher, especially from grades 4-12. The amount of sciencetaken by most students in major industrialized countries isnearly double our elementary requirements and substantiallyexceeds the time for science courses taken by U.S. studentsin grades 9-12. In addition, several industrializedcountries such as the U.S.S.R. and Japan require sequencesof chemistry, physics, and biology for several years(Aldridge, 1989; Jacobson and Doran, 1988; Science andEnctineerina IndicOors, 1987; and _Ssienge__aAnserEnqIndicataxa, 1989).
Inclusion of Topics in U.S. Textbooks
Data from research studies on materials and instruction(5cience and Enqipeering Indicators, 1987; Science andEngineering Indicators, 1989; Weiss, 1987; Miller, 1986; andJacobson, et. al, 1986) indicate that science textbooks andprograms have not been standardized through grade 8.Beginning with grade 9 through grade 12, there is morestandardization of textbooks and courses (biology,chemistry, physics, earth science, physical sciences andadvanced sciences).
Textbooks used most frequently have been identified byWeiss (1987) and others and instructional emphases have beenidentified by Weiss (1987), Miller (1986) and Jacobson(1987).
Many students/ nearly 50 percent, take no science aftergrade 10. They frequently have no physical science courseexperience after grade 9.
Emphasis on applications of science, science andtechnology, and societal aspects of science have usually
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been limited in most textbooks and instruction.
-nIntsrpational Studies
Analyses of assessment data, both U.S. and international,provide a number of variables that correlate with scienceachievement. The following variables have been identified:
1. Students who have taken more courses in sciencegenerally have scored higher on general achievementtests on science than those who have taken fewer.
2. Opportunity-to-learn (amount of time the student'steachers have emphasized or taught the content) hascorrelated positively to increased achievement inscience. International studies strongly support thiscorrelate: highest ranking countries on opportunity-to-learn generally had the highest ranking scores.
3. Recency of study (use of information) has correlatedwith increased science achievement. This variablerelates also to opportunity-to-learn. The amount ofrecent study also has related positively toachievement.
4. Depth of coverage relates positively to scienceachievement on content covered.
5. Students whose parents had higher levels of educationgenerally had higher levels of achievement.
6. Students whose parents encouraged them to take sciencecourses tended to have higher achievement.
Trends and Issues
Data reported and analyzed in several studies provide anindication of the status of science K-12 programs,opportunity to learn, enrollments, and achievement in P.S.schools. Studies also provide comparisons of the U.S. withprograms, achievement, and instructional emphasis in othercountries.
Trends
1. Achievement tests inaicate U.S. students are notlearning many desired concepts and skills.
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2. Trends in achievement scores for U.S. studentsindicate scores have been within a close range ofscores for each grade level from 1978-1988. Therehave been no substant"Nl increases or decreases.
3. Achievement scores for Blacks have increased but asubstantial gap still exists between their scoreciand those of Caucasians.
4. Achievement scores for Hispanics have not shownthe same gains as those for Blacks.
5. The percentage of students enrolled in secondaryschool science courses has increased during thepast eight years. The percent of males andfemales increased significantly for all courses.
6. International assessments indicate U.S. studentsare not achieving in precollege science as well asstudents in several other industrializedcountries.
7. Analyses of achievement data from the U.S. andother countries identify several correlatesrelated to higher achievement scores and suggestsome possible modifications for U.S. programs thatmight help improve achievement scores.
12.011S11
1. Do the assessment tests cited in this sectionrepresent the important science concepts andskills? If not, how can national assessmentInstruments be developed to evaluate desiredlearning?
2. If the assessment instruments are valid, whatchanges in U.S. science programs will providebetter achievement for all students?
3. How can the schools, the home, and the communitywork together to enable and to encourage moremincrity students to continue their study ofscience?
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III. CURRICULAR FRAMEWORKS: GOALS, CONTENT AND EXPERIENCESFOR PRECOLLEGE SCIENCE EDUCATION
Section II identified trends and issues related toachievement, enrollments, and courses in precollegeeducation. Among the issues raised were the appropriatenessof the curriculum goals and whether or not the curriculumwas providing appropriate content and skills for today andfor the future.
Several reports since 1980 have been produced byorganizations and individualo that identify desired goalsfor precollege science education and science knowledge andskills recommended. Most of these recommendations are basedon the changing conditions identified in Section I. Amongthe reports have been The Mathematical Scitencep CurriculumA-12: What Is Still rundemental aL Whe, Ie Not (ConferenceBoard on the Mathematical Sciences, 1982), ApactemicPreparation for College (College Entrance Examination Board,1982), gdmaing_AgsaungLisen (NationalScience Board, 1983), Science and Technology :ortheElementary Years: Curriculum and Instructional Frameworks(National Center for Improving Science Education, 1988)Science Achievement in the United States_and_RiXteenCountries (Jacobson and Doran, 1988)1 Getting Started inScience; lijilueprint for Elementary Schgol_Science Education(National Center for Improving Science Education, 1989),
Goals in Science. Mathematics. and Technology (AmericanAssociation for the Advancement of Science, 1989), Lssentialghigngegjin_legranglagmleingeLlegpe._ Sequence. andCoordination (Aldridge, 1989), New Designs for ElementarySchogaA Science and Health (BSCS, 1988), and ScienceAchievement in Seventeen Countries (InternationalAssociation for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement,1988).
The science education community, with strong leadershipfrom the AAAS and the NSTA and with substantial support fromthe federal and state governments and private foundations,has developed curricular frameworks for science educationthat provide guidelines for the development of scienceprograms. The AAAS Project 2061 activities have identifiedsuggested content and instructional and evaluation patterns.The NSTA S, S and C Project has identified desirablecharacteristics for a curriculum and for instruction.
Several states including California, New York, Michigan,Georgia, Wisconsin, and Oregon have developed stateframeworks for precollege science education that areinfluencing local curriculum developments and influencingactivities of publishers, test developers, and regional and
18
national curriculum projects.
Other groups such as the National Center for ImprovingScience Education and BSCS have also been active indeveloping their own guides and frameworks and also adaptingguides and frameworks to fit the recommendations of Project2061.
Curriculum development programs have also developedframeworks. Most of these have been for elementary ormiddle school grades.
As a result of these reports, national organizations,commissions, states, and consortia have developed frameworksfor precollege science that include goals, content, andexperiences. Selected frameworks and their goals, content,and emehases are described.
Scienge for All Americans - Project 2061
This project, developed by the American Association forthe Advancement of Science (AAAS), is designed to provideanswers and possible solutions to several questions.Questions addreissed included the followim: (1) What arethe content and skills of scientific literacy?; (2) Whatshould graduating high school seniors be expected to knowand do? (3) How can scientific literacy be achievednationwide?
Phase I focused on the substance of scientific literar:y.Its purpose was to establish a conceptual base for reform byspelling out the knowledge skills and attitudes all studentsshould acquire as a consequence of their total schoolexperience from kirdergarten through high school. Sciencefor All Americans and the reports of the scientific panelsare the chief products of this phase.
Project 2061's national council identified six dimensionsof scientific literacy. They are:
1. Being familiar with the natural world and recognizingboth its diversity and its unity;
2. Understanding key concepts and principles of science;
3. Being aware of some of the important ways in whichscience, mathematics, and technology depend upon oneanother;
4. Knowing that science, mathematics, and technology arehuman enterprises and knowing what that implies abouttheir strengths and limitations.
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5. Having a capacity for scientific ways of thinking; and
6. Using scientific knowledge and ways of thinking forindividual and social purposes.
Knowledge, skills, and attributes related to science werealso identified in a series of reports. Content selectedhad to meet five criteria: (1) utility, (2) socialresponsibility, (3) intrinsic value of knowledge, (4)
philosophical value, and (5) childhood enrichment.
The national council's recommendations cover a broadarray of topics. Many of these topics are already common inschool curricula (for example, the structure of matter, thebasic functions of cells, prevention of disease,communications technology, and different uses of numbers).However, the treatment of such topics tends to differ fromthe traditional in two ways.
One difference is that boundaries between traditionalsubject matter categories are softened and connections areemphasized. Transformations for energy, for example, occurin physical, biological, and technological systems, andevolutionary change appears in stars, organisms, andsocieties.
