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The importance of learning theory and equitation science to theveterinarian

Citation for published version:Doherty, O, Mcgreevy, PD & Pearson, G 2017, 'The importance of learning theory and equitation science tothe veterinarian', Applied Animal Behaviour Science, vol. 190, pp. 111-122.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2017.02.012

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Accepted Manuscript

Title: The importance of learning theory and equitationscience to the veterinarian

Authors: Orla Doherty, Paul D. McGreevy, Gemma Pearson

PII: S0168-1591(17)30063-1DOI: http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2017.02.012Reference: APPLAN 4416

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Please cite this article as: Doherty, Orla, McGreevy, Paul D., Pearson, Gemma, Theimportance of learning theory and equitation science to the veterinarian.AppliedAnimalBehaviour Science http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2017.02.012

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TITLE PAGE

The importance of learning theory and equitation science to the

veterinarian

Orla Dohertya,*, Paul D McGreevyb and Gemma Pearsonc

aIrish Equine Behaviour Clinic, Drumcrowie, Malin, Co. Donegal, Ireland.

bFaculty of Veterinary Science, University of Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia

cRoyal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin,

UK.

Corresponding author: Orla Doherty, tel: +353 86 3383642, email: orladoherty@live.ie

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REVIEW ARTICLE

Abstract

The work of veterinarians when handling horses exposes them to high risk of injury. Among

equine practitioners, the incidences of work-related injuries and work days lost due to injury

are high. Equine veterinary practitioners‟ knowledge of learning theory and equitation

science is minimal. Increasingly veterinarians are expected to provide a leadership role in

animal welfare, including behaviour medicine. However, due to deficiencies in veterinary

training, which traditionally focuses on physical aspects of health, veterinarians may be under

equipped to deal effectively with all aspects of animal behaviour. Advancing veterinarians‟

understanding of the application of learning principles for horses would improve safety,

increase ease of handling and restraint during clinical procedures and increase clinical

efficacy. As the risk of injury declines, so too would the risk of litigation. Through example,

veterinarians are ideally placed to influence and educate equestrian personnel in best practice

handling and restraint methods. Training methods that do not align with the horse‟s natural

learning abilities reduce the likelihood of optimal performance and increase the frequency of

problem behaviours as well as jeopardising equine welfare. Detection of inappropriate

training practices is an essential part of the veterinarian‟s role in identifying and addressing

causes of sub-optimal performance in the equine athlete. Poor performance and problem

behaviours that result from the use of inappropriate training practices may contribute

significantly to the current levels of wastage in the horse industry. Education of veterinarians

in equitation science could play a pivotal role in reducing wastage and improving horse

welfare globally.

Keywords:

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Equitation science

Learning theory

Veterinarians

Safety

Welfare

Performance

1. Introduction

Working with animals presents various dangers, so animal handling is a critical skill for

veterinary students and veterinarians. Large animal practitioners are most likely to have

chronic or significant injuries (Fritschi et al., 2006). For equine veterinarians, the principles

and practise of effective and humane horse-handling are of critical importance. An Australian

study of veterinarians (n=2800), reported that 51% had sustained a significant work-related

injury during their career and 26% had been injured within the past 12 months (Fritschi et al.,

2006). For a similar study in the US, the figures were 65% and 17%, respectively

(Landercasper et al., 1988). A survey of 621 equine veterinarians in the UK found that 5-8

work related injuries, sufficiently serious to affect ability to work, could be expected over a

30 year working life (BEVA, 2014).

The physical demands and risks of injury associated with equine veterinary work are

known to lessen the enjoyment of this career choice (Heath, 2004). Clearly, veterinarians not

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only have to take responsibility for their own safety but also the safety of their personnel and

patients and as well as clients and their agents (McGreevy and Dixon, 2005). This is a

significant legal responsibility, especially when the patient requires sedation, anaesthesia,

euthanasia, suturing or may be in behavioural extremis (e.g. upside down in a horse trailer

after a road-traffic accident). Little of what veterinarians do as part of their equine practice

aligns with the equid ethogram (McGreevy et al., 2009). It should not be assumed that horses

know interventions are for their long-term benefit and undoubtedly many aspects of

veterinary attention are aversive

The value of horsemanship in veterinary contexts has been described recently (Payne et

al., 2015). Horses that are handled correctly are easier to both examine and treat, while those

that are poorly handled struggle more and become generally distressed (McGreevy, 2004).

Ideally, equine veterinarians should be able to explain to their clients and personnel the

need for evidence based methods of horse handling (Payne et al., 2015). To do so, they must

demonstrate best practice in horse handling and establish credibility in this domain with horse

owners (McGreevy et al., 2011). They must recognise the occupational health and safety

responsibilities of veterinarians when handling horses (Fritschi et al., 2006). While

veterinarians will benefit from the increases in efficiency of interactions between horses and

humans when learning theory is applied, this approach also reduces exposure to litigation as a

consequence of improved calmness during veterinary interventions – and fewer potentially

dangerous evasive responses by the horse (McLean and McGreevy, 2010).

The principles that underpin good horsemanship in veterinary contexts are built on

knowledge of equine behaviour, especially learning. Equine veterinarians must be able to

anticipate the aversive aspects of human-horse interactions and most veterinary interventions

for horses (McGreevy et al., 2009). They must recognise typical equine flight responses and

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their consequences, and how to prevent these responses. They should be able to explain and

utilise the principles of stimulus control, pressure-release, timing, consistency, and over-

shadowing (McGreevy and McLean, 2010).

Experienced equine professionals can assess horse reactivity and responses to in-hand

stimuli and recognise threatening and dangerous responses in horses. They recognise how

different horses (e.g. stallions) may differ in their behavioural tendencies and how context

can influence these tendencies. They also recognise worst-case scenarios. Regardless of

whether or not they are students of equitation science, they apply the principles of associative

and non-associative learning to the implementation of in-hand signal/response associations

(McLean, A. 2005b). This allows them to achieve stimulus control of the horse‟s locomotory

responses so that the horse becomes manageable and subsequently relaxed.

Veterinarians who cannot handle horses effectively, are mostly unable to teach their

clients how to do so, an unfortunate spiral that can compromise the animal‟s health and

welfare and ultimately cause suffering (McGreevy and Dixon, 2005). In contrast,

outstanding horse-handling skills not only advance safety but also impress clients. The best

equine veterinarians not only demonstrate best practice in restraint for veterinary

interventions but also disseminate best practice (McGreevy, 2004). For example, they can

improve the horse‟s groundwork so that clear effects are seen and the handler and/or owner

can continue to apply this approach in order to ensure the horse‟s overall well-being,

effective training and safety. Furthermore, they recognise and, where appropriate, suggest

modifications to dangerous horse-handling facilities and handling methods (McGreevy,

2004). Veterinarians can assess a client‟s or colleague‟s ability to apply the fundamental

principles of learning and keep records on behavioural reactivity and responses to in-hand

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signals of equine patients and document instances in which handling issues compromise their

ability to perform adequate examination or treatment.

