edited dissertation

103
1 CHAPTER ONE 1.0 Introduction 1.1 Background to the study As part of a tertiary institution, those in ELT will either belong to the power structure wielding the control that comes with possession of the valued commodities of knowledge and expertise, or they will be on the fringes doing just what those who hold power require them to do. (Pennington: 1992, p20) This study investigates issues influencing the effective development and implementation of supplementary English language programmes at Pakistani colleges/universities. Having taught English and communication courses at a number of Pakistani institutions over a period of 8 years, I have observed that the planning and implementation of English language courses and induction of English language Teaching (ELT) faculty is a fairly arbitrary exercise. The dearth of a recognizable curriculum framework at most Pakistani universities and the absence of consistent faculty development has meant that the quality of ELT courses is frequently compromised. This is a situation highlighted in the UNESCO report (1998) on curriculum design and development at all strata of Pakistans educational sector which states that some serving teachers are, of course, involved in curriculum development. But . their contribution to the curriculum development is, for all practical purposes, nominal. The main reason for this is that they lack the requisite expertise. The existing training programmes provide little exposure in this area, and the teachers academic qualifications do not necessarily contribute to curricular creativity. (1998, p 110) Additional problems are caused by what the report further refers to as the lack of follow-up of actual curriculum implementation in classroom practice in which the curriculum actually implemented is generally different from the official curriculum document. The classroom teacher, who primarily focuses on the textbooks and assessment, does not take into account the educational objectives. No evaluation of the implemented curriculum is carried out; hence no feedback is received to revise the curriculum. In short, each of the steps in the curriculum development process, as outlined above, tends to occur in isolation from the others and there is no visible coherent curriculum development activity (my italics) Within the Pakistani educational sector, the lack of visible coherent curriculum development activity is compounded by a lack of a comprehensive vision and policy on teacher education to elevate teaching into a full fledged professional status (ITACEC Teacher Education Position

Upload: resfreak

Post on 30-Sep-2015

213 views

Category:

Documents


0 download

DESCRIPTION

dissertation on teacher induction

TRANSCRIPT

  • 1

    CHAPTER ONE

    1.0 Introduction

    1.1 Background to the study

    As part of a tertiary institution, those in ELT will either belong to the power structure wielding the control that comes with possession of the valued commodities of knowledge and expertise, or

    they will be on the fringes doing just what those who hold power require them to do. (Pennington: 1992, p20)

    This study investigates issues influencing the effective development and implementation of

    supplementary English language programmes at Pakistani colleges/universities. Having taught

    English and communication courses at a number of Pakistani institutions over a period of 8

    years, I have observed that the planning and implementation of English language courses and

    induction of English language Teaching (ELT) faculty is a fairly arbitrary exercise. The dearth of

    a recognizable curriculum framework at most Pakistani universities and the absence of consistent

    faculty development has meant that the quality of ELT courses is frequently compromised.

    This is a situation highlighted in the UNESCO report (1998) on curriculum design and

    development at all strata of Pakistans educational sector which states that

    some serving teachers are, of course, involved in curriculum development. But . their contribution to the curriculum development is, for all practical purposes, nominal. The main reason for this is that they lack the requisite expertise. The existing training programmes provide little exposure in this area, and the teachers academic qualifications do not necessarily contribute to curricular creativity. (1998, p 110)

    Additional problems are caused by what the report further refers to as the lack of follow-up of

    actual curriculum implementation in classroom practice in which

    the curriculum actually implemented is generally different from the official curriculum document. The classroom teacher, who primarily focuses on the textbooks and assessment, does not take into account the educational objectives. No evaluation of the implemented curriculum is carried out; hence no feedback is received to revise the curriculum. In short, each of the steps in the curriculum development process, as outlined above, tends to occur in isolation from the others and there is no visible coherent curriculum development activity (my italics)

    Within the Pakistani educational sector, the lack of visible coherent curriculum development

    activity is compounded by a lack of a comprehensive vision and policy on teacher education to

    elevate teaching into a full fledged professional status (ITACEC Teacher Education Position

  • 2

    Paper: 2004, p2). The absence of an agreed national minimum criteria for teacher education at

    various levels of education (ibid, p5) and lack of a system for accreditation or for the regulation

    of teacher standards within and across provinces (ibid, p15) also mean that the teaching

    professionals receive little relevant training.

    While the scope of these issues is very broad, the dissertation will be restricted to confirming

    how the problems referred to impact the quality of supplementary English language programme

    development and implementation at Pakistani Higher Education (HE) institutions.

    1.2 Aims of the study and key ideas

    The aim of this dissertation will be explicated through the following discussion. Language

    programme development encompasses the interplay of interconnected elements and the effective

    utilization of human and material resources. At the outset, it is important to clarify what the term

    programme signifies in the context of this dissertation. English language and communication

    courses offered at Pakistani universities conform to the definition offered by Weir and Roberts

    (1994, p3) who describe programme as any organized educational activity offered on a

    continuing basis. Henceforth, programme and course will be used interchangeably as the

    difference in meaning is too nominal to merit distinction. Richards (1990, p1) attributes

    the success of a language program to far more than the mere act of teaching and contends that as with any successful educational program, a number of levels of planning, development, and implementation are involved. Goals and objectives for the program have to be developed as well as syllabuses and instructional materials. Instructional strategies have to be determined, teachers selected and trained, and tests and assessment procedures chosen, Once the program is in operation, procedures are needed to enable the program to be monitored and its effects on learners and learning evaluated.

    However, the act of planning, no matter how systematic, cannot substitute for the processes of

    teaching and of learning which remain pivotal to the success of all educational programmes. In

    Nunans (1988, p1) words the notion that planning equals teaching and that teaching equals

    learning is nave; Nunan further stresses that the equation is much more complex than this.

    Thus, programme development and teaching have to be carefully factored into an equation that

    remains workable within a wide variety of language learning contexts.

    In Pakistan, the English language has the status of an official language and is used as the

    language of governmental correspondence. English is also the language of the corporate, medical

    and other professional sectors. It is taught as a compulsory subject from at least Grade 5 onwards

    swaleha shigriNoteAccepted set by swaleha shigri

    swaleha shigriNoteMigrationConfirmed set by swaleha shigri

  • 3

    in most parts of the country. At tertiary level, a number of institutions offer degrees in English

    and related subjects. However, the study of the English language is not confined to linguistics or

    literature. Tertiary institutions offering professional qualifications in fields such as medicine,

    engineering, technology and management sciences incorporate English and related subjects as a

    compulsory segment of their respective curricula. Depending on the academic focus of the

    universities, English is taught in the form of modules such as communication skills, English

    Language, Technical Communication and Business Communication. For the most part, these

    modules are a degree requirement and are graded or at the very least require a Pass in the

    concerned subject. The fact that English functions as the lingua franca of international

    communication, commerce, science and technology and education and has an official status

    within Pakistan has created an imperative for Pakistani HE institutions to emphasize the teaching

    and learning of English skills within curricula in general.

    Yet the quality of English language instruction and of the language learning environment varies

    from institution to institution and in most cases from teacher to teacher. At most Pakistani

    universities which do not offer degrees in English, the peripheral role of

    language/communication courses is in contrast to the actual importance of effective

    communication for students and/or teachers. The quality of such courses is thus dependent upon

    the efforts and calibre of individual teachers rather than upon nationally determined curriculum

    guidelines.

    For reasons discussed in section 1.1, it has come to be that certain curriculum processes are

    overlooked to the detriment of the participants in the teaching and learning situation. The

    primary difficulty arises with the process of assessing the learners needs. Most programmes are

    designed with reference to the teachers assumptions about the learners needs with little or no

    student input. While the teachers experience of learners is valuable, in order to draw valid

    conclusions about students there is a need to seek data from other sources. Needs

    assessment/analysis mechanisms ranging from questionnaires, tutorials to discussions prior to

    and during the course are a valuable source of data about what the learners need and want from

    the programme. This is not simply a matter of creating a learner friendly course but of creating a

    successful programme.

    Secondly, as universities expand, there is increasing demand for new English language teachers.

    Most English language teachers in Pakistan have ELT qualifications but little experience in

  • 4

    teaching science or engineering or business communication. Post induction for teachers may be

    more productive if support mechanisms such as mentoring or peer development programmes are

    used for teacher development.