A second difference is that the amount of detail thatstudents are expected to retain is considerably less than intraditional science, mathematics, and technology courses.Ideas and thinking skills are emphasized at the expense ofspecialized vocabulary and memorized procedures. The setsof ideas that are chosen not only make some satisfying senseat a simple level but also provide a lasting foundation forlearning more. Details are treated as a means of enhancing,not guaranteeing, students' understanding of a general idea.The council believes, for example, that basic scientificliteracy implies knowing that the chief function of livingcells is assembling protein molecules according toinstructions coded in DNA molecules, but that it does notimply knowing such terms as "ribosome" or "deoxyribonucleicacid."
The national council's recommendations cover four generalcategories: The Scientific Endeavor, Scientific Views ofthe World, Perspectives on Science, and Scientific Habits ofMind. The content forms a common core of learning,emphasizing the ideas and skills that have the greatestscientific and educational significance.
Phase II involves teams of educators from schooldistricts and scientists transforming Sclence for All
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Americans into several alternative curriculum models for theuse of school districts and states. C'...ring this phase, theproject is also developing blueprints for reform related tothe education of teachers, materials and tuchnologies forteaching, testing, the organization of schooling,educational policies, and educational research. Whileengaged in creating these new resources, Project 2061 istrying to significantly enlarge the nations's pool ofexperts in school science curriculum reform and iscontinuing its effort to publicize the need for nationwidescientific literacy.
Phase III will be a widespread collaborative effort,lasting a decade or longer, in which many groups active ineducational reform will use the resources of Phases I and IIto move the nation toward scientific literacy. Strategiesfor implementing the reform of education in science,mathematics, and technology in the nation's schools will bedeveloped by those who have a stake in the effectiveness ofthe schools and who will take into account the history,economics, and politics of change.
Scope. Sequence. and Coordination (S. S and C1
This project, organized and coordinated by the NationalScience Teachers Association, is designed to provide scienceexperiences for all students throughout the secondary schoolgrades and to enhance learning and achievement by (1)spacing learning of scientific disciplines over longerperiods of time; (2) sequencing the curriculum fromconcrete-descriptive science experiences to more abstract-theoretical concepts; (3) reducing the number of topicscovered; and (4) providing more school time for science.
The program will replace the current secondary school"layer-cake" curriculum of separate, unrelated courses usedby most schools with a curriculum that includes course workrelated to biology, chemistry, physics, earth/space scienceand other disciplines each year from grades 7-12. Emphasiswill begin with descriptive, phenomenological hands-onexperiences in grades 7 and 8, move to empirical,semiabstract experiences in grades 9 and 10, and then totheoretical, abstract experiences in grades 11 and 12. Theproject also emphasizes coordination of content betweendisciplines for each school year and careful articulation ofcontent from grade to grade. Some models for this programdescribe units and courses in which the content for thevarious disciplines is integrated.
Emphasis of the curriculum may be based on any of severalorganizational approaches, including distinct subjectstaught with coordination, integrated science, unified
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science, science/technology/society (STS), or others.Content can be based on Project 2061 recommendations, STStopics, conceptual frameworks, or discipline structures.
The project is designed as a research and developmenteffort to produce alternative materials to implement thereform effort. The project also is planning to work withcommercial publishers to produce materials for widespreadimplementation.
Zlementary SchCenter for_improving Science EducAtign)
The National Center for Improving Science Education hasproduced several publications designed to develop effectivescience education programs for elementary school children.Getting Started in Science; A Blueorint_fqr ElementarySchool Science Education (1989) identifies five goals forelementary school science education. They are:
1. To develop children's innate curiosity about theworld;
2. To broaden their procedural and thinking skills forinvestigating the world, solving problems, and makingdecisions;
3. Tc increase their knowledge of the natural world;
4. To develop children's understanding of thescience and technology;
5. To develop children's understanding of thepossibilities of science and technology.
The curriculum framework emphasizes themes oforganization, cause and effect, systems, scale, model,change, structure and function, continuous and discontinuousproperties, and diversity. Topics are to be taught so theyprovide a direct relationship to the real world. Hands-onactivities are emphasized and visual, auditory, and writteninformation sources are to be used to help students developknowledge, skills, and attitudes with a personally andsocially meaningful context.
nature of
limits and
1** raStikke
Over 40 states have developed curriculum guides and/orstate frameworks to influence the local school curricula andinstruction. States with detailed frameworks includeCalifornia, New York, Ilichigan, Georgia, Wisconsin, andOregon.
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Recent state guides and frameworks have helped toinfluence local curriculum development, activities ofpublishers, test developers, and regional and nationalcurriculum development projects.
As this publication goes to press, more than 20 statesare reviewing and modifying guidelines and frameworks basedon recommendations included in various reports. Some of theproposed changes provide a substantially different visionfor precollege science education when compared to currentprograms.
Curriculum Development Proiect,Frameworks
Some curriculum development projects have developedframeworks for their programs.
Curriculun_Fra It 77 a
$civicg and Health (BSCS)
This project (BSCS, 1989) designed a curriculum andinstruction framework for an elementary school science andhealth program for grades 1-6 that is consistent withcurrent trends and needs. It also attempts to integratetechnology into elementary school science and health becausetechnology can help to improve learning and technology isdeemed worthy of study. The framework includes bothcurricular and instructional models developed from analysesof the literature, recommendations from individuals, anddirect research and experience.
The following passage is the goal statement of theproposed curriculum (BSCS, 1989).
Children should learn about science, technology, andhealth as they need to understand and use them intheir daily life and as future citizens. Education inthe elementary years should sustain children's naturalcuriosity, allow children to explore theirenvironments, improve the children's explanations fortheir world, help the childre- to develop anunderstanding and use of tech logy, and contribute tothe informed choices children must make in theirpersonal and social lives.
Several assumptions about students were the basis for thedesign of new curricula. These assumptions include thefollowing: students have motivation; students havedevelopmental stages and tasks that influence learning;students have different styles of learning; and studentshave explanations, attitudes, skills and sensibilities about
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the world.
The curriculum framework has several characteristics:
1. The curriculum is based on developmental stages andtasks of students;
2. Activities within the curriculum focus on thestudents' lives and their world;
3. A student's personal and social contimt is used topromote healthy behaviors and to develop scientific,technologic, and health concepts and processes; and
4. Activities within the curriculum contribute tolearning the basics cf reading, writinl, andmathematics.
A scope and sequence was developed to describe thestructure of the curriculum for every grade level. Aninstructional model was developed to provide the educationalmeans to achieve designated goals through teachingstrategies within the scope and sequence.
Each grade level has three types of units: introductory,core, and integrated. The purpose of the introductory unitis to engage students in the year's study. If the unitengages the students, then the students will direct theirthterest, enthusiasm, and motivation toward the study oficience, technology, and health. The concepts, processes,and skills of the introductory units are those of the coreunits, and as such, introft.:ory units serve as advanceorganizers for the core units and serve as a preliminaryintegration of the concepts. Introductory units alsoestablish such classroom routines as cooperative learning,use of equipment, procedures for hands-on activities, anduse of technologies.
Four strands are emphasized each year: (1) science(stuff), (2) technology (things), (3) health (me), and (4)integration for science, technology and health. Contentselected is consistent with content identified by Project2061.
Other Current Curriculum Devplqpment Projects
The National Science Foundation is supporting severalprojects, mostly at the elementary and middle school levels.Included are "Improving Urban Elementary Science" for gradesK-6, "Full Option Science System (FOSS)" for grades 3-6 and"The Life Lab Science Program." Each of these projects hasguidelines and a framework related to their developmental
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activities.
The NSF Triad program development effort requires thatpublishers be included in these development efforts. Thisrequirement should help to overcome a common problem in manydevelopment efforts; instructional materials are notproduced to help schools implement frameworks. Becausepublishers have been directly associated with these projectsfrom the beginning, there is a greater probability of havingmaterials available that relate to the project framework.
Goals And Content Statements of Associations and Commissions
Science education and science organizations andcommissions have been leaders in producing statements toguide science education curriculum development andinstruction. AAAS's Project 2061 and NSTA's Scope,Sequence, and Coordination Project (S, S and C) have bothinvolved most of the major national organizations related toscience in their activities. They also have involvedorganizations related to general education.
In addition to these projects, several organizationsincluding the American Chemical Society, the AmericanAssociation of Physics Teachers, the National BiologyTeachers Association, and the American Geological Institutehave been involved in producing other reports identifyingwhat to include in K-12 science education.