This review explains the importance of veterinarians having an understanding of

learning theory to optimize effectiveness of handling and restraint within the veterinary

context, and notes that the use of coercion and punishment is no longer considered ethical or

to be best practice in animal handling (McGreevy and McLean, 2009). It also reviews the

prevalence of work-related injuries to equine veterinarians and describes the level of the

teaching of learning theory (in the context of equine species and others) and components of

equitation science in veterinary curricula worldwide. The article also examines the

relationship between equitation science and equine performance, noting the role of

suboptimal training methods in preventing horses from reaching their perceived potential in

performance (McGreevy et al., 2011) and how operant conditioning is affected by mood and

arousal (Starling et al., 2013). The review then considers how equine welfare problems can

reflect widespread lack of understanding of the science that underpins horse training and how

this translates to unacceptable levels of so-called wastage in various sectors of the equine

industry (Thomson et al., 2014).

2. Work-related injuries to equine veterinarians

2.1. Prevalence

A high prevalence of work-related accidents and injuries is recognised within the

veterinary profession, particularly among those who work with horses (Fritschi et al., 2006;

Jäggin et al., 2005; Phillips et al., 2000; Reijula et al., 2003). Veterinarians and associated

support staff are 9.2 times more likely to experience a severe occupational accident than their

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medical colleagues and 2.9 times more likely to make a medical insurance claim following an

accident (Nienhaus et al., 2005). In a study investigating occupational fatalities in America,

not restricted to veterinarians, horses were responsible for 27% of 350 fatalities, second only

to cattle (Langley and Hunter, 2001). A similar study in New Mexico found horses to be the

prime cause of animal-related fatalities, being responsible for 68% of 63 deaths (Lathrop,

2007). This study also included recreational fatalities, which may explain the reduced

prevalence of cattle-related deaths. With increasing awareness of equine behaviour, and

increasing popularity of methodologies that people consider to be based on ethology

(Rozempolska-Rucinska et al, 2013), it is possible that these figures may have changes over

the last decade.

A study of Irish veterinary practitioners (n=89) found that 59.5% of veterinarians

required medical care, 34% had to take time off work and 13.5% were hospitalised due to

work-related musculoskeletal symptom (O‟Sullivan and Curran, 2008). These work-related

injuries include not only accidents but also chronic musculoskeletal disorders and work-

related stress (O‟Sullivan and Curran, 2008; Reijula et al., 2003). Similarly Fritschi et al.

(2006) found that 51–68% of Australian veterinarians are expected to sustain a significant

work-related injury in their career and 26% had at least one injury in the past 12 months.

Large-animal practitioners appear to be at greatest risk, with practitioners in large or mixed

practice being >10 times more likely to have sustained a recent injury (Landercasper et al.,

1988; Langley et al., 1995; Nienhaus et al., 2005; Phillips et al., 2000; Reijula et al., 2003). In

America a survey of veterinarians in Minnesota found that 64.6% had sustained a major

animal-related injury (Landercasper et al., 1988). Of these 17% were hospitalised and of

those 25.3% required surgery. A study looking at Finnish veterinarians found good awareness

of the risks of being involved in a work-related accident. The risk of an accident was

considered to be fairly or very high by 71% of veterinarians in equine practice in comparison

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to 57% of mixed practitioners (Reijula et al., 2003). This is not surprising considering that

34% of women and 35% of men included in the study had suffered a work-related accident in

the past 12 months.

In a study analysing accident insurance data in Germany, 87.7% of 2,058 claims made

by veterinarians were made after an occupational accident, and were more likely to be from

veterinarians working with large animals (Nienhaus et al., 2005). In this study horses were

responsible for 26% of all animal-related accidents.

In one of the most recent and comprehensive studies of its kind, the British Equine

Veterinary Association (BEVA) highlighted the fact that equine veterinarians in the UK are

more likely to sustain an injury than any other civilian occupation, including those working in

the construction industry, prison service and fire brigade (BEVA, 2014). During a 30-year

working life, they suggest the average equine veterinarian will sustain 7–8 work-related

injuries that impede them from practising.

2.2. Severity and Treatment

The severity of injuries sustained while working with horses is also a cause for concern.

Lucas found that of 2188 serious injuries sustained by equine veterinarians where 18.8%

resulted in hospital admission, 17.4% resulted in attendance at an accident and emergency

department, 33.8% required treatment by a general practitioner and 24.5% were self-treated

(Lucas et al., 2009). Self-treatment is common among veterinary practitioners, who have

what they consider to be adequate medical knowledge and equipment. This is reflected in a

survey undertaken in Minnesota and Wisconsin (Landercasper et al., 1988). In this study 17%

of veterinarians sustaining an animal-related injury required hospitalisation and 25.3% of

these required surgery. However 4% of veterinarians reported reducing their own fractures/

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dislocations, 20% sutured their own lacerations and 67.5% self-administered antibiotics.

While the prevalence of self-treatment nearly 30 years later is likely to be much reduced, it is

still likely to contribute to under-reporting of the true injury rates. These figures represent a

significant financial burden to the health services of their respective countries.

2.3. Loss of working time

In the Australian study conducted by Lucas et al. (2009) the mean number of days

absent from work following injury was 7.4 days (range 0–180). While 60% of injuries

resulted in a day or less absent from work, 11% required eight or more days‟ absence. The

veterinary profession generally is considered to have a mentality of working in spite of injury

and individuals may return to work sooner, or continue to work when they should not, due to

perceived peer pressure. Working in spite of injury can lower productivity and Lucas et al.

(2009) found veterinarians reported a mean of 16.7 days following injury in which their work

was restricted (range 0–365), with 40% of veterinarians reporting 8 or more days. Days lost

from work and reduced productivity at work represent a burden not only on the individual but

also on the practice and profession as a whole (Lucas et al., 2009). As well as time lost during

employment, a number of veterinarians choose to leave the equine sector; this may be due in

part to ongoing health problems resulting from a previous injury sustained at work (BEVA,

2014) or to a lack of job satisfaction as a result of dealing with difficult horses and sometimes

unreasonable clients. Situations such as dealing with an equine that refuses to stand still to be

examined and repeatedly kicks out, while the client refuses to restrain him, lead to frustration

for the veterinarian. A survey of equine veterinarians in Australia (Heath, 2004) revealed the

commonly cited disadvantages of equine work included, among others: clients with

unreasonable demands, clients unable to control their horses, clients who provided poor

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facilities, the degree of physical strength and exertion required, the risk of injury, especially

with ineffective handlers and/or inadequate facilities and especially with fractious horses.

These results suggest that with an increasingly female population of equine veterinarians,

who may be less likely to accept the physical side of this work, there may in the future be a

shortage of equine veterinarians competent in equine handling (Heath, 2004).

