edited dissertation
DESCRIPTION
dissertation on teacher inductionTRANSCRIPT
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CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background to the study
As part of a tertiary institution, those in ELT will either belong to the power structure wielding the control that comes with possession of the valued commodities of knowledge and expertise, or
they will be on the fringes doing just what those who hold power require them to do. (Pennington: 1992, p20)
This study investigates issues influencing the effective development and implementation of
supplementary English language programmes at Pakistani colleges/universities. Having taught
English and communication courses at a number of Pakistani institutions over a period of 8
years, I have observed that the planning and implementation of English language courses and
induction of English language Teaching (ELT) faculty is a fairly arbitrary exercise. The dearth of
a recognizable curriculum framework at most Pakistani universities and the absence of consistent
faculty development has meant that the quality of ELT courses is frequently compromised.
This is a situation highlighted in the UNESCO report (1998) on curriculum design and
development at all strata of Pakistans educational sector which states that
some serving teachers are, of course, involved in curriculum development. But . their contribution to the curriculum development is, for all practical purposes, nominal. The main reason for this is that they lack the requisite expertise. The existing training programmes provide little exposure in this area, and the teachers academic qualifications do not necessarily contribute to curricular creativity. (1998, p 110)
Additional problems are caused by what the report further refers to as the lack of follow-up of
actual curriculum implementation in classroom practice in which
the curriculum actually implemented is generally different from the official curriculum document. The classroom teacher, who primarily focuses on the textbooks and assessment, does not take into account the educational objectives. No evaluation of the implemented curriculum is carried out; hence no feedback is received to revise the curriculum. In short, each of the steps in the curriculum development process, as outlined above, tends to occur in isolation from the others and there is no visible coherent curriculum development activity (my italics)
Within the Pakistani educational sector, the lack of visible coherent curriculum development
activity is compounded by a lack of a comprehensive vision and policy on teacher education to
elevate teaching into a full fledged professional status (ITACEC Teacher Education Position
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Paper: 2004, p2). The absence of an agreed national minimum criteria for teacher education at
various levels of education (ibid, p5) and lack of a system for accreditation or for the regulation
of teacher standards within and across provinces (ibid, p15) also mean that the teaching
professionals receive little relevant training.
While the scope of these issues is very broad, the dissertation will be restricted to confirming
how the problems referred to impact the quality of supplementary English language programme
development and implementation at Pakistani Higher Education (HE) institutions.
1.2 Aims of the study and key ideas
The aim of this dissertation will be explicated through the following discussion. Language
programme development encompasses the interplay of interconnected elements and the effective
utilization of human and material resources. At the outset, it is important to clarify what the term
programme signifies in the context of this dissertation. English language and communication
courses offered at Pakistani universities conform to the definition offered by Weir and Roberts
(1994, p3) who describe programme as any organized educational activity offered on a
continuing basis. Henceforth, programme and course will be used interchangeably as the
difference in meaning is too nominal to merit distinction. Richards (1990, p1) attributes
the success of a language program to far more than the mere act of teaching and contends that as with any successful educational program, a number of levels of planning, development, and implementation are involved. Goals and objectives for the program have to be developed as well as syllabuses and instructional materials. Instructional strategies have to be determined, teachers selected and trained, and tests and assessment procedures chosen, Once the program is in operation, procedures are needed to enable the program to be monitored and its effects on learners and learning evaluated.
However, the act of planning, no matter how systematic, cannot substitute for the processes of
teaching and of learning which remain pivotal to the success of all educational programmes. In
Nunans (1988, p1) words the notion that planning equals teaching and that teaching equals
learning is nave; Nunan further stresses that the equation is much more complex than this.
Thus, programme development and teaching have to be carefully factored into an equation that
remains workable within a wide variety of language learning contexts.
In Pakistan, the English language has the status of an official language and is used as the
language of governmental correspondence. English is also the language of the corporate, medical
and other professional sectors. It is taught as a compulsory subject from at least Grade 5 onwards
swaleha shigriNoteAccepted set by swaleha shigri
swaleha shigriNoteMigrationConfirmed set by swaleha shigri
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in most parts of the country. At tertiary level, a number of institutions offer degrees in English
and related subjects. However, the study of the English language is not confined to linguistics or
literature. Tertiary institutions offering professional qualifications in fields such as medicine,
engineering, technology and management sciences incorporate English and related subjects as a
compulsory segment of their respective curricula. Depending on the academic focus of the
universities, English is taught in the form of modules such as communication skills, English
Language, Technical Communication and Business Communication. For the most part, these
modules are a degree requirement and are graded or at the very least require a Pass in the
concerned subject. The fact that English functions as the lingua franca of international
communication, commerce, science and technology and education and has an official status
within Pakistan has created an imperative for Pakistani HE institutions to emphasize the teaching
and learning of English skills within curricula in general.