The National Association for Science, Technology andsociety has been actively working to achieve theconceptualization frameworks for science/technology/societySTS (education) and guidelines for curricula, instructionalmaterials, instruction, and evaluation for implementation ofthe guidelines by schools. These idea's have been developedin publications by Robert Yager, Rustum Roy, Rodger Bybee,Paul de Hurd and others. NSTA was involved in Search forExcellence in Science Education. Criteria were establishedfor selecting programs related to:(1) program goals; (2) characteristics of the curriculum,instruction, and evaluation; (3) teachers; (4)administrators; (5) community; and (6) students. Programsfor chemistry, biology, physics, earth science, elementaryschool science, STS and environmental education werereviewed and selected as examples of programs implementingthe desired criteria.
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Trenas and_Issues
Immda
1. There is a growing consensus that several guidelinesshould characterize major curricular and programdevelopment efforts in K-12 science education.Curriculum and programs ought to:
a. be consistent with the nature of science,knowledge, processes, organization, and values;
b. be consistent with the intellectual, social,emotional, and physical development of thelearner;
c. be consistent with research on learning,curriculum, and instruction;
d. provide for the development of knowledge, skills,and attitudes for life-long learning;
e. provide interdisciplinary experiences related tocurrent and future life needs for solving personaland social problems;
f. provide appropriate content, materials, andexperiences for All students;
g. provide an articulated and comprehensive 1(-12program;
provide experiences that stress the development ofcreative and critical thinking, problem solving,and decision-making skills;
i . provide experiences that emphasize majorintegrating concepts and principles;
provide experiences that stress the application ofknowledge and skills to practical and theoreticalproblems;
ii
k. provide experiences that emphasize attitudes andvalues;
1. provide emphasis on content and activities thatare consistent with the developmental levels ofstudents;
m provide emphasis on content and activities thatccnsiders a wide range of student abilities,
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interests, and goals to give all studentsopportunities to succeed with science and to findapplications for their learning;
n. provide emphasis on content and experiences with ahigh probability of being used outside of school;
o. provide instructional materials that are congruentwith the goals and objectives of the curriculum;
p. stress evaluation that is congruent with goals,objectives, and instruction; and
q. provide staff development to assure effectiveimplementation and improvement of the program orcurriculum.
2. All guideline and framework teams agreed that thereare problems with the content of the current sciencecurriculum and that it should be changed.
3. At the current time, there is lack of agreement onappropriate content for precollege science educationand what the emphasis should be.
4. All guideline and framework teams agreed that thereshould be changes in experiences provided for studentsin schools. Recommended changes included using avariety of instruction technic:Nes including hands-onactivities. Some frameworks, notably BSC'S, emphasizedthe substantial use of technology in instruction.
5. All guideline and framework teams agreed thatinstructional materials and evaluation proceduresconsistent with their goals and objectives wereneeded.
6. All guideline and framework teams indicated there wasa need to inform and influence school personnelregarding desired changes and what needed to be doneto complement desired changes. The new frameworksrepresent a major change from those used in mostschools.
ZsRUP4
1. Should there be a national curriculum?
2. Should states have different curricula?
3. Are these the frameworks that will be most usefulfor current and future science education? What
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science knowledge skills, attitudes and valuesshould all students have and be able to use?
4. Are the frameworks consistent with currentresearch?
5. What content and what experiences should beemphasized at each grade level?
6. Why have frameworks from previous reform effortshad relatively little long-term impact on sciencecurriculum and instruction?
7. Can schools be expected to change their curriculato emphasize these framaworks if assessmentinstruments are not aligned with these frameworks?
8. What is the relationship of these frameworks forscience education to frameworks developed forother content areas such as social studies/socialscience, mathematics, and language arts?
9. What reforms are required to enable schools andteachers to provide a learning environment toaccomplish the goals of the frameworks?
10. How can the frameworks be translated int, schoolcurricula, instructional materials, instructionalpractices, and evaluation procedures?
11. How will the various publics become aware ofneeded reform and participate in the reformactivities?
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IV. RESEARCH RELATED TO LEARNING, CURRICULUM, INSTRUCTIONALMATERIALS, AND INSTRUCTION
Research on science education continues to extend ourknowledge of learning, the curriculum, instructionalmaterials, and instruction. Some curriculum developmentefforts and course improvement projects are attempting toincorporate some of these findings into their work. Inother cases, curriculum development and instructionalimprovement projects are proceeding with little evidencethat they are incorporating recent research findings intotheir planning, products and implementation.
There has been increasing awareness of the need todevelop an understanding of the ecology of science learningto help develop effective science curricula, instructionalmaterials, and instruction. Such an ecology #)f learningneeds to establish understandings of the interactions cf thestudent, teacher, curriculum, instructional materials,classroom including instruction, school, home, community andhigher education.
Linn noted in 1986 that research during the past decadehad developed (1) a growing consensus about the nature ofthe learner; (2) a new view of the curriculum; (3) a newview of teaching; and (4) exploiting of the newtechnologies. Research on these themes has continued and isbuilding a knowledge base for use by the field and isidentifying additional research that needs to be conducted.
There are continuing concerns regarding (1) thegeneralizability of research data; (2) the low impact ofavailable research data on curriculum, instructionalmaterials, and instruction in the past; and (3)communicating new research data to interested people in atimely way and in forms so that it can be used.
Research on Learning
Research on learning has been increasing and providessuggestiona for improving curriculum, instructionalmaterials, and instruction. New goals for scienceeducation, new technology, and research on various aspectsof science education and other areas of education haveresulted in the identification of new agendas for researchon learning related to science education.
Several aspects of learning have been emphasized inrecent research and others have been identified as needed.These are briefly considered in this section.
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Conceptual Development
Research data related to concept learning have beenbuilding. There is increasing agreement (Linn, 1986)regarding the importance of considering how studentsconstruct knowledge for the design of curriculum materialsand for the instructional process. Prior knowledge isextremely important in an individual's learning process.Most information is learned by connecting it with existingknowledge. Concepts are usually learned most effectivelywhen they are taught in a variety of contexts and are usedin a variety of ways.
Constructing new knowledge also requires reasoning skillsto be able to process information being learned and to beable to use the information that has been learned.
Conceptions
Students come to school with previously learned ideasregarding many concepts and topics in the sciencecurriculum. In addition, they are continually exposed toideas outside of school. Some of these experiences developalternative conceptions related to science. These beliefscan interfere with learning and need to be identified sothat instructional materials and instruction can focus onthem to help students learn more effectively. It isimportant to help students improve their cognitive learningby providing them wIth materials, learning experiences, andthinking skills that help them process information forlearning and use.
A substantial amount of research has been completed inrecent years that provides useful ideas for curriculumdesign, instructional materials development, and instruction(Linn, 1986; Koballa, et. al. 1989; Stayer, et. al., 1988;and Baker, in press).
The research indicates the importance of specific contentknowledge to a student's learning and the ability to solveproblems.
The research also providesteaching content (concrete tounfamiliar; in larger chunks;reasoning skills required forinstructional procedures thatconceptual knowledge.
sug1.1.-stions on the order forabstract; familiar torelated to themes; and withprocessing information) andhelp students develop
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Ileasonina and Pxoblem Solving
Research on reasoning for both the processing ofinformation for learning and for the use of informationcontinues to be an area of a substantial amount of activity.The influence of reasoning on learning is becoming bettiardescribed. The interactions of reasoning and types ofknowledge being learned are also being better described.The role of reasoning in using knowledge is being explored.Research is providing useful information for the design ofinstructional materials and instruction.
The research that is being produced and synthesizedindicates the importance of both content and specificreasoning skills. Students learn concepts more effectivelyin most contexts when they possess reasoning skills relatedto the knowledge being learned. They also can generally usereasoning skills more effectively when they have learnedreasoning skills with appropriate content.
Research on reasoning and problem solving is clarifyingspecific reasoning such as combinatorial, hypo-deductive,proportional, analogical and patterns of problem solv!.ng.
Procedural d
Research related to science education has indicated thatmany aspects of procedural knowledge (process skills)related to science can be taught successfully (ANDERSON, et.al., 1988). Procedural knowledge requires conceptualknowledge, however, to be able to be used effectively inproblem solving (Linn, 1986). Procedural knowledgetherefore appears to be most effective when it has beenlearned in context with specific conceptual knowledge. Thisresearch provides useful information for constructinginstructional materials and guiding some instruction relatedto specific content.
Mptacognktion
Research on metacognition related to learning in sciencecontinues to be a topic of research. Data indicatemetacognition skills are helpful in learning and usingscience and are seldom taught. Research continues toexplore effective ways in which metacognition can be usedto enhance learning.