2.4. Risk factors

Recent graduates are more likely to sustain an injury than more experienced

veterinarians (Fritschi et al., 2006; Gabel and Gerberich, 2002); this may reflect experience

gained over time or that younger veterinarians are more willing to take risks to impress

colleagues and clients. Specific procedures most commonly associated with injury include

wound care, suturing, castration and stomach tubing (Lucas et al., 2009). Working closely

with animals and often undertaking procedures that may be aversive or even painful for the

animal involved, may increase the risk, as does having to physically restrain a large and

powerful animal such as a horse (Fritschi et al., 2006). Even horses that are normally placid

may react aversely when subjected to novel or painful stimuli such as may be experienced

during veterinary examination and treatment (MacLeay, 2007).

As a risk factor animals are the most frequent cause of occupational accident in the

veterinary profession and method of injury is commonly due to a bite, scratch or kick.

Unsurprisingly bone fractures are approximately 10 times more likely to occur when working

in large-animal practice (Nienhaus et al., 2005). Various factors including reportedly “Wild

animal” (83%) and “insufficient help” (74%) were considered severe or moderate risk factors

in a Finnish study in which 34% of women and 35% of men had sustained a work-related

injury in the past 12 months (Reijula et al., 2003). Describing a horse as a “wild” animal

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suggests it has had poor training or limited prior handling. Williams and Ashby (1992) found

horse behaviour to be the most significant risk factor for injury to riders and handlers, and

that it was often associated with a fear response. In a similar study Ball et al. (2007)

described associations between major traumatic injuries to equestrians and hyper-reactive

responses (spooking), insufficient training and a bad temperament. This should not be

surprising as Keeling et al. (1999) suggested the greatest proportion of equine-related deaths

were behavioural (for example bolting or bucking) rather than being performance related (for

example miscalculating the height of a jump resulting in a rider +/- horse fall). Houpt and

Mills (2006) highlight that needle-shy or non-compliant horses are not only a challenge but a

threat to the equine veterinarian and yet there is still limited training of handling techniques

based on behaviour modification to undergraduate veterinary students. Another risk factor is

time, in a Swiss study equine veterinarians were found to be at an increased risk of being

kicked when they were rushing as well as when the patient became frightened (Jäggin et al.,

2005).

2.5. Type of injury

Bruising, fractures and lacerations are the most common types of injury sustained by equine

veterinarians (Lucas et al., 2009; BEVA, 2014). Nearly one quarter of what veterinarians

described as their worst-ever injury required hospital admission, and 7% of these injuries

resulted in loss of consciousness (BEVA, 2014). The most common sites of injury were the

leg (29–33%), head and neck (20–26%) and upper extremities (20–80%) (Landercasper,

1988; Lucas et al., 2009; BEVA, 2014). With regard to fractures, specifically, Lucas et al.

(2009) found that they occur most commonly to the face and thorax/ribs followed by the

hand, lower leg and foot.

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2.6. Cause of injury

The main cause of injury in the study reported by BEVA (2014) was a kick from a hind

limb (49%), a strike with a forelimb (11%) and crush injury (5%). A study looking at injuries

to Australian equine veterinarians found 79% of injuries involved being kicked or struck by

the horse and 12.3% resulted from being crushed, pushed against or stepped on (Lucas et al.,

2009). In Minnesota the most common mechanism of injury was a kick (35.5%), bite (34%)

and crush (11.7%) (Landercasper, 1988). As this study was not exclusive to equine

veterinarians, the higher prevalence of bite injuries is likely to be a result of small-animal

work.

When looking at the most severe injuries sustained, the majority occurred when

working with pleasure horses (i.e. those owned for recreational purposes) and when the client

or owner was the person holding the horse (BEVA, 2014). This may represent a gap in the

knowledge of pleasure-horse owners. Horses not under stimulus control, particularly those

with poor acceleration and deceleration responses are more likely to exhibit hyper-reactive

and conflict behaviours (rearing, kicking, striking, barging). Therefore encouraging pleasure-

horse owners to train these basic operant responses may help to reduce this risk (McLean,

2005a).

2.7. Prevention

Reduction in injuries sustained by veterinary surgeons may be achieved by focusing on

prevention of accidents caused by animals (Nienhaus et al., 2005). This may be achieved by

additional personal protective equipment, to reduce the severity of possible injuries sustained

in an accident, and also through steps being taken to prevent these accidents occurring in the

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first place. Riding helmets are now accepted as standard equipment for horse riders in most of

the modern world, and their use has reduced the prevalence of head trauma (Ball et al., 2007;

Hawson et al., 2010; Kriss and Kriss, 1997; Moss et al., 2002). While it is easy to see how a

riding hat may offer a protective advantage when falling from a horse, many veterinary

hospitals, charity organisations and riding establishments now require staff to wear a riding

hat at all times when handling horses (BHS, 2015). Protective vests have also been suggested

as useful when equine veterinarians are dealing with fractious horses (Ball et al., 2007; Lucas

et al., 2009) although no formal recommendations have yet been made by veterinary

associations on this matter. However whilst additional personal protective equipment may

reduce the severity of injuries sustained during an accident the ideal scenario would be to

prevent accidents occurring in the first place. It is possible that a better understanding of

equine ethology, learning theory and arousal levels would allow equine veterinarians to more

accurately predict which horses are liable to react aversely, and give them the skills to handle

the horse in a way that reduces the risk of an adverse reaction.

3. Teaching of learning theory and equitation science in veterinary curricula

3.1. Knowledge of learning theory among equine professionals

It is commonly advised (Hausberger et al., 2008) that a deeper understanding of equine

behaviour may reduce the high prevalence of accidents experienced by equine veterinarians

due to the actions or reactions of their patients. However no studies to date have investigated

the level of knowledge that equine veterinarians have of the principles of learning or its

practical application. Warren-Smith and McGreevy (2008) demonstrated that accredited

equestrian coaches in Australia had a poor knowledge of learning theory. In this study 79.5%

of coaches considered positive reinforcement to be “very useful” and yet only 2.8% were able

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to correctly explain its use in horse training. Just under 51% of respondents explained it as

negative reinforcement. With regard to negative reinforcement 19.3% of coaches considered

it “very useful” and yet only 11.9% were able to correctly explain its use, with 51.5%

explaining it incorrectly as punishment. An adapted version of this study was carried out

among accredited coaches in Canada with similar results (Wentworth-Stanley, 2008). In this

study 8.6% of Canadian coaches were able to correctly explain negative reinforcement with

54.7% describing it as punishment. Positive reinforcement was correctly explained by only

5.7% of accredited coaches, with 17% describing it as negative reinforcement. Together these

studies demonstrate a poor understanding of learning theory among professionals within the

equine industry in Australia and Canada. Given that there is little or no teaching of equine

ethology or learning theory in the veterinary curriculum, there is no reason to suspect that

understanding of learning theory among veterinarians should be any different.

3.2. Literature on learning theory in equine journals

While papers reviewing equine learning have been published in the literature (Christensen et

al., 2006; Cooper, 1998; Houpt and Mills, 2006; Mills, 1998a, 1998b; Murphy and Arkins,

2007, Nicol, 2002), very little emphasis has been placed so far on the practical application of

this knowledge to the everyday working lives of equine veterinarians. This represents an area

that has the potential to reduce accidents and the stress involved in horse–veterinarian

interactions not just for the veterinarian, but also for the horse owner and the horse itself.

