edible algae from kalay and its surrounding area · edible algae from kalay and its surrounding...

1

Kalay University Research Journal

Edible Algae from Kalay and its Surrounding Area

Moat War Dine Naw 1and Thein

2

Abstract

Algae are useful not only for producing medicine, but also for

manufacturing fertilizer and other products. Some algae are edible. This

study focuses on the algae, which can be used as human food. In this paper

four genera of edible algae were described with photographs. The uses of

these algae also mentioned.

Introduction

Algae are a "group of plants" that dominates the aquatic environment.

The macroalgae, usually to as seaweed, have been commercially cultured for

over (300) years. Historically, records have established that people collected

seaweed for food since (2500) years ago in China (Tseng, 1981). European

people collected seaweeds for (500) years. Of these macroalgae, the most

widely consumed throughout the world is the red alga Porpyra, called "nori"

in Japan and "purple laver" in the west. There are three major commerical

groups of phyco colloids; agar-agar, algins and caregeenans produced from

macroalgae.

Microalge are generally referred to as organisms that are less than

2mm. Today, microalgae are cultivated directed for foods or other products.

The history of cultivation of these microscopic plants date back to the Aztecs.

The most important microalgeae under modern cultivation are Spirulina,

Chlorella, Dunaliella, Haematococcus, Scenedesmus etc (Pulz, 2001). These

algae are grown for several puposes; foods, medicines, feeds and chemical

compounds.

Historically, both macroalgae and microalgae have been collected from

the wild fresh water and marine. The seaweed resource of Myanmar was

reported by Soe Tun in 1998. Inland algae occurred abundantly in fresh water

environments. Some fresh water algae are used as food in upper Myanmar.

However, there is no record of beneficial algae from Kalay regions. To fulfill

this gap, this study emphasized on edible algae which are found in Kalay and

its surrounding area. In this paper four genera of edible algae are mentioned

with their description, photographs and uses in other regions.

The aim of this study is to contribute some information about

economic importance of algae.

1 Assistant lecturer, Department of Botany, Kalay University

2 Demonstrator, Department of Botany, Kalay University

2


Material and methods

Algae are collected from several spring, streams and river, especially

from Kyawk tha lone chaung and Zi chaung in Kalay and its surrounding area.

Results

Edible Algae Cladopora, Spirogyra, Nostoc and Nostochopsis were

abundantly occur this areas during October to February.

1. Cladophora Kuetzing

Division - Chlorophyta

Class - Chlorophyceae

Order - Cladophorales

Family - Cladophoraceae

Collection - Kyawk tha lone chaung and zi chaung

Deseripton : A repeatedly-branched filamentous thallus with basal-

distal differentiation; attached when young but in some species becoming free-

floating; forming feathery tufts on substances, especially in flowing water;

branching alternate, opposite, or sometimes di-or trichotomous, the branches

smaller than the main axis, or at least tapering slightly toward the apices; cells

cylindrical or swollen; walls thick and lamellate in most species, sometimes

thin and firm; chloroplast a parietal reticulum which sometimes becomes

fragmented and appears as numerous discs; pyrenoids present; asexual

reproduction by zoospores; sexual reproduction by isogametes produced in

apical or subapical, unspecialized cells.

Uses: Cladophora is steamed for food in Kachin State and many regions.

But in Taunggyi and Kalay-tung regions, Cladophora is made as algal sheet

and dried to eat.

2. Spirogyra Link

Division - Chlorophyta

Class - Chlorophyceae

Order - Zygnematales

Family - Zygnemataceae

Collection - Small spring near the Zalatni Hostel

Description: Filaments long at and unbranched, usually without basal-distal

differentiation but sometimes with rhizoidal branches developing laterally

where the filament comes in contact with substrate. Cells cylindrical, short

replicate, or colligate (exterior H-shaped piece) end walls. Chloroplast a

3

Kalay University Research Journal 2010

parietal band or ribbon which may be spirally twisted 1/2 or 3 (rarely 8) turns,

or may be nearly straight, 1-16 chloroplasts in a cell. Conjugation either lateral

or scalariform, usually by the formation of tubes, rarely by geniculation

bending of the filament so that conjugating cells are brought into juxapositon.

Zygospores formed in one of gametangial cells, which may become swollen,

depending upon the species; zygospores ovate, subglobose, ellipsoid, or

oblong, with 3-layered walled, of which the middle layer may be smooth or

decorated and colored.

Spirogyhra is the largest genus in number of species and the most

common of Zygnemataceae. It is identifiable in the field by its bright green,

cottony growths and its slippery mucilaginous texture. In hand, a mass of

filaments is easily drawn out into a long fine thread. In deep cold spring and

pools Spirogyra flourishes abundantly and vegetative, forming enormous

green 'clouds' several feet in diameter in favorable habitats. In shallow warm

water it has a tendency to form floating mats, with conjugation and subsequent

disintegration of the filaments occurring. During conjugation the plant masses

becomes dull, dirty-green or brownish.

Uses: Spirogyra is use as food in India and Indochina. In Myanmar,

especially in Shan state, fresh and dried. Spirogyra is used in soup as

ingredient.

3. Nostoc Vaucher

Division - Cyanophyta

Class - Cyanophyceae

Order - Nostocales

Family - Nostocaceae

Collection - Kalay University Campus.

Description: Membranous or globular or irregularly lobed colony of tangled,

uniseriate unbranched trichomes of globose and bead-like, barrel-shaped, or

cylindrical cells, inclosed in copious, thick mucilage which outwardly forms a

firm integument, giving the colony a fixed and definite shape; individual

sheaths of the trichome confluent with the colonial mucilage; trichomes

without basal-distal differentiation, made up of vegetative cells, frequent

heterocysts and, when mature, gonidia which are either solitary or in series.

Uses: N.commune is collected in moist hilly locations in the Philippines and

eaten as green salad. Some other Nostoc spp. is also collected in the same area.

In Thailand N. verrucosum is used for food. The marine form of N.commune

is collected for food in China, Japan and Java (Indonesia). The dried algae are

4


cooked with noodles, vegetables and mushrooms and served as a vegetarian

dish or a soup by Chinese. They often serve it as New Year's dish.

Certain species of Nostoc algae are eaten in Japan (so-called Suizenji-

nori, Jusentai, and Kawatake-nori, products of nothern Kyushu). Today these

species are cultivated only on the gravel-covered bottoms of small, flowing,

clear rivers near the city of Amagi, in Fukuoka Prefecture. Some species grow

near grass roots and flourish throughout the year as perennials. They grow in

riverbeds or in marshes. But today both the algae and the custom of eating

them have died out. A Nostoc growing in fields with pork and is eaten in

Okinawa. This variety has high vitamin B1 content.

In Myanmar N. muscorum and N. commune are used as vegetable food

and traditional medicine. Consumptions of N. muscorum is known to have

been made to overcome the iodine deficiency, especially in mountain regions,

from ancient time. In Taunggyi, Loikaw, Kyaukme, Pyin-Oo-Lwin, they are

used as health-promoting food for iodine deficiency, and remedy for weakness

in chronic invalids and persons of general illness. In Magway, Mon-ywa,

Myo-tha, Shwe-bo, Kyaukse and Mandalay, Nostoc species are used for food

after boiling. It is also used as salad mixed with lemon Juice, chopped green

chili, vermicelli, meat and a pinch of salt. In some Chinese curry Nostoc

(Kyauk-pwint in Myanmar) is cooked with chicken, fish or pork. Nostoc used

in pork or chicken soup enchances its flavor and taste.

4. Nostochopsis Wood em. Geitler

Division - Cyanophyta

Class - Cyanophyceae

Order - Nostocales

Family - Nostocaceae

Collection - Small spring in Tidem Township

Description: Thallus attaches at first, later free-floating with erect filaments

with soft diffluent sheath, mucilaginous, more or less hemispherical, at first

solid, later hollow, torn and expanded; trichome a single or two rows of

branches, branches of two types, one long and many celled, the other one of

limited growth with a heterocyst at the end (pedicellate heterocysts), pedicels

made of one of three cells; heterocysts intercalarys or terminal or pedicellate

or lateral and sessile; hormogones present; spores not known.

Uses: Local people of Mawlu, Indaw called it "Kyauk pwint". The way of

eating is same as Chaetophora.

5


Cladophora

Spirogyra

Cladophora, dried sheet

Spirogyra, collection

Nostochopsis Nostoc

6


Table . 1 Differential characters of four collective edible Algae

Name of

Edible Algae

Thallus Branching Cell Chloroplast Reproduction Pyrenoid Uses

Cladophora

Filamentous,

basal-distal

differentiation

Alternate, opposite,

or di-or tri

chotomous

cylindrical

Parietal,

reticular

Asexual by

zoospores.

Sexual by

isogametes

Present

Food in Kachin

State, Algal sheet

& dried to eat in

Taunggyi and

Kalay –taung

regions

Spirogyra

Filamentous long,

without basal-

distal

differentiation

Unbranched

cylindrical

Parietal,

ribbon,

(contain 1-

16)

Conjugation

(lateral or

scalariform)

Present

Food in India

&Indochina,

Soup in Myanmar

Nostoc

Membranous or

globular or

irregularly lobed

colony of tangled

Uniseriate

unbranched

trichomes of

globose

Bead like

or barrel-

shaped or

cylindrical

Vegetative cells,

heterocysts

In Philippines,

eaten as green

salad

Soup by Chinese,

et as New Year‟s

dish

Nostochopsis

Attaches at first,

later free-floating

with erect

filaments

Trichome a single

or two rows of

branches

More or

less

spherical

heterocysts

Eaten as green

salad, called

“Kyauk pwint”

7


Discussion and conclusion

In this study, there are four genera of edible were collected and described.

Differential characters of four collective edible Algae is as shown in Table (1).

It is hoped that people will try to enjoy the traditional ways of

eating algae and will receive the preparation methods of edible algae.

It may be concluded that it should be continued to study the

algae growing in this region. And then chemical constituents of these algae

also should be analyzed to report the complete information.

References

Anagnastidis, K.R,J Komarek (1985-1998); Modern approach to the classification system

of the Cyanophytes 1 to 5.

Carole A. lembi and J.Robert Waaland. 1988, Seaweed resources of the world. Japan

International Cooperation Agency (JICA).

Chirstopher Hills (1980), The secrets of Spirulina, The University of the Trees Press.

Daniel F. Jackson (1964), Algae and Man, Plenum Press, New York.

Linda E. Grahn, Lee. W. Wilcox (2000): Algae. Wiscon University. Prentice-I lall, Inc.

Carr and B.A. Whitton, (1973), The Biology of Blue-green algae, Alden & Mowbray Ltd,

Great Britain.

Prescott G.W (1951): Algae of the Western Great Lakes Area, Cranbrook Inst. Sci,

Bloomfield Hills.

Raffaella Piccardi et.al, (2000), Bioactivity in free-living and symbiotic Cyanobacteria of

the genus Nostoc, Journal of Applied phycology : 12.

S. Boussiba et.al, (2000), Nitrogen-fixing Cyanobacteria as gene delivery system for

expressing mosquitocidal toxins of Bacillus thuringiensis ssp. israelensis,

Journal of Applied phycology: 12.

Tun Chun, (1982) Relative Efficiency of 10 Blue Green Algae In Pormoting the Growth

And Yield of Rice M.Sc Thesis, University of Mandalay.

8


Determination and Comparison of Anti-hyperglycemic Activity

of Three Indigenous Medicinal Plants

Khaing Khaing Kyu1

Abstract

Three Indigenous medicinal plants, namely see-cho-pin, or Tha- gyar- ma-

geik(leaf1), Kyet-lae-san (leaf2) and Ma-ho-ga-ny (seed) which are

traditionally used for control of blood sugar level, have been chosen for

chemical analysis and pharmacological investigation. The preliminary

phytochemical screening and acute toxicity (in vivo model) of dry samples

have been investigated. The confidence doses of aqueous extracts of all

samples of selected plants were determined by using DDY (Dutch Denken

Yoken) mice. It was found that the median lethal dose (LD50) was more

than 20g/kg when administered orally. The anti-hyperglycemic activities of

70% ethanolic extracts were investigated in Wistar Strain Rats. Ethanolic

extract of leaf1 at dose of (4g/kg) significantly reduced blood glucose levels

at 1 hr and 2 hr was observed.

Keywords : Tha- gyar- ma-geik (leaf1), Kyet- lae-san (leaf2) and Ma-

ho-ga-ny (seed), acute toxicity, DDY, median lethal dose,

anti-hyperglycemic, Wistar Strain Rats

Chapter I

Introduction

Nowadays, even in the western countries more and more people prefer

the medicine made from natural herbs, rather than the modern drugs based on

chemical compound which have serious side effects. Today, this tradition of

using folklore medicine is still being practiced by all developing countries.

However, when specific synthetic medicinal products were produced, man has

come to rely on them mainly for their specific therapeutic, pharmaconostic and

remedial properties.

Diabetes Mellitus is one of the chronic debilitating diseases that are

regarded as incurable by Western medicine. A number of hypoglycemic

agents (substances able to lower blood sugar level of diabetes) have been

derived from plants. Many plants have long been used in different countries,

usually in the form of decoctions, as folk remedies in the treatment of

diabetes.

In Myanmar, there are many medicinal plants for the treatment of

diabetes. Some of these plants have also been pharmacologically tested and

shown to be valuable in diabetic treatment.

1.Associate Professor, Dr., Department of Chemistry, University of Kalay

9


Diabetes is a disease in which the body does not produce or properly

use insulin .Insulin is a hormone that is needed to convert sugar, starch and

other food into energy in daily life. The cause of diabetes continues to be a

mystery although both genetic and environmental factors such as obesity and

lack of exercise appear to play role .There are 23.6million children and adults

in United States or 7.8%of the population, who have diabetes. In the

developed world, diabetes is the most significant cause of adult blindness in

the non-elderly and the leading cause of non-traumatic amputation in adults

and diabetic nephropathy is the main illness requiring renal dialysis in the

United State. Diabetes mellitus is one of the six major priority diseases in

Myanmar, such as Malaria, tuberculosis, diabetes mellitus, hypertension and

dysentery are also one of the priority diseases of National Health plan.

In Myanmar, mostly rural people use some medicinal plants as folk

medicaments. Therefore, the present investigation was undertaken to evaluate

the effects of ethanol extracts for hypoglycemic properties of three indigenous

medicinal plants, namely, Tha-gya-ma-geik, Kyet-lae-san and Ma-ho-ga-ny.

Diabetes Mellitus

Diabetes is a condition in the body when the pancreas does not produce

enough insulin to process glucose, or when the insulin receptor is not working

properly. Insulin is a hormone that helps to move the glucose into the cell to

produce energy. Inadequate insulin results in hyperglycemia (high blood

glucose levels) and impaired glucose tolerance.

When glucose builds up in the blood instead of going into the cells, it

results in damage and stress on the body. Immediately, the cells are starved

for energy, which leaves the person feeling lethargic and weak and over an

extended period of time, high blood sugar levels may cause irreversible

damage to eyes, kidneys, nerves and heart.

The symptoms of diabetes are increased blood sugar, increased thirst,

unexplained weight loss, weakness, decreased blood pressure and blurred

vision. Diabetes not only kills, but is also a major cause of adult blindness,

kidney failure, gangrene, heart attacks and strokes.

Diabetes mellitus is one of "the six major priority diseases in

Myanmar" such as malaria, tuberculosis (TB), diabetes mellitus, hypertension

and dysentery and also one of the priority diseases of National Health Plan.

The treatment of diabetes may include a low sugar and carbohydrate

diet accompanied with exercise for mild cases. For more severe and harder to

control glucose levels, diabetes can be treated by the administration of insulin

and/or by sulfonylurea antidiabetic drugs that stimulate the production of

insulin and therefore lower that blood glucose levels. At present, diabetes

cannot be cured, but it can be controlled. Control of diabetes mellitus includes

diet, exercise, insulin injection and oral medications. Modern oral

medications may be effective, but they may also cause side effects such as

excess accumulation of fat in the body, and the risk of getting blood sugar

level lower than normal and because of the higher costs of synthetic medicine,

some countries have restored to use folk-lore medicine. In many places

throughout the world, diabetes is kept under control by use of medicinal

plants.

10


Many plants have been used throughout the world for treatment of

diabetes mellitus. Said, also pointed that herbal and plants exhibit

hypoglycemic activity when taken orally. Faransworth, stated that one of the

prerequisites for the success of primary health care is the availability and use

of suitable drugs.

In Myanmar, traditional medicine is widely used in the treatment of

diabetes mellitus since most people still believe that diabetes mellitus is

curable by traditional medicine. Nowadays, even in the western countries

more and more people prefer the medicines made from natural herbs.

Myanmar traditional medicine has stood a long history of self-sufficiency even

before the use of western medicine.

Type of Diabetes Mellitus

Diabetes mellitus occurs when circulating insulin concentration decline

and/or when the target cells become resistant to the hormone. Most cases can

be divided into two types, Juvenile onset (Type-1)and maturity onset (Type-2).

Insulin-dependent Diabetes Mellitus (Type-1 or IDDM)

IDDM usually develops before 30 years of age and results from a

degeneration of the pancreatic beta cells, which produce insulin. It is the more

serious type.

Non-insulin-dependent Diabetes Mellitus (Type-2 or NIDDM)

This represents milder form of diabetes that can occur almost any ages,

but is most common after the age of 35 years and is therefore commonly

called maturity onset diabetes.

Epidemiology

Diabetes mellitus is one of the biggest world health problems with high

incidence and mortality. All over the world, diabetes is rising in distribution

and incidence of both type-1 and type-2. WHO estimated that, in the year

2000, 171 million people worldwide had diabetes, and this is expected to

double by the year 2030. This global pandemic principally involves type-2

diabetes, and is associated with several contributory factors including

increased longevity, obesity, unsatisfactory diet, sedentary life style and

increasing urbanization. However, the prevalence of both types of diabetes

varies considerably around the world, and is related to differences in genetic

and environmental factors. WHO has estimated that in Myanmar, the

prevalence of diabetes to be 2.45% in 1995 and 2.5% in 2000 and is projected

to increase to 3.2% in 2005. The projected increase of diabetes in Myanmar is

estimated by WHO to be 16.3% by the year 2025.

Management of Diabetes

Three methods of treatment are available for diabetic patients: diet

alone, insulin, and oral hypoglycemic drugs.

Dietary management

Dietary measures are required in the treatment of all diabetic patients

to achieve the overall therapeutic goal: normal metabolism. The aims of

dietary treatment are-

11


- to abolish symptoms of hyperglycemia

- to reduce overall blood glucose and minimize fluctuations

- to achieve weight reduction in obese patients to reduce insulin

resistance and hyperglycemia

- to avoid hypoglycemia associated with therapeutic agents (insulin,

sulphonylureas)

- to avoid weight gain associated with therapeutic agents (insulin,

sulphonylureas, thiazolidinediones)

- to avoid atherogenic diets or those which may aggravate diabetic

complications (eg. high protein intake in nephropathy).

Pharmacological management

Insulin increases glucose transport as well as its utilization, especially by

muscle and adipose tissues. Its effects include:

(i) Reduction in blood glucose

"Reduction in blood glucose" due to increased glucose uptake in the

peripheral tissues (which convert it into glycogen or fat), and reduction of

hepatic output of glucose (diminished breakdown of glycogen and diminished

gluconeogenesis). When the blood glucose concentration falls below the renal

threshold (10 mmol/1 or 180 mg/100 ml) glucosuria ceases. As the blood

glucose falls, appetite is stimulated.

(ii) Other metabolic effects

In addition to enabling glucose to pass across cell membranes, the

transit of amino acids and potassium into the cells is enhanced. Insulin

regulates glucose utilization and energy production. It enhances protein

synthesis. It inhibits breakdown of fats (lipolysis).