Yet the quality of English language instruction and of the language learning environment varies
from institution to institution and in most cases from teacher to teacher. At most Pakistani
universities which do not offer degrees in English, the peripheral role of
language/communication courses is in contrast to the actual importance of effective
communication for students and/or teachers. The quality of such courses is thus dependent upon
the efforts and calibre of individual teachers rather than upon nationally determined curriculum
guidelines.
For reasons discussed in section 1.1, it has come to be that certain curriculum processes are
overlooked to the detriment of the participants in the teaching and learning situation. The
primary difficulty arises with the process of assessing the learners needs. Most programmes are
designed with reference to the teachers assumptions about the learners needs with little or no
student input. While the teachers experience of learners is valuable, in order to draw valid
conclusions about students there is a need to seek data from other sources. Needs
assessment/analysis mechanisms ranging from questionnaires, tutorials to discussions prior to
and during the course are a valuable source of data about what the learners need and want from
the programme. This is not simply a matter of creating a learner friendly course but of creating a
successful programme.
Secondly, as universities expand, there is increasing demand for new English language teachers.
Most English language teachers in Pakistan have ELT qualifications but little experience in
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teaching science or engineering or business communication. Post induction for teachers may be
more productive if support mechanisms such as mentoring or peer development programmes are
used for teacher development.
Thirdly, in order to assess whether the programme is succeeding and/or has been successful,
educational managers and practitioners at Pakistani universities need to look at whether existing
course evaluation mechanisms are adequate or not and if such procedures are not in place, to
establish evaluative mechanisms that can allow feedback from programme participants to shape
the programme as both an ongoing and summative exercise. The question of formative and
summative evaluation will be dealt with in section 3.4.3.
In view of the growing importance of the English Language for a country looking to achieve
economic revitalization via scientific and technological progress, Pakistans Higher Education
Commission (HEC) has launched a major project encapsulating English Language teaching
reforms the overall goal of which is to bring about a significant improvement in the learning and
teaching of English Language and research in the degree awarding institutions and universities of
Pakistan. The major themes for the plan of action for National Committee on English are Faculty
Development, Curriculum Development, Computer assisted language learning, Research and
publication, testing and evaluation and reorganization of English Language centres in
universities of Pakistan (HEC website).
Taking into account three of the major foci delineated above; namely, curriculum development
and evaluation and faculty development, this dissertation aims to investigate the curriculum
framework underscoring English language programmes at the tertiary level in Pakistan and the
respective roles of needs assessment, programme evaluation and faculty support structures.
1.3 Limitations and constraints
This study could have benefited from having a larger scope as the problems related to curriculum
development and implementation and faculty induction/development are common to all levels of
education as well as to disciplines across the spectrum. However it would not have been practical
to investigate the situation in its entirety within the scope of such a limited study. Although data
was collected from teachers and students in Pakistan, because I could not travel personally to
Pakistan for the purpose of data collection and due to the fact that most of the institutions were
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closed for the summer, it was not possible to survey/interview as many respondents as would
have been desirable.
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CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Research Methodology
2.1 Participants
While representative samples allow the obtaining of information from a segment of the
population for the purpose of generalizing back to the entire population (Ruane: 2005, p105), the
constraints involved in acquiring data from tertiary level teachers teaching at different
institutions throughout Pakistan necessitates the employment of purposive sampling from a
specified population (Black:1993,p57).The participants of the research were 7 university level
teachers teaching/working at selected institutions and universities in the twin cities of
Rawalpindi and Islamabad and Lahore in Pakistan. The participants comprised both male and
female faculty members working at the National University of Sciences & Technology (NUST),
Lahore University of Management Sciences (LUMS) and the Curriculum Wing at the Ministry
of Education. Engineering, technology, management sciences and medicine are some of the core
disciplines offered at NUST. LUMS has two schools: the Suleman Dawood School of Business
and the School of Arts and Sciences which offer graduate and post graduate programmes in
management sciences and in computer science, computer engineering, mathematics, Law and
Economics respectively. One of the respondents was an English language specialist, with many
years of tertiary level teaching and administrative experience, employed at the Curriculum Wing
at the Ministry of Education in Pakistan. The teachers who participated in the survey were
experienced ELT professionals and therefore well placed to provide the data needed for the
dissertation.