Apaced Learnina and Development and Reuse of_AcnowledgmAnd Skills
Research on &paced learning and development and reuse ofknowledge and Aills (Dempster, 1988) have been found to be
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effective for helping to, increase learning. This knowledgehas implications for the design of curricula, instructionalmaterials, and instruction. While the amount of research inschool settings is limited, the NSTA Scope, Sequence andCoordination project is emphasizing the applications ofthose ideas in its work.
Attitucles toward Science
Research continues to identify the importance ofstudents' attitudes toward science and science courses andtheir success in science courses and enrollment in scienceclasses when enrollments are elective. Pivotal times appearto be: (1) ital.,: elementary grades; (2) late elementaryschool/middle school years; and (3) required and electivecourses in secondary schools.
Vle of ConceRtUal InforplOtipn and SkiklA
Analyses of recent science learning indicate that manystudents do not do well on application problems. NationalAssessment of Educational Progress (Lapointe et. al., 1989;Jacobson and Doran, 1988) and other data have indicated thatthis has been a continual problem. It is apparent from otherresearch that students can be taught to see the importanceof science concepts and how to apply their knowledge andskills. Students need to have experiences in usinginformation to effectively retain and construct structuresfor use of information. They need to use and reuseinformation and skills frequently in a variety of situationsto be able to retain important information and skills and tobe able to use these skills in a variety of contexts.
Eesparch_Related to Curriculum
Recent research indicates that the science educationcurriculum needs to be modified to help learners achievedesired results. Pour aspects of the curriculum (emphasis,placement, treatment of topics and integration) have beenthe subjects of a substantial amount of discussion anddebate and some research.
Zmphasis
Analyses of goals, objectives, content and experiencesfor K-12 science education (Harms, et. al.,1981; AAAS, 1989;Aldridge, 1989; Jacobson and Doran, 1988; Miller, June,1986; Weiss, 1987; Miller, Jon, 1990; and the NationalCenter for Improving Science Education, 1989) indicatesubstantial differences between recommendations for K-12programs and recent and current curricula, instructional
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materials and instruction. How science programs shouldprovide different emphases has been delineated by severalpeople and groups including Harms, et. al (1981), hAAS(1989) and Aldridge (1989).
placement of Science Content
Research on learning has been providing clues on theorder and placement of content in the curriculum.Characteristics of concepts and skills such as concrete-abstract, familiar-unfamiliar, reasoning skills involved,relationship to other concepts, and relevancy affect the wayand the order in which content should be presented.
Treatment of Topics
Research has also been helping to indicate more effectiveways of teaching topics to improve both learning and use ofknowledge. Among the practices that have been found to makea difference are using hierarchies, spaced learning,focusing on fewer items with more depth, relating knowledgeto themes, chunking knowledge, integrating content fromvarious disciplines, learning knowledge in a variety ofcontexts and using km. Fledge learned in meaningful contexts.
Time
Research has indicated that several timo variables relateto increased learning and achievement. These includeemphasis (time) devoted to learning the content, engagedtime, recency of instruction, and courses completed.Research is continuing on exploring the impact of how timeis used and its relationship to learning of specificconcepts and skills.
BadsgKound Knowledge and Skillp
Increased emphasis should be given to mathematics,language arts, reading and science in the elementary schoolgrades. The importance of establishing a good foundationduring the early elementary school years has beenconsistently shown to be important for further learning(Anderson, et. al., 1988; Wittrock, et. al., 1986).Students who fall more than one and a half years behindgrade level during the elementary school years often are notable to maintain effective learning at higher grade levels(Wittrock, et. al., 1986; Howe and Kasten, 1990) in scienceor mathematics. Elementary school experiences are importantfor establishing understanding of science concepts anddeveloping needed skills for further learning.
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Increased emphasis should be given to building anunderstanding of basic concepts, problem solving and higherthinking skills. Data from several studies (NAEP, 1988;Jacobson and Doran, 1988; Lapointe, et. al., 1989; andApplebee, 1989 and others) indicated many U.S. students atthe upper elementary level and secondary level do not havedesired understandings of concepts, problem solving ability,and ability to use higher- order learning skills.
Attitude towa &Science
Increased emphasis should also be given to modificationsof the curriculum that will help to improve studentattitudes. Data (Anderson, et. al, 1982; NSF, 1989; andNAEP, 1988) have indicated students in upper elementaryyears and middle school years become less interested inscience as an area for future study and a possible careeremphasis. This is particularly evident for Black andHispanic students.
Instructional 'tatter/alp and Dp livery of Instnagtion
Research and development related to instructionalmaterials and delivery of instruction has increased duringthe past tour years. This work has not made an impact on alarge number of classes because much of the work initiatedrecently is in a developmental state.
Current Practice
Instruction in most science classes continues to betextbook and lecture oriented. While some schoois are usingdifferent materials and practices, the number of schoolsmaking substantial changes remains small. Most schools havecomputers, but relatively few schools have integrated thistechnology into their curricula; fewer schools have modifiedtheir curricula so that the use of technology is a plannedpart of their program for grades K-12. Relatively fewsnhools have also modified their programs to make use of newtechnologies such as video discs, interactive video discs,or distance learning.
Instructiwa1 Material Research and Develomen
Research continues to be done on existing materials anddeveloping new materials. Among the topics of research arestated and implied goals, alignment with curricula andtests, content organization, structure, readability,misconceptions in the materials, writing style, visualmaterials, activities included, and packaging.
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Efforts are being made to modify print materials based onresearch knowledge from both education Wild the sciences.The NSF sponsored "Triad" projects link publishers withscientists and educators. The AAAS 2061 and the NSTA S, Sand C projects also involve people with research knowledgefrom both the sciences and education.
Researchers at Michigan State University have 1,sendeveloping materials after interviewing students todetermine the students' alternative explanations and ways tomodify materials to teach concepts more effectively.
11111...a.Lia.chnsaggx_tpIMPX211)._Lstuning
Research indicates that technology can provide ways ofimproving learning through creative modifications ofcurricula, instructional materials, and instruction. Someof the recent research findings and potentials for the useof technology are highlighted in this section.
Pse of Calculatus_ in Science Xngtruction
Calculators are used in science classes, but very littleresearch has been done on their use in these settings. Afew studies have been done related to solving problems inchemistry and physics; data indicate the calculators arehelpful in enabling students to solve problems faster, solvemore problems and solve some problems that would bedifficult to solve without their use.
Computers and Instruction
Computers have been found to have mixed success inimproving science achievement. More recent studies are morepositive than earlier studies, probably due to improvedsoftware and knowledge of more effective as well as lesseffective ways to use computers.
Data indicate litany students enjoy using computers. Theyenjoy being actively engaged; they can make mistakes withoutbeing embarrassed; they are in control with many programs;they are kept on task and motivated; and they often receiveimmediate feedback on what they have done.
Computers have been used for instruction in several ways.Computers have been found to be successful in science foractivities requiring drill and practice. Computer-assistedinstruction (CAI) has been investigated as a way ofimproving instruction and learning of science for manyyears. While data are mixed on its use (Bangert-Downs,
et.al., 1985), asas CAI is appliedbe effective, CAIshorter period of(computer tutors,
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more effective materials fire developed andto purposes for which it has been found tohas provided better achievement in atime and/or developed better understandingcomputer graphics).
Computers have also been used successfully for managinginstruction (Computer-Managed Instruction), for simulations,to assist in solving problems, to develop models, to obtaininformation from databases, for microcomputer basedlaboratories, and for networking. Computers have also beenused successfully as a part of integrated learning systems.
Integrated learning systems have been developed. Severaloffer a variety of materials for science education. Dataindicate that materials have been effective in improvinglearning for several science education objectives.Materials are available from companies including ComputerNetworking Specialists, Inc., MECC, New Century EducationCorp., Roach Org, Inc, Wasatech Education Systems, and WICATEducation.
Zstance,EducAtion
Distance education is being used to provide a variety ofresources for precollege education for several purposes.one of the major uses in the United States has been toassist rural schools by providing courses to augment theschool curriculum. A second common use has been to provideenrichment experiences to a variety of schools for theirmore able learners. A third and newer use in science hasbeen conferencing and sharing research information.
Research indicates distance education has been effectivefor adult learners in a variety of settings (Moore, 1989).Data related to its use and effectiveness for K-12 educationhas been less conclusive, although reports indicate itoffers many opportunities for schools and students that theycannot obtain in traditional ways. A number of systems eraavailable to schools, but most have limited materials andcourses at this time.