Oral hypoglycemic agents

"Sulphonylureas" block the ATP-sensitive potassium channels on the

beta-islets cell plasma membrane. These results in the release of stored insulin

respond to glucose. They do not increase insulin formation. Sulphonylureas

appear to enhance insulin action on liver, muscle and adipose tissues by

increasing insulin receptor number. They are ineffective in totally insulin-

deficient patients and for successful therapy probably require about 30% of

normal beta-cell function to be present. Their main adverse effects are

hypoglycemia and weight gain. (eg-glibenclamide, tolbutamide).

"Biguanides" - Metformin is the only biguanide in current use, and is a

major agent in the management of type-2 diabetes. Biguanides are ineffective

in absent of insulin. "Thiazolidinediones" – Pioglitazone and rosiglitazone

reduce peripheral insulin resistance, leading to a reduction of blood glucose

concentration. They should be initiated only by a physician experienced in

treating type-2 diabetes and should always be used in combination with

metformin or with a sulphonylurea.

12


Drug diabetes: Adrenaline Induced Hyperglycemia

Adrenaline (C9H13NO3) is a catecholamine and belongs to the family

of biogenic amines. It forms colorless to white crystals. Adrenaline is air and

light sensitive and forms dark products during decomposition. Adrenaline can

produce hyperglycemia by three mechanisms by inhibition of the release of

insulin from pancreas, by reducing the peripheral utilization of glucose and by

causing glycogenolytic effect in liver.

Botanical description

1. Family name - Lamiaceae

Botanical name - Orthosiphon aristatus Bl.

Local name - Tha-gya-ma-geik

English name - Java-tea

Part used - leaves

Medicinal uses - Diabetes,Kidney,bladder disease,diuretic

2. Family name - Verbenaceae

Botanical name - Vitex glanbrata R. Br

Local name - Htauk-sha or Kyet-lae-san

Part used - leaves

Medicinal uses - Diabetes,urinary disease, masticatories

3. Family name - Meliaceae

Botanical name - Swietenia macrophylla King

Local name - Ma-ho-ga-ny

English name - Mahogany

Part used - seeds

Medicinal uses - Diabetes mellitus, anemia, hypertension,

skin allergy, malaria, asthma

13


Chapter II

Experimental

2.1 Materials and methods

-seed, leaves

-95%Etanol local

-Glucometer XL and Glucocard test strip II

-Both sexes of albino mice body weight 25-30g

-Both sexes of ratswister strain body weight 150-200g

2.2 Sample collection

The leaves of Tha-gya-ma-geik were collected from traditional

nursery, Mandalay. And also, the leaves of Kyet-lae-san were purchased from

Market of Loikaw ,Kayah state. Moreover, seeds of ma-haw-ga-ny were taken

from Myae-pa-dae-tha-kyun, Yangon. They were cut into small pieces and air-

dried. They were stored in stoperred bottles.

2.3 Preparation of Plant Extracts for Acute Toxicity and

Hypoglycemic Activity Tests

2.3.1 Preparation of Ethanolic Extracts of Leaf1, Leaf2 and Seed

About each 55 g of air dried samples were stored in a stoppered bottle

and percolated with 0.8 L of 95% ethanol. After 10 days, it was filtered with

filter paper and the filtrate was evaporated at room temperature. Then

95%ethanol (0.7 L) was added to the residue for about 5 days. And then, it

was also filtered and the filtrate was concentrated at room temperature. The

entire residue was discarded. Totally 6 g of ethanolic extract was obtained.

The dried extract obtained was stored in the desiccator.

For testing the effects of samples on experimental animals, required

amount of extract was taken and mixed with distilled water to get the required

dosage of extract.

2.3.2 Preparation of Aqueous Extracts of Leaf1, Leaf2 and Seed

Each about 60 g of air dried samples was extracted with 1L of distilled

water by using continuous hot extraction at 60ºC. After 6 hours of extraction,

it was cooled at room temperature and then the mixture was filtered using

filter paper. The entire residue was discarded. The filtrate was concentrated

at 50ºC to get the constant weight in a evaporating basin. For bioactivity test,

the extract was redissolved in distilled water and used in the investigation.

2.4 Acute Toxicity Study

A total of 40 DDY mice of both sexes (body weight 20-25 gm) used in

these studies were randomly divided into four groups with 10 animals in each.

Three were tested groups and one was control group. 10 albino mice in each

group were fasted overnight before administration of the aqueous extracts of

samples.

The acute toxicity studies were carried out with an oral administration

of aqueous extract of samples at increasing doses of 12g/kg, 16g/kg and

14


20g/kg on the three test groups and 10ml/kg of distilled water on control

group. After administering the extract orally, each group containing mice was

kept in individual cage with free access to food and water and was observed

toxic effects daily for two weeks. The median lethal dose (LD50) was

determined from the number of animals surviving at the end of two weeks

period.

2.6 Determination of blood glucose levels in adrenaline induced

hyperglycemic rat model

Three healthy albino rats weighing 300g were used in this study. Food

was withheld for the period of 12 hours. The animals were kept in air

conditioned room at animal science Division of Medical Research

Department. They were kept without food for 18hrs before the experiment but

water was allowed orally.

Administration of drug vehicle

During the experiment, the control group was administered by

subcutaneous injection with diluted adrenaline 10ml/kg.The drug vehicle was

injected to each rat model by plastic syringe containing calculated volume of

distilled water.

Collection of blood sample

Before the drug vehicle administration, blood of each albino rat was

collected from marginal ear vein as the base line blood sample. After injection

of drug, the blood samples were also collected from hyperglycemic rat model

of 1 hr, 2 hr, 3hr,4 hr intervals. After base line control study, albino rats were

given rest for one week with normal food and water.

Administration of the ethanol extract of sample

After resting of one week, the dosage of ethanol extract of each sample

was collected on body weight basis for each animal. Then, the same rested

animal was treated with the dosage of 1g/10ml/kg body weight of ethanol of

each sample orally. Their blood glucose levels were measured at zero hour.

After that, adrenaline was immediately administered subcutaneously to all rats

and its glucose levels were determined at 1hr, 2 hr, 3hr, and 4hr intervals.

Figure (2.1): Dutch Denken

Yoken Mice of Both

Sexes

Figure (2.2): Administration of Drug

Solution to the Experimental Mice

Figure (2.1): Dutch Denken

Yoken Mice of Both Sexes

15


Determination of blood glucose level mg/dl

The blood collected from rat models was dropped on the glucometer

test strip determined by glucometer.

Figure (2.1) Wister Strain Rats of

Both Sexes

Figure(2.3)Induction of Blood Glucose

Level by Subcutaneous Injection

ofAdrenaline to the Experimental

Rats

Figure (2.2) Administration of Drug

Solution to the Experimental Rats

Figure (2.4)Collection of Blood Samples at 1,

2, 3, and 4 hrs after Administration of

Drug Extract for Determination of

Blood Glucose Levels

16


Chapter III

Esults and discussion

3.1 Acute Toxicity of Three Selected Samples

The mice administered with 12g/kg, 16g/kg and 20g/kg doses of

aqueous extracts of L1, L2 and seed were kept under observation for two

weeks. After two weeks, all the mice were alive and did not show any toxic

symptoms such as body weight loss and restlessness. So, it was found that

20g/kg dose of aqueous extracts of L1, L2 and seed showed confidence dose

and considered as safe.

Table (3.1) Acute toxicity test of 70% EtOH extract of plant samples

Group

Number

of

mice/

group

Diet

Dosage of

extract

(g/kg)

Final volume

given ml/kg

observed

period

Ratio of

dead

and tested

Percent

age

of death

I

(control) 10

stock

diet

and

distilled

water

Distilled 10 ml Two

weeks 0/10 0

II

(L1, L2, S) 10 12 10 ml

Two

weeks 0/10 0

III

(L1, L2, S) 10 16 10 ml

Two

weeks 0/10 0

IV

(L1, L2, S) 10 20 10 ml

Two

weeks 0/10 0

L1, L2- Leaves, S – Seeds

3.2 Effect of 70% Ethanolic Extracts of (L1, L2, S) on Blood Glucose

Levels in Adrenaline Induced Hyperglycemic Rats

The mean blood glucose levels of adrenaline induced hyperglycemic

rats in control group, ethanolic extract treated groups and standard drug treated

group are shown in Table (3.2, 3.3 and 3.4).

Table (3.2) Effect of 70% EtOH extract of leaves-1 of Tha-gya-ma-geik

(4g/kg) on glucose levels (Mean + SE) in adrenaline induced

hyperglycemic rat.

Test sample Blood glucose (mg/100 ml)

0 hr 1 hr 2 hr 3 hr 4 hr

Control

(n - 7) 61.8+3.4 163.7+3.7 173.5+13.5 169.5+14.3 137.0+13.6

70% EtOH extract of

leaves-1 (n - 7) 62.3+3.5 155.5+10.6 137.2+7.8 125.5+8.2 112.0+11.1

Glibenclamide

(n - 7) 61.3+3.3 129.2+7.3 140+7.9 104.0+16.8 84.3+17.5

17


0

50

100

150

200

250

0 1 2 3 4

Time (hour)

Blo

od

glu

cose

co

nc.

(m

g/1

00

ml)

control 70% EtOH extract (S) Glibenclamide

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

0 1 2 3 4

Time (hour)

Blo

od

glu

co

se l

ev

el

(mg

/10

0 m

l)

control 70% EtOH (L1) Glibenclamide

Table (3.3) Effect of 70% EtOH extract of leaves-2 of Kyet-lae-san

(4g/kg) on glucose levels (Mean + SE) in adrenaline induced

hyperglycemic rat.



Control

(n - 7) 62.0+3.3 186.3+21.9 201.5+7.0 194.5+10.3 147.8+12.9

70% EtOH extract

of leaves-2 (n - 7) 62.5+4.6 135+11.12 158.3+10.9 153.8+18.2 131.0+11.6

Glibencla mide

(n - 7) 61.3+3.3 129.2+7.3 140+7.9 104.0+16.8 84.3+17.5

Table (3.4) Effect of 70% EtOH extract of seeds of Mahogany (4g/kg)

on glucose seeds (Mean + SE) in adrenaline induced hyperglycemic rat.



Control

(n - 7) 68.3+1.9 206.7+3.8 193.3+12.9 184+8.4 120+9.8

70% EtOH extract

of seeds (n - 7) 62.3+2.7 147.5+13.4 183.8+11.9 208.8+18.8 187.2+14.7

Glibencla mide

(n - 7) 61.3+3.3 129.2+7.3 140+7.9 104.0+16.8 84.3+17.5

Figure (3.1) Times course of the effect of 70% EtOH extract of seeds of Ma-

ho-ga-ny on Adrenaline induced hyperglycemic rat mode

Figure (3.2) Times course of the effect of 70% EtOH extract of leaves-1 of

Tha-gya-ma-geik leave on adrenaline induced hyperglycemic rat model

18


0

50

100

150

200

250

0 1 2 3 4

Time (hour)

Blo

od

glu

co

se c

on

c.

(mg

/10

0m

l)

control 70% EtOH extract (L-2) Gibendclamide

Figure (3.3) Times course of the effect of 70% EtOH extract of leaves-2 of

Kyet-lae-san leaves on adrenaline induced hyperglycemic rat model

According to these tables, the animals treated with the 70% EtOH

extracts of Leaf1 and Leaf2 showed decrease in blood glucose levels at

1hr,2hr,3hrand 4 hr when compared with control group.

The hypoglycemic effect of the 70% EtOH extracts (4 g/kg), are shown

in Figure (3.1), (3.2) and (3.3). For comparison purpose, the blood glucose

level of control group and glibenclamide treated group are also presented.

19


Conclusion

Tha-gyar-ma-giek, kyat-lae-san and Ma-ho-ga-ny have efficiency were

recorded in this study. The present work had proven that the significant

hypoglycemic effect of these plants extracts have been observed when tested

on rat model. The leaves of Tha-gyar-ma-giek was more potent than leave, L2

of Kyat-le-san and seed, S of Ma-ho-gany. Thus, Tha-gyar-ma-giek leave

should be used to reduce the blood glucose level. Tha-gyar-ma-giek will be

selected for isolation of hypoglycemic active compounds from secondary

metabolite fraction in near future.

So it can be concluded that Tha-gyar-ma-giek possesses the more

hypoglycemic affect and can be expected to become a useful drug in the

management of Type II diabetes mellitus in future.

Acknowledgements

First, I would like to express my appreciation to U Yin Win Maung, Acting Rector,

and Dr Tint Tint, Pro-Rector, Sagaing Institute of Education, for their permission and

encouragement to do this research paper. I express my continued deep appreciation to Dr San

San Htay, Professor, Head of Department of Chemistry, Sagaing Institute of Education, for

her encouragement and good advices to do this research.

I am also cordially grateful to U Myint Swe, Acting Rector, University of Kalay, for

his allowance to carry on the research paper. I am also greatly acknowledge to Dr Aung Kyaw

Win, Professor, Head of Department of Chemistry, University of Kalay, for his kindness and

permission to carry on this paper.

I especially thank to Daw Swe Swe, Daw Ei Ei Htwe and all staffs, Department of

Pharmacology, Medical Research Center, Upper Myanmar, for their aid to measure

antihyperglycemic activity of these three indigenous medicinal plants.

Finally, I am deeply indebted to my colleagues for helping me to do this research

paper.

References

1. Medicinal plants in Vietnam, WHO Regional Publications. Western Pacific series

No.3. World Health Organization, Regional office for the western pacific, Manila

and Institute of Materia Medica, Hanoi, 1990; 270, 271.

2. Myanmar Health Science Research Journal. Department of Medical Research (Tower

Myanmar) , Ministry of Health, Yangon, Myanmar. Vol.14, No.1-3, 2002.

20


Comparative Study of Chin (Northern & Southern) Language

and English Language

Leng Ceu1, Aung Ling Om

2, Khin Myo Myo

3

Abstract

This Pet Research is the study of Comparative Study of two Chin Languages

[Northern (Hakha/Lai) & Southern (Mindat/K'cho)] and English language. Although Chin

writing was created by an Englishman, there are many similarities and differences between the

two languages (Chin and English), especially in grammatical rules, phonetics, order of words

and sentence construction. (Therefore, the main purpose of this Research paper is to explain

some differences between Chin (Lai & K'Cho) and English as clear as possible.)

Introduction

The purpose of this project paper is to highlight some differences

between English and Chin (Lai&K'cho), languages not only for Chin Students

but also for other Myanmar Students (foreign students) who study Chin

language as their target language.

If there are advantages for the readers in this project paper, this is

our greatest wish and if there are some mistakes, we are always ready to admit

for my weakness.

1. The Definition of a language

Speech is so familiar a feature of daily life that we rarely pause to

define it. It seems as natural to man as walking, and only less so than

breathing. yet, it needs but a moment's reflection to convince us that this

naturalness of speech is but an illusory feeling. The process of acquiring

speech is, in sober fact, an utterly different sort of thing from the process of

learning to walk. In the case of the latter function, culture, in other words, the

traditional body of social usage is not seriously brought into play. The child is

individually equipped, by the complex set of factors that we term biological

heredity, to make all the needed muscular and nervous adjustments that result

in walking. Indeed, the very conformation of these muscles and of the

appropriate parts of the nervous system may be said to be primarily adapted to

the movements made in walking and in similar activities. In a very real sense

the normal human being is predestined to walk, not because his elders will

assist him to learn the art, but because his organism is prepared from birth, or

even from the moment of conception, to take on all those expenditures of

1 Tutor, Department of English, Kalay University



21


nervous energy and all those muscular adoptions that result in walking. To put

it concisely, walking is an inherent, biological function of man.

Not so language, it is of course true that in a certain sense the

individual is predestined to talk, out that is due entirely to the circumstance

that he is born not merely in nature, but in the lap of a society that is certain,

reasonably certain, to lead him to its traditions. Eliminate society and there is

every reason to believe that he will learn to walk, if indeed, he survives at all.

But it as just as certain that he will never learn to talk, that is, to communicate

ideas according to the traditional system of a particular society. Or again,

remove the new born individual from the social environment into which he has

come and transplant him to an utterly alien one. He will develop the art of

walking in his new environment very much as he would have developed it in

the old. But his speech will be completely at variance with the speech of his

native environment. Speech is a human activity that varies without assignable

limit as we pass from social group to social group, because it is a purely

historical heritage of the group, the product of long-continued social usage. It

varies as all creative effort various not consciously, perhaps, but none the less

as truly as do the religion, the beliefs, the customs, and the arts of different

people. Walking is an organic, an instinctive function (not, of course, itself an

instinct); speech is a non-instinctive, acquired 'Cultural' functions.

Language, like all other skills, does not come naturally and we have to

be taught how to use it. We realized its importance only when we find that we

have to find a cure of some help to alleviate a child with a speech defect, or

when we have to learn a new language, e.g. English. If our mother tongue is

learned naturally, but accompanied by much difficulty, we can imagine how

complex a foreign language will be when we have to learn it.

Language is the most frequently used and most highly developed form

of human communication. This statement has many implications. An act of

communication involves the transmission of some kind a message form a

source to a receiver. In this kind of language, both the source and receiver are

human beings. Of course, human can communicate not only vocally, but by

making on a surface, i.e. they communicate graphically. What the linguist

means by language is that it is a human behavior. He goes further when he

restricts the term language to a vocal system of human communication.

Another way of communicating confined only to human beings by writing.

But, if we think deeply, writing is a system of turning sounds into symbols,

thereby making our message more permanent.

In studying language, we have to consider its cultural and social

functions too. A society is actually a community communicating with each

other to co-exist. Language is the most important and essential tool used by

22


the community's (society's) members. It is Hyms (1971) who restated

language's culture and social aspects. Hyms has pointed out the inadequacy of

a linguistic theory, which leaves out these aspects of language. A society

cannot exist without language.

2. Alphabets

The chin language has no Alphabet of its own. It is written by means

of the Roman alphabet. Attempts to write it down with the Myanmar

characters have also failed. The method, officially in use, was evolved in the

years 1930-1935 by some state school. Teachers of the southern Chin Hills; it

is an adaptation of the previously elaborated method of writing the Northern

Chin language.

Northern Chin Alphabets

In Northern (Hakha/Lai) language, we use (27) alphabets as shown

below;

Small letters

a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j,k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s,t,t,u,v,w,x,y,z.

Capital letters

A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H,I,J,K,L,M,N,O,P,Q,R,S,T,T,U,V,W,X,Y,Z.

Kind of Alphabets

There are two kinds of Alphabets. They are-

(1) Vowels (cafangaw) or (awfang)

(2) Consonants (cafangtung) (or) (awtung)

Vowel is classified into three groups again, such as

(a) Single vowel (awpaak) a,e,i,o,u, and "aw".

(b) Double vowel (Dipthong) ai,ao,au,ei,eo,eu,ia,io,iu,ua,oi,ui and awi

(Aw khuah)

(c) Triple vowel (Awthumthlak) iai,uai, iei, ian, uao, uau,

23


Consonant is classified into three groups, viz.

(a) Single consonant (tungpaak)

e.g. b,c,d,f,g,h,j,k,l,m,n,ng,p,q,r,s,t,t,v,x,y and z.

(b) Double consonant (Tungkhuah)

e.g. ch, hl, hm, hn, hng, hr, k, kh, ph, th, th, tl.

(c) Triple consonant (Tungthumthlak)

Triple consonant (Tungthumthlak) e.g "thl"

The consonants are divided into two groups such as.

(a) The initial consonants of the word and

(b) The final consonants of the word.