    Thirdly, in order to assess whether the programme is succeeding and/or has been successful,

    educational managers and practitioners at Pakistani universities need to look at whether existing

    course evaluation mechanisms are adequate or not and if such procedures are not in place, to

    establish evaluative mechanisms that can allow feedback from programme participants to shape

    the programme as both an ongoing and summative exercise. The question of formative and

    summative evaluation will be dealt with in section 3.4.3.

    In view of the growing importance of the English Language for a country looking to achieve

    economic revitalization via scientific and technological progress, Pakistans Higher Education

    Commission (HEC) has launched a major project encapsulating English Language teaching

    reforms the overall goal of which is to bring about a significant improvement in the learning and

    teaching of English Language and research in the degree awarding institutions and universities of

    Pakistan. The major themes for the plan of action for National Committee on English are Faculty

    Development, Curriculum Development, Computer assisted language learning, Research and

    publication, testing and evaluation and reorganization of English Language centres in

    universities of Pakistan (HEC website).

    Taking into account three of the major foci delineated above; namely, curriculum development

    and evaluation and faculty development, this dissertation aims to investigate the curriculum

    framework underscoring English language programmes at the tertiary level in Pakistan and the

    respective roles of needs assessment, programme evaluation and faculty support structures.

    1.3 Limitations and constraints

    This study could have benefited from having a larger scope as the problems related to curriculum

    development and implementation and faculty induction/development are common to all levels of

    education as well as to disciplines across the spectrum. However it would not have been practical

    to investigate the situation in its entirety within the scope of such a limited study. Although data

    was collected from teachers and students in Pakistan, because I could not travel personally to

    Pakistan for the purpose of data collection and due to the fact that most of the institutions were

  • 5

    closed for the summer, it was not possible to survey/interview as many respondents as would

    have been desirable.

  • 6

    CHAPTER TWO

    2.0 Research Methodology

    2.1 Participants

    While representative samples allow the obtaining of information from a segment of the

    population for the purpose of generalizing back to the entire population (Ruane: 2005, p105), the

    constraints involved in acquiring data from tertiary level teachers teaching at different

    institutions throughout Pakistan necessitates the employment of purposive sampling from a

    specified population (Black:1993,p57).The participants of the research were 7 university level

    teachers teaching/working at selected institutions and universities in the twin cities of

    Rawalpindi and Islamabad and Lahore in Pakistan. The participants comprised both male and

    female faculty members working at the National University of Sciences & Technology (NUST),

    Lahore University of Management Sciences (LUMS) and the Curriculum Wing at the Ministry

    of Education. Engineering, technology, management sciences and medicine are some of the core

    disciplines offered at NUST. LUMS has two schools: the Suleman Dawood School of Business

    and the School of Arts and Sciences which offer graduate and post graduate programmes in

    management sciences and in computer science, computer engineering, mathematics, Law and

    Economics respectively. One of the respondents was an English language specialist, with many

    years of tertiary level teaching and administrative experience, employed at the Curriculum Wing

    at the Ministry of Education in Pakistan. The teachers who participated in the survey were

    experienced ELT professionals and therefore well placed to provide the data needed for the

    dissertation.

    A segment of the student population from NUST was selected for the administering of a

    questionnaire to triangulate the research. The sample student population consisted of 20 male and

    female undergraduate students studying engineering, information technology and management

    studies at different NUST colleges/institutes. Each specialization/discipline has a corresponding

    focus in terms of English/communication courses: this was planned to ensure that a greater range

    of English courses were investigated for the purpose of the research. Respondents were also

    chosen for the interviews (see section 2.6)

  • 7

    2.2 Instruments for data collection

    The selection of the data gathering instruments was determined by the constraints of the research

    context. Because the research location and the research subjects were at considerable

    geographical distance and circumstances did not allow me to travel to Pakistan to collect the data

    personally, I decided to use two separate questionnaires to collect data from the university

    teachers and the students since questionnaires have the advantage of being economical and

    convenient and open to dissemination over a wide geographical area (Neuman: 2000, p 271-

    272). Questionnaires were also selected as a data gathering instrument since data could be

    collected in the same, replicable way from a large number of informants and thus make

    comparison of the results easier and the conclusions clearer (Wray, Trott & Bloomer: 1998,

    p167).

    2.3 The faculty questionnaire

    The faculty questionnaire comprised 34 questions designed to elicit background information

    about the respondents, their teaching/professional experience and their awareness of and

    perceptions about faculty support structures, programme evaluation procedures and learner needs

    assessment. Most of the questions were closed ended and fixed response although in relevant

    sections respondent views/opinions were solicited through open ended questions (Neuman:

    2000, p260). Both closed and open format questions were used because research literature shows

    that while responses to closed questions are easier to collate and analyse, one often obtains more

    useful information from open questions(my italics)- (Nunan:1992, p143).

    2.4 The student questionnaire

    The student questionnaire consisted of 15 questions. Students were not asked about faculty

    support structures as these would be outside the domain of their experience and thus not yield

    any meaningful data. This questionnaire contained mostly closed ended questions with fixed

    responses to convenience the students whose knowledge of curriculum development and

    evaluation is usually implicit rather than explicit. The first five questions were concerned with

    discovering the students gender, age, academic programme, experience of English courses at

    the HE level and the function/role of English e.g. whether it is studied as a first language etc.

    Questions 6 to 8 focused on the learners experience/perceptions of needs assessment/analysis.

  • 8

    Questions 9 to 15 were concerned with different aspects of course evaluation as the students

    know and experience it.

    2.5 Faculty interviews

    Because questionnaires are characterised by certain limitations such as a low response rate the

    researchers lack of control over the conditions under which a questionnaire is completed or the

    inability of the researcher to observe the setting or the respondents reactions to questions

    (Neuman: 2000, p272) and because they are best used in association with other types of data

    elicitation so that a fuller picture of the data can be accessed (Wray, Trott & Bloomer: 1998,

    p167), interviewing was chosen as a supplementary data collection instrument. In the

    conventional view the interview conversation is framed as a potential source of bias, error,

    misunderstanding or misdirection, a persistent set of problems to be controlled(Holstein &

    Gubrium: 1997, p113). However, it is the interactional nature of the interview situation which

    gives it the adaptability (Bell: 1999, p135) that can enable the researcher to gain information

    that a written response would conceal (ibid).

    The interviewees were curriculum developers and/or staff development experts. The semi

    structured interview (Nunan: 1992, p149) was used as it is relevant to the research to let topics

    and issues rather than questions determine the course of the interview (ibid). The data collected

    from the interview was analysed with close reference to the data generated through the

    questionnaires so as to gain an overall perspective of the situation and of ways to overcome any

    dissonance which may be detected within language course development and implementation

    practices in Pakistans HE institutions.

    2.6 Procedure

    To conduct the research, I designed and piloted a faculty questionnaire and a student

    questionnaire. The faculty questionnaire was emailed to the Director Human Resources (NUST)

    for distribution to NUST English Language Faculty. One of the respondents was already at

    Warwick University so the questionnaire was administered to her after an interview session.

    For the interviews, three Pakistani ELT professionals with extensive experience in teaching at

    university level and knowledge of curriculum design and development were contacted. Two of

    the interviewees were based in Pakistan, and working at Agha Khan University and Curriculum

  • 9

    Wing, Ministry of Education respectively. The third interviewee was based at the University of

    Warwick and was in the process of completing her PhD. Interviews with the Pakistan-based

    respondents had to be conducted via email as availability for online interviews was a major

    problem in view of the time difference between UK and Pakistan and the professional

    commitments of the interviewees. Interview with the UK based interviewee was conducted at

    CELTE, University of Warwick.

  • 10

    CHAPTER THREE

    3.0 Literature Review 3.1 Overview

    In the literature review, pioneering as well as current theories and approaches regarding

    curriculum frameworks, needs assessment, course evaluation and mentoring will be reviewed to

    provide a backdrop for discussion of the data section 5.0.

    3.2 Curriculum framework and processes

    Johnson (1989, p8) writes that:

    ..in programmes developed by individual teachers, materials are often fragmentary, and poorly organised..with little guidance as to how the materials should be used, This does not mean that the programme is incoherent as taught, though it may be, only that the curriculum exists primarily within the minds of its creators. When staff changes occur, the teaching materials, the only tangible evidence of that curriculum, make little sense to the newcomers

    The situation described by Johnson characterises curriculum practices at most Pakistani HE

    institutions. Given that research into English language education in Pakistan has been sporadic,

    standardised language programme development has yet to be implemented by bodies such as the

    HEC or the Ministry of Education. Consequently, most English language programmes at tertiary

    level in Pakistan continue to be organised on an adhoc basis by the individual teachers and/or the

    institutions. Frequently, the teachers designing and implementing the programme also lack

    specialized background needed for non teaching tasks such as course planning (Dubin &

    Olshtain: 1986, p1). This means that the effectiveness of English language programmes at

    Pakistani universities pivots on the calibre of the course designer and/or teacher rather than upon

    national educational guidelines.