3.3. Influence of veterinarians on horses behaviour

As understanding equine behaviour has become increasingly popular in recent years,

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horse owners now have higher expectations of equine veterinarians to handle their horses

according to best practice (McGreevy et al., 2011). While this puts pressure on all equine

veterinarians, it is perhaps of most concern to recent graduates. Undergraduate veterinary

students are aware that, as most clients are unable to judge their clinical skills, they often

judge the competency of the new graduate on his/her ability to handle their horses. This

depends not just on their technical competence but also their ability to empathise with the

patient (Austin et al., 2007; Cawdell-Smith et al., 2007; Chapman et al., 2007; McGreevy,

2007). Veterinarians are influencing and modifying the behaviour patterns of horses

whenever they work with them, whether they intend to or not. It is important to understand

that the impact of the actions of the veterinarian depends on how the horse perceives them,

not the motives of the handler (Mills, 1998a) and this is why it is important that equine

veterinarians have an understanding of the learning processes of horses. It is also fundamental

that veterinarians understand that a quick-fix restraint technique may prompt adverse

reactions from the horse during subsequent veterinary visits (McLean, 2007).

3.4. Undergraduate Veterinary Training

In line with best practice international veterinary standards, undergraduate veterinary

students across many parts of the world, including Europe, North America and Australasia

are required to undertake several weeks participating in extramural studies in the earlier years

of the veterinary degree. This usually includes a period working in an equine establishment,

such as a riding school, professional competition yard or a stud, and this time is designed to

aid the development of the student‟s equine handling skills. Obviously the quality of their

learning depends very heavily on the knowledge and ideals of the people supervising them

during such placements.

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Veterinary colleges also dedicate lectures, practical classes and learning material to the

subject of animal handling and in more recent years there has been an increasing emphasis on

animal welfare. However, typically the focus of animal handling tends to be on restraint and

less on animal behaviour and the application of learning theory. During equine lectures

restraint methods, including application of an anti-rearing bit, nose twitch, neck twitch, and

holding a foreleg up are frequently mentioned, but systematic desensitisation using negative

reinforcement is not discussed (Austin et al., 2007; Cawdell-Smith et al., 2007; Chapman et

al., 2007; Hanlon et al., 2007; Stafford and Erceg, 2007). MacLeay (2007) describes how

Colorado State University College emphasise the importance of training veterinary students

in how the environment and human intervention are liable to affect the animal, as well as

knowing how to deal with any responses to keep students safe, encourage job satisfaction and

encourage students into large animal practice. Research has shown that a lack of experience,

coupled with frequent use of physical restraint deters students from entering large-animal

practice. Even among students that start in a mixed rural practice in Australia more than half

leave within five years (Heath, 2004). Students from urban backgrounds, who may never

have handled horses before, are at an even greater disadvantage compared to the more

traditional student with a rural background, who was probably already basically competent

around horses (Cawdell-Smith et al., 2007; Stafford and Erceg, 2007; Waran et al., 2014).

By developing equine-handling skills veterinary students increase their value to future

employers, have a smoother transition into practice, increase in confidence and may have a

reduced risk of injury (Cawdell-Smith et al., 2007; Chapman et al., 2007; Hanlon et al., 2007;

MacLeay, 2007). Effective handling improves the safety of not just the students but also

bystanders, and minimises stress and pain for the animal (Hanlon et al., 2007; Stafford et al.,

2007). Various Universities are starting to provide animal behaviour including learning and

motivation, Colorado State University College begins its animal-handling courses with an

17

introduction to learning theory (MacLeay, 2007). Sydney University teaches handling of

equids, ensuring that students understand that any pressure applied should be released as soon

as the animal begins to comply (i.e. using negative reinforcement accurately). Students learn

that minimal but effective force should be used because this reduces the stress and negative

associations made by the animal. It is emphasised that excessive force may lead to increased

fear and escape attempts, which, if successful, will be repeated more readily in the future.

The University of Edinburgh now has dedicated lectures covering the practical application of

learning theory to challenging equids, delivered to students just before entering their final

year rotations. This small intervention has resulted in increased confidence in students within

the hospital and allowed them to practise behaviour modification of equids aversive to oral

medication or injections in a safe and controlled environment (Waran et al., 2014). Students

interested in further training can take an optional three-week elective rotation in behaviour

and welfare that delivers further material on learning theory and, most important, practical

classes where students can practise training horses in the basic operant responses

(acceleration and deceleration cues), as well as backing up and training them to stand and

remain still). Target training using positive reinforcement is also taught (Waran et al., 2014).

Allowing students to handle more fractious animals poses several challenges (e.g.

student safety) and welfare and ethical dilemmas (for example the question of whether

students should be allowed to practise on animals already demonstrating a degree of stress).

Perhaps a way forward is to train the undergraduate student behaviour modification

techniques using safe and docile animals. For example, a horse may be mildly averse to

receiving oral medication but after the student is taught the correct application of both

positive and negative reinforcement they can train the horse to accept medication calmly.

This allows the student to develop skills not routinely taught, but that may prove useful if a

more fractious horse is encountered later in practice (Waran et al., 2014) (Fig 1 & 2). In the

18

future development of equine specific manikins or virtual simulation may help to provide a

safe and effective learning environment, as is already utilised in small animal teaching

(Valliyate et al., 2012) The veterinary curriculum is already overfilled with lectures and

practical classes – due to a world of ever-increasing knowledge – and dedicating time to

training veterinary students in learning theory and its application to handling equids will

continue to be challenging, unless its importance is emphasised and prioritised by those

responsible for the veterinary curricula. However teaching on the subject of safe handling of

difficult equines becomes increasingly difficult to justify as the majority of veterinary

graduates go into small-animal practice. Also the combination of increasingly tight budgets,

ever-expanding class sizes and graduate preferences for small-animal practice makes keeping

a herd of horses available solely for student training increasingly difficult to justify. A

computer model was found to be a superior teaching method when compared to traditional

instruction of how to pass a nasogastric tube in a horse, with students that undertook the

computer based learning achieving the practical faster than those that received traditional

instruction (Abutarbush et al., 2006). Hopefully future development of computer-assisted

learning packages specific to equine learning theory will improve students‟ ability to handle

more fractious animals.