The initial consonants are as belows;

b-, c, ch-, d-, f-, h-, hl-, hm-, hn-, hng-, hr-, k-, kh-, l-, m-, n-, ng-, p-,

ph-, r-, s-, t-, th-, tl-, thl-, t-, th-, v- and z-.

In the above symbols the dashes indicates that any vowels may folow

after these single consonants and double consonants. No only vowels but also

consonants may come after these vowels. For example,

h- = ha, (teeth) holh (language)

d- = din (drink) doh = (attack)

hng = hngalh (understand, know)

hungawng (neck)

ph- = phuan (confess) philh (forget)

p = peh (join)

r = raal (enemy) rawl (meal)

reel (count)

k = kal (go, walk) kaa (mouth)

hm = hma (wound)

hmai (face)

hmih (put off, fire)

s = sak (build) sawh (show)

ser (invent)

s = Sawi (criticize)

24


th = thi (blood) theih (hear)

tl = tlau (lose) e.g. I lose my pen, also "thlau"=(lose)

thl = thlan (grave) thli (air, wind)

v = vom (bear)(n), vui (elephant)

volh (swear)(v)

velh = (flight) (v)

vih (make a hole), (bore a hole)

ng = ngeih (own sth) nganh (miss target)

ngal (boar) ngol (stop doing sth.)

t = tut (to sit down)

tah (crying), tial (write)

tamh (decorated, beautify sth.)

ten (departed) tawl (wash sth.)

u = Uico (dog) uah (proud)

z = zoh (look) zulh (follow) zumh (believe)

zuan (fly)(v), zuar (sell)

c = Cal (forehead), Cuar (skin)

Cuap (lung)

e = ei (eat) etc.

The final consonants are as below:-

-h, -k, -l, -lh, -m, -mh, -n, -nh, ng, -ngh, -p, -r, -rh, -t and -t.

e.g.

-h = kah (shot) seh = (bite) tah (crying)

-k = lak (take) pek (given) thluak (brain)

khuk = (knee) tawk (buttocks, hips)

-l = kal (go, walk) Cal (forehead)

Cil (spit) kedil = heels

-m = naam (knife) lam = (road, street)

-n = den (strike) ban = (hands)

leen (visit) etc.

inn (house) thin (liver) ihkhun (bed)

25


-nh = tenh (give as present)

thanh (make louder radio, TV etc)

tanh (Encourages)

-ng = rang (horse) Zawng (monkey)

chantling (pillow), thing (fire wood)

Thingkuang = box

Cawleng (bullock cart)

-ngh = thongh (knock down)

tongh (touch)

-p = Cehrep (scissors) cuap (lung)

dawp (absorb)

thlawp = (cure), hnap (snot)

-r = ar (fowl) cuar (skin) hmur (lips)

hnar (nose) faar = pine (n)

sur = (net)

tikhor = well (n)

-rh = tlirh (threaten), thirh (shiver with cold)

derh (begin to build house, but etc)

-t = pakhat (one) taat = (sharpen)

dawt (love) (v) (affectionate)

Among the Chin alphabets Q,J,W and Y are not used in writing. Only

"W" is used with the vowel "a" and when they are combined, it becomes

vowel sound aw/ :/ in phonetic symbol.

26


"Southern Chin Alphabet"

In southern (mindat/kcho) language, the chin Alphabet uses (20)

Roman characters only. But, by means of the Tream( º º)on several vowels,

and digraphs of several consonants: the total number of letter is actually 35.

Here is the list, in the special alphabetical order which must be followed:

a b c ch d e ei g gh

h i k kh

l hl m hm n hn ng hng o(aw) p

ph s (sh) t th ht u v w

z

Vowels

Here are the 5 genuine vowels together with their

pronunciation.

a is always pronounced as in English 'art', 'car', 'ask'; Pa = father

e is always pronounced as in English 'bet', 'get', 'met'; Me = goat

i is always pronounced as in English 'bit', 'fit', 'his'; Ki = horn

O is always pronounced as in English 'go', 'obey', 'stone'; Lo = field

u is always pronounced as in English 'put', 'full', 'rule'; nu = mother.

NB The sound "o" is often written "aw" (but never 'au' nor 'eau').

The Chin writing comprises also 5 quasi-vowels: is pronounced like

"O" in "come”, (or) "u" in "run"; p = silk

is pronounced like "queue"; k = body

aw (alternative writing of "o") as in English 'claw': Law = to come

ei is always pronounced like English "ey", ay; ei = to eat

is pronounced like French "u" in "mur", "dur", m = night

NB The very seldom found "au" has the tone of a long and low "a", as in

English "mat", or "ow" in "fowl": "nau" = na = younger/brother/sister

The consonants

The chin writing uses (15) Roman consonants only: b c d g h k l m n p

s t y w z. But it requires also 11 more quasi-consonants (10 of which at least

are unknown to English); they are formed by means of digraphs and even one

trigraph of other consonants; they are: ch gh kh hl hm hn ng hng ph (sh) th ht

.... It will be easier to understand all that if one bears in mind that the chin

writing method was elaborated by men who knew first the Myanmar alphabet.

27


Set in this context, here are again the consonants according to the usual

Myanmar alphabetical order:

Gutturals: ka kha ga gha nga

Palatals : ca cha sa (sha) (nia)

Dentals : ta tha da (dha) na

Labials : Pa Pha ba (bha) ma

"za" (ra) va wa hta

ha chla hma hna hnga

From the second column here above, anyone can see why chins write

"th" the hard / aspirated T (coming as it does after "kh" and "ch" and before

'ph";) and consequently why they write "ht" the soft T (the sibilant S in pli)

which English writes "th" instead; one must get used to it.

The "za" here above stands for "ya', as will be explained under; "ra" is

not genuine chin writing, although the consonant "r" is often heard in some

provinces of the southern Chin Hills; it is then usually replaced by "i", "krap"

= "kiap" (to weep). Chins do not use either as a rule "sh", "dh" "bh" (and that

is why those consonants have been put between brackets in the table above);

they would however help towards a more accurate transliteration.

Finally for the sake of simplification, the correspondent of the

Myanmar "ha-tho", that is the aspiration of the consonants; l m n ng, has been

set apart as different consonants: hl hm hn hng ......... No doubt it would have

been wiser to put the mark of aspiration after-not before the chapter it affects,

(as: lh mh nh ngh); and this method would have save ground the normal

alphabetical order; but one cannot change at with the established method.

3. " Pronunciation"

Most of Chin Pronunciation are similar that in English

Pronunciation of (Hakha/ lai) Language

Pronunciation of each alphabet in (Hakah/ lai) is explained below.

alphabet Chin English Phonetic Symbol

a = / a a / / a: /

b = / bi / same as in English / bi:/

c = / Si / / Si:/

d = / di / / di:/

e = / ee / / ei: /

f = / ef / / ef: /

28


g = / zi / / dзi:/

h = / ei (chi) / / eitl /

i = / ii / / i: /

j = / ze / / dзei /

k = / ke / / kel /

l = / el / / el /

m = / em / / em /

n = / en / / en /

o = / oo / / /

p = / pi / / pi: /

q = / khio / / kju: /

r = / ar / / a: r /

s = / es / / es /

t = / ti / / / as in thank / nk /

t. = / t. i / / tr / as tree in English

u = / uu / / ju: /

v = / vi / / vi: /

w = / dabalio / / d^blju: /

x = ek (s) / eks /

y = / vuai / / Wai /

z = / zet / / zed / zi: /

Phonetics of each vowel in (Hakha/ Lai)

a = aa tm in Burmese

e = ee at? t,f in Burmese

i = ii tD in Burmese

o = oo (tdk) in Burmese

u = uu (tl) in Burmese

aw = aw (atmf) in Burmese

Phonetics of each consonant in (Hakha/ Lai)

b = bah

29


c = cah not sah

d = dah

f = fah

h = hah

k = kah

l = lah

m = mah

n = nah

ng = ngah

p = pah

r = rah

s = sah

t = tah

t. = t.ah (trah)

v = vah

z = zah

There are no specific phonetics sound in j = ze, Q = khio, w = dabalio

(dabalzu) x = ek(s) and y = Vuai in (Hakha/ Lai). Therefore, many Chin

students make errors in pronunciation and phonetics in English words. For

example, they can not pronounce the sound (y), (j) and (z) clearly. So, they do

not know the differences between the sound (j) and z,s and S, G and Z, J.

Pronunciation of (Mindat/ KChQ) Language

B Like in English; but it can also be pronounced and written V instead, as in

''M'' bakhaw=''M" va khaw (Myanmar Land)

C is the pronounced " ts" , the palatal "s" remaining the most important ;

some what like in " cent" " cell " . It is never pronounced " k" , as in " cat "

" cocoa ".

CH is pronounced " ksh " or " tsh " ; in front of : e ei i, it is rather like " khy"

or "kky.." and then becomes interchangeable with " kh " .

D like in English.

G always like the hard English " g " , as in "gang" " go' " gun " ; it can be

pronounced like " r " in some places, or like French " j " in others. Note

also that the chin "g" is the normal rendering of the softer Myanmar " y ";

30


(B) " yawk " = " gawk " in chin (= to reach ) ; " ya " " gah " (to get, obtain)

GH is a very special chin consonant ; it has nothing in common with the

English "gh", as in " Ghost " ; it is rather pronounced like a hard French

"ch" or "sch" . It can be heard and is at times transliterated into Myanmar

as a strong aspiration; " ghawng" (to lose) " schawng" or " hhawng".

H at the beginning of a word always marks the aspiration; at the end of a

word it marks its short light accent or checked tone;

K is always pronounced as in English "kill" "keep" "Korea" ; but it can be

softened into "g " in some location "im ung-ka" = "im ung-ga " = from the

house.

KH is the hard of aspirated K, or "kk"; in front of: e ei i , it can have a "wet"

pronunciation : "khet ci"=it is hard/ difficult.

L , M , N are pronounced like in English.

NG is a guttural constant pertaining to both N & G .

P like in English.

PH is th easpirated P or double PP.

S is pronounced rather "wet" , somewhat between " S " and " sh" ; or even "

sz ".

T like in Latin and French; less accented than in English.

TH is the aspirated T, C and thus the opposite of the English " th " as said.

HT is about the correspondent of the soft English " th ", as in " thin " ; in some

provinces of the Chin Hills, as in lower Myanmar as a rule, it is

pronounced " sz" hmagumi- hta" = hugumi - sza (girl).

V like in English; but, at the beginning of words, it is often pronounced "w".

W is only used in composition with, and often " a ", " aw " , "awh" , "awi"

,"awng".

Z is pronounced "y" ("zu" = "yu")

HL is aspirated (just as HM is of M, HN of N, HNG of NG); but in many parts

of the chin " hl" is pronounced "sh" " hla" (jungle animal) may be

pronounced "sha"; and indeed in the Central and Northern Chin, it is

pronounced and written that way.

The Roman consonants; f q r y, are not used in writing the southern chin.

Study of the dipthongs

The writing of chin uses seven dipthongs: ai awi awi lu i ui i.

ai is pronounced as - "y" in "sky" , " by" ; ai = fowl

31


awi is pronounced as about the first part of " wave" ; awi = afternoon

wi is pronounced as about the first part of "world"; wi = to say yes

ju is pronounced as " u" in " fuse" , "use" ; piu = hut

i is pronounced as " yeut in French" il y eut ...., ng" zi = sterile

ui is pronounced as " oui" in French " louis "; ui = dog

i is pronounced as " ui " in French Lui, nuire; cih = swamp.

Since "alphabets" are the foundation of every language, it is very

important to understand the basic knowledge of alphabets in learning a

particular language. Therefore, these comparison of Northern ( Hakha / Lai)

and Southern (Mindat/ k'cho) and English alphabets pronunciation would be

helpful for anyone who wants to study (Hakha/ Lai) language and (Mindat/

k'cho) language.

4. Nouns (Hakha)

A noun is a word used as the name of a person, place, or thing.

e.g Tom, Calcutta, book, dog. etc.

Note; The word thing includes (i) all objects that we can see, hear, taste, touch,

or smell, and (ii) something that we can think of , but cannot perceive by the

senses.

Nouns are of five different kinds;-

(1) proper nouns (Pum pak min)

(2) common nouns (Zapi bawmmi min)

(3) collective nouns (A buin a ummi kawhnak min)

(4) material nouns ( Nunnak ngeilomi min)

(5) abstract nouns (Mit hmuhlo le kut tongh khawhlomi min)

Abstract noun in English grammar is not easy to clarify in chin language.

So many Lai students find it difficult to understand the exact meaning of

English abstract noun. In chin language, abstract nouns can be described by

adding (nak) after the original word, as a suffix. In other words, in Lai

grammar, the abstract nouns can be expressed, written by affixing (nak) to the

original words.

32


For examples

English Chin

Goodness thatnak

Wisdom fimnak

Honesty dinnak

Kindness zangfahnak

e.g English = Lai English = Lai

die (v) = thih, a thi death(n) = thihnak

dark (adj) = a muimi darkness(n) = muihnak

sick (adj) = a zawmi sickness = zawtnak

Proper nouns, common nouns, collective nouns and material

nouns are quite familiar and understood in the Lai language and grammar.

4.1 The Noun Number

In English grammar, a noun that denotes one person or thing is said to

be in the singular number.

e.g. Boy, girl, cow, bird, book, pen etc.

A noun that denotes more than one person or thing is said to be in the

plural number.

e.g. boys, girls, cows, trees, books, pens etc.

In English, the plural of nouns is generally formed by adding –„s‟ to

singular and some nouns ending in “-s, -sh, -ch, or –x” form the plural by

adding (es) to the singular e.g.

Singular plural

Class classes

Bus buses

Brushes brushes

Match matches

Tax taxes

Box boxes

Although there are many rules, about how plural are formed in English

grammar, the Lai grammar used numeral adjective such as one, two, three etc

to describe singular and plural nouns. In chin grammar, plural nouns are

formed by affixing numeral adjectives before singular nouns.

33


For example

Singular Plural

Cow two

three

Cow +

Four

Many

When a plural noun is formed it is not necessary to add s, es, ies, en,

and other change of middle vowels as man, men foot, feet, goose, geese, louse,

lice, mouse, mice etc. Instead numeral adjective such as one, two, three, four

five etc, are used to form plural nouns without adding any letters to the

original words or singular noun.

e.g. (E) there are three cows in the field.

(L) in the field cow three there are.

Therefore, many Lai students have faced difficulties in singular and

plural forms of English because there are many rules in English grammar.

In English, some nouns have the singular and plural alike, as sheep,

deer, cod, dozen, pair, trout, salmon.

On the other hand, some nouns are used only in the plural.

For example

Bellows, scissors, tongs, pincers, spectacles, trousers, etc.

In English, some nouns originally singular are now generally used in plural;

as,

Alms, riches, eaves

Riches do many things.

The following plural forms are commonly used in singular.

Mathematics, physics, politics, news, innings

For second language learners, English is so complicated and many

students are confused about how to use singular and plural nouns in speaking

as well as in writing. So, the best way to learn English grammar is to read as

many books as one could and to remember different rules.

34


4.2 The Noun Gender

In English, a noun that denotes a male animal is said to be of the

masculine Gender.

e.g. boy, husband, he-goat, tiger, ram

A noun that denotes a female animal is said to be of the feminine

Gender.

Girl, wife, she-goat, tigress, ewe

But, in Lai language, although there are masculine and feminine,

original word is never change but add the words, Pa (or) tum for masculine

Gender and “pi or nu” for feminine gender.

e.g. ram = tuu pa, tu kawng ewe = tuu pi, tuu a nu.

Tiger = cakei a pa tigress = cakei a nu

Lion = chiandeih tum/a pa lioness = chian deih pi/ a nu

He-goat = meheh tum she-goat = meheh pi / nu

Cock = ar hlikhong / pa hen = ar pi

In English grammar, objects without life are often personified, that is

spoken of as if they were living beings and they are regarded as males or

females.

The masculine gender is often applied to objects remarkable for

strength, violence, toughness and superiority.

e.g. the sun, summer, winter, time, death

storm, ocean, war, thunder,

the sun sheds his beams on rich and poor alike.

Death lays his icy-fingers on every man.

The feminine gender is often applied to objects remarkable for beauty,

gentleness, and gracefulness.

e.g. the moon, the earth, spring, autumn

mercy, peace.

The moon has hidden her face behind a cloud.

Spring has spread her mantle of green over the earth.

Peace hath her victories no less renowned than war.

In Lai language, it is never used lifeless thing as having masculine or

feminine gender.

35


This is one of the obvious differences between English and Lai

language and grammar.

4.3 Nouns(Mindat)

Nouns are divided into concrete and abstract.

1. Concrete Nouns

Concrete nouns are: proper, common and collective.

(a) Proper Nouns

They are the names of persons, races and countries, places and some

animals and things most precious to the Chins.

Persons‟ Names

Each person has a name, simple or complex. Here are a few men‟s

names:

“Om”, “Tam”, “Khui-Shing”

And women‟s names:

“Awi”, “Thung”, “Cum”.

Each personal name is normally mentioned after the one of his/her

father, and when more precision is needed, the name of the grand father is put

a head still, thus,-

“Aung Ling Om” means that the man concerned is called “Om”, that

he is son of “Ling” and grandson of “Aung”, his sister may be called; “Aung

Ling Thung”.

Men‟s names are different from women‟s, but there are a few

exceptions.

“Thung”, “Hlu”…may be used for either sex.

Names of Races and Countries

The southern chins mostly call themselves; Cho (or) K‟Cho‟ and the

chin land (Cho-khaw). But more and more do they use the Myanmar given

name of “Chin” (Kshin) to designate all members of their race-group.

The Myanmar (the main ethnic group of central Myanmar) are called,

M‟ba (M‟va) by the Chins, and the Burmese land: (M‟ba-khaw).

Names of Places

Every important place of land has been given a proper name, usually

derived from local geography as (m‟ htung) the hill named Pughi (grand

father). Also the streams, as lawng (or the river).

36


(b) Common Nouns

There are the names of given in common to every person, place or

thing of the same kind; chins not seldom have the choice between nouns of

different origin/languages to designate the same object; the result apparently

of their mixed origin and long immigration from the North (china, Mongolia).

(c) Collective Nouns They are the names of groups of individuals (or)

individual considered as a whole; such are „ng‟ bum “(crowd/assembly), „ng‟

nawng” (herd/flock) in this class of collective nouns, one should enter terms

such as , “tu” and “mi” for human beings,

“sing” and “m‟ghaw” for trees and “hla” for jungle animals.

Where English suppressed the article “the” and has the nouns put in the plural

to express collection and in determination; chin simply states the

correspondents in the singular; example, “stones are plenty” = “lung da ci”.

2. Abstract Nouns

Abstract Nouns are produced by the mind. In chin, there are nearly all

formed out of verbal roots, they are therefore known as verbal nouns (or)

gerunds. There are various possible ways to turn a verb into an abstract noun,

but each way has its special nuance and employ. Here they are-

(a) the first way consists in stating the verbal-roof alone, a case-post

position may be joined to it.

Examples, “phui” = load / carrying loads.

(b) another way consists of prefixing “a” to the verbal root, as in “a

hliing” = height, „a sah‟ = thickness.

(c) A third and most common way consists in suffixing “nak” to the

verbal root. But here more distinctions are needed, as this „nak‟ may

have different uses „nak‟ meaning the reality of some intellectual

operation (or) inner feelings: “Zum nak” faith / believing.

If „nak‟ after a verbal turns is in some abstract noun, „nak‟ after a noun

turns it into a verbal ( a transitive verb) thus;

Pa nau = to have as father (to be the child of)

Chu nak = to have as one‟s wife (to be the husband of)

Hta nak = to have as one‟s child (to be father / mother of).