Audiovisual Technology
Several technologies have been developed to the pointthat they are being used in classrooms for instruction,though not on a wide-scale basis. Videodiscs, interactivevideodiscs, CD ROM, and interactive TV are among thetechnologies being used and which hold promise formodification of curriculum and instruction.
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The research database related to these technologies isbeing developed and some results have been published (U.S.Congress, 1989; Jostens Learning Corporation, 1989).Suggestions for improving the materials and making them moreeffective for instructional purposes have been made, thoughthe extent to which the data can be generalized is not clearat this time. Many improvements are being made fromanalysis of use by producers, rather using formal researchand evaluation procedures.
Instru4ion and classroom Climate
During the past 10 years, there has been an increasedamount of research related to instruction and learning. Inaddition, many of these studies have been reviewed andsynthesized to provide strategies for the application ofresearch to practice. From this research, patterns ofinstruction used, how learning occurs and can befacilitated, and variables related to learning andachievement have continued to be identified. Research onlearning, instruction, and technology has been developing anew view of teaching (Linn, 1986).
Knowledge regarding how students learn and constructtheir knowledge and how they use their knowledo ..adicatesthe importance to the teacher of both subject matter andskills. New technology permits instructional experiencesthat could not be offered before. The importance of havinga teacher who understands the content and skills they aretrying to teach has also been thrust into sharper focus; itis difficult to teach concepts and skills if you do notunderstand the concepts and skills.
Analyses of current instruction, however, indicate thatmost teachers use more traditional instruction and are notmaking use of many instructional procedures that have beenfound to improve science learning.
Variables Belated to Increased Achievement
Among the strategies and variables that have been relatedto increased achievement are: (a) homework assignments; (b)low absenteeism; (c) corrective measures for errors inlearning; (d) high teacher expectations; (e) teachers'confidence that they can help students; (f) academic time;(g) engaged time; (h) classroom organization; (i) feedbackon learning; (1) congruence of instructional materials,instruction, and evaluation; (m) wait time; (n) cooperativelearning techniques; (0) procedures to help studentsconstruct knowledge and to eliminate misconceptions; (p)preinstructional strategies (set-induction, focusing,advanced organizers); (q) questioning strategies;
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(r) hands-on activities; (s) emphasis on concrete materialsand examples; (t) focus on specific reasoning skills andconcepts; and (u) mastery learning approaches.
While most of the recent and current instructionalimprovement efforts have been at the elementary schoollevel, secondary school students and programs have beenincluded in recent research.
There is a developing consensus that recent researchefforts provide knowledge about teaching and learning thatcan make a substantial impact on instruction. Some of theinformation is currently being applied; further work isneeded to translate more of the information so that it canbe used in practice and to determine effective combinationsof variables to use.
Assessment and Evaluation
Data continue to indicate that many national andstatewide evaluation programs and instruments do not measurethe major current goals and objectives of science education.They also differ markedly from proposed goals and objectivesof newer frameworks.
Research data indicate that evaluation of programs andinstruments needs to be congruent with the curriculum,instructional materials, and instruction in order that acurriculum program succeed. Teachers tend to emphasize= whatis being tested and students focus their time and attentionon what is being tested.
Nearly all reports concerned with the topic of evaluationcall for different evaluation instruments.
Teacher Characteristics. WIAYiors andyrepgration
Trends and issues related to this topic are outside thescope of this publication. However, research data clearlyindicate that effective teachers are a requirement for anycurriculum to succeed.
Recent research information related to learning andinstruction helps to identify teacher competencies neededfor effective student learning. Preservice and inserviceteacher education programs need to assess how currentknowledge should Influence programs to prepare effectiveteachers.
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School Practices and Organization
Several school building practices are related toeffective science programs and higher student achievement.Among these variables are school leadership, articulation ofinstructional goals, time allocation for programs, classsize, supervision practices, school and staff expectations,teacher stability, staff development activities, andresources (time, materials, personnel).
Learning is enhanced when the building as a unit isfocused on providing a setting for maximizing learning.
Community/Home Variables
Research continues to show significant relationshipsbetween achievement/attitudes and community/home variables,particularly socioeconomic levels of the home andexpectations of the home and community.
These data support the developmentinvolve the home and the community inThe data also support the developmentprograms for youth.
Trends ancl Issues
Trends
of programs thatschool activities.of out-o4!-school
1. A growing body of literature has increasedconsensus that research is changing how thelearner is viewed and learning occurs.
2 There is a growing body of literature andincreasing consensus that research on learning andcurriculum indicates that the curriculum should bemodified to aid and improve learning.
3. There is a growing body of literature andincreaPing consensus that research on learning,instructional materials, and instruction indi,...atesthat instructional materials and instructionshould be modified to aid and improve learning.
4. There is a growing body of literature andincreasing consensus that research on learning,curriculum, instructional materials, instruction,and evaluation indicates that evaluationinstruments and procedures need to be modified toaid and improve learning, instruction, andprograms.
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5. Research continues to provide suggestions on ways
to improve curriculum, instructional materials,and instruction.
6. Recent research has helped identify areas needingmore research and new agendas for research.
7. Research data indicate teacher knowledge andbeliefs regarding science, science curriculum,instruction, instructional materials, andevaluation influence how teachers teach.
8. Research data continue to indicate that earlyschool learning and achievement have a strongrelationship to later learning in science.
9. Research data continue to indicate that schoolpractices relate to science learning andachievement. Specific school practices have beenfound to relate both.
10. Research data continue to indicate thatcommunity/home variables relate to scienceachievement and learning. Specific variables havebeen found that relate to both.
11. Research continues to describe curricula,instructional materials, and instruction used in
K-12 classrooms for science education. Thesedata indicate that recent research has not made amajor impact in many schools on any of the three.
12. The use of technology is slowly increasing inschools. Few schools have made major modificationsin curriculum, instructional materials, andinstruction based on use of technology.
Ipsues
1. Can the science education community be encouragedto direct more of its research toward areasidentified as new agendas and areas in need of
research?
2. How can procedures be established to supportstudies and replication of studies to permitgreater generalization of data?
3. What can be done to have research make a greaterimpact on curriculum instructional materials, and
instruction?
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4 1
4. What can be done to help synthesize completedresearch more effectively?
5. What can be done to identify the implications ofsynthesized research for curriculum, instructionalmaterials, and instruction?
6. What can be done to communicate research results,synthesized research results, and implications ofresearch to approprio.te audiences in timely andeffective formats?
7. Should regulations and incentives be used toencourage those involved in the design andproduction of curriculum and instructionalmaterials to use research results in developingtheir products.
8. Should regulations and incentives be used toencourage those involved in selecting materialsand providing instruction to use research resultsin their work?
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V. DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION OF CURRICULA ANDINSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS FOR PRECOLLEGE SCIENCE
This section presents trends and issues related to recentand current activities designed to develop and implementcurricula and instructional materials. Activities include(1) revising and strengthening science curricula anddeveloping instructional materials, (2) modifyinginstruction, (3) revising high school graduation and collegeentrance requirements, (4) devising programs to recruit andto hold minority and female students, (5) expanding thecurriculum and extracurricular programs to include contestsand competitions, (6) developing programs for scienceoutside of school hours, (7) developing special schools thatinclude an emphasis on science, (8) accountability andevaluation, and (9) staff development.
Revising and Strenathilning Science Curricula and ProducingInstructional Materials
There has been substantial activity during the past threeyears to address concerns related to the precollege sciencecurriculum.
There has been continued activity by states to develop orrevise curriculum guides for science. About 30 states haverecommended guides and over 20 have Tequired guides; somehave both. Only a few states do not have any form, of guidefor science.
Guides vary in detail, but there is a trend to includemore recommendations on instructional objectives,instruction, and assessment based on research. There alsois a current effort to review guides against Project 2061recommendations. Some states have begun to consider guilesagainst the NSTA S, S and C recommendations. Efforts areunderway to modify some guides to reflect theserecommendations or to issue analyses that indicate how someof the recommendations can be incorporated into theircurricula.
SUD
Several groups developing comprehensive curricularframeworks for science grades K-12, 1-6, and 7-12 weredescribed in Section III.
Project 2061 has developed a framework and is workingwith schools and scientists to modify curricula for specific
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schools.