4. The importance of understanding learning theory to optimise effective handling and

restraint

Horses presented to veterinarians can be fractious because of their clinical condition but

they may also be largely unhandled or have acquired dangerous responses from previous

veterinary interventions and/or handling techniques. In addition, there may be considerable

19

variation in the safety of facilities, competence of handlers and the extent to which the horse

is already primed with adrenalin secondary to trauma, pain or behavioural extremis. In the

face of necessity, generations of horsemen have developed roping techniques and other forms

of physical restraint that allowed them to carry out aversive husbandry practices on otherwise

fractious animals (Fraser, 1992; Rose and Hodgson, 1993; Waring, 1983). Applying

constricting pressure to the upper lip (use of the twitch), grasping the ear, and pinching a fold

of skin are all commonly used restraint methods for a range of potentially aversive

procedures (McGreevy, 2004). Most of such techniques are thought to create a painful focus

that is, at least initially, of more salience than the painful procedure (veterinary or other)

being carried out on another part of the horse‟s body (McGreevy, 2004). However, the

release of beta-endorphins during use of the twitch suggests an analgesic effect of the twitch

which may reduce pain during otherwise painful procedures (Lagerweij et al., 1984) and may

contribute to reduced fear of potentially frightening procedures such as clipping (Ali et al,

2015). In light of recent developments in equitation science, in particular a greater

understanding of the importance of applying learning theory to handling, training and control

of horses, (Fig 3 & 4) the need for, and advisability of continued use of such practices is

questionable on several levels:

i. Facilitating habituation to a potentially fear-inducing stimulus results in a reduction of fear,

thus facilitating calmness and improved tolerance of a previously aversive stimulus

(Christensen et al., 2006; Houpt and Mills, 2006). This may reduce the need for many

traditional forms of restraint (e.g. a gradual approach to potentially aversive

procedures such as passing a naso-gastric tube or placing an oral gag prior to oral

examination may pay dividends in terms of reduced resistance). Reduced fear means

that during future applications of the same stimulus, handling and management

20

challenges will have diminished, increasing the ease with which these horses can be

managed both for clinical and non-clinical interventions.

ii. Applying aversive stimuli to horses that are physically restrained can compromise their

welfare. In addition, during such procedures negative associations with personnel or

other aspects of the experience (such as location, odour, sounds) may result in fear

that can trigger flight behaviour and impede learning under similar circumstances in

future (location, personnel, scent for example) (LeDoux, 1994).

iii. Physical restraint allows the application of noxious stimuli, at a level and for a duration

that in current veterinary medicine are deemed unacceptable (Ladd, 2001) and

counterproductive. Allowing an animal to experience pain during a procedure

increases the risk of induction of hyperalgesia, which may persist long after the

procedure has been carried out (Sandkühler, 2009). Analgesic administration to

minimize nociceptor activity during and following surgery is standard practice

(Johnson et al., 1993). Opting to use restraint measures rather than appropriate

chemical restraint is negligent from both an ethics and welfare perspective. Short

periods of restraint may be justified to allow the appropriate medication be

administered to ease accurate delivery of medication and to lessen the likelihood of

injury to personnel. However, unless these are countered with restraint methods that

lead to positive outcomes (e.g. food rewards), they are likely to create unwelcome

associations in the medium-to-long-term.iv. Plasma beta-endorphin concentrations

have been shown to peak in horses in the early morning (Hamra et al., 1993). If

elective noxious or aversive procedures are, scheduled for that time they might induce

lower levels of pain and consequent fear (Saslow, 2002).v. While the initial result for

the horse of applying a twitch is likely to be a high level of pain, production of beta-

21

endorphins has been shown to occur quite rapidly, reducing pain levels (Lagerweij et

al., 1984). The use of the twitch as a method of restraint can be justified only if it

enables the administration of a psychotropic drug (McGreevy, 2004).In light of the

above, the use of effective and evidence-based handling and restraint methods by

veterinarians is essential for several reasons:• To reduce the likelihood of the horse

struggling and resisting examination and treatment.• To demonstrate the most

effective way to the owner of restraining and managing the horse during subsequent

necessary interventions, such as administering medications, changing dressings, etc.

• To develop a relationship of trust with the owner. Watching the veterinarian use effective,

rapid-acting and humane handling techniques that result in a calm horse will increase the

owner‟s trust in and respect for the veterinarian.

• Using internationally recognised best practice protects the individual veterinarian from

possible litigation, whereas the use of techniques not based on scientific principles may be

interpreted in a courtroom setting as professional negligence.

5. Methods for improving Veterinary Management of Horses for examination and

treatment

Building a relationship with a client by acknowledging and relating to his/her animal is

a critical element in veterinary consultation models (Radford et al., 2006). In addition to

reducing the ease of carrying out a detailed clinical examination, inappropriate handling can

affect diagnostic parameters (McGreevy et al., 2005) and even play a critical role in a

compromised patient‟s ability to cope (Broom and Johnson, 1993). However, reactivity in

22

horses may be lowered through correct handling procedures and by learning appropriate

novel responses (Nicol, 2002). For example, through operant conditioning a horse may be

taught to remain immobile on command, and also to lower the head (McLean and McLean,

2005). Both responses are incompatible with fear and flight responses and increase the ease

and safety with which a medical examination can be carried out. An education in ethology

and learning theory also equips veterinarians to recognise ways in which horses successfully

modify the behaviour of naïve handlers and facilitate the education of owners in the

application of learning theory and the use of training principles. Ultimately this will improve

not only equine behaviour during veterinary examination and treatment but also during

general day-to-day handling and husbandry (McGreevy, 2004).

When handling horses during potentially pain- or fear-inducing situations, it pays to

bear in mind that horses rarely forget aversive procedures (LeDoux, 1994). Spontaneous

recurrence of fear responses at a later time may compromise safety of both horse and handler,

by resulting in unpredictable and potentially dangerous fear / evasive responses during future

veterinary interventions In addition, through advances in the study of moods in animals, it is

thought that a negative mood can be brought on by a series of aversive experiences, resulting

in increased escape or avoidance tendencies (McBride and Mills, 2012).

Classical conditioning allows an animal to form associations between neutral or

unconditioned stimuli (such as a particular scent) and aversive stimuli (such as the experience

of fear) and these can perpetuate fear responses in that horse when subsequently exposed, for

example, to the scent. However, the use of scent, in the form of calming pheromones, may

also facilitate a reduction in anxiety levels in horses during fear-inducing situations (Gaultier

and Pageat, 2002) and the commercial availability of a synthetic equine appeasing

pheromone, shown to reduce cardiac and behavioural indicators of fear, may benefit

23

clinicians who routinely handle frightened horses (Cozzi et al, 2013; Falewee et al, 2006; Van

Sommeren and Van Dierendonck, 2010). By the same token, it is quite possible that

frightened or emotional handlers may emit odours that increase arousal levels of horses being

handled (Saslow, 2002), making safe and effective handling or training more difficult.

Primary reinforcers, such as food, may be of value in both positive reinforcement and

counterconditioning. In addition, vigorous scratching in the region of the withers, easily

applied by a handler, reduces heart rate (Feh and de Mazières, 1993) and may also be of use

in counterconditioning, such that a positive association with a previously aversive stimulus

may be facilitated (Fig 5). Positive reinforcement can also be successful in shaping new,

desired responses, such as approaching or entering an area that previously elicited stalling or

escape attempts. After training the horse to approach a novel target through positive

reinforcement, the target can then be placed progressively closer to, and eventually at the

desired location. This has been used in overcoming aversion to trailer loading (Ferguson and

Rosales‐Ruiz, 2001), and could be used in veterinary hospitals or clinics. Combined or

individual use of positive reinforcement and targeting could help overcome fear of / aversion

to entering examination or procedure areas such as stocks and prep areas. Positive

reinforcement may have limited ability to overcome high levels of fear, but that said, the use

of positive reinforcement and counterconditioning responses to less aversive fear-inducing

stimuli may reduce the levels of restraint and/or medication required (Fig 6).