    Programme development is underscored by curriculum development which occupies an

    important niche in educational research and practice. A brief review of the role, function and

    nature of the theoretical foundations of curriculum development frameworks will explicate the

    influence of curriculum related factors on educational programmes.

  • 11

    Cornbleth (1990, p12) notes that

    how we conceive of curriculum and curriculum making is important because our conceptions and ways of reasoning about curriculum reflect and shape how we see, think and talk about, study and act on the education made available to students

    Hence, conceptions of curriculum are more than a matter of theoretical differences as each

    conceptualization determines the kind of curriculum that will eventually be put into practice and

    thereby makes it imperative for educational managers and practitioners to be conversant with the

    theoretical foundations of any curriculum they commit to.

    Thinking on curriculum processes has ranged from Tylers (in Nunan: 1988, p11) product

    oriented model of systematic curriculum development which envisaged curriculum activity as

    occurring in a series of discrete and sequential stages, Tabas expanded but still linear

    reworking of the Tylerian engineering paradigm (Kiely and Rea Dickins:2005, p22), to

    Stenhouses (in Nunan: 1988, p11) process paradigm which centres on the implemented rather

    than the planned curriculum and focuses on the importance of teachers as the agents of

    curricular change.

    The mainstream conception of curriculum has centred on viewing curriculum as a tangible

    product, usually a document or plan for instruction in a particular subject (Cornbleth: 1990, p13)

    existing apart from curriculum policy making, design, and practice and from its structural and

    socio cultural contexts (ibid). Over the years, such technocratic approaches to curriculum

    construction have attracted criticism for fostering reliance on experts, deskilling teachers and

    promoting both knowledge and social control. The approach has also been critiqued because it

    perpetuates the status quo and does not view change as a catalyst for progress (ibid, p 33-34).

    However, the product focused approach to curriculum design has not prevailed to the extinction

    of other approaches as we shall see in the three conceptions of curriculum discussed below. Due

    to the constraints of space, only three approaches which represent a distinct departure from the

    product focused approach will be reviewed.

    Stenhouse (1975, p4) saw curriculum as an attempt to communicate the essential principles and

    features of an educational proposal in such a way that it is open to critical scrutiny and capable of

    effective translation into practice and promoting the idea of teacher as researcher, contended

    that curriculum development must rest on teacher development and that it should promote it

    and hence the professionalism of the teacher (ibid, p24). In contrast prevalent thinking,

  • 12

    Stenhouse put forward the idea that curriculum development and pedagogic practice, rather than

    being mutually exclusive processes, were closely allied and hence emphasized the centrality of

    the teacher in the development and implementation of curriculum processes.

    More than a decade later, Nunan (1988, p10) defined curriculum as the systematic attempt by

    educationalists and teachers to specify and study planned intervention into the educational

    enterprise and suggested looking at the curriculum.as an attempt to specify what should

    happen in the classroom, to describe what actually does happen, and to attempt to reconcile the

    differences between what should be and what actually is.(my italics). In pinpointing the need

    to affect a reconciliation between the ideal and the real, Nunans views anticipated what

    Cornbleth (1990, p15) highlights in her book Curriculum in Context, as a practical logic in use

    rather than a reconstructed or idealized logic upon which technocratic conceptions of curriculum

    development seem to pivot.

    In the context of our discussion, Cornbleths (1990) views of the nature of curriculum although

    largely supported by examples derived from the US context are of great relevance to the

    theoretical debate surrounding curriculum approaches. Sharing her experience of following the

    conventional guidelines for curriculum change, or ...RDDA (research, development,

    dissemination, adoption) models (which) seemed to have precious little impact on classroom

    practice (ibid:p5), Cornbleth contends that technocratic approaches do not work because they

    decontextualize curriculum both conceptually and operationally (ibid: p13). For Cornbleth

    (ibid, p24) a curriculum comes to lifeas it is enacted and she further asserts that if our

    curriculum concern is with what students have an opportunity to learn and perhaps also how they

    are enabled to learn it, then we ought to focus on classroom practice, not previously documented

    intentions (my italics). She describes curriculum construction as an ongoing social activity that

    is shaped by various contextual influences within and beyond the classroom and accomplished

    interactively, primarily by teachers and students.

    These descriptions of curriculum emphasise the role of participants and of context in curriculum

    development and it is this focus which distinguishes Stenhouses, Nunans and Cornbleths

    approaches from the prescriptive and product focused approach which presents curriculum

    processes as divorced from social influence of both participants and context.

  • 13

    So what impact have the theoretical debates over curriculum had on the realities of curriculum

    construction? While curriculum continues to be seen in terms of a syllabus, or a product, or a

    process, or praxis (Smith: 1996, p2000), the differences arise from whether curriculum should

    reflect the linear, product oriented and the technicist/managerial approach or the interdependent

    and process oriented approach which sees any educational idea as a hypothesis testable in

    practice and open to critical testing rather than passive acceptance (Stenhouse: 1975, p142)

    Johnsons (1989, p18) advocacy of a coherent language curriculum (which) reconciles what is

    desirable (policy) with what is acceptable and possible (pragmatics) is reflective of a pragmatic

    tendency to reconcile two polarities on the curriculum continuum-namely, the specialist

    approach and the learner centred approach (ibid: p13-14).

    The learner centred curriculum model developed by Nunan (1988, p20) appears to combine the

    advantages of both approaches by offering a synthesis of the product and the process approaches

    to curriculum. While containing procedures for developing goals and objectives and for

    evaluating these the Nunan model also sees the various curriculum development activities as

    ongoing processes within the teaching-learning process.

    More recently, Graves (2000, p7) who describes the process of teaching as an organic,

    unpredictable, challenging, satisfying, and frustrating process which makes any activity

    associated with teaching is in some respect a work in progress (my italics) has proposed (ibid:

    p179) a framework of language course design which combines the product and process approach.

    Graves talks about components such as assessing needs, determining goals and objectives,

    conceptualizing content, selecting and developing materials and activities, organizing content

    and activities and evaluating the learners and programme but also takes into account the fact that

    components of course design are interrelated and each of the processes influences and is

    influenced by the other in some way (ibid, p4). Therefore course design is seen not as a linear

    activity but one very much influenced by ongoing interaction between learners, teachers, and

    knowledge. It would appear that there is an inclination on the part of curriculum designers to

    combine the linear and product focused and the non linear and process focused approaches in

    curriculum planning.

    The aim of the review of literature on curriculum development in this section has been to provide

    a context for further discussion of curriculum planning as it is practised (or not) with reference to

    English language programmes/courses at Pakistani HE institutions.

  • 14

    3.3 Needs assessment

    It has been noted that course designers/teachers at Pakistani universities rarely conduct needs

    assessment or analysis prior to establishing the parameters of the course they are designing.

    Hence course designers miss out on valuable data that may help to shape a programme of greater

    relevance and utility to all who have a stake in the course, i.e. learners, institution etc

    Christison and Krahnke (1986, p78) remark that sound curriculum design in ESL programs for

    academic preparation would be based on empirical data that reflect what is really useful to

    students and not only on the intuitions and the expertise of the teaching personnel(my italics)

    Richards (1990, p20) views seem to support the need for such empirical data as he describes

    how ..effective language teaching programs are dependent upon systematic data gathering,

    planning, and development within a context that is shaped and influenced by learner, teacher,

    school, and societal factors and in doing so reinforces the case for assessing needs prior to and

    throughout the course (my italics)

    The imperative for detecting the needs of the participants in a language programme/course also

    comes from the fact that course design, like teaching.is a grounded process. This means that

    when you design a course, you design it for a specific group of people, in a specific setting, for a

    specific amount of time; in short for a specific context (Graves: 2000, p15) (my italics).