The Scope, Sequence and Coordination (S, S, and C)project is developing centers to work with schools todevelop curricula based on SI SI and C guidelines. So SIand C is also working with several states to developcurricular frameworks based on S, SI and C guidelines. Somestates, California, for example, are using SF SI and Cguidelines and incorporating content from Project 2061.Some curriculum development efforts are also emphasizing SF5, and C guidelines and emphasizingScience/Technology/Society content.
Several of the S, S, and C projects are developing unitsfor the secondary school level. Availability will bethrough the National Science Teachers Association and/orcommercial publishers.
BSCS is working with several groups to integrate science,technology and health in an elementary school curriculumcalled New Designs. This program incorporates educationalcomputing into the curriculum and instruction as afundamental component. Materials will be published by acommercial publisher.
Because curriculum development and materials developmentrequire considerable time, much of the materials beingdeveloped for national framework projects are not availablefor general school use at this time.
Other Selected Curriculum Development,Actiyities
Elementary/Middle School Materials
The National Science Foundation has recentlysponsored one middle school and seven elementary"Triad" projects (partnerships made up of publishers,scientists and science educators, and schools) toproduce high-caliber innovative curricula. Projectsfunded include the following:
1. Elementary Scbool Science and _Health Materials (y-Al. Funded by NSF and Kendall/Hunt Publishing Co.,this program emphasizes personal/social goals,problem solving, decision making, and technologyin relation to science knowledge and procedures.
2. Impruing VrOart Elementary Science: ACollaborative Approach (K-6). Funded by NSF andSunburst Communications, Inc., this partnership isdeveloping a program using the natural world as anexperimental starting point to enhance students'
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critical thinking and problem-solving skills.
3. The Life LO Science Pr9gram: Develo9ment of_dComprehensive_Experimental Elemeutary ScienceCurriculum_ (K-6). Funded by NSF and Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., this comprehensive garden-based program aims to show students, through avariety of hands-on experiences; the connectionsbetween science and daily life.
4. mitssilmqt_ggammLiza_Li=fil. Funded by NSF andSilver Burdett and Ginn, this program supplementsexisting basal science texts with materials toenhance science instruction and improve students'abilities to think critically.
5. AMRAEJkiIMIOLLAJMNNLAMIlk_EMMAIR . This program,funded by NSF and Scholastic, Inc., introduces twoclassroom magazines (for grades 1-3 and for grades4-6) accompanied by computer disk resources whoseactivities blend science with math, reading, andsocial studies.
6. Full Option 5pience 4yetem (3-5). Funded by NSFand Ohaus Scale Corporation, this project isproducing multisensory laboratory-based activitiesfor the elementary classroom.
7. National Geographic _Ws Network Project (4-6).Funded by NSF and the National Geographic Society,this project's series of units can be used withexisting classroom materials. Usingtelecommunications to share information across thecountry, students investigate issues ofscientific, social, and geographic importance.
6. Interactive Middle-Grades Science (6-§1. Fundedby NSF and Houghton Mifflin, this project isdeveloping a multimedia system ofinstruction/classroom management/studentevaluation that addresses problems of science,technology, and society.
Michigan State University personnel (Berkheimer,et. al., 1988) are Jmolved in developing curriculummaterials for elementary school science usingdifferent procedures than those normally used.Michigan State University researchers identifyalternative concepts students have and then use thisinformation to develop instructional procedures.Research data indicate modules developed with theirprocedures have been more effective than some
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traditional materials.
There are also a variety of materials beingdeveloped by commercial publishers, producers ofcomputer software, audiovisual producers, andintegrated system companies. Local sdhools areproducing or adapting materials to supplement currentcurricula; Eisehhower and Title II funds from the U.S.Department of Education have been used by severalschools for this purpose.
There has been a definite increase in thedevelopment and modification of curriculum andinstructional materials during the past several years.Most of the curricula and materials produced to datewould need to be modified or adapted to fit theProject 2061 recommendations. Most curricula andmaterials would also have to be modified or adapted tofit the NSTA SI S and C recommendations and models.Most of the materials produced recently have been fora few units for separate grade levels or for one yearand have not provided sufficient materials designedfor an articulated program for several years; fittingpieces together in an effective and meaningful waybecomes difficult for many schools.
Secondary School Materials
Several secondary school curriculum developmentand material development projects have also beencompleted or are underway in addition to those citedearlier. The majority of the larger projects are bypublishers, producers of computer software/ andproducers of audiovisual materials. Thsre are alsoprojects at (1) special schools for science andmathematics including North Carolina and Texas; (2)local schools; and (3) collaborative groups ofschools. Funding for these has come from a variety ofsources including publishers/ government (federal andstate), private foundations, business partnerships,and local schools.
Comments relative to elementary/middle schoolmaterials are also true of these. Most of thematerials have not been designed and developed toproduce materials for an articulated program forgrades 7-12 or even for several grades. Most of thematerials would also need to be modified or adapted tomeet the recommendations of Project 2061 NSTA's SI Sand C, and literature recommendations on curricula andinstructional materials.
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It is difficult to implement recommendations ofgroups such as Project 2061, NSTA's S, S and C, andothers without materlils designed to facilitatelearning according to the recommended programs. It isespecially difficult to construct learning ifmaterials do not exist for multiple years.
INLY2222111g-iiiLtPrialsKediA
There has been a substantial amount of developmentactivity to produce software including supplementalsoftware, software for microcomputers that includesubstantial portions of a semester or more, interactivevideodiscs, courses for integrated learning systems,software and materials for microcomputer based laboratories,databasea for educational use, and materials for networking.There have also been some excellent materials developed fortelevision at both the elementary and secondary schoollevels.
There has also been development and experimentation withdistance learning programs, including STAR School programs.Schools in several states have been involved in theseactivities. Use has not been high, but advantages anddisadvantages of distance learning are being learned end useis increasing. Rural areas have generally been moreinvolved in the use of distance education for scienceeducation.
Television has received the most use, and microcomputeruse is steadily increasing. Problems frequently reportedrelated to the use of technology include costs of equipmentand materials (when available), teacher knowledge related tothe technology and time to plan and use the technology,quality of materials, and "fit" between the schoolcurriculum and the materials available.
Modifying Instruction
There has been substantial effort to assist teachers inlearning about and using instructional materials andprocedures that can be used to assist students in learningand becoming more interested in science.
The Eisenhower Act of the U.S. Department of Educatienhas supported inservice activities in every state. TheNational Science Foundation, private foundations, businessand industry and states have supported inservice programs.The Regional Educational Laboratories, supported by the U.S.Department of Education, have also been involved inassisting schools to modify instruction.
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Professional associations have been active in workingwith schools and in presenting idePa in publications. TheNSTA, AAPT, and ACS have been note arthy in their efforts atthe national level. State affiliates and staterepresentatives of these groups have also been activelyinvolved in working directly with schools.
Reports suggest that changes are occurring where emphasesis given to instructional improvement and when resources andtime are provided to make needed changes.
Revising High School Graduation an4 College gntranceRequirements
There has been a significant increase in sciencerequirements for high school graduation by state governmentsduring the past several years. From 1980 to 1987, 46 statesintroduced or increased graduation requirements.
There also has been a trend for colleges and universitiesto increa.ne the number of science courses or years ofscience required for admission. These requirements havecaused many local school districts to raise the requirednumber of science courses for graduation in an academic orcollege-bound program.
Devising Pro.rams to Recruit and to Hold Minority and Female4tUaellt4
There has been increased effort and support to developand maintain programs to interest minorities and females inscience, help them succeed in science, and encourage them tocontinue in science. Over 30 states have programs designedfor these purposes.
Local schools, associations, colleges and universities,businesses, and foundations are also developing programsrelated to minority and femle students. Interventionprograms, if replicated with care and given stable funding,can make a difference. For example, the SoutheasternConsortium for Minorities in Engineering (SECME), sponsoredby universities and corporations, coordinates interventionprograms across the Southeast United States to reach over200 schools, 27 universities, 45 corporations, andapproximately 15,000 minority students a year.
Expanding the_Curriculumand Extracurricular Programs toInclude Contests and Competitions
Contests and competitions are receiving increasedemphasis at the international, national, state, regional,
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and local levels. The number of programs/ the number ofschools participating, and the number of studentsparticipating have generally been increasing. Recognitiongiven to winners, especially thoee for international andnational competition, has also been emphasized more inrecent years.
As interest in these contests and competitions hasincreased, there has also been interest in school,community/ and student variables related to schools that arehighly successful in these competitions.