A segment of the student population from NUST was selected for the administering of a
questionnaire to triangulate the research. The sample student population consisted of 20 male and
female undergraduate students studying engineering, information technology and management
studies at different NUST colleges/institutes. Each specialization/discipline has a corresponding
focus in terms of English/communication courses: this was planned to ensure that a greater range
of English courses were investigated for the purpose of the research. Respondents were also
chosen for the interviews (see section 2.6)
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2.2 Instruments for data collection
The selection of the data gathering instruments was determined by the constraints of the research
context. Because the research location and the research subjects were at considerable
geographical distance and circumstances did not allow me to travel to Pakistan to collect the data
personally, I decided to use two separate questionnaires to collect data from the university
teachers and the students since questionnaires have the advantage of being economical and
convenient and open to dissemination over a wide geographical area (Neuman: 2000, p 271-
272). Questionnaires were also selected as a data gathering instrument since data could be
collected in the same, replicable way from a large number of informants and thus make
comparison of the results easier and the conclusions clearer (Wray, Trott & Bloomer: 1998,
p167).
2.3 The faculty questionnaire
The faculty questionnaire comprised 34 questions designed to elicit background information
about the respondents, their teaching/professional experience and their awareness of and
perceptions about faculty support structures, programme evaluation procedures and learner needs
assessment. Most of the questions were closed ended and fixed response although in relevant
sections respondent views/opinions were solicited through open ended questions (Neuman:
2000, p260). Both closed and open format questions were used because research literature shows
that while responses to closed questions are easier to collate and analyse, one often obtains more
useful information from open questions(my italics)- (Nunan:1992, p143).
2.4 The student questionnaire
The student questionnaire consisted of 15 questions. Students were not asked about faculty
support structures as these would be outside the domain of their experience and thus not yield
any meaningful data. This questionnaire contained mostly closed ended questions with fixed
responses to convenience the students whose knowledge of curriculum development and
evaluation is usually implicit rather than explicit. The first five questions were concerned with
discovering the students gender, age, academic programme, experience of English courses at
the HE level and the function/role of English e.g. whether it is studied as a first language etc.
Questions 6 to 8 focused on the learners experience/perceptions of needs assessment/analysis.
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Questions 9 to 15 were concerned with different aspects of course evaluation as the students
know and experience it.
2.5 Faculty interviews
Because questionnaires are characterised by certain limitations such as a low response rate the
researchers lack of control over the conditions under which a questionnaire is completed or the
inability of the researcher to observe the setting or the respondents reactions to questions
(Neuman: 2000, p272) and because they are best used in association with other types of data
elicitation so that a fuller picture of the data can be accessed (Wray, Trott & Bloomer: 1998,
p167), interviewing was chosen as a supplementary data collection instrument. In the
conventional view the interview conversation is framed as a potential source of bias, error,
misunderstanding or misdirection, a persistent set of problems to be controlled(Holstein &
Gubrium: 1997, p113). However, it is the interactional nature of the interview situation which
gives it the adaptability (Bell: 1999, p135) that can enable the researcher to gain information
that a written response would conceal (ibid).
The interviewees were curriculum developers and/or staff development experts. The semi
structured interview (Nunan: 1992, p149) was used as it is relevant to the research to let topics
and issues rather than questions determine the course of the interview (ibid). The data collected
from the interview was analysed with close reference to the data generated through the
questionnaires so as to gain an overall perspective of the situation and of ways to overcome any
dissonance which may be detected within language course development and implementation
practices in Pakistans HE institutions.
2.6 Procedure
To conduct the research, I designed and piloted a faculty questionnaire and a student
questionnaire. The faculty questionnaire was emailed to the Director Human Resources (NUST)
for distribution to NUST English Language Faculty. One of the respondents was already at
Warwick University so the questionnaire was administered to her after an interview session.
For the interviews, three Pakistani ELT professionals with extensive experience in teaching at
university level and knowledge of curriculum design and development were contacted. Two of
the interviewees were based in Pakistan, and working at Agha Khan University and Curriculum
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Wing, Ministry of Education respectively. The third interviewee was based at the University of
Warwick and was in the process of completing her PhD. Interviews with the Pakistan-based
respondents had to be conducted via email as availability for online interviews was a major
problem in view of the time difference between UK and Pakistan and the professional
commitments of the interviewees. Interview with the UK based interviewee was conducted at
CELTE, University of Warwick.
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CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Literature Review 3.1 Overview
In the literature review, pioneering as well as current theories and approaches regarding
curriculum frameworks, needs assessment, course evaluation and mentoring will be reviewed to
provide a backdrop for discussion of the data section 5.0.