(d) a fourth way (of turning a verb into an abstract noun) consists in

suffixing „vai‟ to the verbal root, it appears to be the best way to mark the

infinitive mood too. To speak = khi vai; to cook = sawn vai, ei vai = food

(what is to be eaten).

37


Conclustion

We hope that this Research paper, some explanations of comparative

study of Chin (Northern & Southern) language and English is meant to help

the learners need for their studies in English. If a student understand some

differences between his mother tongue and the target language, it is easier for

him to study the target language. Therefore, we strongly believe that this short

Research paper may help the learners, (Chin Students) who study English as

their target language.

Bibliography

1. Jordan, Father Marc, M.E.P. 1969. Chin Dictionary and Grammar.

Southern Chin Hills People‟s Language, Mindat District, Burma. Paris,

mimeo. Chin Cho(HKo).

2. Anen. 1935. Reader No.3 (for third standard). Chin Book dialect of

Chin for use in the schools of the Chin Hills District. Rangoon: Govt;

printing and stationary.

3. Bawi Hu, Pu-The Source and Development of the Chin writings-A

Thesis submitted to the Chin Christian College in partial fulfillment of

the requirement of the degree of Bachelor of Religious Education-

February, 1998.

4. Hornby, A.S. The Teaching of Structural Words and sentence patterns,

stages 3 and 4, the English language Book Society and Oxford

University press, 1966.

5. Johnson, Robert G: History of the American Baptist Chin Mission,

Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, U.S.A 1988.

6. New Land, A.G.E; A practical Hand-book of the language of the Lais

as spoken by the Hakhas and other tribes of Chin Hills. Printed in

Burma, 1897.

7. Van Bik, David, English-Chin(Hakha) Dictionary, 1987, Hakha.

38


Physical Bases of Kalay Township

Win Myint1

PHYSICAL BASES

Location, Areal Extent, Shape and Boundary.

Kalay Township is situated in the western part of Sagaing Division,

Myanmar. The Township falls within the north latitudes 22° - 28' and 23˚ 15'

between east longitudes 93° - 58' and 94° - 16'. The Township adjoining with

Ton Zaung Township, Tamu Township and Mawleik Township on the north,

Kalawa Township and Minkin Township on the east, Gangaw Township on

the south and Hakha Township, Falam Township, and Tiddim Township on

the west.

Kalay Township is about 12.5 miles wide in the west-east direction and

72 miles long in the north-south direction. It covers an area of 902.6 square

miles or 5,777,674 acres. Kalay Township is constituted of 5 wards and 41

village Tract. Kalay Township

1 Professor, Department of Geography, University of Kalay

39


Topography and Drainage

Topography and Drainage conditions affect the development of

agriculture and economic activities of any region. In Myanmar the flat lowland

areas, river valleys and alluvial plain areas used for agriculture.

Generally, Kalay Township as a nearly of the whole lies at an average

elevation between 250' and 500' above sea level. The highest peak of the

North eastern most is high, Nagamauk with 2,406 feet. In south eastern

portion Mauk lauk (2,178' and Nwa Hill 1,287') are also found. But this region

is also called 'Kalay plain'.

The main flowing rivers of Kalay Township are Myitthar river,

Neyinzayar river and Manipura river.

Myitthar river flows from south and north in middle portion of Kalay

Township. This river annually floods its neighbouring areas and deposits new

alluviums. These alluviums area very fertile and are useful for agriculture of

Kalay Township. Various le and Kaing Kyun crops are cultivated on these

40


alluviums. Then after passing Pyinthar village, Myitthar river changes its

course in east-west direction.

Neyinzayar river is flowing from north-south in northern portion of

Kalay Township. Then it joins with the Myitthar river near Pyinthar village of

Kalay Township.

Manipura river takes its source from Manipura Highland and flows

through the southern portion of Kalay Township. It joins with the Myitthar

river near Ashize village.

The main Streams are Zi chaung, Bon chaung, Kyaukka chaung and

Nwa chaung. These Streams are swift and rapid. (See Map .2).

41


Map .2 Topography and Drainage

42


Map-3 Villages tract of Kalay Township

43


Climate

Temperature

On studying the temperature records for 20 years period from 1988 to

2007, January is the coldest month with the average mean temperature of

64.13˚F and May is the hottest month with the average mean temperature of

85.13˚F. As the average mean temperature Kalay Township are 64.13°F and

85.13°F respectively, the annual range of temperature is found to be 21°-00°F.

Rainfall

On studying the 20 years rainfall records from (1988-2007) of Kalay

Township August is the month receiving the largest rainfall to 15.42 inches.

January is the month receiving the smallest rainfall of 0.09 inches. The

average annual rainfall of the Kalay Township is 68.59 inches.

Climate is the most important environmental factor that influences

upon the agriculture of Kalay Township. According to its location, Kalay

Township receives a hot, wet climate. The temperature conditions of the

Kalay Township is high enough for crop cultivation. However, the rainfall

cannot be expected with certainty and due to uneven distribution of seasonal

rainfall, crop failures are found in almost every year.

Relative Humidity

Relative Humidity of Kalay Township is very low in the pre-monsoon

period of April and May. In April, the relative humidity is 55.68 percent in

the morning and 46.49 percent in the evening. August is the month having the

maximum relatively humidity of 88.22 percent in the morning and 84.08

percent in the evening. The variation in the relatively humidity between

morning and evening is great throughout the rainy season period. In winter,

relatively humidity decrease due to decrease of temperature and the amount of

rainfall According to Koppen's climatic classification, the study area has (Aw)

type of climate.

Geology

Geologically, Kalay Township is situated in the north western part of

the central Cenozoic Belt of Myanmar which contains almost exclusively of

sedimentary rocks which range in age from Cretaceous to Quaternary.

The sedimentary rock units exposed in the Kalay Township are

arranged in the order of superposition as follows.

44


Table 1. Geologic Age of Kalay Township

Rock Units Symbols Geologic Age

Alluvium Q1 al Halocene

Mingin Gravels Q2 m Pleistocene

Pondaung Formation T ep Upper Eocene

Kabaw Formation Kk Cretaceous

Alluviums (Q2 al) Alluvium is found in low-lying areal along the

Myittha river and other major streams which are subjected to seasonal flood

depositing silt and sand. The fertile cultivated soil along the Myittha-Kabaw

valley are covered with alluvium which yearly added during the Monsoon

floods. The age of the formation in recent or Holocene.

Mingin Gravels (Q2 m). This formation is exposed in the synclinal

trough of the Mingin Syncline which is situated in the north-east part of Kalay

Township.

The age of this formation has been assigned to Pleistocene epoch.

Pondaung Formation (T ep). This formation is exposed along the

ponnyadaung range in the east of Myittha-Kabaw valley. This formation has

been assigned to upper Eocene in age.

Kabaw Formation: Kabaw Formation is typically exposed along the

eastern margin of the Kabaw Myittha vally. Kabaw formation has been

marked as Cretaceous age.

Kalay Township has one major syncline known as Mingin Syncline in

the eastern part of township. Wantebin fault is located along the

Ponnyadaung. It is north-south running normal fault. Near Minkin is a cross-

fault. (See Map 4).

45


Map-4 Geological Map of Kalay Township

46


Soil

The development of soil depends upon the nature of topography,

Climatic conditions, underlying parent rock and natural vegetation. Due to

varying conditions of these factors, the following types of soil are recognized

in Kalay Township.

(1) Alluvial Soil

(2) Turfy Primitive Soil & Red-Brown Upland Soil

(3) Red brown forest soil, mountain red-brown forest soil.

(4) Yellow-brown forest soil & Mountain Yellow-brown forest

Alluviums are found along the rivers flooded plain. These soils are

well distributed in the village tracts near the river and its flood plain area

especially in Tinthar, Silt dominates over sand and clay in the textural

composition of alluvial soils. These soil are most suitable for the cultivation

and well distributed in the village tracts mean the river and streams, which

flood plain areas. All these are annually deposited with never alluvials, there

are very fertile and can be cultivated under a variety of crops.

Of these soil types, Turfy primitive soil or Primitive crushed stone

soil are mainly found in Western portion of the Kalay Township. These are

natural soil with well developed soil horizons. Red brown forest soil or red

brown mountainous forest soil are found along the middle portion of Kalay

Township. Mountainous yellow brown forest soil or Yellow brown forest

soils are found in the eastern mountainous region of Kalay Township.

Soil can change types of land use and land cover. It is very important

for the contruction, roads and bridges, mining , agricultural production and

natural vegetation, thus it is one of the influence factor for the agricultural land

use. Based on the usage of human. It will be able to decreasing of production,

long term equilibrium production and increasing capabilities.

Natural Vegetation

Depending upon the physical features, climate and soil, Indaing forest,

deciduous and mix deciduous forests are found in Kalay Township.

Especially, along the eastern-portion of Kalay Township, reserved forests are

found.

The natural vegetation found in the Kalay Township is divided as

follows;

(1) Evergreen Forest,

(2) Mixed Deciduous Forest,

(3) Indaing Forest

47


(1) Evergreen Forest

Evergreen forests consist of two main types. Tropical Wet Evergreen

and Tropical Semi-Evergreen Forest.

The common species in this forests are Teak, Pyinkado, Kanyin, Sagat

and Taukkyan. There forests are found at middle portion and eastern portion

of Kalay Township.

(2) Mixed Deciduous Forest

The most valuable timbers are extracted from these forests. Thus, these

resources are the most important in Myanmar. These forests consist of three

main types. Moist Upper Mixed Forest, Low Mixed Forest and Dry Upper

Mixed Forest.

The common species in this forests are Teak, Pyinkado, Kanyin, Sagat,

Thitsein, Myankchaw, Padauk, Yemane and Taukkyan. There forests are

found at northern portion and eastern portion of Kalay Township.

(3) Indaing Forest

Although, it occurs on sandy and gravelly soils, the finest development

occurs on recent sandy alluvium in the valley of the main river. The habitat

has the rainfall of about 50 inches and upward. Species are Ingyin, Thitya,

Thitsin and Thitni. Middle portion, western portion and southern portion of

Kalay Township, where Indaing forests are found.

48


GEOLOGY OF THE TAGAUNG – TWINNGE AREA,

THABEIKKYIN TOWNSHIP

Teza Kyaw1

Abastract

The study area lies between latitude 23˚ 15' N and 23˚ 45' N, and

longitude 96˚ 03' E and 96˚ 15' E and falls in 93-A/2 and 93-A/3, one-inch

topographic maps. The rock units are generally extended roughly N-S to

NNE-SSW. The Ngapyawdaw Chaung Formation is a mixed rock

assemblage that contains pillow basalt, volcanic breccias, basaltic tuffs,

volcaniclastic sandstone (turbidites), chertified mudstone (hemipelagic

sediments), bedded chert (pelagic sediments) and thinly bedded limestones.

This pillow structure indicates a submarine origin. It is now known that

pillows are mostly formed under the Pressure Compensation Level (PCL)

(500 to 1000 m depth). Moreover, over 75% radiolarian indicat the pelagic

sediments and they were deposited under Carbonate Compensation depth.

The Twegauk Schist consists of chlorite-epidote-actinolite-quartz schist,

biotite-graphite schist and metagreywacke. The metamorphic rocks in the

study area are interpreted to have been derived from the Ngapyawdaw

Chaung Formation. The Thaungpwet Taung Formation can be subdivided

into the lower Ku Taung Limestone Member and the upper Nanpan Chaung

Shale Member, former is a sequence of generally bluish grey, bioclastic

wackestone, packstone and floatstone. The lower member conformably

underlies the upper member which consists of bluish grey, thinly laminate

shale. They constitute mainly Orbitolina sp. foram and indicate aerobic,

light penetrated, low energy quiet water, restricted continental shelf. The

basal unit of the Tertiary succession in the study area is the Baingbin

Conglomerate which consists of well-indurated, poorly sorted polymictic

conglomerates. The Male Formation is a unit of loosely cemented gritty to

pebbly, massive, cross-stratified sandstones with occassional coal seams and

variegated shale. The Khuntu Chaung Fanglomerate occupies the foothill of

the Tagaung Taung Ultrabasic body, and composed of clasts that are derived

from the underlying older rock units. The lithostratigraphic characters and

occurrences of coal seams insinuate that the association may be deposited

under the influence of terrigenous influx during Tertiary age Tagaung Taung

Ultrabasic unit mainly contains dunite, harzburgite, lherzolite, and wehrlite

that are partly serpentinized along the marginal zone. Basal harzburgite is

the residual mantle material from which oceanic basaltic magma was bled.

I. INTRODUCTION

The study area is situated between latitude 23˚ 15' N and 23˚ 45' N, and

longitude 96˚ 03' E and 96˚ 15' E. It falls in 93-A/2 and 93-A/3, one-inch

topographic maps. The area is situated in the southern part of the Tagaung-

Myitkyina Belt of Upper Ayeyarwady Province (Mitchell et al., 1993).

According to Hutchison (1989), the area falls within the Mandalay-Jade Mines

1 Demonstrator, Dr. , Department of Geology, University of Kalay

49


ophiolite belt. The Eastern Ophiolite Belt is considered as the dismembered

incomplete ophiolite (Hla Htay, 2004).

The study area comprises a folded sequence of basic volcanic rocks

(basalt), sandstone, bedded chert, limestones and greenschist that contacts an

ultramafic complex. The rock units are generally extended roughly N-S to

NNE-SSW. The stratigraphic sequences of the study area are established by

La Ja (1984), Thura Oo (1993), Aung Kyaw Thin (2006) and Than Than Oo

(2006). The combined geological map of the study area is shown in Fig. (1).

The stratigraphic successions in the study area in ascending order are,

- Khuntu Chaung Fanglomerate (Pleistocene?)

- Male Formation (Early Eocene)

- Baingbin Conglomerate (Paleocene)

- Thaungpwet Taung Formation (Early - Middle Cretaceous)

- Twegauk Schist (Cretaceous)

- Ngapyawdaw Chaung Formation (Late Jurassic – Early Cretaceous)

- Ultrabasic Rocks (pre-Early Jurassic?)

II. STRATIGRAPHY

Ngapyawdaw Chaung Formation

Myint Thein et al.(1983) gave the name Ngapyawdaw Chaung

Formation which is a group of rocks composed of dark clay-slate and dark-

grey greywacke with ophiolitic rocks and occasional lenses of dark micrites,

forming the core of the Minwun range southwest of Tigyaing.

This formation is exposed in the eastern part of the Tagaung Taung and

southern and eastern part of the Thaungpwet Taung. It is well exposed along

the That-tu Chaung (Ngalinga Chaung), Mayin Chaung, Kyauk-O Chaung,

Dah Chaung, Taukta Chaung, Kyigyi Chaung, Nampan Chaung and Nansein

Chaung. The lower contact of this formation is not exposed.

This formation is a mixed assemblage of rocks consisting of pillow

basalt, volcanic breccias, basaltic conglomerate, basaltic tuffs, volcaniclastic

sandstone, siliceous shale, black shale with manganese nodules (Hemipelagic

sequence) chertified mudstone, greywacke, bedded chert, chert breccias,

siliciclastic sediments and thinly bedded limestone.

Basalt

This is the lowermost unit of the Ngapyawdaw Chaung Formation

inwhich two types of basalt are recognized namely pillow basalts (Fig. 2) and

massive basalts (Fig. 3). Among them pillow basalts are more common and

50


are most closely packed and distorted ellipsoidal to elongated globular forms.

Individual pillows may range in diameter from 30 to 200 cm. The inter-

pillows are filled with quartz and basaltic fragments. The weathering surface

shows shrinking-cracks which indicate the submarine origin.

The massive basalts show homogenous appearance with no distinct

internal structures. They range in thickness from 90 to 500 cm. Some basalts

show columnar joints due to cooling of lava.

Volcaniclastic Sediments

Volcanic breccias lie on the pillow basalts. They are mainly composed

of angular fragments embedded in finer matrix. The sizes of the fragments

range in diameter from 7 – 30 cm. These volcanic breccias show massive

nature and normally lack the internal stratification and fabrics.

Volcanic breccias grade upward to the volcaniclastic sandstones. These

sandstones are mainly composed of pyroclastic flow deposits and some may

be debris flow deposits. They are transported by gravity flows and are

deposited from suspension and reworking processes. The sandstones are olive-

green to dark green, poorly sorted and fine- to coarse-grained. These

sandstones display internal structures of Bouma's classic turbidites such as

graded nature, parallel lamination of sandstones and mudstones. Mostly the

lower part of the sandstones typically show graded layer showing Ta-b

sequence. The sandstone beds are 10 to 100 cm in thickness and exhibit sharp

boundaries of lower and upper parts and bedding regularity. Moreover, some

of the individual beds show the complete sequence of the Bouma's turbidites

within 10 cm in thickness. Deformational structures such as slump structures

and convolute laminations are found in some thicker beds.

51


Fig. (1) Geological Map of the Tagaung-Twinnge area, Thabeikkyin Township

52


Age Khin Maung

Shwe(1974)

Garson et.al

(1976)

Myint Thein (1983,

2009) La Ja (1984) Thura Oo (1993) Present study

Locality Sedaw-Taunggaung

Area Pan Laung Area

Sagaing-Tigyaing Area

(west of Sagaing Fault) Tagaung Taung Thaungpwet Taung Tagaung-Twinnge

Pleistocene

Nickel laterite soil, Khuntu

Chaung Fanglomerate

Khuntu Chaung

Fanglomerate

Miocene Dolarited Dykes and sills

Olivine-augite

Basalt Oligocene

Eocene

Late

Male Formation Male Formation Male Formation Male Formation Middle

Early

Paleocene Tonkyauk Chaung

Conglomerate Baingbin Conglomerate

Baingbin

Conglomerate

Baingbin

Conglomerate

Cretaceo

us

Late

That-tu Bedded Chert,

Twegauk Schist

Thaungpwet Taung

Formation

Thaungpw

et Taung

Formation

Twegauk

Schist

Early

Panlaung Fm.

Ngapyawtaw Chaung

Fm.

Kywethe Chaung Fm.

Jurassic

Late Wutnetaung purple

siltstone

Ngapyawdaw Chaung

Formation

Middle Kyunbin mudstone

Ma-U-bin Fm.

Ultrabasic Rocks

Early Kyaukpyataung

conglomerate

Ngapyawdaw

Chaung Formation Triassic

Late

Halobia bearing Displaced

Triassic Blocks

Middle

Early

Upper Paleozoic Plateau Limestone Plateau

Limestone Permian Limestone Unit

Rhyolite

and

Rhyolite

tuff

Table (1) Stratigraphic correlation of Tagaung-Twinnge Area of previous works and its environs

53


Bedded Chert (Pelagic Sediments)

Although the bedded cherts are well exposed along the That-tu Chaung

in the northern part of the study area, they are poorly exposed in southern part.

These chert beds occupy the core zone of the Ngalinga anticline. Bedded

Cherts are thinly bedded, and rhythmically layered with thin argillite band

(Fig. 4). They are hard and brittle, highly contorted, fractured and highly

jointed. Among the variegated in colours, thin-brick red bedded chert is the

dominant type. The individual chert layers are 3 to 6 cm thick and interbedded

with thin argillite layer (1-3 mm). The beds are generally traceable for a few

tens of feet laterally in the stream section. The thickness of the bedded cherts

is estimated at about 650 m.

The interbedded argillite layer is thin and dark grey to reddish brown

in color. The argillite layers are hard and crushed and are intercalated with

chert beds in the lower part and with greywacke in the upper part. In some

places, argillite layers are cherty. Due to fairly high content of organic matter,

some argillites are black in color.