    3.3.1 Definitions and descriptions of needs assessment

    From looking at the rationale behind the conducting of needs analysis, we can review how

    selected linguists and curriculum theorists view needs analysis. In his discussion on a learner

    centred curriculum, Nunan (1988, p45), defines needs analysis as a set of procedures for

    specifying the parameters of a course of study which are meant to be derived through

    extensive consultation with learners themselves.

    Pointing out that needs analysis in learner centred systems of language learning, has come to be

    considered a vital prerequisite to the specification of language learning objectives, Brindley

    (1989, p63) describes needs analysis as trying to identify and take into account a multiplicity of

    affective and cognitive variables which affect learning, such as learners attitudes, motivation,

    awareness, personality, wants, expectations and learning styles. The extensive consultation with

  • 15

    learners (Nunan: 1988, p45) is meant to yield information on the very variables that Brindley

    lists in his description of needs analysis.

    Like Nunan, Richards (1990, p1-2) considers needs analysis as a mechanism for obtaining a

    wider range of input into the content, design, and implementation of a language program through

    involving such people as learners, teachers, administrators, and employers in the planning

    process. However, Richards expands the functions of needs analysis to include the identification

    of general or specific language needs that can be addressed in developing goals, objectives, and

    content for a language program and the provision of data that can serve as the basis for

    reviewing and evaluating and existing program.

    In her book on course design, Graves (2001, p178-179) defines needs assessment as involving

    the discovery of what the learners know and can do and what they need to learn or do so that the

    course can bridge the gap. She adds that such assessment can include input from students as

    well as from the various people connected to the course, such as teachers, funders, parents,

    administration, and employers.

    The emphasis in these descriptions of needs analysis is on the contextualization and

    customization of a programme in view of participant needs.

    3.3.2 Needs assessment methodologies

    The importance of needs assessment as a curriculum process is indicated by the evolution of a

    wide range of needs assessment methodologies within the field of educational research.

    Referring to these, Berwick (1989, p56-58) discusses Stevicks socio topical matrix drawn to

    array the kinds of people learners need to interact with against the things learners most likely

    want to talk about with each of these individuals, Freires dialogue in which important themes in

    the lives of prospective learners are gradually clarified through graphic and verbal exercises, as

    well as target situation analysis (Chambers; Jupp and Hodlin: ibid) which focuses on the nature

    and effect of target language communications in particular situations. Other inductive methods

    discussed by Berwick include the Critical Incident Technique focusing on breakdowns in

    communication and the Delphi study developed by the Rand Corporation which entails asking

    stakeholders who never meet during the study, to rank items which constitute important or

    desirable future conditions during the course of several ranking rounds. In each round the

  • 16

    individuals are informed about the degree of support each item has received and they are asked

    to reconsider their previous choices in the light of an emerging consensus on particular items

    3.3.3 Negative aspects of needs assessment

    This review would be incomplete without reference to some of the disadvantages that theorists

    and practitioners have detected in needs assessment. While acknowledging that needs assessment

    can cater for different learner needs by enabling teachers to make pedagogical choices based on

    what learners require from the course, Graves (2001: p180-181) sounds a note of caution when

    she contends that needs analysis is not a value free process and that it is influenced by the

    teachers view of what the course is about, the institutional constraints, and the students

    perceptions of what is being asked of them. She adds that due to unfamiliarity with the

    procedure students may also experience difficulty in articulating their purposes or needs.

    Practitioners frequently cite this inarticulateness on the part of the learners as being one of the

    reasons in not making wider use of learner oriented needs assessment.

    However, the literature on needs assessment establishes its importance as a vital curriculum

    process when it comes to implementing effective English language programmes for it provides

    course designers and other participants with valuable input as to what is needed for better

    learning.

    3.4 Programme evaluation

    It has been felt that while needs assessment is often overlooked during the designing of a course,

    programme evaluation is a curriculum process that is implemented at universities in Pakistan

    primarily because it offers visible (if not always accurate) measure of student satisfaction and

    programme effectiveness. Usually, universities evaluate the effectiveness of their educational

    programmes by administering mid term and end of course student questionnaires. The data from

    these is collected and analysed to highlight areas of concern related to teacher effectiveness,

    syllabi relevance and comprehensibility, and materials suitability. However, evaluation, as this

    literature review will reveal entails much more than reliance on data from self report data sources

    such as student questionnaires.

    Before looking at evaluation further we need to be clear about the distinction between

    assessment and evaluation. Although there is a tendency to equate assessment with evaluation,

  • 17

    Nunan (1992, p185) distinguishes between the two by defining assessment as processes and

    procedures whereby it is determined what learners can do in the target language and evaluation

    as a wider range of processes which may or may not include assessment data.

    3.4.1 Definitions of evaluation

    Due to the constraints of space within this dissertation, we will consider only a small range of

    definitions educational researchers and practitioners have originated during the past decades.

    Cronbach (in Posner & Rudnitsky: 1986, p152) identifies evaluation for programme

    improvement as well as for administrative purposes. Rea Dickins & Germaine (1992: p23) cite

    accountability, curriculum development and self development as some of the purposes of

    programme evaluation. For Patton (1996, p142), evaluation also serves the purposes of

    empowering participants and stimulating critical reflection on the path to more enlightened

    practice.

    Brown (1989, p223) as well as Kiely & Rea Dickins (2005, p5) offer a fairly representative

    explication of what evaluation signifies and entails within the field of educational research and

    practice.

    Brown (ibid, p223) defines evaluation as the systematic collection and analysis of all relevant

    information necessary to promote the improvement of a curriculum, and assess its effectiveness

    and efficiency, as well as participants attitudes within the context of the particular institutions

    involved. He also sees it as the drawing together of many sources of information. with the

    goal of forming all of this into a cogent and useful picture of how well the language learning

    needs of the students are being met (ibid, p241).

    Focusing on the multiplicity of meanings associated with the term Evaluation, Kiely and Rea

    Dickins (2005, p5) observe that:

    Evaluation has many meanings in language programs. It is part of the novice teachers checklist to guide the development of initial lesson plans and teaching practice, a process of determining learning achievements or student satisfaction, and a dimension of the analysis of data in a formal evaluation or research study. It refers to judgements about students by teachers and by external assessors; the performance of teachers by their students, program managers and institutions; and programs, departments and institutions by internal assessors, external monitors and inspectors. Evaluation is about the relationships between different program components, the procedures and epistemologies developed by the people involved in programs, and the processes and outcomes which are used to show the value of a program-accountability- and enhance this value-development.

  • 18

    It appears that far from being a uni-dimensional phenomenon, evaluation can be used for making

    many types of decisions and serving multiple purposes. The importance of evaluation lies in that

    it can break the cycle of old influences and initiate new ones (Rea Dickins and Germaine:

    1992, p20) and hence in the words of Weir and Roberts (1994, p218) serve as an essential

    element in both language curriculum planning and development, and in personal staff

    development-(italics in original)

    It is therefore a cause for some concern to find that Hargreaves (1989, p35) contention that

    evaluationis typically the least well articulated and supported limb of a projects anatomy is

    true of most ELT programmes in Pakistani universities. Generally most Pakistani HE institutions

    evaluate courses by administering two questionnaires. Yet as instruments these questionnaires

    can be inadequate because not all learners are able to articulate exactly how the course is out of

    sync with their needs and requirements, and if they are unable to do this then the course cannot

    be modified to address their difficulties. Additionally such evaluations tend to focus on

    accountability and curriculum improvement to the exclusion of empowerment of participants and

    development of critical reflection on practice.

    Commenting on the central role evaluation has in curriculum development, Brown (1989, p241)

    remarks thatevaluation should be the part of a curriculum that includes, connects and gives

    meaning to all of the other elements in a program (my italics). In view of its importance, a

    review of when and how evaluation should be conducted can better our understanding of how

    evaluation may be designed to lead development and be integrated with it (Stenhouse :1975,

    p122) (my italics)

    3.4.2 Issues in evaluation

    Kiely & Rea Dickins (2005, p10) note that evaluationsare located at the intersection of

    professional practice, policy and management, and research into learning and instructional

    processes. As such there are innumerable issues and factors to be dealt with when designing and

    implementing effective evaluations a number of which will be discussed in this section.