3.2 Curriculum framework and processes
Johnson (1989, p8) writes that:
..in programmes developed by individual teachers, materials are often fragmentary, and poorly organised..with little guidance as to how the materials should be used, This does not mean that the programme is incoherent as taught, though it may be, only that the curriculum exists primarily within the minds of its creators. When staff changes occur, the teaching materials, the only tangible evidence of that curriculum, make little sense to the newcomers
The situation described by Johnson characterises curriculum practices at most Pakistani HE
institutions. Given that research into English language education in Pakistan has been sporadic,
standardised language programme development has yet to be implemented by bodies such as the
HEC or the Ministry of Education. Consequently, most English language programmes at tertiary
level in Pakistan continue to be organised on an adhoc basis by the individual teachers and/or the
institutions. Frequently, the teachers designing and implementing the programme also lack
specialized background needed for non teaching tasks such as course planning (Dubin &
Olshtain: 1986, p1). This means that the effectiveness of English language programmes at
Pakistani universities pivots on the calibre of the course designer and/or teacher rather than upon
national educational guidelines.
Programme development is underscored by curriculum development which occupies an
important niche in educational research and practice. A brief review of the role, function and
nature of the theoretical foundations of curriculum development frameworks will explicate the
influence of curriculum related factors on educational programmes.
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Cornbleth (1990, p12) notes that
how we conceive of curriculum and curriculum making is important because our conceptions and ways of reasoning about curriculum reflect and shape how we see, think and talk about, study and act on the education made available to students
Hence, conceptions of curriculum are more than a matter of theoretical differences as each
conceptualization determines the kind of curriculum that will eventually be put into practice and
thereby makes it imperative for educational managers and practitioners to be conversant with the
theoretical foundations of any curriculum they commit to.
Thinking on curriculum processes has ranged from Tylers (in Nunan: 1988, p11) product
oriented model of systematic curriculum development which envisaged curriculum activity as
occurring in a series of discrete and sequential stages, Tabas expanded but still linear
reworking of the Tylerian engineering paradigm (Kiely and Rea Dickins:2005, p22), to
Stenhouses (in Nunan: 1988, p11) process paradigm which centres on the implemented rather
than the planned curriculum and focuses on the importance of teachers as the agents of
curricular change.
The mainstream conception of curriculum has centred on viewing curriculum as a tangible
product, usually a document or plan for instruction in a particular subject (Cornbleth: 1990, p13)
existing apart from curriculum policy making, design, and practice and from its structural and
socio cultural contexts (ibid). Over the years, such technocratic approaches to curriculum
construction have attracted criticism for fostering reliance on experts, deskilling teachers and
promoting both knowledge and social control. The approach has also been critiqued because it
perpetuates the status quo and does not view change as a catalyst for progress (ibid, p 33-34).
However, the product focused approach to curriculum design has not prevailed to the extinction
of other approaches as we shall see in the three conceptions of curriculum discussed below. Due
to the constraints of space, only three approaches which represent a distinct departure from the
product focused approach will be reviewed.
Stenhouse (1975, p4) saw curriculum as an attempt to communicate the essential principles and
features of an educational proposal in such a way that it is open to critical scrutiny and capable of
effective translation into practice and promoting the idea of teacher as researcher, contended
that curriculum development must rest on teacher development and that it should promote it
and hence the professionalism of the teacher (ibid, p24). In contrast prevalent thinking,
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Stenhouse put forward the idea that curriculum development and pedagogic practice, rather than
being mutually exclusive processes, were closely allied and hence emphasized the centrality of
the teacher in the development and implementation of curriculum processes.
More than a decade later, Nunan (1988, p10) defined curriculum as the systematic attempt by
educationalists and teachers to specify and study planned intervention into the educational
enterprise and suggested looking at the curriculum.as an attempt to specify what should
happen in the classroom, to describe what actually does happen, and to attempt to reconcile the
differences between what should be and what actually is.(my italics). In pinpointing the need
to affect a reconciliation between the ideal and the real, Nunans views anticipated what
Cornbleth (1990, p15) highlights in her book Curriculum in Context, as a practical logic in use
rather than a reconstructed or idealized logic upon which technocratic conceptions of curriculum
development seem to pivot.