Chert Breccia

Chert breccias are commonly observed at the That-tu Chaung in the

southeastern portion of the Tagaung Taung (Fig. 5). This rock unit is

composed of homogenous detrital angular chert clasts that are recemented

with the silica cements. The evidence of the occurrence of slump structures

and intraformational breccias within the chert units indicates the nontectonic

deformation essentially contemporaneous with sedimentation. Because

deposits of siliceous organisms cannot be lithified so rapidly, the initial solid

was a silica gel (Blatt et al., 1980).

Thinly laminated limestone

These limestone units lie within the volcaniclastic sediments. In

Nampan Chaung, they are laterally consistent and millimeter to centimeter

thick and rhythmatic bedding, and1.8 m in thickness. In some places, thinly

laminated limestone with algae intercalated with black shale. These limestone

beds show probable convolute structures and have scarce or no fossils.

Fauna and Age

La Ja (1984) considered the age of this formation to be Cretaceous on

the basis of Orbitolina kurdita. Thura Oo (1993) reported few mollusc shells

and corals that were collected from the Kyauk-O Chaung near 'Sub-pya-Kyin'.

He interpreted the age of the Ngapyawdaw Chaung Formation as Middle

Triassic to Lower Jurassic. Maung Maung et al. (2006, 2009) mentioned the

age on the basis of radiolarians from the bedded chert is Late Jurassic to Early

Cretaceous at Myitsone and Tagaung Taung area. The present study

54


determined the age of the formation on the basis of megafossils and

microfossils. The present study yielded fossils are

Megafossils - Exogyra ? (Fig. 6)

Radiolarians - Archaeodictyomitra mitra, Archaeodictyomitra cf sixi,

Archaeodictyomitra sp., ?Pseudodictyomitra sp., and ?

mold of Tetracapsa, Dictyocephalus cf. chinzeii ,

Parahsuum aff. Simplum, Archaeodictyomitra sp.,

Sphaerostylus sp., Cenosphaera sp. , Cenosphaera

clathrata (Fig. 7 and 8)

Sponges - Rhax type sponge spicules

The above mentioned fossils indicate that the age of the Ngapyawdaw

Chaung Formation may be assigned as Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous age.

Among them, mold of Tetracapsa indicates the Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary.

Fig. (2) Pillow basalts in the lower part of the

Ngapyawdaw Chaung Formation at Kyauk-O

Chaung.

Fig. (4) Overturned fold in red shale and

bedded chert in Ngapyawdaw Chaung Formation

at That-tu Chaung

Fig. (3) Jointed columnar basalts in the

Ngapyawdaw Chaung Formation at

Nwachangya Chaung.

55


Fig. (5) Chert Breccia of the Ngapyawdaw

Chaung Formation exposed at the That-tu

Chaung.

Fig. (6) Exogyra sp. in greywacke

of Ngapyawdaw Chaung Formation

Fig. (7) Scanning electron micrographs of radiolarians from bedded chert of the

Ngapyawdaw Chaung Formation (Thaungpwet Taung , southern part of the study area).

Archaeodictyomitra mitra Archaeodictyomitra sp.

?? Pseudodictyomitra sp.

Archaeodictyomitra sp.

Archaeodictyomitra cf sixi ? mold of Tetracapsa (J-K

boundary)

Rhax type sponge spicules

56


Thaungpwet Taung Formation

Thura Oo (1993) firstly described the sequence of limestone and shale

that overlie the Ngapyawdaw Chaung Formation in the Thaungpwet Taung

area. In the norhtern Myanmar, this limestone unit is recognized as the

Orbitolina limestone by Clegg (1941).

Thaungpwet Taung Formation is chiefly exposed in the southern part

of the study area, especially Thaungpwet Taung. The overall structure of this

formation is NNE plunging anticline that exposed in the limb of this anticline.

The contact with the underlying Ngapyawdaw Chaung Formation is sharp and

unconformable that is clearly observed in the Kyauk-O Chaung.

This formation is lithologically subdivided into two members, namely

the Ku Taung Limestone Member and the Nampan Chaung Shale Member.

The Ku Taung limestone member forms in the lower part of this

formation. The limestones are bluish grey to brownish-grey and thick-to very

thick-bedded (Fig. 9). The well-bedded character is found at the lower part and

the uppermost part of the limestone where shaly limestones are intercalated.

The limestones are bioclasitc wackestone/ packstone/ floatstone.

The overlying Nampan Chaung Shale conformably overlies the

limestone unit. This is dark bluish grey, fissile, and thinly laminated

calcareous shale (Fig. 10). This shale unit contains a few Orbitolina species

fauna.

Dictyocephalus cf. chinzeii Parahsuum aff. implum Archaeodictyomitra sp.

Cenosphaera clathrata Sphaerostylus sp. Cenosphaera

sp. Fig. (8) Scanning electron micrographs of radiolarians from bedded chert of the

Ngapyawdaw Chaung Formation (Tagaung Taung , northern part of the study area).

57


Fauna and Age

Thura Oo (1993) dated the age of this formation on the basis of the

gastropod, corals, bryozoa, foraminifera, and algae. The present study yielded

the following fossils:

Palorbitolina lenticularis (Fig. 11)

Oribitolina concave (Fig. 12)

Due to the occurrences of the genus Orbitolina fauna, this formation is

also dated as Early to Middle Cretaceous in age.

Fig. (11) Palorbitolina lenticularis (axial section)

microfossil in the Ku Taung Limestone Member

of the Thaungpwet Taung Formation (40x).

Fig. (12) Oribitolina concava microfossil in

the Ku Taung Limestone Member of the

Thaungpwet Taung Formation (40x).

Fig. (9) Thick-bedded and jointed limestone

in the Ku Taung Limestone Member of

Thaungpwet Taung Formation exposed

at the Ku Taung.

Fig. (10) Thinly laminated Orbitolina-

bearing calcareous shale in the Nampan

Chaung Shale Member of Thaungpwet

Taung Formation exposed at Nampan.

Chaung

58


nglomerate

La Ja (1984) firstly described the Baingbin Conglomerate as a

formation rank that is a unit of polymict cobble-size conglomerate with some

interbedded sandstone in the Tagaung Taung.

Baingbin Conglomerate is exposed in the eastern part of the study area.

This unit rests unconformably not only on Ngapyawdaw Chaung Formation in

Tagaung Taung area but also on the Thaungpwet Taung Formation in

Thaungpwet Taung area.

This conglomerate is a well-indurated, poorly sorted polymict

conglomerate (Fig. 13). It consists of the pebbles and cobbles of quartz,

quartzite, chert, greywacke, schist, argillite, basalt and ultrabasic rocks. All

clasts are probably derived from underlying units such as Ngapyawdaw

Chaung Formaiton, Thaungpwet Taung Formation, and others. In the lower

part, rounded to subrounded cobbles (4 – 20 cm) are dominant. The rock clasts

become finer upward with an increase in sandstone and shale layers. On the

basis of the composition of the conglomerate, this unit was probably formed

by rapid deposition of material denudated from the nearby rapidly uplifted

region.

Fauna and Age

There is no fossil in the Baingbin Conglomerate so that it‟s the

probable age should be considered on the basis of stratigraphic relationship.

This formation unconformably overlies on the Ngapyawdaw Chaung

Formation but is conformably overlain by the Male Formation. So the age of

this formation may be relatively younger than Cretaceous, and be older than

Eocene. Moreover, Thura Oo (1993) compared the Baingbin Conglomerate

petrographically with the Tonkyauk Chaung Conglomerate of the Katha-

Tigyaing area (Myint Thein et al., 1983) and with the Paungyi Formation of

the Western Outcrops (Aung Khin & Kyaw Win, 1969).

It may be regarded as a basal conglomerate, being at the basal part of

the Tertiary rocks. It can also be assigned to Paleocene in age (La Ja, 1983 and

Thura Oo, 1993).

Male Formation

Myint Thein et al. (1982) firstly described the interbedded sequence of

loosely cemented gritty and pebbly sandstone and variegated shale that was

deposited in non-marine condition. Due to lithologic similarity with the Male

Formation in the Miwun range, the sandstones may probably be correlated

with those of Male Formation (La Ja, 1984; Thura Oo, 1993).

This formation overlies conformably the Baingbin Conglomerate. It is

well exposed along the Ondalin Chaung, Shwedaung Chaung, Ngalinga

59


Chaung, Thandwin Chaung, Kanni Chaung in the Tagaung Taung area and the

Hinyabu Chaung, and Nwachagya Chaung in the Thaungpwet Taung area.

This unit consists mainly of yellowish brown to buff colour, medium-

grained, massive, gritty and pebbly, loosely cemented sandstone (Fig. 14),

with variegated shales (Fig. 15) and frequent conglomerate lenses. The

pebbles are mostly quartz, cherts, greywacke, argillite schist, serpentinite and

igneous rock fragments. Locally, convolute structures (Fig.16) and large-scale

trough-cross stratifications, and coalified woods (Fig. 17) are also observed in

this formation.

Fauna and Age

There are no fossils in the formation of the study area. It lies

conformably above the Baingbin Congloemerate and their clasts were mainly

derived from underlying Mesozoic units. Based on the similar lithology,

textural characteristics and stratigraphic position, this formation may be

correlated with the Male Formation of Minwun range and the age of this

formation should be regarded as Early to Middle Eocene.

60


Fig. (14) Massive gritty sandstone in the

lower part of the Male Formation

at Nwachangya Chaung

Fig. (16) Convolute structures in the Male

Formation at Mandalay-Bhamo car road.

Fig. (13) Polymict conglomerate with older

clasts in the Baingbin Conglomerate

at Shwedaung Chaung

Fig. (17) Coalified wood in the Male

Formation exposed at That-tu Chaung.

Fig. (15) Thinly laminated and variegated

Shale of the Male Formation exposed

at the Nwachangya Chaung.

Fig. (18) Serpentinite body exposed at

the Shwedaung Chaung

61


Khuntu Chaung Fanglomerates

La Ja (1984) firstly described the distinct fan-shaped bodies of pebbles

and cobble conglomerates in the Tagaung Taung area. This formation is well

exposed along the banks of Khuntu Chaung and hence the name 'Khuntu

Chaung Fanglomerate' is proposed.

This formation occurs as fan-shaped body in low-lying area in the

south and southeastern part of the main ultrabasic body. This unit is well

exposed along the Khuntu Chaung, Kyauklaung Chaung, Twegauk Chaung,

Shwedaung Chaung, Ngalinga Chaung, Thandwin Chaung and Kanni Chaung.

It consists of poorly sorted pebbles of dunite, harzburgite, pyroxenite,

and serpentinite which are common.Subordinate amounts of pebbles such as

dolerite, coloured cherts, sandstone, and schist clasts are subangular to

subrounded. The clasts size range generally from 5 to 10 cm in diameter.

Fauna and Age

This fanglomerates are found to be overlain by alluvium deposits and

to be underlain unconformably by Male Formation.Due to its stratigraphic

position and the occurrence of the pebbles of older units, the age of this

formation is regarded as Pleistocene.

Twegauk Schist

La Ja (1984) described the sequence of metasedimentary rocks,

consisting of chlorite-epidote-actinolite-quartz schist, biotite-graphite schist

and metagreywacke that are exposed west of the That-tu Bedded Chert. He

proposed the gradational stages of metamorphism can be followed from the

unmetamorphosed rocks through slightly metamorphosed metagreywacke to

finally greenschist.

This formation is widely exposed in the central part of the Tagaung

Taung in the northern part of the study area. This rock unit thrust over the

chert units. The contact of bedded chert and chlorite schist can be found at the

junction between That-tu Chaung and Ngalinga Chaung and may be

lithologically graditional.

This formation can be subdivided into three members, namely

metagreywacke, chlorite-epidote-actinolite-quartz schist and biotite-graphite

schist. The lowermost member is metagreywacke and can be found in the

That-tu Chaung. It is hard and compact, and thick-to medium-bedded. Beyond

the metagreywacke unit is the contorted green schists that are mainly

composed of chlorite, epidote, actinolite and quartz. They are dark, fine-to

medium-grained rocks. The upper member is the biotite-graphite schist that

has biotite-rich layer and biotite-poor layer forming schistocity.

62


Probable Age

On the basis of lithology and contact nature, this Twegauk Schist was

probably transformed from the Ngapyawdaw Chaung Formation. The

metamorphic grades are prograded from the unmetamorphosed Ngapyawdaw

Chaung Formation, through metagreywacke, and finally to the schist. The age

of the Twegauk Schist must be younger than the Ngapyawdaw Chaung

Formation and may be assumed to be Cretaceous age.

Tagaung Taung Ultrabasic Rocks

La Ja (1984) firstly described Tagaung Taung Ultrabasic Rocks that

include dunite, harzburgite, lherzolite, wehrlite and serpentinite.

This rock unit is mainly exposed at the Tagaung Taung in the northern

part of the study area. This ultrabasic rock body is a large circular mass with

two smaller bodies. The ultrabasic rocks are mainly found at the Tagaung

Taung, Nattalin Taung, Innet Taung, Godaung Taung and Leiktalone Taung.

The ultrabasic rock units consist of dunite, harzburgite, lherzolite,

wehrlite and serpentinite that are not differentiated on the map. The igneous

rocks such as pillow basaltic lava, gabbro and dolerite porphyry are less

abundant. Most of these rocks are partly serpentinized; the degree of

serpentinization being highest along the marginal zone of the ultrabasic body

(Fig. 18). Economically important mineralization in chromite and nickel

occurs in this unit. The contact of ultrabasic rocks with the Twegauk Schist is

sharp and generally discordant. Moreover the lithologic contact with the

radiolarian-bearing bedded chert is found in the Ngalinga Chaung.

Probable Age

The rocks of the That-tu Bedded Chert are chaotically mixed with

other igneous rocks. A probable mode of origin for the Tagaung Taung

ultrabasic body is as a segment of oceanic mantle thrust up onto or into a

continental plate (La Ja, 1984; Aung Kyaw Thin, 2006).The age of these

ultrabasic rocks may be assumed as pre-Early Jurassic.

III. DISCUSSION

The lowermost lithologic unit of the Ngapyawdaw Chaung Formation

is pillow basalt and massive basalt. Moreover, pillow basalts are more

common under the Pressure Compensation Level (PCL) that may be 500 to

1000 m in depth depending on the composition and volatile content of the

lava. The basalts with the pillow structures indicate that the basaltic lava is

extruded beneath seawater. Successive pillows flow over earlier pillows, and

while still soft conform to the shape of the earlier flow surface. As a result,

pillows commonly have a rounded top and a pointed bottom in cross section

(Pluijm and Marshak, 1997).

Interbedded sequence of

greywacke-siliceous mudstone

and/or – chert in the

Ngapyawdaw Chaung

Formation at Kyauk-O Chaung

63


The sedimentary units graditationally contact with these metamorphic

units. The chlorite schist and metagreywacke are mostly associated with

serpentinized ultramafic bodies. Comparative observation between intimately

mixed nature of basalt, greywacke and siliceous mudstone on one side, and

chlorite schist-metagreywacke association on the other side leads to conclude

that metamorphic rocks are probably derivatives of this igneous-sedimentary

(may be ophiolite rock suite) association.

According to Reading (1996), pelagic sediment is chiefly composed of

biogenic material diluted by a proportion (< 25 %) of non-biogenic

components. On the basis of the percentage of radiolarian from the bedded

chert, this chert may be pelagic sediments.

Abundance of Orbitolina and fragments of bivalves and gastropods

indicate the aerobic and light penetrated condition. Abundance of whole-

fossils (Orbitolina) suggested a low energy quiet water condition. On the basis

of Orbitolinids, these limestones and shales may be more likely deposited

under restricted marine to inner shelf than under open ocean (Reickmann and

Friedman, 1981). Moreover, the probable wackestone would be interpreted as

a low-energy deposit, whereas in fact periodically it was subjected to high

current velocities. (Tucker, 2001) On the basis of above mention, the Ku

Taung Limestone is deposited in shallow water restricted continental shelf.

Calcareous shales (Nanpan Chaung Shale), overlying the limestones are the

evidence of terrigenous influx in the study area.

The contact of the Baingbin Conglomerate with the lower unit is

angular unconformity. There are no fossils found from these three Tertirary

formations in the studied area. All these formations contain abundant clasts of

the underlying Mesozoic Formations. The lithologic and stratigraphic

characters are very similar with the Male Formation of the Minwun range.

According to Myint Thein et al. (1982), the lower member of the Male

Formation is more likely deposited under estuarine environment and upper

member is essentially deposited in non-marine conditions.

The ultrabasic rocks (harzburgite, lherzolite and serpentinite)

are exposed linearly along this belt and are associated with basalt, chert, and

schist (Twegauk Schist). Basal harzburgite is usually considered as residual

mantle material from which oceanic basaltic magma was bled (Dickinson,

1972 in Hutchison, 1975).

64


Acknowledgements

I would like to thank to Rector U Myint Swe, Kalay University for his

kind permission to summit this paper. I would like to deeply acknowledge to

Professor Dr. That Naing, head of Department of Geology, Kalay University

for his critical reading, valuable advice and discussions throughout this

manuscript and presentation. Finally, I want to express special thanks to all my

colleagues in the geological field for their helpful advice and encouragement

in this preparation.

References

Aung Kyaw Thin, 2006. Petrogenetic Study on Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks of the

Tagaung-Twinnge Area, Thabeikkyin Township, Ph. D Thesis, M. U., unpub.

Clegg, E. L. G., 1941. The Cretaceous and Associated Rocks of Burma, Memoir Geological

Survey of India, Vol. 74, 1. p.1 - 101.

Garson, M. S., Amos, B. J. and Mitchell, A. H. G., 1976. The Geology of the area around

Neyaungga and Ye-ngan, S. S., Burma, Overseas Memoir 2.

Hla Htay, 2004. The Ophiolite Belt of Myanmar, Journal of the Geological Society of

Thailand, No.1, May 2004, pp.97-113

Hutchison, C.S., 1975. Ophiolite in Southeast Asia, Geological Society of America Bulletin,

V.86, p.797-806.

Hutchison, C. S., 1989. The Palaeo-Tethyan Realm and Indosinian Orogenic System of

Southeast Asia in Tectonic Evolution of the Tethyan Region, p. 585-643, Kluwer

Academic Publisher.

Khin Maung Shwe, 1974. Geology of the Sedaw-Taunggaung Area, Mandalay District, M. Sc.

Thesis, M. U., unpub.

La Ja, 1984. Geology and Mineral Resources of Tagaung Taung Area, Thabeikkyin Township,

M. Sc. Thesis, M. U., unpub.

Maung Maung, Suzuki, H. and Aung Kyaw Thin, 2006. Early Cretaceous radiolarian fauna

from the Tagaung Taung area, central Myanmar, Poster Show.

Maung Maung, Aung Naing Thu and Suzuki, H., 2009. Latest Jurassic radiolarian fauna from

the Chyinghkran area, Myitkyina Township, Kachin State, northern Myanmar, Poster

Show in Paleontological Society of Japan.

Mitchell, A. H. G., 1993. Cretaceous-Cenozoic tectonic events in the western Myanmar

(Burma) – Assam region in Journal of the Geological Society of London, vol. 150, p.

1089-1102.

Myint Thein, Maung Maung, Khin Maung Myint, Aye Ko Aung and Khin Aung Than, 1982.

Geology of the area between Tigyaing and Katha, unpub report.

Myint Thein, Kyaw Tint and Kan Saw, 1983. Geology of the part of the Eastern Margin of the

Central Burma Belt between Sagaing and Tagaung, unpub. report.

Myint Thein, 2009. Age, Petrography and Deformation of the Laminate Limestone Unit on the

west of Sagaing Fault in the Sagaing Division, paper read at 11th Myanmar

Geoscience Research Paper Session.