Developing Programs for_Spience Outsideipf School Hoim
Special programs for students are being offered morefrequently outside of school hours for able students,minorities, females and students who need time to improvetheir knowledge and skills.
Summer programs are being offered by many schooldistricts, colleges and universities, and states; at thecurrent time more than 20 states offer summer programs. Theformats for these programs vary from several days to as muchas six weeks. Sites also vary; some are held at a localschool, but many are offered at colleges and universities,camps, research facilities/ science and technology centers/and museums. Funding ifor summer programs has also beenincreasing with federal, state foundation, and businesssupport for many. The integration of science, computers/technology, and mathematics has been emphasized by many suchprograms.
After-school programs and Saturday programs are alsobeing used to provide more time for science and to providemore extensive experiences than the school can offer onsite.Many of these programs use local colleges and universities,research laboratories, museums, science and technologycenters, and local industries as sites for programs.
Special programs to help students who need more time tolearn fundamental knowledge and skills have also beendeveloped. While most of these programs focus on what thestudent needs to learn/ some try to develop increasedinterest in science by showing applications of scienceand/or involving students in science activities not usuallyencountered in the school.
Developing Special_Schools that include_An Emphasiq on§cience
Special schools have been developed by several states andcities for science and technology. There are at least 15
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states supporting or helping to support states/schools thatfocus on science. Several cities have magnet schools thatfocus on science and technology that are supported in partby state funds, but not considered state schools.
While the number of state and locally supported schoolsfor science and technology is increasing, the number is notincreasing at a lipid rate.
Accountabaltv and Evaluation
There is a strong consensus in the recent literature thatchanges are needed in testing and evaluation procedures toreflect desired goals. National Assessment of EducationalProgress planners, IEA planners, centers such as the Centerfor Improving Science Education, BSCS, and state guidedevelopers are examples of groups working on modifyingevaluation instruments and procedures.
Changes being designed and implemented include emphasis,types of items, procedures for collecting data and use ofdata. There is an emphasis on major concepts, higher-orderquestions, hands-on activities, and use of technology inanswering questions.
Aligning assessment with the curriculum, instructionalmaterials, and instruction is being emphasized, but datasuggest this practice is not frequently followed. Use ofassessment data to aid learning and to improve instruction,therefore, is frequently difficult and often suspect.
Staff Development
Although staff development is not the focus of thispublication, it has been identified as a major need inreform activities. It has received and is receiving strongattention and financial support. The amount of inserviceeducation has increased dramatically with federal supportfrom the Eisenhower Act and other programs from the U.S.Department of Education, National Science Foundation, U.S.Department of Energy, and NASA. In addition, states, localschools, foundations, and businesses are also providingsupport.
Identified teacher needs include those related tobeliefs, methodology, and current knowledge of content,materials, and instruction.
Many reports indicate that previous reform efforts havefailed to a large extent because teachers did not believethey needed to change instruction; they were not aware ofcurricular materials or instructional procedures; or they
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did not understand them; therefore, they would not implementthem properly and/or lacked sufficient knowledge and/orskill to instruct the class effectively.
Resources for Supporting Development Dissemination andImplementation
Science education has been receiving increased supportfor curriculum development, instructional materialdevelopment, and implementation. Major increases have comefrom federal funds (NSF, U.S. Department of Education, andothers), private foundations, and business and industry.Additional increases in support have been provided by somestates.
The federal government has been supporting somedissemination activities through the U.S. Department ofEducation (Eisenhower Act, FIRST, NDN, ERIC), the NationalScience Foundation, and other agencies. States have alsobeen providing resources for dissemination. In addition,new federal legislation is being considered to provide foradditional dissemination of information regarding curriculumand instruction.
Professional associations have continued to focus ondissemination of information through conferences, meetings,and publications. Associations have also been involved inestablishing networks, including electronic networks, toshare information with potential users.
Data were not available to indicate whether local fundshave been increased beyond the rate of inflation, thougharticles and reports continue to identify resources for thepurchase of equipment, materials, nd supplies as a problem;these items are usually obtained with local funds.
There has been a steadily increasing number ofpartnerships involving business, industry and schools. Inmany localities these arrangements have provided funding,materials, personnel, and other resources for assisting inthe improvement of K-12 science education.
Trends and Issues
Trends
I. Some curricula and instructional materials forK-12 science are being developed or revised toreflect increased knowledge of how studentslearn science, provide more emphasis of majorconcepts, more emphasis on higher-order learning,make more use of technology, provide for more
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active learning, and provide for more applications.
2. Work is being done to improve assessment of learningand to develop indicators of effective programs atlocal, state, and national levels.
3. Very few science curricula have articulated programsthat include grades 1-12.
4. Use of technology for science instruction isincreasing, but slowly.
5. Funding support and opportunities for inserviceeducation for teachers of science has steadilyincreased during the past several years.
6. There has been continued development of programs forminorities and women to interest them in science andto provide assistance.
7. The percentage of schools participating in contestsand competitions is increasing.
8. The percentage of schools and agencies offeringprograms outside of school hours is increasing.
9. The number of special schools that emphasize sciencehas been slowly increasing.
10. Support for curriculum development has been increasingfor several years. The amount of support remains lowfor the tasks identified as needed.
11. Support for dissemination and implemeiltation hasincreased in recent years, but the amowIt of supporton a per school basis is very low.
Issues
1. How can effective instructional materials be developedto implement curricular recommendations?
2. How can more effective instructional procedures beimplemented in the schools?
3. How can more effective assessment procedures bedeveloped?
4. How can more effective assessment procedures beimplemented in the schools?
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5. How can the use of technology be increased toimprove the teaching and learning of science?
6. How can needed improvements in science education befinanced?
7. Can significant and important changes be made in K-12science without substantial restructuring of schools?
8. How can federal, state, and local policies thatencourage reform be enacted?
9. How can federal, state, and local policies thatsustain learning impravament activities be enacted?
10. kid') can reform activities in science education becoordinated?
11. How can reform activities in science education becoordinated with other school reform efforts?
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VI. SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE REFORM OF K-12SCIENCE CURRICULUM, INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS,
AND INSTRUCTION
The preceding sections presented information and trendsrelated to: (1) conditions creating a demand for change;(2) the status of science education in elementary andsecondary schools; (3) curricular frameworks for precollegescience education; (4) research related to learning,curriculum and instruction, instructional materials andinstruction; and (5) current activities to create desiredchanges in curriculum, instructional materials andinstruction. The recent literature also identifiedrecommendations for reform of K-12 science education. Aselection of recommendations suggested are identified inthis section.
Conoiltions Creating a Demand for Chance
Sitmmary
Reports document at least seven conditions requiring ademand for major changes in science education K-12.Included among those most frequently cited in the literatureare: (1) changes in the world society and the UnitedStates; (2) changes in international business, marketing,and competitiveness; (3) changes in the role of technologyand the use of technology in schools and in liociety; (4)changes in the need for scientific knowledge and skills foreveryday living and for jobs; (5) changes in science and howit is used; (6) research on curriculum learning,instructional materials, and instruction; and (7) adiscrepancy between changes desired and current schoolprograms and student achievement.
Several of these conditions demand changes in other areasof the school program. While science reform can beaddressed specifically, it should also be considered as partof a total needed reform.
Recomendatigns for Reform
1. Changing conditions should each be analyzed toexplicate what needs to be done in science educationto take advantage of new knowledge, provide neededcontent and experiences, and correct discrepanciesbetween desired achievement levels and currentachievement levels.
2. The information obtained from this analysis should beused to analyze the comprehensiveness nf currentframeworks for science education for the development
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of new frameworks for science education.
3. A mechanism should be established to determineprogress related to meeting these needs as well asopportunities and changes in conditions that presentnew needs and opportunities.
What is the Status of Sciencq Curriculum. InstructionalMaterials and Instruction in Elementary and SecondarySchools?
purnary
Analyses of atudent science achievement in U.S. schoolsindicate that American students are not learning severalconcepts and skills as well as desired. Analyses alsoindicate that U.S. students are not achieving as well onmany desired concepts and skills as students in severalother industrialized countries.
Additional data indicate that the science curriculum,instructional materials, and instruction do not introducenew concepts as early as those in some other 6-36 countriesnor provide concepts in as much depth and with opportunitiesfor spaced learning. Data also indicate that some of thedesired concepts and skills do not receive sufficientemphasis in U.S. curricula/ instructional materials, andinstruction and that the time U.S. students are involved inscience instruction is less than the time students inseveral other industrialized countries are involved ininstruction.