Training desired responses or eliminating undesired ones may be more successful if the

training method selected is the most suitable one for the temperament of the horse in question

(Starling et al., 2013). Neurobiological and behavioural studies have identified consistent

differences in individuals in relation to:

24

i. Sensitivity to aversion (these horses are more likely to be described as “flighty”, “highly

reactive to novel objects” or “neurotic” (Gosling and John, 1999).

ii. Sensitivity to reward (these horses are likely to be described as “extrovert”, and are more

likely to show higher levels of exploratory behaviour) (Morris et al., 2002).

Positive reinforcement may be very effective in horses that are highly motivated to

acquire a reward, whereas a low level of pressure (through the use of negative reinforcement)

may be sufficient to achieve performance and training of the desired responses with horses

that are highly sensitive to aversion (Lansade and Simon, 2010). Positive reinforcement has

the added advantage of inducing positive emotional responses to the training situation

(Sankey et al., 2010), which subsequently reduce the likelihood of escape or avoidance

efforts by the horse in that situation (McBride and Mills, 2012).

25

While further research is required, it has been suggested that head-lowering results in

increased calmness and that this may be used to lower arousal levels in anxious horses

(McLean and McLean, 2005). Mean arterial blood pressure has been shown to significantly

decrease in horses when the head is lowered (Parry et al., 1980). Given that most veterinary

examinations and treatments require immobility, lowered arousal levels are desirable.

Excessive arousal may lead to reduced performance (Bridgeman, 2009; McBride and Mills,

2012) or reduced ability to learn new responses (Broadhurst, 1959) and will hamper the

efforts of the veterinarian or handler to control the horse and achieve the desired levels of

immobility. Therefore, teaching the horse to lower the head through the use of negative

reinforcment may be of value, particularly in hospitalised horses subjected to repeat clinical

examination or procedures. Hospitalisation will facilitate such training during short but

repeated training sessions which will help increase control and immobility and reduce

arousal levels while being examined / treated.The application of learning theory by

veterinarians in their day-to day handling of horses that are frequently frightened, in pain and

highly aroused will reduce injury, improve welfare, reduce the frequency of litigation arising

from inappropriate or ineffective handling techniques and strengthen the vet–client bond.

6. Suboptimal training methods prevent horses from reaching their perceived

performance potential

Many equine athletes fail to reach their perceived potential in training and competition

due to the use of training methods used by coaches that do not align with the horse‟s learning

abilities (McLean, 2005a). While learning theory is being taught to students of psychology,

its presence in the curricula of equestrian coaches remains infrequent (Warren-Smith and

McGreevy, 2008; Wentworth-Stanley, 2008). Insufficient understanding of the mechanisms

26

that underpin the most common training construct in horses, negative reinforcement, among

coaches and consequently their pupils is thought to contribute to suboptimal technique. Such

errors will result in a failure to reward the desired behaviour and inadvertent rewarding of

undesired responses (Mills and Nankervis, 1999), both of which will lead to poor acquisition

of desired responses (McGreevy and McLean, 2010).

In the absence of detectable clinical problems, suboptimal performance of the equine

athlete can prove highly challenging for veterinarians. Among other factors, it can reflect the

deleterious effects of certain training methods (McGreevy and McLean, 2010; McLean,

2005a), fear, pain, or fear of pain (Casey, 2007) and stress (Anshel and Anderson, 2002).

Almost all equine training methods rely on negative reinforcement (i.e. the immediate

removal of pressure when the desired response has been offered (McLean, 2005b). Pressure

is usually applied via equipment such as the bit, bridle and spurs and also by direct

application of leg pressure. While data on acceptable levels of bit-induced pressure are still

lacking, it is highly likely that bits are capable of applying highly aversive levels of pressure

to sensitive tissues in the oral cavity (Cook and Strasser, 2003). Detection of pain in horses is

notoriously difficult (Dalla Costa et al., 2014), so the challenge for anyone handling horses is

to identify when pressure becomes pain (McGreevy, 2011).

Horses behavioural responses to pain and fear are similar (Casey, 2007), typically

showing evasive or flight responses in order to reduce exposure to the painful stimulus. Pain

during an interaction with a rider or trainer may result in anticipation of pain (and resultant

fear) during future interactions with that handler or in similar circumstances (McBride and

Mills, 2012). In addition, fearful animals are less likely to trial new responses (Broadhurst,

1959) and thus become more difficult to train. Fear is also thought to persist indefinitely

(LeDoux, 1994). So while trainers may condition novel behaviours to replace previously

27

performed undesirable fear responses, spontaneous regression is still possible. Therefore,

avoidance of both pain and fear during training are essential for both optimal welfare and

performance.

In addition to the possible impact of pain or fear, advances in the study of mood in

animals may help inform trainers‟ choices of training methods (Starling et al., 2013).

Repeated aversive or unpleasant experiences are thought to induce a negative mood that may

increase the likelihood of an animal performing escape and avoidance responses (McBride

and Mills, 2012). Where possible, the use of positive reinforcement instead of, or alongside,

negative reinforcement will help create positive emotional responses to training situations

(Sankey et al., 2010). Furthermore, the level of arousal is recognised to influence the outcome

of training in animals, with different levels of arousal best suited for the training of tasks of

varying degrees of complexity (Broadhurst, 1959). Further exploration of the interaction of

arousal and mood and how these influence the effectiveness of different training methods, in

particular those based on operant conditioning, have been described (Starling et al., 2013) and

it is likely that progress in this area will substantially optimise training.

Stress has been shown to compromise learning and performance in several ways,

including reducing the working memory (Valenchon et al., 2013), and causing atrophy of the

hippocampus (Sapolsky, 2000; Watanabe et al., 1992), which may also result in a reduction

in memory formation. Other recognised physical consequences of stress in horses include

gastric ulceration (McClure et al., 2005). The causes of equine gastric ulceration syndrome

(EGUS) are multifactorial and may reflect feeding regimes, inter-feed intervals, timing of

exercise relative to feed availability but also a legacy of stress (Luthersson et al., 2009). High

levels of gastric ulceration have been found in horses used in various equestrian disciplines

(Luthersson et al., 2009). It has been argued that where training methods contribute to high

28

stress levels, and result in gastric ulcers, equine performance may be compromised (Franklin

et al., 2008).