65


Pluijm, B.A.V. and Marshak, S. 1997. Earth Structure, McGraw-Hill Companies.

Reading, H.G., 1996. Sedimentary Environments, 3rd

Edition Blackwell Science Ltd.

Than Than Oo, 2006. Economic Geology of the Chromitites of the Tagaung Taung Area,

Thabeikkyin Township, Mandalay Division, Ph. D. Thesis, Y. U., unpub.

Thura Oo, 1993. Geology of the Thaungpwet Taung Area in Thabeikkyin, Momeik Township,

M. Sc Thesis, M. U., unpub.

Tucker, M.E., 2001. Sedimentary Petrology, 3rd

Edition, Blackwell Science Ltd.

66


Administrative Service Women in Bagan Society

Tin Maung Htwe*

Abstract

The first Myanmar Empire came into existence with Bagan city as

its capital during the 11th

Century AD. The Bagan administration can be

studied in three different branches; civil administration, local administration

and general administration. Women in the Bagan period were found not to

inferior to men in the administrative sectors.

Key word: Bagan society, Women, Civil Administration, Local

Administration, General Administration.

The first Myanmar Empire came into existence with Bagan city

as its capital (administrative centre or political centre) during the 11th

Century

AD. Myanmar chronicles claim that a king known as Samuddaraj, organizing,

19 disintegrated villages in AD 667, founded a city at a place, called

Yonhlukyun and started the Bagan dynasty1. On the basis of historical

evidences, Dr. Than Tun suggested that, before 11th

Century AD, there were

region wise rulers, or Man22

(kings). But the city then was only at the level of

Kharuin and tuik (Division). In the 11th

Century AD., Myanmar people,

centering Bagan as the seat of administration, occupied the surrounding

regions, established a "nui³³am"(country) thus in history, the First Myanmar

nui³³am emerged. The first king of First Myanmar was its founder Aniruddha(AD 1044-1077) and Bagan, the capital, was the centre of administration3. The name "Bagan"4 was first seen in Myanmar language in AD 1196. In stone inscription, Bagan is used to be inscribed as "Arimaddhanapþra", meaning the capital crushing its enemies. Shya³

Disæpræmuk who went to China in AD 1285, referred to Bagan as 'Tampratik',

meaning Copper Country5.

According to evidence of inscription, the boundary of Bagan expended

by Aniruddha and the successive kings was Konican6 from the north to

* Assistant Lecturer, Department of History, University of Kalay 1 Hunanan Yazawintawgyi (Glass Palace Chronicle) Vol. I, Yangon, New light of

Myanmar in Guardian Press, 1992, pp. 186-187. 2 PL 143/a

16 (143/a

16 means Plate No. 143/a in Five Portfolios of Inscriptions of Burma,

line 16) 3 Than Tun, Dr. Khithaungyazawin (The Old History of Myanmar) Yangon, Mahadagon

Press 1969, p. 118(Henceforth Than Tun, 1969). 4 In Old Mon, Pukam is witten Pokam and Possibly Bukam. Bagan in Myanmar is correct

rendering of Pukam 5 Luce Luce, G.H, "Note of the peoples of Burma in the 12

th – 13

th Century AD", JBRS,

XLII, i, 1959, P. 37, 39. 6 Konican was on the left bank of the river, near the later Kaungton, (Luce, G.H,

"Grography of Burma under the Pagan Dynasty", JBRS, XLII, i, 1959, p. 49 (Henceforth

Luce 1959).

67


tolui³sare and Tawai1 to the south

2. In accordance with the inscription of AD

1196, the territory of Bagan Kingdom during the reign of the Cañsþ II (AD

1174-1211) was Takon and Næchonkhyam3 in the north; Sala³kre in the sourth, Macchakiri (Chin Hills) in the west and the Salwan in the east4. Dr.Than Tun remarked, with regard to the boundary of Bagan, that if wherever votive tablets containing the Aniruddha stamp was found was considered as Aniruddha's authority – extended area, it could be said that Momeik from the north to Tainatharyi coastal region to the south included in the boundary of the Bagan Kingdom5. Under absolute monarchical system, the king was the most important person in a country. But an administrative machinery could not be carried out be a king single – handedly. As the state became wider, officials had to be appointed to assist the king.

The Bagan administration can be studied in three different branches; civil administration, local administration and general administration. Women in the Bagan period were found not to be inferior to men in the administrative sectors. The study of inscriptions show that hierarchy of official positions below ma³krø (rifBuD), the king, were amatyæ6(trmus)( or) amat (trwf)(The

king's counselors of high officials of the Myanmar royal court), sampya³7(oHysif) and kalan8 (uvef) (high servicemen to the crown9). In

inscriptions of later Bagan period, sampya³ and amat were found to be used as equal official ranks10. Kalan, howere, seemed to be inferior to sampya³ in rank. 'Sampya³' was defined as official administering a number of villages11 and as the term denoting from Mahasenapati – Army General, to king's counselors and officials12.

Apart from them, there were many servicemen inside the court. They were (udkifrI) kuiwmhu13 who were likely to be referred to officers commanding

bodyguards who were responsible for the king's security at the palace, 1 Tainatharyi coastal region.

2 PL 276/a

2

3 Nachonkhyam was on the site of modern Bhamo. (Luce 1959, p. 50)

4 Pl 19/a

5 Than Tun, Dr. Athimyin Bamathamaing(New Outlook on Myanmar History), Mandalay,

Thukhawadi Press, 1975, pp.503-504. 6 PL 96

6, PL 194

3

7 PL 24

5, PL 78

10

8 PL 11

6, PL 89

3

9 Khin Khin Sein, Daw,"Bagankhit Amyothamimyar(Women in Bagan Period)" Research

in Burmese History No.1, Yangon, Sarpay Beikman Press, 1977, p. 6 (Henceforth Khin

Khin Sein, 1977) 10

Than Tun, 1969, p. 142. 11

(a) Pe Maung Tin, U. Some Old Words in the Inscription, JBRS, XX, i, 1930, p. 20.

(b) Myanmar Abidanakyinchoke (Outline of Myanmar Dictionary), Vol. V, Yangon,

Sarpay Beikman Press, 1980, p. 203. 12

Than Shwe, Daw. Myanmar Bartharsakar, Myanmar Kyauksar Sarthan Saungparmyar

(Myanmar Language, Articles from Myanmar Stone Inscriptions), Yangon, Department

of Higher Education, 1980 13

Than Tun, 1969, p. 142.

68


ma³khya³1 (rifcsif) who were companions of the king, ma³ciy2 (rifpd,f) who

were servants of the king, ma³lua³3 (rifvkvif) who were yong men had to

always attend on the king and royal princes concerned. They could be assumed to serving as the present – day personal assistants and secretaries4. Besides there were also su³ait (sþ³ayto)5 (oli,fwyf). Sþ³ayto seemed to be

the kings favorites who grew up with him6. Moreover there were also Atwa³ruy7 (twGiff½k,f), cæmro³8 (pmajrmif) cækhyøpiuw9 (pmcdydkpf) cækhø10 (pmcD) at

at the royal court. It seems they had to note and write down the king's orders and had to send them to those concerned. Mra³ ci (jrifpD), horsemen, controlled

by mra³sþkrø (jrifolBuD;), leder of horsemen, were charged with the duty of

sending the king's to distant territories11.

Apart from the alearly mentioned service men relating to civil administration, there were also servicemen relating to local administration. In that period, for the security of the northern part of the country, there was separate Northern Administrative Headquarters. The official incharge of that Headquarters was called Ko³ca³ Mahæsaman12. His official position seemed to be equal to the present-day post of the Governor ruling a state; and in the provincial administration he might be highest official. The remaining administrative servicemen were kliy sþkrø13 (ud’,folBuD;) to administer the

remote areas of the capital; tuiksþkrø14 (wkdufolBuD) to rule the areas included in

the boundary of tuik, mruiw sþkrø15 (NrdifolBuD) to rule a town (or) fortress16, rwæ

sþkrø17 (&GmolBuD) to rule villages18, and like rwæ sþkrø, there were other sþkrø19

who had to take responsibility of managing and carrying out administrative and social affairs in villages. Of the above mentioned administrative service personnel, the post of kily sþkrø and muri sþkrø were held by the royal relative and queens20. It may, therefore, be expected that those posts in the civil

1 PL 257

13, PL 268

10-11

2 PL 215/b

6-7

3 PL 290/b

3

4 Khin Khin Sein, 1977, p.6.

5 PL 272

19

6 Than Tun, 1969, p. 143.

7 PL 207

13,16

8 PL 235

45

9 PL 232

2, 18

10 PL 268

13

11 Than Tun, 1969, pp. 159-160.

12 PL 258

13 PL 196

5

14 PL 12

5

15 PL 370

23 , PL 392

16

16 Khin Khin Sein, Daw, Bagan Khit Yinkyaehmu (The Civilization of Bagan), Yangon

Sarpay Beikman Press, 1986, p. 41. (Henceforth Khin Khin Sein, 1986) 17

PL 28/a 19

, PL 55/a 3

18 Khin Khin Sein, 1986, p. 42.

19 PL 40

15

20 PL 196

5, PL 392

16

69


administration would be high-ranking ones. But they would be inferior to the post of mahæsaman. The post of sþkrø relating to village and the remaining posts might be guessed as inferior ranks.

In the general administration sector, there were also separate crown

service men who were vitally important as they were charged with the duty of

collecting customs and revenue and managing the customs and revenues so

collected. Of them, kumtham (ukHxrf) and bhumma (bkr®) were servicemen

responsible for collecting various taxes and revenues, according to royal orders1. Kø sþkrø 2(uDolBuD;), headman of granary, and kø sañ (uDonf) and kø

co³3(uDapmif) under his supervision were those responsible for looking after

and safeguarding the Royal Granary where paddy and rice offered by people were stored.

From the above-mentioned facts, it is learnt that, among those who

assisted the king in his executive affairs, the amattræ (or) amat, high official of

the royal court, was the highest in rank. Amat meant an advisor to the king4. In

In Myanmar royal court, there were not only man amat, but also woman amat.

In an inscription in inscribed in AD 1209, which lay inside the wall of the Lay

Myet Hna Pagoda of Bagan, the name of a woman amat, high officials, was

found as follows: -"ma³ mat Nagapuir Mi Phawæ5 ". It can be inferred that Mi

Mi Phwæ, was an amat, holding Nagapuir village in fief.

Again in the Theindaw Pagoda inscription inscribed in AD 1231 was

seen "ma³ (a) matyæ Acalapijañ si purhæ a thþ so"6. Donated to the pagoda by

by amat Acalapijan. It is also discovered that the woman amat in this case was the "Acalapijañ" meant a person who tired to free him or herself from being obsessed by agadilepæ , bias of four kinds, namely doing wrong because of love, doing wrong because of anger, doing wrong because of fear, and doing wrong because of ignorance; and who could carry out a task steadfastly to achieve success7. Such a qualified woman amat would have been a distinguished person in the administrative system of Bagan. As an amat was the highest official in rank below the king, the amat (s) were the most influential and powerful crown service personal. Therefore those woman amat would have been influential over various grades of service men, and would have won respect of people.

1 Khin Khin Sein, 1986, p. 44.

2 PL 162

25

3 PL 40

18, PL 148 /b

3

4 Myanmar Abidanakyinchoke (Outline of Myanmar Dictionary), Vol. IV, Yangon, Sarpay

Beikman Press, 1980, p. 102. 5 PL 84

3

6 PL 134/a

2-3

7 Than Shwe, 1980, p. 67.

70


Below amat in the hierarchy of administration were 'sampya³ and

'kalan'. In the study of inscriptions made so far, no woman sampya³ has ever

been found. This might be because the duties of a sampya³ included military

service, which was appropriate for men only; and women were thus probably,

by their nature, not given these post.

Evidences of inscriptions inscribed during the Bagan period, however,

show that there had been women serving in the kalan post in that period. The

description, "kalæ³ Ai, Phuh Ton1" was found in the Acolat inscription dated

AD 1165; the word, "Kha³ Pa kalan"2 was found in an inscription inscribed in

AD 1224; and in an inscription, the word, 'Apwækala³sikha³ '3 was

discovered. It is on the basis of these evidences that it can be firmly said that

there had been woman as kalans in the Bagan period. Accordingly, in that

period, qualified women had been exalted by being conferred upon higher

posts, and they took part in the administrative sector actively like men.

No service women were found in security and military service sectors

requiring martial prowess. However there were service women in the crown

service units, such as royal script writers, amhætore, amanuensis of the royal

court, atwa³re, secretary, cæmro³, cækhøpuil and cækhø all clerical staff who needed to be qualified educationally.

At this juncture, the term "atwa³uy " (atwa³re), might be regarded as referring to a trusted person (confidant) who had to discharge the king's service in the court. In an inscription inscribed in AD 1311, the name of a woman atwa³re, confidant was found as a proof of donation of slaves, like this, "Ui Lac Cway San, atwa³re"4. From this inscriptions, it is learnt that there there were women atwa³re, trusted persons, who were literates. " Caw Rahan Sima inscription", dated AD 1212, in which described "Ui Pan U Sa³ cækhøpil "5 and the "Bhui Kalun Gubhuræ " hollow Pagoda (or) Ma Rhak Sañ Gubhuræ inscription inscribed in AD 1243, which mentioned, "sakha³ cætawkhø Ui Khi Rhæ Sa³ "6 it is learnt that there had been woman cækhøpuil and cætawkhø, clerks. The group of words, "ma³myæ cæhøpuir" 7of an inscription in AD 1271 shows that a concubine of King Narathihapate (AD 1254-87) had served as cækhøpuil. It is learnt, therefore, from such studies, that during the Bagan period, maids of honour of lesser – queen who were addressed as sakha³ in honour had served as 'cækhøpuil ' and cætawkhø , clerical staff.

1 PL 4

5

2 PL 53

15

3 PL 199

2,3,10

4 PL 207

13

5 PL 36

2

6 PL 150

10

7 PL 232

2

71


Apart from these service women in civil administration, there were also women serving as kliy sþ krø, in the remote areas of the capital; 'mrui sþkrø ruling a town, and rwæ sþkrø responsible for village administration. The

words, "amipurhæc le kliy sþkri phlac rakæ 1", found in Maharac ceti

inscription, inscribed in AD 1260 shows that the post of kliy sþkrø was

assigned to a queen. From such descriptions as "sukrø I Cwæy Sa³2 " found in

the "sa³lya³ Ui Kap Sa³ Khya³ " inscription, inscribed in AD 1213, and "rwæ

sþkriy May E3" found in an inscription dated AD 1217. It can be learnt that

there had been woman sþkrø who were regarded to take responsibility of and

supervising administrative and social affairs in a ward of village.

There had also been female "kyø sañ" – service woman at a royal

granry, and female "kyø co³" – watch woman of the royal granry, serving

under a "kyø sþkrø – headman of royal granry, who had to look after it. The fact

was illustrated by such descriptions as "kø sañ Ui Cawy Sa³ 4" found also in

the above-mentioned "sa³lya³ Ui Kap Sa³ Khya³ " inscription. and "Uiw

Plañ kic³5 "found in the "Rajama³galamahæpatiy " inscription inscribed in

AD 1233. Thus it can be deduced that women of Bagan period participated,

equally with men, in the service of financial sector of administration.

Chiefs of the group of association were known as "sa³krø " and

"sa³lya³ ". Besides male sa³krøor male sa³lya³, it was found that there were

female sa³krø or sa³lya³ as well. In this regard, the honorary title, "sa³krø "

was also found associated with the title (name) of monks6. With respect to this

this fact, Dr. Than Tun explained in his work Khithaung Myanmar Rajawin-

Ancient Myanmar History, that

…If the term "sa³krø " is applied to Rahan-monk only, "sa³ " means

sa³ghæ , and it may be said to assume that it implies "sa³ghæthaera ".

As it is not so, however, it renders very difficult to interpret the

meaning. So far as it is known now, a "sa³krø " is a respectable person

whether he is a lay man or monk. It is to be considered that a lay man

sa³krø is responsible for administration.7"

According to Daw Than Swe's article, entitled: "Myanmar Language,

Myanmar inscription", the interpretation was:-

1 PL 196

1

2 PL 40

16-17

3 Nyein Maung, U, Shayhaung Myanmar Kyauksarmyar (Ancient Myanmar Stone

Inscriptions), Vol. I, Yangon, Govt Press, 1972.

4 PL 40

19

5 PL 68

19

6 PL 6

9

7 Than Tun, 1969, p. 145.

72


Sa³ikrø- Chief of a group, society of an association; leader of Rahan-

Monks.

Sa³lya³ -Assistant chief of a group, society or an association1.

U Thein Hlaing's Dictionary of Ancient Myanmar Historical Research defines

the terms as follows:-

"Sa³krø "– (inscription) means

(1) A senior Sa³ghæ – monks; Mahathe – Buddhist priest of twenty or

more years of monkhood.

(2) Chief of leader of a group, society or an association2.

According to these descriptions, with regard to the usage of words

"sa³krø and sa³lya³ " the latter may be interpreted as an assistant chief of a

group, society of an association. The word "sa³krø" must consequently be

taken to mean "sa³ghæthera " only when it is found associated with titles of

sa³ghæ, but if it is used in combination with names of lay men, it should be

interpreted as a group's or society's chief who is responsible for administrative

affairs.

The study of inscriptions of the Bagan period show that there had been

female sa³krø – chief of groups or societies, who were responsible for

executive affairs. The following inscription were cases in point:

"Sa³krø Uiw, Khyam, sæ³ 3" was found in the 'Ca Khi Phu Næ'

inscription, inscribed in AD 1168. "Sa³krø Ui Chum Sa³4 " was described in

the "sa³krø Ui Chum Sa³" inscription inscribed in AD 1217. The name,

"sa³kriy Uiw, Myak Ra Sa³ 5" was found in the number three inscription, in

the Han Lin Inscription Hall, inscribed in AD 1217. The name, "sa³krø Uiw,

Lhok Sa³ 6" was found in the No-33 inscription, inscribed in AD 1224, and

kept in the Mandalay Place Inscription Hall. In the same way, the name,

"sa³krø Uiw, Si Sa³"7 was found to be written in the "Uiw, Si Sa³" inscription

inscribed in AD 1224. And the word, "Sa³krø Uin Cim Sa³ 8" was found in the the 'kamkun cakhø samø" inscription inscribed in AD 1229. From these inscriptions, it can firmly be deduced that in the administration of the Bagan period there had been service women serving in sa³krø ranks.

1 Than Shwe, 1980, p. 93

2 Thein Hlaing, U. Khithaung Myanmar Thamaing Thuthethana Abidan (Acient

Myanmar History Dictionary), Yangon, Universities' Press, 2000. 3 Nyein Maung, 1972, p. 34

9

4 Lbid, p. 119

2

5 Nyein Maung, 1972, p. 123

9

6 PL 53

9

7 PL 124/a

3

8 PL 60/9

11

73


Regarding the position of sa³lya³ - Assisstant chief of a group or a society, the following evidences were discovered:

"sa³lyæ³ Ui Kap San Khyæ³"1 was inscribed in AD 1213 in an inscription which was placed inside the wall of the Shinpin Bodi Pagoda in Bagan. The name "sa³lya³ Ui Chu Sa³ 2" was seen in the Bhui ka Lan cave-pagoda inscription inscribed in AD 1243. The word "sa³lya³ Ma Pyat Sa³ "3 was found in the couple of sukrway Ui Kram Khya³ Sa³ inscription inscribed in AD 1245.

Thus, taking into consideration that women had served in different executive ranks from the high ranking officials such as amat, sampya³ and kalan, below the post of ma³krø, to those of sa³krø and sa³lya³, conclusion may be drawn that women shared equal opportunities with men in the administration of the Bagan period.