  • 19

    3.4.3 Formative, summative & developmental evaluation

    Evaluation can be either formative or summative or both at times. It is formative when it takes

    place, periodically or recurrently, during the course of programme delivery and summative when

    it is carried out to provide information for modification of succeeding programmes (if any are

    planned for the future) or when a particular stage has been reached prior to further investment of

    resources (Hargreaves 1989, p37 :Rea Dickins & Germaine 1992, p24 & 26: Nunan: 1992, p190

    & 192). The distinction between formative and summative was originated by Scriven (in Brown:

    1989, p226) but it came to be challenged by a later curriculum theorist Patton who believed that

    formative and summative evaluations were circumscribed by the having to cater for external

    accountability. To make evaluations more useful, Patton (1994, p 313 & p318) suggested the use

    of developmental evaluation which called for continuous progress, ongoing adaptation and rapid

    responsiveness to changes in participants, contexts, learnings and conditions and which was

    seen as

    being useful in innovative settings where goals are emergent and changing rather than predetermined and fixed, time periods are fluid and forward-looking rather than artificially imposed by external deadlines, and purpose is learning, innovation, and change rather than external accountability ..(Patton:1994, p 313 & p318)

    It is important to note that formative and summative evaluations are not necessarily discrete.

    Summative evaluation can take place at the end of any particular stage within a programme or

    course and hence can be used to develop the next stage. Even when it is conducted at the end of a

    programme, succeeding courses (if any are run) are shaped by the findings of the summative

    evaluation of the previous course hence the function of the previous summative evaluation

    becomes formative in the next course.

    3.4.4 Paradigms of evaluation

    In surveying what he calls legitimate evaluation paradigms, Stufflebeam (2001, p7) discusses

    twenty approaches which he categorizes in terms of questions/methods oriented approaches,

    improvement/accountability approaches, and social agenda/advocacy approaches. He (ibid, p12)

    points out that each approach has been surveyed discretely although in reality evaluators may

    mix and match approaches in carrying out evaluations. Trochims (2005) discussion of four

    groups of evaluation perspectives facilitates the visualization of the evaluation paradigms.

    Historically dominant, scientific-experimental models which take their values and methods from

  • 20

    the sciences prioritize on the need for impartiality, accuracy, objectivity and the valid

    information. Included in this model are: the tradition of experimental and quasi-experimental

    designs; objectives-based research that comes from education; econometrically-oriented

    perspectives including cost-effectiveness and cost-benefit analysis; and the recent articulation of

    theory-driven evaluation. Trochim (ibid) also speaks of management-oriented systems paradigms

    such as the Context, Input, Process and Product (CIPP) model which emphasizes the locating of

    evaluation within a larger framework of organizational activities.

    The third class of perspectives are the qualitative/anthropological models which emphasize the

    importance of observation, the need to retain the phenomenological quality of the evaluation

    context, and the value of subjective human interpretation in the evaluation process Included in

    this category are the approaches known as naturalistic or 'Fourth Generation' evaluation. Finally,

    Trochim (ibid) discusses participant-oriented models which emphasize the central importance of

    the evaluation participants, especially clients and users of the program or technology. Client-

    centered and stakeholder approaches are some of the typical participant-oriented models.

    3.4.5 Approaches to programme evaluation

    According to Brown (1989, p224-227), programme evaluation can be accomplished in a number

    of ways:

    Goal attainment approaches: Product oriented approaches focus on the goals and

    instructional objectives of a program with the purpose of determining whether these have

    been achieved.

    Static characteristic approaches: Within the static characteristic approach, evaluation is

    conducted by outside experts in order to determine the effectiveness of a particular

    programme.

    Process oriented approaches: The realization that evaluation procedures could also be

    utilized to facilitate curriculum change and improvement has led to the evolution of

    process oriented approaches

    Decision facilitation approaches: Decision facilitation approach to program evaluation

    deals with serving the purposes of decision makers and administrators

  • 21

    Other theorists such as Weir and Roberts (1994, p5) categorize evaluations according to whether

    they are accountability-oriented or development-oriented. The former is intended to assess

    the degree to which staff have met contractual or professional accountability and the latter is

    intended to bring about programme.improvement (ibid).

    3.4.6 Methods of evaluation

    Hargreaves (1989: p 40-41) notes that programme evaluations may employ either the a priori

    method or the empirical method (italics in original). The a priori method involves the

    assessment of an aspect or product of a project by experts in terms of previously agreed upon

    global/relative criteria through (means) analysis of project documentation, proposals, reports etc

    and comparison with established opinion of what a similar project should be. The empirical

    method involves the comparison of a situation before and after in order to gauge the changes

    brought about by a project through (means) collection of initial or base line data against which a

    subsequent comparison can be made.

    3.4.7 The foci of evaluation

    Evaluation can focus on objectives, student language achievement, materials, teaching and

    participant satisfaction (Weir and Roberts: 1994, p85). What is evaluated depends on who asks

    for the evaluation and what is to be done with the evaluation findings. For example, an

    evaluation can be conducted for accountability purposes. In this case it is likely that the

    evaluation will be initiated by the funding agency/sponsor and that outside evaluators will be

    brought in to ensure objectivity of the findings. The funding agency would want the evaluator to

    discover whether its investments have paid off in terms of student attainment and programme

    success. The findings may be used to change the programme or even to replace it if the evaluator

    finds that the programme is not achieving the desired outcomes.

    Thus, evaluation has the function of looking at everything in a programme and drawing

    justifiable conclusions about the worth, merit, potential, success or not of any aspect of product

    of a programme.

    As commonly used evaluative instruments, questionnaires can be inadequate because not all

    learners are able to articulate exactly how the course does not match their needs. Further, the

    questionnaire needs to be worded with great accuracy to elicit valid information or data. A range

  • 22

    of other instruments for obtaining evaluative data such as systematic observation, learner diaries,

    interviews (Nunan: 1992, p189) have been suggested for use in conjunction with questionnaires

    to generate a clearer evaluation of course effectiveness or inadequacies.

    Current evaluation practices are restricted not only in terms of the instrument but also in terms of

    what is evaluated and the extent to which it is evaluated. What must be kept in view is that

    evaluation is an intrinsic part of teaching and learning and that it is important for the teacher

    because it can provide a wealth of information to use..for the planning of courses, and for the

    management of learning tasks and students (Rea Dickins & Germaine: 1992, p3).

    3.5 Faculty support structures

    Hativa, Barak & Simhi (2001, p699) discuss Ovando as commenting that excellence in college

    and university teaching is now sought by educational institutions across the world and that

    increasingly, universities focus on the quality of pedagogy practised in their classrooms and the

    teaching effectiveness of faculty members. Inversely, tertiary level teachers spend many years in

    formal education learning the subject matter of their chosen academic area but receive negligible

    formal training in the skills they need for attaining success in the teaching profession. Training

    and nurturing of faculty in other significant skills areas, such as publishing, designing

    examinations, assessing students, participating in faculty governance, or establishing a research

    agenda receives even less attention (Luna & Cullen: 1995, p10)

    Tertiary level teachers of English are further disadvantaged because English Language Teaching

    (ELT) does not fit easily within the confines of academic departments and institutions, and is

    therefore frequently marginalized within academic practice and scholarship (Pennington: 1992,

    p12). In the case of tertiary institutions in Pakistan, ELT units/departments are called upon to

    teach English to a vast number of students but marginalized when it comes to the allocation of

    resources or the development of their faculty.

    As Pennington (1989, p11) points out the heart of every educational enterprise, the force driving

    the whole enterprise towards its educational aims, is the teaching faculty and it is this faculty

    that to a large extent determines the unique character of any language program (my italics).

    Since tertiary ELT professionals, for the most part, work at the institutional periphery, post

    induction faculty development cannot succeed unless it incorporates an ongoing process of

  • 23

    evolution of the faculty as a functional unit within the larger organization of the program as well

    as the realization of potentialities and goals of individual faculty members.(ibid)

    Thus, parallel to the need for strengthening needs assessment and programme evaluation

    practices is the requirement for strong faculty support structures that are built into the curriculum

    framework. Graves (2000: p5) contends

    that teachers are the best people to design the courses they teach (but) this doesnt preclude collaborating as much as is feasible and desirable with students, other teachers, and administrators. In fact such collaboration is important, because a course is usually part of the larger system of a curriculum and an institution. Teachers who teach within explicit curriculum guidelines can be active agents in the courses they teach if they are clear about what the processes are and how they can take responsibility for them. (my italics)

    Teachers are central to the successful implementation of a programme yet it has been suggested

    that in Pakistan there is a lack of

    faculty support structures to accustom new entrants to the culture of the institution

    support for new as well as seasoned faculty members in carrying out the curriculum

    processes

    supportive relationships/networks to facilitate institutional or collegial collaboration.