Recent data indicate that most U.S. schools followtraditional instructional patterns, provide little hands-oninstruction/ and rake relatively little use of technology.Very few schools have curricula especially designed tocapitalize on the useful features of hands-on instructionand new technology throughout their programs.
Recommendations for Reform
1. Achievement data identifiedindicate very little changegrade levels tested. Majorneeded in science educationlearning and achievement.
for four NAEP studiesfor all students at allsystemic reforms areto markedly improve
2. Data indicate that early schooling in science andmathematics has a strong relationship to laterachievement, particularly for low income and minoritystudents. Any major reform needs to provide a special
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focus on the first three years of schooling to prepareall children adequately for continued learning.Mathematics, reading, and language skills are amongthe most essential learnings to be emphasized.
3. Assessment tests need to be developed that reflectcurrent goals and objectives. Schools that emphasizeand achieve these goals and objectives should beidentified to aid continued improvement of allschools.
4. Current practices in most schools indicate that pastreforms have not had a major impact on instruction andclassroom practices. Barriers to change need to beaddressed so that current reform efforts are moreeffective to producing changes in instruction andimprovements in learning.
Curricular Frameworks: Goals. Content, and ExpeKiences forPrecollege Science Education
Ala ERE=
The science education community, with strong leadershipfrom the AAAS and the NSTA and with substantial support fromthe federal and state governments and private foundations,has developed curricular frameworks for science educationthat provide guidelines for the development of scienceprograms. The AAAS Project 2061 activities have identifiedsuggested content and instructional and evaluation patterns.The NSTA S, S and C Project has identified desirablecharacteristics for a curriculum and for instruction.
Other groups such as the National Center for ImprovingScience Education and BSCS have also been active indeveloping their own guides and frameworks and also adaptingguides and frameworks to fit the recommendations of Project2061.
Curriculum development programs that have includedtextbook publishers have also developed frameworks. Most ofthese have been for elementary or middle school grades.
While some of these development projects are working onplans for implementing reform ideas, others are not. Someprojects are producing instructional materials, evaluationinstruments, and recommendations for instruction, whileothers are not.
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Recommendations f.or Wum
1. There is a need to involve all major stakeholders inreviewing the frameworks, establishing the need forthe frameworks, identifying what the frameworks willaccomplish, and identifying alternative ways they canbe implemented.
2. There is a need to develop and to test materials,instructional procedures, and evaluation procedures ina variety of sites.
3. Effective prototype materials need to be shared widelywith state and local school personnel so that they canbe adopted and adapted.
4. Effective communication procedures need to beestablished for all personnel interested in continuingdevelopments in science education. The communicationprocedures should use both on-line and printtechniques, be widely publicized/ and permit multiplepathways for information exchange.
Research RelatesLtoligarninalaL_Ing.Ingtigiul
Variables
Summary
.11
Section four presents selected research on K-12 scienceeducation. Research information is available to provide forsignificant improvement of cognitive, affective, andpsychomotor science learning and achievement. Suggestionsare available for modifying the curriculum, instructionalmaterials, instruction, evaluation, and school and communityactivities to be mGre consistent with research on learningand achievement.
Some of the results of this research are being used bycurriculum developers, developers of evaluation instruments,and school personnel working to improve community, school,and classroom activities. However, relatively fewinstructional material developers are making substantial useof this knowledge and relatively few schools are makingsubstantial use of available research information.
Recent research and new technologies have alsoestablished the need for new research agendas related toprecollege science education. As we learn more about thelearner, curricula, instructional materials, instruction,and school/community variables that affect learning, thereare needs and opportunities for research that can continue
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to help the education community to understand learning andto improve educational processes.
Recommenplations for Reform
1. Support needs to be provided and mechanisms developedto make better use of av.filable research knowledge forthe improvement of K-lk zurricula, instructionalmaterials, instruction, and teacher education.
2. SiTport needs to be provided and mechanisms developedto replicate previous studies that indicate promisingpractices for the improvement of science education todetermine the extent to which the fundings can begeneralized. These replications will probably achievebetter results if conducted on an organized basis asopposed to an unorganized approach.
3. Support needs to be provided for research related tonew goals and frameworks for science education.Included are higher-order learning, assessment,curriculum materials, effects of technology on scienceinstruction and learning, efforts of revised formsof curricula for grades 9-12, policy-related issues(outcomes/inputs; regulations, etc.), teacherknowledge, and prototype programs for accomplishingspecific goals with specific groups of students.
4. Support needs to be provided for research anddevelopment to develop new learning systems.
5. Expand and support ways of sharing informationrelated to research on K-12 science education. Currentmechanisms do not reach enough people who should beinformed and information frequently is not in the mostuseful form for specific groups of people (policymakers, curriculum developers, researchers, etc.).These activities, if done right, require substantialstaff, cosea considerable amount of money, andprobably can be most effectively developed andsustained with federal support.
Current Activities to Create_Desired Changes in Curriculqmj.Tnstructional Materials, and Instruction
Busunary
Efforts to develop new science curricula and produceinstructional materials have accelerated during the pastthree years. Activities of the NSF, Project 2061, SI S andC, BSCS and others are developing procedures and materials
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to change curricula, instructional materials, andinstruction. In addition, some states, local schools andgroups of schools are working to change curricula andinstructional materials. Many of these efforts involvepartnerships of schools, curriculum developers, publishers,and business and industry.
Use of technology in instruction is slowly increasing andmaterials being developed for science instruction used inconjunction with technology are also increasing.
Efforts to change ins.tructional procedures throughinservice education have increased during the past severalyears--largely due to an infusion of funds from federal andstate governments, foundations, and business and industry.
Programs for attracting and assisting minorities andfemales in science and engineering have continued, as haveprograms sponsoring science contests and competition andactivities outside school hours.
Special schools for science and technology continue tooperate and a few new ones are being developed.
The need for changes in assessment and the uses ofassessment has been recognized, and several organizations,agencies, and groups are working to modify currentpractices.
Finally, support for development, dissemination, andimplementation has been increasing, but the amount availableper school is very small.
Recommendations for Reform
1. Several of the frameworks being developed for K-12science education lack details and ideas relating toimplementation. Alternative articulate curricula needto be developed for clusters of grades (ideally K-12)to assist schools that want to implement theframeworks. Recent research on cognitive learningargues against fragmented, unrelated instruction; italso argues for strong programs in the early grades toaid concept development, development and use ofreasoning skills, and development positive attitudes.
2. Barriers to change identified in a variety ofpublications need to be addressed and corrected. Asubstantial amount of knowledge has been developed onthe change process during the past 30 years. Thisinformation should be considered in developingsolutions to real and perceived barriers.
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3. States should work with local school districts to helpthem align their goals, curricula, instructionalmaterials, instruction, and evaluation/assessment.Work to align all aspects of the science program canbe a powerful force in reforming science education.
4. States and local schools (especially large urban,county, and parish districts) need to communicate whatinstructional materials they want to publish.Collaborative efforts between states and local schoolsshould be established with publishers for theproduction of materials. Many states and metropolitanareas have more students than do the countries withwhom the U.S. is compared in international studies.
States and large school districts need to exert moreleadership in assuring quality curricula,instructional materials, and instruction. Reportsindicate school districts often will adopt frameworks,especially if useful materials are available tosupport frameworks.
5. The use of technology in instruction is increasingslowly. Major barriers include lack of teacherknowledge related to effective use of technology suchas computers and the lack of highly effectivematerials to use with the technology. Efforts shouldbe provided to assist teachers and to provide moreuseful materials.
6. The impact of various special programs (contests,after-hours programs, out-of-school programs, specialschools, programs for minorities, etc.) should beanalyzed. Models that are effective for specificoutcomes should be documented and information sharedwith schools. Models that are less effective forspecific outcomes should also be identified, andinformation should be shared with schools.
7. Support systems for schools interested in modifyingtheir curricula and instruction need to be developed.Analyses of the new frameworks and many ofthe newermaterials indicate that effective use in the schoolswill probably require major modification of classroomand school procedures.
8. Efforts to change assessment need to be accelerated.There is substantial evidence that tests are one ofthe many variables influencing curricula andinstructional materials.
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9. Staff development, both at the preservice andinservice levels, needs to focus on a vision ofscience education and curricula, materials,instruction, and evaluation that will accomplish thedesired goals. Teachers' belief systems influencewhat they consider, what they use, and what they do.
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