Learned helplessness is a psychological condition that can emerge after exposure to

unpredictable aversive situations that the animal/individual has no control over and from

which it cannot escape (Maier and Seligman, 1976). Eventually an animal with learned

helplessness will no longer even try to escape the aversive situation even if the opportunity

arises (Hall et al, 2008) Training methods that rely on the sustained use of high levels of

pressure, from which the horse cannot escape by offering the desired response, can affect

training and performance. Learned helplessness in a riding horse may reduce responsiveness

to a rider‟s cues (Odberg and Bouissou, 1999). Riders or trainers unaware of this process may

apply stronger pressure (in the form of spurs, whips, and more severe bits) that may result in

the horse experiencing pain or fear. The outcomes of learned helplessness are said to include

deficits in motivation, cognition and emotion (Maier and Seligman, 1976). In species other

than horses, these have been shown to reduce performance, learning ability and, ultimately,

cause emotional depression. Learned helplessness is thought to occur in ridden horses, with

some equestrian training techniques imposing the conditions likely to induce this state (Hall

et al., 2008). Definitive diagnosis of learned helplessness in a horse is difficult since the

condition is not accompanied by measurable changes in clinical parameters, and the horse

may appear to be compliant in training and performance, but it should be on the

veterinarian‟s list of differential diagnoses in investigating suboptimal performance in horses.

Conflict behaviours are undesirable, sporadic behaviours thought to be performed as a

result of a loss of predictability and controllability in an animal‟s world (Wiepkema, 1987)

(See Christensen and McLean in this issue). Lack of clarity and consistency in an animal‟s

world results in the performance of conflict behaviours in a range of species. Conflict

29

behaviours displayed by horses include hyper-reactive responses such as bucking or bolting

(McLean and McGreevy, 2010). In the ridden horse, inconsistencies in handling and training

methods, or the application of opposing pressures (such as simultaneous leg and bit pressure

where horses are ridden with so-called strong contact) may contribute to the performance of

conflict behaviours, which not only detract from performance but also jeopardise the safety of

both horse and rider (McGreevy and McLean, 2010).

While the above factors may be of primary importance to trainers and riders, awareness

of the impact of stress, fear, pain, inconsistency and lack of predictability on the horse may

help to improve a veterinarian‟s ability to first, handle interact with directly and second,

diagnose the causes of under-performance of equine athletes at all levels. Following the

diagnosis and elimination of clinical problems that contribute to reduced performance, a

working knowledge of the environmental factors and training methods that affect

performance will allow the veterinarian to modify environmental, management and training

factors and facilitate a return to optimal performance.

7. Equine welfare problems due to widespread lack of understanding of the

principles of learning

In all horse-handling situations, including training and restraint, the use of pressure

(through the application of negative reinforcement) carries the inherent possibility of pain

and, in some cases, tissue damage (McGreevy et al., 2012). Whether or not the welfare of a

horse is threatened as a result of a human intervention depends on how the horse perceives

the interaction (Mills, 1998a). Development of a validated horse grimace scale for scoring

pain is a welcome advance in the area of pain detection in horses (Dalla Costa et al., 2014)

although it is of use as a research tool rather than of practical use in the field. Behavioural

30

indicators may not faithfully reflect physiological responses, such as heart rate, to stressful or

fear-inducing situations (Christensen et al., 2006). This may be inherent to being herbivorous

in that overt manifestations of distress may attract the attention of predators. Regardless of

the origins of the tendency not to show behavioural indicators of pain, it generally increases

the challenge of detecting distress and safeguarding horse welfare.

Where uncontrolled flight responses may threaten safety of both horse and rider, the

use of high levels of pressure to control the horse may be justified (Hawson et al., 2010).

However, where training methods routinely rely on coercion through force rather than the use

of subtle pressure and methods that align with the horse‟s natural learning abilities and

limitations, reduced progress and a higher frequency of problem behaviours is likely

(McLean, 2005a). The routine use of particular methods of training and restraint, accepted

both by the equestrian community and regulatory bodies, is coming under scrutiny for

possible deleterious effects. For example, excessive tightening of nosebands, facilitated by a

“crank”, may cause reduced blood perfusion to skin distal to the noseband and may increase

stress levels (McGreevy et al., 2012). Whip use in horseracing may cause pain and tissue

damage and has been greatly restricted in Norway as a result of public concerns (Jones et al.,

2015).The use of draw reins, a system of reins used by riders to draw the horse‟s head

towards the chest have been banned at competition venues in Switzerland as of 1 January

2016 (Leste-Lasserre, 2015).

Some behaviour problems, historically thought to be the consequence of clinical

problems, may be attributable to poor riding and training (Waran, 2005). Most behaviour

problems can be treated successfully through assessment of the problem based on an

understanding of learning principles and can subsequently be modified by application of the

31

principles of learning theory (Cooper, 1998; McGreevy and McLean, 2010; McLean and

McLean, 2008).

The low levels of knowledge of learning theory found among coaches in Australia and

Canada (Warren-Smith and McGreevy, 2008; Wentworth-Stanley, 2008) and the widespread

absence of learning theory in the veterinary curriculum imply that methods of training and

restraint that do not align with known learning abilities of the horse are prevalent. If trainers,

riders and handlers have a poor understanding of learning theory, higher levels of restraint, or

in many cases punishment, are likely to be the method of choice in situations that cause fear

or flight responses in the horse. The use of punishment can quickly result in reduced welfare

and possible abuse of the horse (Mills, 1998a). The appropriate application of learning theory

contributes to reduced wastage in the horse industry (Minero and Canali, 2009) and increased

rider and handler safety (Hawson et al., 2010).

It is unlikely that causes of stress responses in the ridden horse can be completely

eliminated from equine training procedures, but the concept of ethical equitation demands

that recognised stressors are mitigated (Jones and McGreevy, 2010). Standard steps in

training, such as mounting the horse for the first time, have been shown to result in an

increase in salivary cortisol production (Schmidt et al., 2010). Other common techniques

used in training have been shown to impact a horse‟s life not only during training but also

between training sessions (McGreevy et al., 2010). Techniques such as hyperflexion may

trigger confusion, loss of pre-trained responses to bit pressure, and behaviours indicative of

conflict (McGreevy et al., 2010). However, with the progress of research in learning theory,

the use of techniques known to reduce physiological stress responses can help safeguard

equine welfare by guiding the choice of training and control techniques. For example,

desensitisation to a fear-inducing stimulus has been shown to result in fewer flight responses

32

and a shorter time to achieve the desired loss of flight response to the stimulus than either

counterconditioning or habituation (Christensen et al., 2006).

The role of the veterinarian as a clinician, working towards restoring full health and

optimal performance should not overshadow the responsibility of the veterinarian to

safeguard the horse‟s welfare. While the impact of feeding regime, housing and routine

management on welfare and behaviour have been described elsewhere (Cooper et al., 2000;

Franklin et al., 2008; Luescher et al., 1998), it is important that veterinarians do not

automatically assume that training methods, even those used by elite riders, are optimal

(McGreevy et al., 2011). The use of suboptimal training methods can compromise health as

well as performance and welfare. Treatment of presenting clinical problems without

addressing the causal training methodologies is likely to result in recurrence of presenting

problems and further deterioration of welfare.