In the context of our discussion, Cornbleths (1990) views of the nature of curriculum although
largely supported by examples derived from the US context are of great relevance to the
theoretical debate surrounding curriculum approaches. Sharing her experience of following the
conventional guidelines for curriculum change, or ...RDDA (research, development,
dissemination, adoption) models (which) seemed to have precious little impact on classroom
practice (ibid:p5), Cornbleth contends that technocratic approaches do not work because they
decontextualize curriculum both conceptually and operationally (ibid: p13). For Cornbleth
(ibid, p24) a curriculum comes to lifeas it is enacted and she further asserts that if our
curriculum concern is with what students have an opportunity to learn and perhaps also how they
are enabled to learn it, then we ought to focus on classroom practice, not previously documented
intentions (my italics). She describes curriculum construction as an ongoing social activity that
is shaped by various contextual influences within and beyond the classroom and accomplished
interactively, primarily by teachers and students.
These descriptions of curriculum emphasise the role of participants and of context in curriculum
development and it is this focus which distinguishes Stenhouses, Nunans and Cornbleths
approaches from the prescriptive and product focused approach which presents curriculum
processes as divorced from social influence of both participants and context.
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So what impact have the theoretical debates over curriculum had on the realities of curriculum
construction? While curriculum continues to be seen in terms of a syllabus, or a product, or a
process, or praxis (Smith: 1996, p2000), the differences arise from whether curriculum should
reflect the linear, product oriented and the technicist/managerial approach or the interdependent
and process oriented approach which sees any educational idea as a hypothesis testable in
practice and open to critical testing rather than passive acceptance (Stenhouse: 1975, p142)
Johnsons (1989, p18) advocacy of a coherent language curriculum (which) reconciles what is
desirable (policy) with what is acceptable and possible (pragmatics) is reflective of a pragmatic
tendency to reconcile two polarities on the curriculum continuum-namely, the specialist
approach and the learner centred approach (ibid: p13-14).
The learner centred curriculum model developed by Nunan (1988, p20) appears to combine the
advantages of both approaches by offering a synthesis of the product and the process approaches
to curriculum. While containing procedures for developing goals and objectives and for
evaluating these the Nunan model also sees the various curriculum development activities as
ongoing processes within the teaching-learning process.
More recently, Graves (2000, p7) who describes the process of teaching as an organic,
unpredictable, challenging, satisfying, and frustrating process which makes any activity
associated with teaching is in some respect a work in progress (my italics) has proposed (ibid:
p179) a framework of language course design which combines the product and process approach.
Graves talks about components such as assessing needs, determining goals and objectives,
conceptualizing content, selecting and developing materials and activities, organizing content
and activities and evaluating the learners and programme but also takes into account the fact that
components of course design are interrelated and each of the processes influences and is
influenced by the other in some way (ibid, p4). Therefore course design is seen not as a linear
activity but one very much influenced by ongoing interaction between learners, teachers, and
knowledge. It would appear that there is an inclination on the part of curriculum designers to
combine the linear and product focused and the non linear and process focused approaches in
curriculum planning.
The aim of the review of literature on curriculum development in this section has been to provide
a context for further discussion of curriculum planning as it is practised (or not) with reference to
English language programmes/courses at Pakistani HE institutions.
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3.3 Needs assessment
It has been noted that course designers/teachers at Pakistani universities rarely conduct needs
assessment or analysis prior to establishing the parameters of the course they are designing.
Hence course designers miss out on valuable data that may help to shape a programme of greater
relevance and utility to all who have a stake in the course, i.e. learners, institution etc
Christison and Krahnke (1986, p78) remark that sound curriculum design in ESL programs for
academic preparation would be based on empirical data that reflect what is really useful to
students and not only on the intuitions and the expertise of the teaching personnel(my italics)
Richards (1990, p20) views seem to support the need for such empirical data as he describes
how ..effective language teaching programs are dependent upon systematic data gathering,
planning, and development within a context that is shaped and influenced by learner, teacher,
school, and societal factors and in doing so reinforces the case for assessing needs prior to and
throughout the course (my italics)
The imperative for detecting the needs of the participants in a language programme/course also
comes from the fact that course design, like teaching.is a grounded process. This means that
when you design a course, you design it for a specific group of people, in a specific setting, for a
specific amount of time; in short for a specific context (Graves: 2000, p15) (my italics).
3.3.1 Definitions and descriptions of needs assessment
From looking at the rationale behind the conducting of needs analysis, we can review how
selected linguists and curriculum theorists view needs analysis. In his discussion on a learner
centred curriculum, Nunan (1988, p45), defines needs analysis as a set of procedures for
specifying the parameters of a course of study which are meant to be derived through
extensive consultation with learners themselves.
Pointing out that needs analysis in learner centred systems of language learning, has come to be
considered a vital prerequisite to the specification of language learning objectives, Brindley
(1989, p63) describes needs analysis as trying to identify and take into account a multiplicity of
affective and cognitive variables which affect learning, such as learners attitudes, motivation,
awareness, personality, wants, expectations and learning styles. The extensive consultation with
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learners (Nunan: 1988, p45) is meant to yield information on the very variables that Brindley
lists in his description of needs analysis.