1 PL 39

2-3

2 PL 151

4-5

3 PL 157

13

74


Reference

(1) Hunanan Yazawintawgyi (Glass Palace Chronicle) Vol. I, Yangon, New light of Myanmar in Guardian Press, 1992.

(2) Khin Khin Sein, Daw,"Bagankhit Amyothamimyar(Women in Bagan Period)"

Research in Burmese History No.1, Yangon, Sarpay Beikman Press, 1977.

(3) Khin Khin Sein, Daw, Bagan Khit Yinkyaehmu (The Civilization of Bagan),

Yangon Sarpay Beikman Press, 1986.

(4) Luce, G.H, "Grography of Burma under the Pagan Dynasty", JBRS, XLII, i, 1959.

(5) Luce, G.H, "Note of the peoples of Burma in the 12th

– 13th

Century AD", JBRS,

XLII, i, 1959.

(6) Luce, G.H, and Pe Maung Tin, Protfolio, I, Inscriptions of Burma I, Britian, Oxford

University Press, 1933.

(7) Luce, G.H, and Pe Maung Tin, Protfolio, II, Inscriptions of Burma II, Britian,

Oxford University Press, 1933.

(8) Luce, G.H, and Pe Maung Tin, Protfolio, III, Inscriptions of Burma III, Britian,


(9) Luce, G.H, and Pe Maung Tin, Protfolio, IV, Inscriptions of Burma IV, Britian,


(10) Luce, G.H, and Pe Maung Tin, Protfolio, V, Inscriptions of Burma V, Britian,


(11) Myanmar Abidanakyinchoke (Outline of Myanmar Dictionary), Vol. IV, Yangon,

Sarpay Beikman Press, 1980.

(12) Myanmar Abidanakyinchoke (Outline of Myanmar Dictionary), Vol. V, Yangon,

Sarpay Beikman Press, 1980.

(13) Nyein Maung, U, Shayhaung Myanmar Kyauksarmyar (Ancient Myanmar Stone

Inscriptions), Vol. I, Yangon, Govt Press, 1972.

(14) Pe Maung Tin, U. Some Old Words in the Inscription, JBRS, XX, i, 1930.

(15) Than Shwe, Daw. Myanmar Bartharsakar, Myanmar Kyauksar Sarthan

Saungparmyar (Myanmar Language, Articles from Myanmar Stone Inscriptions),

Yangon, Department of Higher Education, 1980.

(16) Than Tun, Dr. Athimyin Bamathamaing(New Outlook on Myanmar History),

Mandalay, Thukhawadi Press, 1975.

(17) Than Tun, Dr. Khithaungyazawin (The Old History of Myanmar) Yangon,

Mahadagon Press 1969.

(18) Thein Hlaing, U. Khithaung Myanmar Thamaing Thuthethana Abidan (Acient

Myanmar History Dictionary), Yangon, Universities' Press, 2000.

75


The Domination Number and the Covering Numbers

,Independence Numbers of a Graph

Moe Thu1

Abstract

We define a dominating set of a graph G and the domination number

of G, which is denoted by )G( .And then also define the degree of G, the

vertex, edge independence numbers, vertex, edge covering numbers. So we

see they relates each other and the number of vertices of G.

Definition

The order of a graph G is the number of vertices in G; it is denoted

by G . The size of a graph G is the number of edges in G. G( n , m )

denotes an arbitrary graph of order n and size m.

If U is a nonempty subset of the vertex set V(G) of a graph G, then-the

subgraph U of G induced by U is the graph having vertex set U and whose

edge set consists of those edges of G incident with two elements of U.

The degree of a vertex v in a graph G is the number of edges of G

incident with v. The degree of v is also the number of vertices in G that are

adjacent to v.

A vertex of degree 0 is also called an isolated vertex; while a vertex

of degree 1 is also referred to as an end-vertex of G.

The minimum degree of G is the minimum degree among the vertices

of G and is denoted by (G) .

The maximum degree is defined similarly and is denoted by (G) .

Suppose that the vertex-set of a graph G can be divided into two

disjoint sets V1 and V2, in such a way that every edge of G joins a vertex of V1

to a vertex of V2; G is then said to be a bipartite graph (sometimes denoted

by G (V1,V2)).

In a bipartite graph G (V1,V2), it is not necessarily true that every

vertex of V1 is joined to every vertex of V2; if however this does happen, and

if G is simple, then G is called a complete bipartite graph, usually denoted

by Kr,s where r and s are the number of vertices in V1 and V2 respectively.

1. Professor, Department of Mathematics, Kalay University

76


Note that Kr,s has r + s vertices and rs edges.

A complete bipartite graph of the form K1,s is called a star graph.

For a graph G and vV(G), define the neighborhood of v to be the set

N(v) y V(G) : vy E(G) .

A vertex v in a graph G is said to dominate itself and each of its

neighbors, that is, v dominates the vertices in its closed neighborhood N[v].

A set S of vertices of G is a dominating set of G if every vertex of

G is dominated by at least one vertex of S. Equivalently, a set S of vertices of

G is a dominating set if every vertex in V(G) – S is adjacent to at least one

vertex in S.

The minimum cardinality among the dominating sets of G is called

the domination number of G and is denoted by (G).

A dominating set of cardinality (G) is then referred to as a minimum

dominating set.

A minimal dominating set in a graph G is a dominating set that

contains no dominating set as a proper subset. A minimal dominating set of

minimum cardinality is, of course, a minimum dominating set and consists of

(G) vertices.

Example

The sets S1 = { v1, v2, y1, y2 } and S2 = { w1, w2, x } are both

dominating sets in the graph G of Figure 1.1 , indicated by solid circles .

Since S2 is a dominating set of minimum cardinality, γ (G) = 3. The set

S1= {v1,v2,v3,v4}is a minimal dominating set that is not a minimum

dominating set .

77


Theorem

A dominating set S of a graph G is a minimal dominating set of G if

and only if every vertex v in S satisfies at least one of the following two

properties:

(i) there exists a vertex w in V(G) – S such that N(w) S = {v}

(ii) v is adjacent to no vertex of S .

Proof.

Suppose that each vertex v in S satisfies at least one of the properties (i)

and (ii).

If (i) holds, then there exists w V(G) – S which is not adjacent to

any vertex in S – {v}. Then S – {v} is not a dominating set of G.

If (ii) holds, then v is not adjacent to any vertex of S – {v}. Thus

S – {v} is not a dominating set of G. Therefore, S is a minimal dominating

set of G.

Conversely, assume that S is a minimal dominating set of G. Let v be

arbitrary element in S .Then S – {v} is not a dominating set of G. Hence there

is a vertex w in V(G) – (S –{v}) which is adjacent to no vertex of S – {v}.

So

N(w) S – {v} = . If w = v , then v is adjacent to no vertex of S.

If w v , then w is adjacent to at least one vertex of S because S

is a dominating set of G and w S . So w must be adjacent to v.

Hence N(w) S = {v} .

Theorem

If S is a minimal dominating set of a graph G without isolated vertices,

then V(G) – S is a dominating set of G.

Proof.

Let v S. Then v has at least one of the two properties (i) and (ii)

described in the statement of Theorem. Suppose first that there exists a vertex

w in V(G) – S such that N(w) S = {v}. Hence v is adjacent to some vertex

in V(G) – S. Suppose next that v is adjacent to no vertex in S. Then v is an

isolated vertex of the sub graph S .

Since v is not isolated in G, the vertex v is adjacent to some vertex of

V(G) – S . Thus V(G) – S is a dominating set of G.

For graphs G without isolated vertices, we now have an upper bound

for (G) in terms of the order of G.

78


Corollary

If G is a graph of order n without isolated vertices , then (G) n2

.

Proof.

Let S be a minimal dominating set of G .By Theorem, V(G) – S is a

dominating set of G . Thus

(G) min { S)G(V,S } n2

.

Theorem

Let G be a graph of order n with = (G) > 1.

Then n (1 ln ( 1) )

(G)1

.

Proof.

From a random vertex subset S V(G) by including each vertex

independently with probability p = ln ( +1 ) / ( +1). Given S, let T be the

set of vertices outside S having no neighbor in S; adding T to S yields a

dominating set.The experiment gives us both S and T, so we seek the expected

size of the union. Since each vertex appears in S with probability p, E( S ) =

np. The random variable T is the sum of n indicator variables for whether

individual vertices belong to T. We have v T if and only if v and its

neighbors all fail to be in S, the probability of which is bounded by ( 1 – p

) +1

, since v has degree at least . Since )1(p1 e)p1( , we have

E ( S + T ) np + n )1(pe

= np + n)1(

1

)1(ln

e

= np + n 1)1(lne

= n [ 1ln ( 1)( 1)

1

]

= n [ ln ( 1) 1

1 1

]

= n ( 1 ln ( 1 ) )

1

.

We have a dominating set S T of G whose cardinality is

at most n ( 1 ln ( 1 ) )

1

.

79


So, n (1 ln ( 1) )

(G)1

.

Theorem

Every graph G without isolated vertices contains a minimum

dominating set S such that for every vertex v of S, there exists a vertex w of

G – S such that N ( w ) S ={ v } .

Proof .

Let S be one of the minimum dominating sets such that S has

maximum size. Suppose, to the contrary, that S contains a vertex v that does

not have the desired property. Then by Theorem 1.3, v is an isolated vertex in

S . Moreover, every vertex of V(G) – S that is adjacent to v is adjacent to

some other vertex of S as well. Since G contains no isolated vertices, v is

adjacent to a vertex w in V(G) – S. Consequently, ( S – {v}) {w} is a

minimum dominating set of G whose induced sub graph contains at least one

edge incident with w and hence has a greater size than S . This produces a

contradiction.

Theorem

If G is a graph of order n, then n1 (G)

.)G(n)G(

Proof.

Let S be a minimum dominating set of G. Every vertex w V(G) – S

is adjacent to at least one of the vertex of S. So w N(v) for some v S. If

the vertices of S are isolated, then V(G) – S v S

N(v)

. If S has no isolated

vertices, then V(G) – S v S

N(v)

. So V(G) – S v S

N(v)

.

Hence SS)G(V )G( . Therefore, n – )G()G()G( and so

n(G)1 (G)

.

Next we establish the upper bound. Let v be a vertex of G with

deg v = )G( . Then V(G) – N(v) is a dominating set of cardinality

n )G( ; so )G(n)G(

Definition

If G is connected, we define the vertex-connectivity )G( of G to

be the size of the smallest separating set in G; in other words, )G( is the

smallest number of vertices we can delete in order to disconnect G.

80


Two vertices that are not adjacent in a graph G are said to be

independent. A set S of vertices is independent if every two vertices of S are

independent.

The vertex independence number or simply the independence

number (G) of a graph G is the maximum cardinality among the

independent sets of vertices of G.

An independent set of edges in a graph G is a set of edges, each two

of which are independent ( nonadjacent ). The edge independence number

1 (G) of G is the maximum cardinality among the independent sets of edges

of G.

A vertex and an edge are said to cover each other in a graph G if they

are incident in G. A vertex cover in G is a set of vertices that covers all the

edges of G.

An edge cover in a graph G without isolated vertices is a set of edges that

covers all vertices of G.

The minimum cardinality of a vertex cover in a graph G is called the

vertex covering number of G and is denoted by )G( . The edge covering

number 1 (G) of a graph G ( without isolated vertices ) is the minimum

cardinality of an edge cover in G . For s t, we have )K( t,s = s and

)K( t,s1 = t. As another illustration of these four parameters, we note that

for n 1)K(,2 n , )K( n1 = n2

, )K( n = n – 1 and )K( n1 =

n2

. In Figure 1.2 , we see that )K( 5 = 1, )K( 51 = 2 , )K( 5 = 4 ,

)K( 51 = 3 .

Figure 1.2

Theorem

For every graph G , (G) )G( (G) .

Theorem

If G is a graph of order n, then (G)κ-n)G(γ ≤ .

1

5

3 4

2

81


Proof.

From Theorem , )G(κ-n≤)G(γ since )G()G( .

Theorem

If G is a graph of order n having no isolated vertices , then

n)G(β)G(αandn)G(β)G(α 11 =+=+ .

Proof.

Let U be an independent set of vertices of G with )G(U .

Clearly, the set V(G) – U is a vertex cover in G . Therefore,

)G(n)G( . If, however, W is a set of (G) vertices that covers all

edges of G , then V(G) – W is independent; thus (G) )G(n . So

(G) (G) n .

Let E1 be an independent set of edges of G with )G(E 11 .

Obviously, E1 covers 2 1 (G)-vertices of G. For each vertex of G not covered

by E1, select an incident edge and define E2 to be the union of this set of edges

and E1. Necessarily, E2 is an edge cover in G so that )G(E 12 . Also we

note that ;nEE 21 hence n)G()G( 11 . Now suppose that E

is an edge cover in G with E = )G(1 . The minimality of E implies

that each component of E is a tree. Select from each component of E

one edge, denoting the resulting set of edges by E . We observe that E

)G(1 and that E + E = n . These two facts imply that

n)G()G( 11 . So 1 1(G) (G) n .

References

[ 1 ] Bollobas .,B., “ Modern Graph Theory ”. Springer - Verlag; NewYork Inc, 1998 .

[ 2 ] Bondy , J . A . and Murty U.S.R. “ Graph Theory with Applications ”;

The Macmillan Press Ltd ; London ; 1976 .

[ 3 ] Chartrand ,G,& Lesniak ,L; “ Graphs & Digraphs ”, Chapman & Hall / CRC,

NewYork, 2005 .

[ 4 ] Douglas ,B.W, “ Introduction to Graph Theory ”, Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi,

1999 .

82


Study on the Contents of Common Toxic Elements in Various

Water Samples Collected from Kalay University Campus by

Using Atomic Absorption Spectrometry

Ko Ko Naing1, San Hlay

2 and Min Min Thein

3

Abstract

The drinking water samples were collected in Kalay University Campus and

analysed by Flame Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (FAAS) for the

determination of toxic elements; Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn, As, Pb, Cd, Hg and Cr. It

was performed with intent to determine the concentrations of common toxic

elements for human‟s health. Some toxic elements such as, As, Pb and Cd

were found, especially in Dam water samples, not to be satisfactory with the

guideline values of WHO International Standards for drinking water.

Intorduction

Water is the most essential for all living things on earth. Especially it is

important to get pure water in daily life. In this work, two natural water

samples and one purified drinking water sample were analysed by Flame

Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy method. The two natural water samples were

obtained from Kyauktalone Dam, water supplier of Kalay University Campus.

The remaining one is the purified drinking water sample mostly used in

Campus.

Experimentals

Clean, dry and tight cap glass bottles of about 100ml were used as containers

for samples. They were transported to Universities‟ Research Centre, Yangon

in two weeks. The analysis was performed by AAnalyst 800 spectrometer.

Flame Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy is an analytical technique based on

the absorption of radiant energy by atoms. This spectroscopy is free from

interference and absorption wavelength region. Since it can be used for the

quantitative determination of most of the metals in the periodic table, it

compares very favourably with other methods of elements analysis, such as X-

ray fluorescence and emission spectroscopy. Many elements can be

determined at the parts per million concentration level and some, parts per

billion. In the AAS method, only one element can be detected at a time.

However, much lower levels of concentration of the toxic elements can be

detected.

1. Associate Professor, Dr., Physics Department, Kalay University

2. Assistant Lecturer. Dr., Physics Department, Kalay University

1. Demonstrator, Physics Department, Kalay University

83


Fig (1) Block diagram of the Atomic Absorption Spectrometer

The source of radiation is a hollow cathode lamp, whose cathode is made of

the element to be investigated. This lamp emits the line spectrum of the

element. The sample is sprayed into the flame and the atoms of the element

are dispersed in the gaseous phase. The atoms absorb the radiation only at a

particular line called the resonance line. The resonance line gets diminished

after passing through the flame containing the sample vapour, while all other

lines remain unaffected. The other lines are removed by a monochromator.

A photodetector measures the remaining light intensities form the source

beam. The unknown concentration of the element in the sample may be

determined by comparing with the absorbance reading with a calibrated curve

showing the relationship of absorbance versus concentration made form data

of known concentration of the element.

Result and Discussion

In the present work, some common toxic elements contents were analysed and

the results were shown in Table(1 ). The results indicate that the trace amounts

of toxic elements are observed in all water samples. In the sample DW.1 and

DW.2, Mn has a high degree content. It is one of the most abundant metals in

the Earth‟s crust, usually occurring with iron. Although manganese is an

essential element for human and other animals, adverse effect can result from

both deficiency and over exposure. Manganese is known to cause neurological

effects (e.g tremor, gait disorder) following extended exposure to very high

levels in drinking-water.

84


Table-1 Quantitative Results of Water Samples

DW-1 = Natural drinking water sample with sediment

DW-2 = Natural drinking water sample free from sediment

MNPW = Purified drinking water mostly used in campus

Table 2. Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality (WHO International

Standard)

Iron, one of most abundant metal, was also found in the present samples. The

contents of iron lie within the Guidelines values of 1-3 mg L-1

and are

acceptable for drinking water.

Copper is both an essential nutrient and a drinking-water contaminant. In all

samples, copper contents lies below the guidelines value.

Mn

ppm

Fe

ppm

Cu

ppm

Zn

ppm

As

ppm

Pb

ppm

Cd

ppm

Hg

ppm

Cr

ppm

DW-1

3.341

±0.015

3.575

±0.036

0.182

±0.001

0.071

±0.001

0.551

±0.009

0.113

±0.001

0.126

±0.002

ND

ND

DW-2

0.416

±0.012

2.381

±0.039

0.169

±0.009

0.035

±0.001

0.433

±0.004

0.024

±0.002

0.123

±0.009

ND

ND

MNPW

0

0.417

±0.047

0.143

±0.00

2

0.044

±0.00

1

ND ND 0.121

±0.001

ND ND

Sr No Element Concentration (ppm or mg L-1

)

1 As 0.01

2 Cd 0.003

3 Cr 0.05

4 Cu 2

5 Fe 1-3

6 Pb 0.01

7 Mn 0.1-0.5

8 Hg 0.001

9 Zn 3

85


Fig 2 The comparison of concentrations in all samples

Fig 3 Comparison of concentration of important toxic elements between

analysed samples and WHO Guidlines

Zinc is an essential trace element for human beings. However, drinking

water containing zinc at levels above 3 mg L-1

may not be acceptable to

consumers. Zinc contents of the present water samples are in acceptable range.

Arsenic was found in sample DW-1 and DW-2 which are natural

waters. Arsenic (As) is widely distributed throughout the earth‟s crust, most

often as arsenic sulfide or as metal arsenates and arsenides.Arsenic is

introduced into drinking water sources primarily through the dissolution of

naturally occurring minerals and ores. It is considered to be a high-priority

substance for screening in drinking-water sources. In the present work, arsenic

concentration is about 50 times larger than the guide line value of WHO

86


international standard. It is an important drinking-water contaminant, as it is

one of the few substances shown to cause cancer at several sites, particularly

skin, bladder and lung.

Lead was also found in sample DW-1 and DW-2 and the concentration

is higher than the guide line value of WHO international standard. Lead is

rarely present in tap water as a result of its dissolution from natural sources,

rather, its presence is primarily from household plumbing systems containing

lead in pipes, solder, fittings or the service connections to homes. Infants,

children up to 6 years of age and pregnant women are most susceptible to its

adverse health effects.

Cadmium was found at great amounts in all water samples

unfortunately. Cadmium is released to the environment in waste water, and

diffuse pollution is caused by contamination from fertilizers and local air

pollution. Contamination in drinking-water may also be caused by impurities

in the Zinc of galvanized pipes and solders and some metal fittings.