    Growth in teaching is a process that occurs over a considerable period of time and which needs

    to be fostered and nurtured. Unless such fostering is provided there is a chance that teachers will

    acquire survival skills rather than attain true professional development. (Elliot & Calderhead:

    1993, p 41).

    3.5.1 The induction process

    According to Mager (1992, p20)

    induction is an effort to assist new teachers in performing..toward the end of being effective. Through induction, new teachers continue to form and refine their images of themselves as teachers in terms of their competence, performance, and effectiveness

    Mager also emphasizes the need for induction to be considered other than an attempt at

    remedying the deficits of preparation programmes, means of teaching the entrant everything in

    one go, the instrument for socializing new teachers to the institutional culture or a way of

    screening the entrant. Induction theory also allows for the interpretation of the experiences of

  • 24

    veteran teachers who experience difficulty in making transitions from one teaching assignment

    to another(ibid: p27).

    Induction is understood to be a process of synthesis and adaptation for both individuals and

    institutions (Schempp, Sparkes & Templin :1993, p448): Fabian and Simpson (2002) contend

    that it is too important to be left to chance. Yet in most cases teacher induction is flawed

    because the means for acclimatization to the complexities of teaching (Hatwood Futrell: 2001)

    are missing. Cuddaph (2002, p3) highlights another aspect of this problem in pointing out that

    unlike other professions, which scaffold entry and transitional processes, teaching is an

    unstaged career in that novice and veteran teachers essentially have the same work

    responsibilities (my italics). This discrepancy between work assignment and existing experience

    is compounded by the fact that the complex and changing nature of teaching renders ineffective

    technicist or formulaic solutions. Literature on teacher development and induction indicates that

    practitioner reflectivity is one way of gaining a better understanding and handling of practice.

    Reflectivity in practice has been influenced by the work of Donald Schon (1983, p68-69) who

    notes that

    when someone reflects-in-action, he becomes a researcher in the practice context. He is not dependent on the categories of established theory and technique, but constructs a new theory of the unique case thereby allowing reflection in action to proceed, even in situations of uncertainty or uniqueness, because it is not bound by the dichotomies of Technical Rationality

    Thus learning from reflecting on ones own teaching, from researching ones own practice , from

    creating teaching portfolios, from interacting with colleagues for critical peer feedback,

    mentoring and participating in teacher networks, are all regarded as ways in which teachers build

    up skills and acquire knowledge. This perspective also reflects the prevailing educational

    philosophy of constructivism which holds that knowledge is actively constructed through social

    interaction (Goker: 2006, p40) and that learning can be facilitated by experts modeling

    problem-solving strategies, guiding learners in approximating the strategies while learners

    articulate their thought processes (Kerka:1998).

  • 25

    3.5.2 Teacher development

    In addition to mentoring, Neal (1992, p46) identifies four other common forms of teacher

    development activities that exist in most educational settings: peer relationships among teachers,

    staff development programmes, instructional supervision and traditional evaluation. While the

    unified aim of these activities is the professional development of teachers, it is peer relationships

    such as peer coaching which appear to parallel mentoring in most respects. Goker: (2006, p240)

    describes peer coaching.as the process of two teachers working together in and out of the

    classroom to plan instruction, develop support materials, and watch one another work with

    students.as one such strategy for teacher development (ibid).

    However, it is not within the scope of this discussion to carry out a detailed review of different

    strategies of faculty development. Instead the focus will be on one particular strategy or process-

    mentoring. The reason for this is that whatever support there is for faculty members at Pakistani

    HE institutions often takes the shape of an experienced senior colleague guiding the new entrant

    for a few weeks or so. Therefore, mentoring, which Alleman et al (1984, p329) describe as a

    relationship in which a person of greater rank or expertise teaches, guides, and develops a novice

    in an organization or profession, seems an appropriate faculty support structure to explore in

    this context conforming as it does to existing practice and thereby containing the potential for

    successful adaptation.

    3.5.3 Mentoring

    Although much has been written on the subject, the mentoring literature is distinguished by a

    lack of a comprehensive definition for the mentoring process (Bogat & Redner: 1985, p851).

    Mertz (2004, p543) views the absence of a shared, stipulative definition of mentoring and of

    boundaries for distinguishing mentoring from other types of supportive relationships as a major

    barrier to achieving a shared understanding on the mentoring phenomenon and to maximizing

    the benefits of mentoring relationships. The concept of mentoring has been appropriated for

    implementation within a wide swath of settings (academic, corporate, medical and so on) but the

    appropriation has not always entailed a consistent conceptualization of the phenomenon.

    Leaving aside the contentious issue of a shared (ibid) definition of mentoring, most mentoring

    literature makes reference to mentoring as being rooted in Homers Odyssey in which Odysseus

    entrusted the education of his son, Telemachus, to his friend and counsellor, Mentor thus

  • 26

    securing the assistance of an older and wiser person for his inexperienced son (Sands, Duane &

    Parsons, 1991, p175: Little,1990, p298:Healy& Welchert,1990, p17: Tolentino, 1999, p2: Luna

    & Cullen, p14: Hadden: 1997, p17: Aldred & Garvey, 2000, p269:Siskin & Davis, 2000, p1)

    The concept of mentoring is also said to have been impacted by the ideas of Levinson (in Kartje,

    1996, p116) who examined the mentor-protg relationship in terms of the adult development

    theory and described the mentor as playing a key role in helping the protg articulate and realize

    the vision or dream he held for his life.

    At a less abstract level, Head, Reiman & Thies-Sprinthall (1992, p14) describe mentoring in the

    following way:

    the heart and soul of mentoring is an outgrowth of belief in the value and worth of people and an attitude toward education that focuses upon passing the torch to the next generation of teachers

    Within this description can be discerned a number of elements that would seem to constitute the

    mentoring process as it is widely understood. The empowerment of new teaching professionals is

    attempted by experienced colleagues who undertake to provide a supportive and developmental

    environment for the new generation of teachers. Within this scenario we can also detect the

    working of Eriksons (in Mertz: 2004, p544-545) concept of generativity which helps the

    mentor to realize the developmental milestone of transcending the self in serving others and the

    future through the protg.

    Kelly, Beck & AP Thomas (1995, p253) argue that self development is rarely successful without

    the support of other people. A system of mentoring offers that support by providing individuals

    with someone who can give feedback, question, share, discuss, challenges, confront and guide

    one through the learning cycle. (my italics)

    The keywords here are a system of mentoring. The strengthening of needs assessment and

    course evaluation procedures and provision of systematised faculty support can not only enhance

    the effectiveness of language courses but also ensure the maintenance of quality of the teaching

    and learning environment.

    Mentoring can be rationalised in terms of the fact that new teachers require support as well as

    ongoing staff development to succeed in the teaching profession. Mentoring serves as an

    effective induction strategy benefiting the mentors, protgs and institutions alike in the process

    itself (Newcombe: 1988, p5).

  • 27

    3.5.4 Definitions of mentoring

    Alleman et al (1984, p329) describe mentoring as a relationship in which a person of greater

    rank or expertise teaches, guides, and develops a novice in an organization or profession. The

    experience has an unusually beneficial effect on the protgs personal and professional

    development. Anderson & Shannon (1987, p29) define mentoring as a nurturing process in

    which a more skilled or more experienced person , serving as a role model, teaches, sponsors,

    encourages, counsels, and befriends a less skilled or less experienced person for the purpose of

    promoting the latters professional and/or personal development. Mentoring functions are carried

    out with the context of an ongoing, caring relationship between the mentor and protg.

    Healy and Welchert (1990, p17) consider:

    mentoring to be a dynamic, reciprocal relationship in a work environment between an advanced career incumbent (mentor) and a beginner (protg) aimed at promoting the career development of both. For the protg, the object of mentoring is the achievement of an identity transformation, a movement from the status of understudy to that of self-directing colleague. For the mentor, the relationship is a vehicle for achieving midlife generativity....