Like Nunan, Richards (1990, p1-2) considers needs analysis as a mechanism for obtaining a
wider range of input into the content, design, and implementation of a language program through
involving such people as learners, teachers, administrators, and employers in the planning
process. However, Richards expands the functions of needs analysis to include the identification
of general or specific language needs that can be addressed in developing goals, objectives, and
content for a language program and the provision of data that can serve as the basis for
reviewing and evaluating and existing program.
In her book on course design, Graves (2001, p178-179) defines needs assessment as involving
the discovery of what the learners know and can do and what they need to learn or do so that the
course can bridge the gap. She adds that such assessment can include input from students as
well as from the various people connected to the course, such as teachers, funders, parents,
administration, and employers.
The emphasis in these descriptions of needs analysis is on the contextualization and
customization of a programme in view of participant needs.
3.3.2 Needs assessment methodologies
The importance of needs assessment as a curriculum process is indicated by the evolution of a
wide range of needs assessment methodologies within the field of educational research.
Referring to these, Berwick (1989, p56-58) discusses Stevicks socio topical matrix drawn to
array the kinds of people learners need to interact with against the things learners most likely
want to talk about with each of these individuals, Freires dialogue in which important themes in
the lives of prospective learners are gradually clarified through graphic and verbal exercises, as
well as target situation analysis (Chambers; Jupp and Hodlin: ibid) which focuses on the nature
and effect of target language communications in particular situations. Other inductive methods
discussed by Berwick include the Critical Incident Technique focusing on breakdowns in
communication and the Delphi study developed by the Rand Corporation which entails asking
stakeholders who never meet during the study, to rank items which constitute important or
desirable future conditions during the course of several ranking rounds. In each round the
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individuals are informed about the degree of support each item has received and they are asked
to reconsider their previous choices in the light of an emerging consensus on particular items
3.3.3 Negative aspects of needs assessment
This review would be incomplete without reference to some of the disadvantages that theorists
and practitioners have detected in needs assessment. While acknowledging that needs assessment
can cater for different learner needs by enabling teachers to make pedagogical choices based on
what learners require from the course, Graves (2001: p180-181) sounds a note of caution when
she contends that needs analysis is not a value free process and that it is influenced by the
teachers view of what the course is about, the institutional constraints, and the students
perceptions of what is being asked of them. She adds that due to unfamiliarity with the
procedure students may also experience difficulty in articulating their purposes or needs.
Practitioners frequently cite this inarticulateness on the part of the learners as being one of the
reasons in not making wider use of learner oriented needs assessment.
However, the literature on needs assessment establishes its importance as a vital curriculum
process when it comes to implementing effective English language programmes for it provides
course designers and other participants with valuable input as to what is needed for better
learning.
3.4 Programme evaluation
It has been felt that while needs assessment is often overlooked during the designing of a course,
programme evaluation is a curriculum process that is implemented at universities in Pakistan
primarily because it offers visible (if not always accurate) measure of student satisfaction and
programme effectiveness. Usually, universities evaluate the effectiveness of their educational
programmes by administering mid term and end of course student questionnaires. The data from
these is collected and analysed to highlight areas of concern related to teacher effectiveness,
syllabi relevance and comprehensibility, and materials suitability. However, evaluation, as this
literature review will reveal entails much more than reliance on data from self report data sources
such as student questionnaires.
Before looking at evaluation further we need to be clear about the distinction between
assessment and evaluation. Although there is a tendency to equate assessment with evaluation,
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Nunan (1992, p185) distinguishes between the two by defining assessment as processes and
procedures whereby it is determined what learners can do in the target language and evaluation
as a wider range of processes which may or may not include assessment data.
3.4.1 Definitions of evaluation
Due to the constraints of space within this dissertation, we will consider only a small range of
definitions educational researchers and practitioners have originated during the past decades.
Cronbach (in Posner & Rudnitsky: 1986, p152) identifies evaluation for programme
improvement as well as for administrative purposes. Rea Dickins & Germaine (1992: p23) cite
accountability, curriculum development and self development as some of the purposes of
programme evaluation. For Patton (1996, p142), evaluation also serves the purposes of
empowering participants and stimulating critical reflection on the path to more enlightened
practice.
Brown (1989, p223) as well as Kiely & Rea Dickins (2005, p5) offer a fairly representative
explication of what evaluation signifies and entails within the field of educational research and
practice.