8. Wastage in the equine industry

Wastage in the horse industry is an issue that should concern veterinarians for a number

of reasons including welfare concerns and financial implications for owners and the industry

as a whole. Lack of widespread understanding of learning principles contribute to the

development of behaviour patterns which contribute to horses being retired or transferred

from the equestrian sport for which they were bred and may contribute directly to wastage

figures. The financial and welfare implications of wastage within the horse industry have

prompted a range of studies into the rate at which horses are removed from the discipline for

which they were bred. Many of these studies focus on the Thoroughbred racing industry, with

fewer data being available on levels of wastage among non-Thoroughbreds. For the

practising veterinarian, such studies help to throw light on the clinical conditions most

33

responsible for loss of training days, or performance, and may help inform the development

of preventive measures to be applied to management and training regimes. Lameness is a

predominant cause of loss of performance days, responsible for 57% training failure among

the racing Thoroughbred population in a study by Lindner and Dingerkus (1993), with

respiratory problems cited as another major problem. The main reason, however, that

Thoroughbreds do not enter the racing population is likely to be related to behaviour (i.e. lack

of locomotory potential). There is evidence that Thoroughbreds that are not calm before

racing underperform (Hutson and Haskell, 1997), so the failure to handle racehorses correctly

as juveniles and novices can compromise their potential as racehorses for life. A recent

development within the horse industry, whereby racehorses are re-trained for general use as a

non-racing riding horse goes some way toward addressing the issue of what happens the

racehorse when its racing career has ended. Interest in this development has been catered for

by the introduction of „Racehorse to Riding horse‟ classes at many horse shows in Ireland

and the UK in recent years.

Most published studies have examined details of clinical problems, but have provided

less detail on causes not categorised as clinical problems. The explanation “horses showing

little or no ability to race” was cited by Jeffcott et al. (1982) as the most common reason for

Thoroughbred racehorses not competing or competing less than the average number of times.

“Miscellaneous other conditions”, and “unknown causes” accounted for 10% of wastage in

Thoroughbred racehorses in Guanteng, South Africa (Olivier et al., 1997), while 28% of 171

UK owners of event horses declined to re-register their horses for a second year as they felt

the horse had under-achieved (O‟Brien et al., 2005). In the same study, 8.2% cited “other

reasons”. Withdrawal of 4 horses (out of 16) and 2 ponies (out of 6) selected for participation

in the European Eventing Championships (2010, 2011) was attributed tothe “Animal not

meeting the competition criteria” (Munsters et al., 2013). In France, 66% of 3100 horses sent

34

for slaughter were aged between two and seven years. Clinical reasons for slaughter were not

available (Odberg and Bouissou, 1999). In a separate study, clinical reasons were cited as the

cause for slaughter of up to 48% of 2975 horses (average age 8.5 years), in a Munich abattoir

with no clinical reasons listed for the remainder (Odberg and Bouissou, 1999). This led to the

authors positing that behaviour problems may be the cause of slaughter in a significant

number of young and clinically healthy horses.

In a study investigating the incidence of misbehaviour in Pony Club horses and ponies,

owners recorded misbehaviour during 3% of days when the horses were ridden; of these,

52% of incidents were classified as “dangerous” (Buckley et al., 2004)., The frequency of

injuries caused by horses or horse riding has been recorded in a large number of studies and

summarised by Hawson et al. (2010). Breeding for traits deemed desirable in competition,

such as a particular temperament or gait characteristics, may contribute to inadvertent

selection for other traits that increase the requirement for better equestrian skills and training

abilities (McLean and McGreevy, 2010).

The veterinarian is ideally placed to advise horse owners, riders and trainers on ethical

and evidence based training and handling methods that should be utilized to address

deficiencies in training and behaviour. Clearly, this is a novel role for many veterinarians but

it is expected to grow (Derksen and Clayton, 2007). Failure to give appropriate advice may

contribute both to loss of the horse or pony from the practice and also the owner as a client,

with subsequent commercial implications. However, of greater concern are the welfare

implications of the consequences of reduced equine performance. The prevalence of the use

of anthropomorphic descriptions of equine misbehavior (Hawson et al., 2011; Oddie et al.,

2014) suggests that when a horse is deemed to be lazy, bold or strong, stronger methods of

control are used. . In the situation where equine performance fails to meet expectations, riders

35

and trainers are likely to take remedial action. When such measures succeed, horses and

ponies are likely to progress or at least remain performing within their discipline and will not

contribute to the wastage statistics. In contrast, where attempts to address the apparent deficit

in the horse‟s performance are unsuccessful, it is likely that before being sent to slaughter or

retirement, greater levels of force, restraint or punishment may have been applied. There are

no data documenting the methods used in advance of decisions being made to retire, sell or

slaughter/euthanize horses due to inadequate performance. However, it is possible that the

welfare of the horse in this situation may deteriorate while owner, trainer or rider attempt to

address the existing problem.

For every horse failing to reach its perceived potential and contributing to wastage

statistics, there are likely to be attendant threats to welfare. Without accurate data, the true

contribution of behaviour problems to wastage statistics will remain unknown. Further

research is warranted to identify the contribution of behavioural issues to slaughter and

overall wastage figures.

9. Conclusion

The rapid development of the field of equitation science over the past decade promises

to have a positive impact on equine welfare worldwide. The prospect of veterinarians

applying and disseminating the principles of learning is exciting because it has the potential

to improve welfare, reduce wastage and optimise performance. For this to occur,

incorporation of learning theory and equitation science into veterinary curricula is essential.

With thorough working knowledge of the principles of equitation science, equine

veterinarians can increase their own safety and clinical efficacy while improving their

relationships with clients. Veterinarians with these competencies can identify and resolve

36

causes of sub-optimal performance and educate handlers and owners in optimal handling and

training methods.

Incorporation of equitation science and learning theory into the veterinary curricula is

essential for the veterinary profession to keep abreast of the rapid advances in the field of

equitation science and become scholars in the field. Horse owners and riders have increased

expectations of the veterinary profession to apply evidence-based handling techniques.

Although, to some extent, these expectations are likely to drive the veterinary demand for

professional development in equitation science, proactive engagement by the veterinary

profession remains essential. In addition to the benefits outlined above, veterinarians

educated in equitation science can be expected to help assure the welfare of horses by

assisting in the development of competition regulations that prohibit the use of training

methods or equipment known to compromise welfare. For equitation science to blossom fully

in veterinary contexts, further research is needed in many areas, including the accurate

detection of pain, the impact of traditional training methods and equipment on welfare and

performance and the degree of wastage in the horse industry due to undesirable behaviour.

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Conflict of interest statement

None

Acknowledgements

Not applicable

Research highlights

Not applicable

49

50

Figs 1 & 2: Using negative reinforcement, the handler removes the syringe each time the horse

relaxes, thereby rewarding the behaviour. Progressing gradually from the cheek towards the mouth

allows administration of oral medication without creating a fear response in a horse that was

previously averse to receiving oral medication.

51

Figs 3 & 4: Horses can be trained to calmly accept examination using positive reinforcement rather

than restraint

52

Fig 5: Scratching a horse around the wither region enables relaxation in this mare who had been

anxious about her foal receiving treatment

53

Fig 6: Distraction with a „LicketTM‟