Absorption of cadmium compounds is dependent on the solubility of the

compounds. Cadmium accumulates primarily in the kidneys and has a long

biological half-life in humans of 10-35 years.

Fortunately, cromium and mercury were not detected in present water

samples. In DW-1 and DW-2, the concentrations of As, Pb and Cd are higher

than the guidelines of WHO international standard distinctly. They should not

be used as the drinking-water. Although, in many areas, the guidelines values

may not be attainable. Environment security and monitoring of standard water

is an urgent problem. Thus, where this is the case, every effort should be made

up to keep the concentrations of toxic elements as low as possible.

Acknowledgement

I would like to thank Professor Dr Khin Myint Htun, PhD(MU), Head of Department of

Physics, University of Kalay for allowing me to present this paper.

I am greatly indebted to Pro-Rector Dr Pho Kaung, DSc (Hokkaido) MinstP (London), Head

of Universities‟ Research Centre (URC) and Director of Asia Research Centre (ARC) for his

valuable guidance.

References

[1]Blames JR 1990 “Environmental Health Effects”

[2]Bernhard W 1976 “Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy”. (New York)

[3]Perkin Elmer Instrument Manual, 2001 “AAnalyst 800 Spectrometer”

87


Systematic Study On Some Moths Of Kalay Environs

Htay Htay Kyi1 , Tin Ko Ko

2, Soe Soe

2

Abstract

Taxonomic descriptions of the total number of 10 species of Lepidoptera moths

belonging to 3 Super families, 4 families, 2 Sub family and 10 genera have been collected

from Kalay area. The study period lasted from January, 2007 to December, 2007. The

recorded species are tabulated and present with digital colored photograph. Keys to the Super

families down to species level are constructed based on the diagnostic characters. Diagnostic

features of each species are given supported by scaled photographs. The findings of this

research are comparatively discussed.

( keywords: systematic study of Lepidoptera )

Introduction

Moths are members of the insect order Lepidoptera, the literal meaning

of which is “scale-winged”.They are most readily recognized by the scales on

the wings, most of the body and leg, are also covered with scales. This order is

a large one with about 11,000 species occurring in the United States and

Canada, its member are to be found almost everywhere often in considerable

members. They feed on various fabrics and a few feed in stored grain or meal.

The larvae of most species are phytophagous and many are serious pest of

cultivated plants. The adults of many species are beautiful and much sought

after by collectors, and many serve as the basis of art and design. Natural silk

as the product of a member of this order. The modern method of classification

recognizes, three sub-orders namely, Zeugloptera, Monotrysia and Ditrysia.

The last two sub-order include moths exclusively the structure of the adult

moth resembles in many respects that of the butterfly. The moths are common

insects and well known to every one. The modern method of classification

recognizes, three sub-orders namely, Zeugloptera, Monotrysia and Ditrysia.

The last two sub-order include moths exclusively the structure of the adult

moth resembles in many respects that of the butterfly. The moths are common

insects and well known to every one.

1 Assistant Lecturer,

2 Demonstrators, Zoology Department, Kalay University.

88


The adults bear two pairs of membranous wings, usually clothed and on both

surfaces with overlapping scales. The mouthparts of the adults are frequently

modified into a long coiled proboscis, which occurs in no other order.

Lepidoptera pass through a complex metamorphosis of egg, larva and pupa to

adult. In family Saturniidae (Giant silkworm moths or royal moths), moths are

the largest moths. Many species fly mostly during the daylight hours or at

dusk. In family Eupterotidae, moths are the large-sized moths. The palpi hairy;

antennae pectinated in both sexes, mid tibia with one pair of spurs, hind tibia

with two pairs. Frenulum present. In family Notodontidae (prominents moths),

moths are rarely encountered in their natural state, being night fliers. In South

East Asia, they are found in hilly localities than on the plants. In family

Sphingidae (Sphinx or Hawk moths), moths are strong fliers and fly with a

very rapid wing beat. Some are day fliers but most of them are active at dusk

or twilight.

Materials and methods

Study period

The present investigation was carried out from January to December,

2007. Moth collection was conducted three days per month to record the

seasonal species occurrence.

They were collected from different localities of Kalay University

Campus. The species Psilogramma menophron and Leucophlebia lineata are

diurnal in habit were collected at day time, the rest of the species are

nocturnal. Therefore the collections were made at nights, some around lamp-

posts, walls of buildings and other light sources. The collection materials

included an insect collection hand net, a collection jar and a killing bottle.

These specimens were collected in killing bottle containing chloroform. They

were mounted in insect boxes. Insect boxes are applied with creosote or

naphthalene balls to repel ants and fungus infection. The antennae, legs and

wings venations of recorded species were studied and classified under

microscope. All the specimens were recorded with illustrated photographs.

Preservation

Lepidopterans are generally fairly easily to collect, but are more

different to mount and preserve in good condition than insect of other groups.

Specimens must always be handled with great care due to the delicate nature

of the scales and wings which can be easily torn or broken. In the present

study, only a light trap was used for collecting specimens. The specimens

collected in the fields were put into the bottle of appropriate size. Pieces of

cotton soaked in chloroform are put into the bottles. Then forewings of the

specimens were spread out on the boards. They were mounted in insect boxes.

Insect boxes are applied with creosote naphthalene . Identification key and

morphological characteristics were applied according to Hampson (1892); Bell

and Scott (1937); and Barlow (1982).

89


Observations and results

Order Lepidoptera

These are moths and butterflies, characterized by having two pair of

membranous wings, usually large in size, cross veins are few in number. The

body wings and appendages are clothed in broad scales. Mandibles are almost

always vestigial or absent. The mouth parts are generally represented by a

suctorial proboscis formed by the maxillae. The larvae are caterpillars, with

three pairs of thoracic legs and usually four pairs of prolegs on the abdomen

and a terminal pair of claspers.

Super family Bombycoidea

Moths in this Super family are medium to large in size, and include the

largest moth in the world. The antennae in the male are always bipectinate.

The proboscis is reduced or absent and the moths lack tympanal organs. The

bodies are short, stout and hairy, and the wings are large in relation to body

size.

Family Saturniidae (Royal Moths)

This family, which contains some of the largest moths in the world, is

well represented in the Oriental region. The antennae are short and bipectinate

or quadripectinate to the tips in both sexes. The head is retracted and small

with large eyes. The proboscis is vestigial or absent. The broad wings,

frequently falcate, lack the frenulum and retinaculum and are often marked

with prominent eye-spots or hyaline patches. The adults have stout hairy

bodies with the abdomen short in proportion to the enormous wings. They

often fly late at night, with an irregular flight, and are readily attracted to light.

Genus Actias, Leach (1815)

Fore wing with the apex produced and acute. Hind wing with the anal

angle produced into a long tail, veins 2, 3, 4 being curved and running to the

tip of the tail.

Species Actias selene, Hiibn. (1818)

Head, thorax, and abdomen white; Palpi pink, prothorax with a dark

pink band; legs pink. Fore wing very pale green, white at base; a dark pink

costal fascia, darkest along subcostal nervure; an outwardly-oblique pale

yellow antemedial line; two inwardly-oblique slightly curved sub marginal

lines; a pale yellow marginal band; a dark red-brown lunule at end of cell,

with a grey line on it, bounding inwardly a round ochreous spot with pinkish

centre. Hind wing similar to the fore wing; the central position of the tail

pinkish.

Genus Attacus

Fore wing with the apex produced and rounded; the outer margin

excised. Hind wing rounded. Cell of both wings open.

90


Species Attacus atlas Linn. 1766

Head, thorax and abdomen red-brown; the basal segment and abdomen

pale and each segment with a pale fringe; legs brown and with the costa

brown; the basal area brown and red-brown edged by red, pale and black lines.

Genus Loepa

Fore wing with the costa evenly arched; the apex rounded; the outer

margin but slightly excised hind wind rounded. Tarsi thickly clothed with hair.

Species Loepa newara, Moore, 1872

Head, thorax and abdomen bright yellow; collar grey; patagia bordered

by reddish lines. Fore wing yellow, irrorated with grey, fuscous, and pink

scales, except at centre of inner margin and outer area; some pink hairs at

base, a grey and fuscous antemedial line, angled at median nervure; a large

sub triangular hyaline spot at end of cell. Hind wing yellow; a pink and dark

antemedial line; a hyaline spot at end of cell edged with fuscous; a postmedial

line, beyond which the area is suffused with pink and fuscous, with a waved

outer edge.

Family Eupterotidae

This family is based for the most part in Asia, large moths, with

antennae

bipectinate to the apex in both sexes, the pectinations being longer in the

males. The coloration is generally grey, yellow, brown or black, often with

considerable variation in the species. The palpi are short and hairy and the

proboscis weak or absent. They generally have the frenulum on the hind wing.

Genus Gangarides, Moore, 1865

Palpi upturned and very thickly fringed with hair. The antennae with

the branches stiff, decreasing rapidly to apex and saturniform. Legs very

thickly clothed with hairs. Fore wing with the apex produced, the outer margin

excised and crenulate; the discocellular nearly straight.

Species Gangarides rosea Wlker, 1865.

Palpi black, fringed with ochreous hairs; antennae, head and thorax

ochreous, the latter with a crimson tinge; abdomen crimson above. Fore wing

pinkish ochreous, irrorated with brown scales, a curved and waved subbasal

dark line; an antemedial slightly waved line; a black dot ringed with white at

end of cell, three indinstinct waved postmedial lines; a grey and brown curved

oblique line from apex; a submarginal lunulate line. Hind wing crimsom , the

cilia ochreous.

Genus Pandala, Walker (1855)

Palpi upturned and but slightly fringed with hair. Antennae with the

branches long and bipectinate. Head, thorax and abdomen yellowish brown.

Legs with the spur long. Fore wing short, broad and rounded, the discocellular

oblique, vein 7,8,9 stalked and give of before the end of the cell. Hind wing

with the discocellulars slightly angled below vein 5, 6 and 7 from angle of

91


cell. Hind wing slightly rounded. The fore and hind wings have 3 brown

wavely streaks.

Species Pandala dolosa, Walker. 1855

Dark purplish grey; fore wing crossed by three antemedial indistinct

waved lines, three postmedial and one straight submarginal line. Hind wing by

four waved postmedial lines and a curved submarginal line.

Super family Notodontoidea

Head is large and often covered with woolly hair. The proboscis is

functionless and frequently obsolescent. The antennae in the males are

typically bipectinate at base, and filiform towards the tip. In the female they

tend to be pectinate or filiform. The legs are short and strong and the tibiae

usually markedly hairy, the forelegs typically being strectched forward in front

of the head when the insect is at rest.

Family Notodontidae

A family of moths superficially resembling the Noctuidae. Mid tibia

with one pair of spurs; hind tibia with two pairs; tarsi short and hairy. Fore

wing with vein 1 a forming a fork with 1b at the base; 1c absent; vein 5 from

the middle of discocelluar, or rarely from just below upper angle of cell, Hind

wing with two internal veins.

Genus Somera Wlker (1855)

Palpi upturned, reaching vertex of head; the first two joints fringed

with hair. Antennae with the branches long and reaching the apex. Legs hairy.

Fore wing broad, the subcostal nervure and cell clothed with long hairs on

underside.

Species Somera viridifusca, Walker (1855)

Palpi brown; vertex of head and thorax green; abdomen fuscous, with

the extremity green. Fore wing bright green, with a brown patch below and

beyond the end of cell; the brown patch on the fore wing is often absent; two

subbasal waved dark lines; two antemedial; four post medial and one

submarginal, the last with brownish blotches on it. Hind wing fuscous brown.

Super family Sphinogoidea

Hawk moths are normally readily recognizable by their triangular-

shaped fore wings and powerful but streamlined build. Often they are

extremely fast fliers. The forewing is between twice and four times as long as

it is wide, the hind wing shorter and triangular. The frenulum and retinaculum

are sometimes reduced or absent. The antennae are filiform or setiform in

many species, often thickening slightly towards the end, before a thin pointed

hook. The eyes are large and prominent, as usually are the palpi.

Family Sphingidae (Sphinx or Hawk moths)

Diurnal or crepuscular Lepidoptera. The antennae being gradually

thickened into a club, which is pointed at the tip, and nearly always hooked,

with a small tuff of hair at the extremity. Palpi very thickly scaled, the third

joint minuted. Legs strong, with well-developed spurs and spined tarsi.Fore

wing elongated and narrow; the subcostals very close to the costa; vein 1

92


forked at base. Hind wing small; costal nervure arising free, with a bar

between it and subcostals; two internal veins.

Subfamily Acherontiinae

In all species the wings are sombre in hue, the marking mostly

transverse, fore wing never falcate of truncate, a “skull-mark” sometimes

presents on the dorsum of thorax, and there may abdominal side-bands or

patches. Frenulum and retinaculum wanting in a few species.

Genus – Herse Oken, 1815

Tongue very long, strongly attenuate apicad. Palpus without cavity in

the scaling at the end of the first segment externally, second segment about a

quarter shorter than the first; inner surface of first longitudinally impressed;

cavity of second deep, covered by a conspicuous roof of scales. Antenna

almost equal in width from near base to near hook in male, slightly clubbed in

female.

Species - Herse convolvuli (Linn, 1903)

Upper side grey, abdomen with a narrow brown dorsal stripe, a brood

grey strip on each side of it, and with narrow white and broader pink and black

side-patches.

Genus Psilogramma Roths and Jord. 1903

Antenna shorter, hook shorter, labrum very little raised in middle, first

segment tarsus. Somewhat longer than segment 2 to 4 together, comb of mid-

tarsus well developed, long spur of mid-tibia about half, the long apical one of

hind tarsus nearly two-thirds, the length of the respective first tarsal segment.

Pulvillus and paronychium present.

Species Psilogramma menephron (Cram) 1903

Head, thorax, abdomen and fore wing gray; dark brown bands along

sides of palpi and thorax meeting on metathorax, where there are a few blue

and yellow scales, abdomen with a blackish dorsal stripe and brown subdorsal,

segmental patches. Fore wing with dark oblique lines from costa, two black

streaks from cell, one under R, and one under M, a black streak under Sc5

apical, continued as a dentate streak to apex of wing and obliquely to costa at

the proximal end and sharply defining a pale apical patch, a series of whitish

sub marginal lunules, cilia chaquered black and white. Hind wing brown, with

a black patch at anal angle, limited inwardly by a pale submarginal line, and

more or less suffused with grey.

Sub family Ambulicinae

A few genera with prolonged end-segment may be recognized by the

apex of the fore wing being sinuate or the distal margin more or less angulate

below the middle, or by the long tarsi being without a mid-tarsal comb.

Genus Leucophlebia Westwood. 1848

The moths can be distinguished from other of the family in India by

the fore wing upper side being pink with a maize-yellow longitudinal streak.

Tongue short and weak, naked or scaled. Pilifer with bristle. Antenna strongly

compressed in male, deeply grooved, dilated above the grooves, two pairs of

93


spurs to hind tibia; pulvillus and paronychium present; Distal margin of wings

entire, apex of fore wing pointed, but not produced; hinder angle completely

rounded.

Species Leucophlebia lineate West wood 1848

Palpus and frons brown; antenna ochreous; vertex of head and sides of

thorax and abdomen pale pink; a brownish-ochreous stripe on vertex of thorax

and abdomen. Fore wing bright pink; a yellow strip from the base of the cell to

apex; widest beyond the cell; a short narrow yellow streak in the interno-

median interspace from the base; veins M2, M1and R' white, with some

diffused fuscous below them. Hind wing tawny,cilia yellowish-white.

Genus- Dilephila Laspepres,1809

Large handsome moths, upper side green or brown, marked with

curved bands and triangles of different colours. Genal process triangular,

obtuse, shorter than pilifer. Head broad, somewhat crested transversely on

occiput. Eye large, not lashed. Palpus obtuse, large.

Species- Dilephila hypothous Cram. ,1903

The head and collar of thorax being uniformly dark purplish-brown;

thorax and first two segments of abdomen dark olive- green, with a white

fringe to the first segment; the other segments dark olive-brown with stripes

and spots. Fore wings bright green; a basal white patch with a black spot on it;

some median whitish, conjoined bands, rosy towards hind margin Hind wing

fuscous with a pale, curved, submarginal line.

Discussion

The recent research work a total of ten species under four families of

ten genera were recorded. In the family Eupterotidae, the species Pandala

dalosa is recorded by

Group VI. M.Sc. Term paper of Mandalay University (2004).The Hawk moth,

Psilogramma menephron was recorded by Group III M.Sc. Term paper of

Monywa University (2004). They were also found in this area. The rest of the

eight species such as Actias selene, Attacus atlas, Loepa newara, Gangarides

rosea, Somera viridifusca, Herse convolvuli, Leucophlebia lineate and

Deilephila hypothous have not been recorded by any previous local workers.

Most of the species found in Kalay environs were included in the family of

Saturniidae, Eupterotidae, Notodontidae and Sphingidae.In the superfamilies

Bombycoidea; the family Saturniidae, there is no frenulum, although family

Eupterotidae have frenulum. All species are generally plant-feeder. The moths

are of great economic importance to living and non living compounds of the

world. Several species of family Saturniidae, those produced Tussur silks of

commerce Loepa newara was collected during the study period and this

species falls under this family and is known to produce silk. Systematic

positions of moth species are described. The comparison study of dorsal and

ventral surface of collected moth species were also described in plate 1 and 2.

Therefore, these moth species of Kalay environs should be research work is to

add further information to the moth fauna of Myanmar.

94


Acknowledgement

We are greatly indebted to Rector, U Maung Maung , Prorectors, U Myint Swe and

Dr. Khaing San for their permition to do this research work. We also would like to express

acknowledgement to Daw Kyi Kyi Soe (Professor, head), Dr. Htwe Htwe (Professor) and Dr.

Myint Myint Kyi (Associate Professor) for their suggestions and for providing available

facilities in the Zoology Department.

References

Bell, T. R. D and F. B . Scott, (1937) . The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and

Burma. Vol.V. Taylar and Frances. Red lion Court. Fleet Streets. London.

Borror , D. J and D. M. Delong (1954). An introduction to the study of Insects. Revised

Edition, Holt Rinchart and Winston. N. Y.

Carter. D. (1992) . Butterflies and Moths. First published in Great Britain by Darling

Kindersley limited, 9 Henictta street. London.

Hampson, G. F ( 1892) . The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma. Vol. I .

London, Tayler and Francis.

Khin Mar Win et al. (2004). Some Sphingidae of Myonywa. District Myonywa

University. M. Sc Term paper.

Maw Maw Nwe et al. (2004) . Taxonomic study of some moths in Mandalay Environs.

M. Sc Term paper.

May Thu Aung (2006) . Taxonomic study on Some moth species in the environs of

Pathein, M. Res . Thesis Pathein University .

Myint Myint Than (1984). The Taxonomy of Some Sphingidae of Upper Burma, M.Sc.

Thesis, Mandalay University.

Nathan (1973). The Taxonomy of Some moths of Burma . M.Sc. Thesis, Mandalay University.

95


Plate. 1 Collected moth species in Kalay environs

Upper side Under side

Actias selene, Hiibn. (1818)

Attacus atlas Linn. 1766

Loepa newara, Moore, 1872

Gangarides rosea, Wlker, 1865

Pandala dolosa, Walker. 1855

96


Plate.2 Collected moth species in Kalay environs

Upper side Under side

Somera viridifusca, Walker , 1855

Herse convolvuli Linn, 1903

Psilogramma menephron Cramer, 1903

Leucophlebia lineate West wood, 1848

Deilephila hypothous Cramer, 1903

edible algae from kalay and its surrounding area · edible algae from kalay and its surrounding...

Documents