Brown (ibid, p223) defines evaluation as the systematic collection and analysis of all relevant
information necessary to promote the improvement of a curriculum, and assess its effectiveness
and efficiency, as well as participants attitudes within the context of the particular institutions
involved. He also sees it as the drawing together of many sources of information. with the
goal of forming all of this into a cogent and useful picture of how well the language learning
needs of the students are being met (ibid, p241).
Focusing on the multiplicity of meanings associated with the term Evaluation, Kiely and Rea
Dickins (2005, p5) observe that:
Evaluation has many meanings in language programs. It is part of the novice teachers checklist to guide the development of initial lesson plans and teaching practice, a process of determining learning achievements or student satisfaction, and a dimension of the analysis of data in a formal evaluation or research study. It refers to judgements about students by teachers and by external assessors; the performance of teachers by their students, program managers and institutions; and programs, departments and institutions by internal assessors, external monitors and inspectors. Evaluation is about the relationships between different program components, the procedures and epistemologies developed by the people involved in programs, and the processes and outcomes which are used to show the value of a program-accountability- and enhance this value-development.
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It appears that far from being a uni-dimensional phenomenon, evaluation can be used for making
many types of decisions and serving multiple purposes. The importance of evaluation lies in that
it can break the cycle of old influences and initiate new ones (Rea Dickins and Germaine:
1992, p20) and hence in the words of Weir and Roberts (1994, p218) serve as an essential
element in both language curriculum planning and development, and in personal staff
development-(italics in original)
It is therefore a cause for some concern to find that Hargreaves (1989, p35) contention that
evaluationis typically the least well articulated and supported limb of a projects anatomy is
true of most ELT programmes in Pakistani universities. Generally most Pakistani HE institutions
evaluate courses by administering two questionnaires. Yet as instruments these questionnaires
can be inadequate because not all learners are able to articulate exactly how the course is out of
sync with their needs and requirements, and if they are unable to do this then the course cannot
be modified to address their difficulties. Additionally such evaluations tend to focus on
accountability and curriculum improvement to the exclusion of empowerment of participants and
development of critical reflection on practice.
Commenting on the central role evaluation has in curriculum development, Brown (1989, p241)
remarks thatevaluation should be the part of a curriculum that includes, connects and gives
meaning to all of the other elements in a program (my italics). In view of its importance, a
review of when and how evaluation should be conducted can better our understanding of how
evaluation may be designed to lead development and be integrated with it (Stenhouse :1975,
p122) (my italics)
3.4.2 Issues in evaluation
Kiely & Rea Dickins (2005, p10) note that evaluationsare located at the intersection of
professional practice, policy and management, and research into learning and instructional
processes. As such there are innumerable issues and factors to be dealt with when designing and
implementing effective evaluations a number of which will be discussed in this section.
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3.4.3 Formative, summative & developmental evaluation
Evaluation can be either formative or summative or both at times. It is formative when it takes
place, periodically or recurrently, during the course of programme delivery and summative when
it is carried out to provide information for modification of succeeding programmes (if any are
planned for the future) or when a particular stage has been reached prior to further investment of
resources (Hargreaves 1989, p37 :Rea Dickins & Germaine 1992, p24 & 26: Nunan: 1992, p190
& 192). The distinction between formative and summative was originated by Scriven (in Brown:
1989, p226) but it came to be challenged by a later curriculum theorist Patton who believed that
formative and summative evaluations were circumscribed by the having to cater for external
accountability. To make evaluations more useful, Patton (1994, p 313 & p318) suggested the use
of developmental evaluation which called for continuous progress, ongoing adaptation and rapid
responsiveness to changes in participants, contexts, learnings and conditions and which was
seen as
being useful in innovative settings where goals are emergent and changing rather than predetermined and fixed, time periods are fluid and forward-looking rather than artificially imposed by external deadlines, and purpose is learning, innovation, and change rather than external accountability ..(Patton:1994, p 313 & p318)
It is important to note that formative and summative evaluations are not necessarily discrete.
Summative evaluation can take place at the end of any particular stage within a programme or
course and hence can be used to develop the next stage. Even when it is conducted at the end of a
programme, succeeding courses (if any are run) are shaped by the findings of the summative
evaluation of the previous course hence the function of the previous summative evaluation
becomes formative in the next course.
3.4.4 Paradigms of evaluation
In surveying what he calls legitimate evaluation paradigms, Stufflebeam (2001, p7) discusses
twenty approaches which he categorizes in terms of questions/methods oriented approaches,
improvement/accountability approaches, and social agenda/advocacy approaches. He (ibid, p12)
points out that each approach has been surveyed discretely although in reality evaluators may
mix and match approaches in carrying out evaluations. Trochims (2005) discussion of four
groups of evaluation perspectives facilitates the visualization of the evaluation paradigms.