    Roberts (2000, p162) views mentoring as a formalised process whereby a more knowledgeable

    and experienced person actuates a supportive role of overseeing and encouraging reflection and

    learning within a less experienced and knowledgeable person, so as to facilitate that persons

    career and personal development

    Brysons (2001, p xi) description of mentoring parallels that of Anderson & Shannon although

    he chooses to describe it as a framework of affirmative encouragement by practised and capable

    staff to colleagues new to teaching or new to an institution. Mentoring allows abilities,

    knowledge, skills and understanding to be transferred to less self-assured colleagues. This

    difference in perception may be due in part to the fact that Mentoring has evolved as a field and

    todays mentors are not only experienced practitioners but also receive substantial training to

    nurture, train or guide their protgs. Garvey (2004, p161) describes mentoring as a relationship

    between two people, with learning and development as its core purpose which involves certain

    human qualities and attributes such as trust, commitment and emotional engagement and

    includes the use of certain skills such as listening, questioning, challenging and supporting.

  • 28

    Although limited in number, these definitions provide some sense of the complexity of the

    mentoring process and participant roles. Mentoring participants include the mentor and the

    protg. The role of the more experienced colleague/mentor is viewed as that of supporting and

    nurturing less experienced colleagues so as to assist their induction into the work environment.

    Healy & Welcherts (ibid) definition is indicative of the views of theorists who see the mentoring

    relationship as a more equal one in that it allows for the development of both the mentor and the

    mentee rather than just the protg as in earlier and more traditional conceptualizations of

    mentoring.

    3.5.5 Models of mentoring

    Bryson (2001: p28-32) speaks of three prevalent models found in the literature on mentoring:

    The apprenticeship model which consists of working alongside an experienced

    practitioner who also serves as a model for the trainee

    The competency model which consists of the mentor acting as a systematic

    trainer providing training according to a list of pre defined competencies

    The reflective practitioner model in which the mentor takes on the role of co

    enquirer with the trainee

    The models enable the visualization of what kind of mentoring teachers may need at a particular

    stage in their careers. As always the cultural fit of an idea accounts for its success or failure

    within the implementation stage. For socio cultural reasons, Pakistans HE context is

    characterised by high power distance as well as a top down style of management which make

    Brysons apprenticeship and competency models of mentoring more appropriate than that of the

    third model which presupposes a less directive relationship between the mentor and protg. It is

    considered suitable for protgs to model their professional conduct (encompassing work

    responsibilities as well as behaviour) on that of an experienced and seasoned practitioner. In

    most cases, institutions also prefer inductees to develop predefined competencies with the help of

    a trainer as these competencies are more quantifiable and therefore easier to assess.

    Brysons (ibid: p16) list of the six common types of mentors is also a helpful aid in identifying

    the kind of mentoring relationship that may exist within a particular context and that has the

    potential to take root in a particular institution:

  • 29

    1. Traditional mentors

    2. Supportive bosses

    3. Organizational sponsors

    4. Professional mentors

    5. Patrons

    6. Invisible godparents

    Discussion in the data analysis section 5.1 will reveal which type (s) of mentors may function

    more effectively in the Pakistani context.

    The models of mentoring have been viewed from another perspective by Clutterbuck (2004, p43)

    who differentiates between the sponsorship focused model which is predominant in literature

    emerging from North America and which functions on the premise that it is the mentors ability

    to do things on behalf of someone more junior that drives the relationship and the development

    focused model which sees the mentee as the main driver of the process. The developmental

    model encourages the mentee to maximize the benefits of the mentoring relationship by being

    proactive in his or her own development.

    3.5.6 Phases of mentoring Researchers have noted a progression of four to six phases through which mentoring

    relationships develop. Phillips (in Head, Reiman & Thies- Sprinthall:1995 ,p21) has identified

    these as invitation, sparkle, development, disillusionment, parting and transformation. Hunt &

    Michael (ibid) have categorized these as initiation, protg, break up and lasting friendship and

    Kram (1983, p614) has described the phases in terms of initiation, cultivation, separation and

    redefinition. The phases described by most theorists follow a similar pattern. Once initiated the

    mentoring relationship matures into a deeper and reciprocally meaningful interaction which

    lessens in intensity as the mentee becomes more empowered and independent. Once the protg

    has become independent of the mentor the final stage becomes that of redefining the role so that

    mentors and protgs can set for themselves the parameters of future interaction on a basis of

    collegial parity.

  • 30

    3.5.7 Benefits of mentoring by not mentoring, we are wasting talent. We educate and train, but dont nurture.

    (Wright & Wright: 1987, p207)

    Faculty mentoring helps to create new incentives and career opportunities and eases the

    transition of new faculty into the professoriate to a great extent (Kanuka: 2005, p3).It also serves

    as a strategy to personalize individual faculty development and to empower entrants as well as

    veterans within the teaching profession through strong supportive relationships. Its benefits have

    been well documented and include the advancement of organizational culture, provision of

    access to informal and formal networks of communication and provision of professional

    stimulation to all faculty members (Luna & Cullen: 1995, p 5). Mentoring is also supportive of

    professional growth and renewal (ibid, p6) and promotes faculty productivity, advocates

    collegiality, and encourages a broader goal of attracting, retaining, and advancing faculty

    members (p14, ibid). The benefits of mentoring are not restricted to the protgs only. Kanuka

    (2005, p3) discusses Reich as commenting that mentors are in a position to gain satisfaction

    from assisting new colleagues, improving their own managerial skills, and increasing stimulation

    from bright and creative new faculty members. Mentoring would thus appear to be a meaningful

    and advantageous induction/support mechanism for faculty induction, development and

    retention.

    3.5.8 Disadvantages of mentoring While mentoring has great utility it must not be considered a panacea for all problems in a

    department, college, or institution (Luna & Cullen: 1995, p68). Mentoring is as susceptible to

    dysfunction as other supportive relationships and Wright & Wright (1987, p207) enumerate

    some of the characteristics of counter productive mentoring interactions which can include

    exploitive relationships, stagnation, and conflicting personalities or value structures. Mentoring

    can only thrive if both mentor and protg are willing participants, if the interaction is based on

    mutually desired outcomes, and if the requisite institutional support is available.

    The dangers of fostering counter productive mentoring partnerships can be preempted by first of

    all viewing it as an ever evolving phenomenon, rather than a static one, because it pivots on

    human interaction and human relationships (which are very susceptible to change) taking place

    within a profession that continues to develop at a frenetic pace. In an article marking the new

    millennium, Hargreaves and Fullan (2000, p52-55) commented that the growing complexity of

  • 31

    the teaching profession meant that teachers had to deal with a diverse clientele, face increasing

    moral uncertainty and contend with the vested interests of diverse groups. They concluded that

    mentoring, as an induction and support mechanism, had to be seen as central rather than adjunct

    to the task of transforming the teaching profession itself. (my italics). Mentoring had to change

    from being the source of hierarchical dispensation of wisdom to being the catalyst for shared

    inquiries of wisdom and had to become instrumental in creating strong professional cultures

    involving all teaching professionals and not just the new teachers.

    It may be noted here that while Hargreaves & Fullans view that mentoring should lead to

    shared inquiries of wisdom has immense potential, the fact that the Pakistani HE context is more

    conservative than most may make the development of a nurturing or training relationship into

    one of shared inquiry somewhat difficult to conceptualise and bring about. Indeed, while faculty

    mentoring is a powerful induction and development strategy, Luna & Cullen (1995, p6) point out

    that it must fit the culture and environment of the educational institution, and faculty must be

    involved in the design and implementation of strategies and plans for mentoring if it is to serve

    the purpose of faculty development.

    This point has great bearing on the use of mentoring as an induction tool within the Pakistani HE

    context and further discussion will take note of the need for cultural fit of mentoring within the

    context under discussion.

  • 32

    CHAPTER FOUR

    4.0 Research Findings

    4.1 Results of the questionnaires The responses the questions in both qustionnaires have been collated in textual or graphical form and

    presented in Appendix IV for ease of reference.

  • CHAPTER FIVE

    5.0 Discussion

    5.1 Faculty questionnaire

    This chapter will discuss relevant issues raised by the research findings in relation to the main

    headings under which the questionnaire was structured

    Background information Needs assessment Mentoring Programme development

    All three areas addressed by the questionnaire provide interesting information on the research

    focus of this dissertation. While graphical representation of questionnaire results in Appendix IV

    may enable the reader to understand what the data superficially signifies, there is still more to be

    gained from interpreting the responses to each question.

    Because women faculty tend to show different trajectories than do men (Bronstein &

    Farnsworth: 1998, p558) the fact that the survey was answered by almost an equal number of

    female faculty as male faculty was helpful in generating data that stemmed from different

    perspectives and experiences. Also, the respondents were fairly representative of age and career

    level. 42% of the respondents held an MA qualification whereas 2 of the respondents had

    additional qualifications in the form of MA TEFL and MBA. Another 2 were in the process of

    completing research degrees.

    The minimum teaching experience at HE level was 3 years and the maximum 33 years. Again

    the variation in the length of time spent teaching at tertiary level was helpful as it provided the

    insights of faculty members who were fairly new to the profession as well as mature

    professionals well used to teaching at universities.

    In question 6, the respondents described their preservice/inservice teacher training and only one

    respondent indicated that he/she had not received such training at all. Two of the respondents had

    completed training imparted by the Educational Branches of Pakistans military services as these

    respondents had at one point served in the Air Force and Navy respectively. NUST and the

    Pakistani military services jointly run several of the Armed Forces institutions hence serving

    officers with the requisite subject expertise are at times seconded to NUST colleges. It was also

  • 34

    revealed that inservice/preservice training usually consisted of workshops, certificate and

    diploma courses and that the training for each respondent depended on individual circumstances

    and institutional imperatives.

    For question 7, three of the respondents wrote that their training or experience in curriculum

    development consisted of working out objectives, course plans and syllabi during the course of

    their work. This is indicative of the situation highlighted in section 1.1 in which it was pointed

    out that teachers in Pakistan lack specialized training in curriculum development. Most teachers

    learn on the job and hence the quality of what they learn cannot be certified. Question 8 revealed

    that the respondents were well experienced in teaching English.

    In question 9, respondents were asked which aspect (s) of organizing a course they had ever been

    responsible for. The lowest percentages-57% and 71%-were recorded for needs assessment and

    course evaluation respectively thereby corroborating the general view that needs assessment and

    course/programme evaluation do not feature prominently in the Pakistani teachers repertoire of

    responsibilities. The responses to question 10 also highlighted an interesting fact that only in

    42% of the cases were the English programmes run by the Department of English; in the case of

    an overwhelming 71%, the Humanities and Science Division had a greater role in the running of

    these programmes. Since the Humanities and Science Division cannot aspire to the kind of

    subject focus the Department of English may have, this fact alone has great bearing on how

    English programmes and faculty may be short changed in terms of expertise, resources and

    faculty development.

    In question 11, it was indicated that English was both a core and support subject by 57% of the

    respondents respectively. Here it must be understood that by core the respondents do not mean

    that English is taught as a main subject such as for e.g. object oriented programming for the BIT

    students in NUSTs Information Technology Institute but that it is taught as a subject which must

    be passed in order to progress to the next semester. None of the respondents polled worked at

    institutions offering English as a degree subject. The substantial percentages affirm the

    importance of English as a subject, whether support or core, in Pakistans HE sector. Responses

    to questions 12 to 14 indicated that all the respondents taught undergraduate students whereas

    42% also taught at the postgraduate level and that the courses they taught were all graded using

    the same pattern as the other subjects in the university.

  • 35

    Question 15 yielded the data that decision making as to syllabus, books and materials was

    overwhelmingly (85%) in the hands of the teachers with the university the closest second at 42%.

    This is not so much reflective of teachers independence as reflective of the lack of standardised

    curriculum development and implementation as already discussed in Section 1.1. Interestingly,

    while in question 9, 57% of the teachers indicated that they did not conduct needs assessment, in

    question 16, 71% respondents indicated that learner needs were assessed during the course of

    their teaching. The apparent contradiction may be tied in with the response to question 17 which

    shows that in 71% of the cases the needs assessment took the form of discussion with students in

    initial sessions. It is possible that faculty members do not easily equate formal needs assessment

    with discussions with students and believe that needs assessment must take a more visible form

    such as questionnaires in order to be recognized as such. In question 18, only one respondent

    indicated that he/she was aware of a formal mentoring programme in a Pakistani university

    whereas the remaining six answered not sure or no to this question. In question 19, only 42%

    pointed out that their institutions had some kind of faculty induction policy. In question 20, a

    similar percentage of respondents explained teacher support structures as taking the form of

    understudying a senior colleague, guidance from a senior colleague or peer development

    strategies. The variation in the forms of teacher support structures cited confirms the supposition

    that faculty induction is a less than organised or standardised activity in most universities in

    Pakistan. In question 21, when asked to describe mentoring support the respondents may have

    received, 57% cited guidance by senior colleague and weekly departmental seminars, post

    induction collegial support, one to one counselling relationship with HoD and unstructured

    modelling of ones teaching behaviour on the way senior colleagues teach as the kind of support

    they received once inducted into the universities. Again what is striking is the variation in the

    form of support experienced and the absence of an established and systematized induction

    programme for faculty members. In question 22, 57% respondents strongly agreed and 42%

    agreed that course effectiveness can be increased if faculty is supported through support

    structures such as a mentoring programme (faculty questionnaire). The respondents

    overwhelmingly favoured mentoring programmes because faculty induction in Pakistan depends

    chiefly on collegial initiative rather than uniform induction policies and programmes across the

    universities. In question 23, all the respondents indicated that faculty support structures would

    enable inductees to benefit from the experience of more experienced teachers and a lower

  • 36

    percentage of respondents (71%) believed that it would also help in adjusting to institutional

    culture and the sharing of knowledge. In part B of question 23, the respondents stated that

    experienced teachers could guide and coach new teachers and share their knowledge and

    experience with them and also facilitate their adjustment in the new environment. Other

    respondents wrote that such structures would help in making the whole environment more

    congenial and in understanding the needs of the students at different levels. Another

    respondent wrote that these could serve as starting points for teachers and help them to fill

    gaps in own skills and knowledge. Key words in these responses were guide, coach and

    help in adjustment to the new environment. It was also notable that respondents tended to view

    support structures as relationship based which is the underlying rationale for mentoring

    programmes. These views confirmed the need for a well planned induction programme. In

    question 24, 71% of the respondents chose traditional mentors and supportive bosses as the

    ideal mentoring combination. The choice was not surprising as culturally Pakistan is a country

    with high power distance and top down decision making and administrative setup. The

    respondents views affirmed the need to have a culturally appropriate mentoring combination for

    successful programme implementation. As one respondent put it, the matrix of existing social

    relationships between inductees and senior colleagues makes a mentoring model combining

    supportive boss and traditional mentor appropriate for faculty members in Pakistani universities

    In question 25, an audit of mentoring functions by the respondents revealed that 85% of those

    surveyed viewed the Director and Dean as being responsible for assessing. The assessment role

    for the HoD was recorded at a lower percentage (57%) but interestingly the management role

    was recorded at the same percentage (71%) for Director, Dean and HoD. The HoDs role was

    considered the most supportive (71%) followed by that of the Dean and then the Director. This

    reveals that mentoring functions are performed but not at the same level by the same individual

    again reflecting the top down style of management in Pakistan.

    Responses to questions 26 and 27 confirmed the suppositions that learners were the primary

    evaluators of the course and that the quality of teaching was the primary focus of a programme

    evaluation. Programme evaluation/course effectiveness recorded the lowest percentage at 71%

    compared to 100% for the quality of teaching. Evaluation was thus seen as the evaluation of

    teacher effectiveness rather than holistic programme evaluation. Answers to questions 28 and 29

    confirmed that in most cases evaluation occurred both during and at the end of the course and

  • 37

    that questionnaires were the chief mode of such evaluation. Question 30 showed that in 85 % of

    the cases evaluation resulted in changes to the course but the results very rarely led to research

    of any kind (14%). Question 31 showed that respondents while acknowledging that current

    evaluation practices were focused on teacher effectiveness (85%) unanimously understood it to

    evaluation of all the aspects of the programme and not just the teacher.

    In question 32, the most number of respondents cited the following as impacting programme

    effectiveness:

    1. Unclear goals and objectives

    2. Lack of appropriate administrative arrangements

    3. Problems caused by students

    4. Lack of information for learners about the course

    5. Lack of skills/experience on the part of teachers

    6. Heterogeneous groups and diverse learner types or needs

    7. Lack of support resources (self access etc)

    8. Lack of curriculum guidelines models

    9. High teacher turnover

    1,5 and 8 are related directly to curriculum development and implementation whereas 3 and 6

    pertain indirectly and directly to the need for needs assessment. 5 and 9 can be linked to post

    induction faculty development.

    Question 33 asked respondents to rate who performed curriculum tasks in their present setup.

    With reference to University Headquarters (UHQ), 42 % respondents rat