Historically dominant, scientific-experimental models which take their values and methods from
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the sciences prioritize on the need for impartiality, accuracy, objectivity and the valid
information. Included in this model are: the tradition of experimental and quasi-experimental
designs; objectives-based research that comes from education; econometrically-oriented
perspectives including cost-effectiveness and cost-benefit analysis; and the recent articulation of
theory-driven evaluation. Trochim (ibid) also speaks of management-oriented systems paradigms
such as the Context, Input, Process and Product (CIPP) model which emphasizes the locating of
evaluation within a larger framework of organizational activities.
The third class of perspectives are the qualitative/anthropological models which emphasize the
importance of observation, the need to retain the phenomenological quality of the evaluation
context, and the value of subjective human interpretation in the evaluation process Included in
this category are the approaches known as naturalistic or 'Fourth Generation' evaluation. Finally,
Trochim (ibid) discusses participant-oriented models which emphasize the central importance of
the evaluation participants, especially clients and users of the program or technology. Client-
centered and stakeholder approaches are some of the typical participant-oriented models.
3.4.5 Approaches to programme evaluation
According to Brown (1989, p224-227), programme evaluation can be accomplished in a number
of ways:
Goal attainment approaches: Product oriented approaches focus on the goals and
instructional objectives of a program with the purpose of determining whether these have
been achieved.
Static characteristic approaches: Within the static characteristic approach, evaluation is
conducted by outside experts in order to determine the effectiveness of a particular
programme.
Process oriented approaches: The realization that evaluation procedures could also be
utilized to facilitate curriculum change and improvement has led to the evolution of
process oriented approaches
Decision facilitation approaches: Decision facilitation approach to program evaluation
deals with serving the purposes of decision makers and administrators
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Other theorists such as Weir and Roberts (1994, p5) categorize evaluations according to whether
they are accountability-oriented or development-oriented. The former is intended to assess
the degree to which staff have met contractual or professional accountability and the latter is
intended to bring about programme.improvement (ibid).
3.4.6 Methods of evaluation
Hargreaves (1989: p 40-41) notes that programme evaluations may employ either the a priori
method or the empirical method (italics in original). The a priori method involves the
assessment of an aspect or product of a project by experts in terms of previously agreed upon
global/relative criteria through (means) analysis of project documentation, proposals, reports etc
and comparison with established opinion of what a similar project should be. The empirical
method involves the comparison of a situation before and after in order to gauge the changes
brought about by a project through (means) collection of initial or base line data against which a
subsequent comparison can be made.
3.4.7 The foci of evaluation
Evaluation can focus on objectives, student language achievement, materials, teaching and
participant satisfaction (Weir and Roberts: 1994, p85). What is evaluated depends on who asks
for the evaluation and what is to be done with the evaluation findings. For example, an
evaluation can be conducted for accountability purposes. In this case it is likely that the
evaluation will be initiated by the funding agency/sponsor and that outside evaluators will be
brought in to ensure objectivity of the findings. The funding agency would want the evaluator to
discover whether its investments have paid off in terms of student attainment and programme
success. The findings may be used to change the programme or even to replace it if the evaluator
finds that the programme is not achieving the desired outcomes.
Thus, evaluation has the function of looking at everything in a programme and drawing
justifiable conclusions about the worth, merit, potential, success or not of any aspect of product
of a programme.
As commonly used evaluative instruments, questionnaires can be inadequate because not all
learners are able to articulate exactly how the course does not match their needs. Further, the
questionnaire needs to be worded with great accuracy to elicit valid information or data. A range
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of other instruments for obtaining evaluative data such as systematic observation, learner diaries,
interviews (Nunan: 1992, p189) have been suggested for use in conjunction with questionnaires
to generate a clearer evaluation of course effectiveness or inadequacies.
Current evaluation practices are restricted not only in terms of the instrument but also in terms of
what is evaluated and the extent to which it is evaluated. What must be kept in view is that
evaluation is an intrinsic part of teaching and learning and that it is important for the teacher
because it can provide a wealth of information to use..for the planning of courses, and for the
management of learning tasks and students (Rea Dickins & Germaine: 1992, p3).
3.5 Faculty support structures
Hativa, Barak & Simhi (2001, p699) discuss Ovando as commenting that excellence in college
and university teaching is now sought by educational institutions across the world and that
increasingly, universities focus on the quality of pedagogy practised in their classrooms and the
teaching effectiveness of faculty members. Inversely, tertiary level teachers spend many years in
formal education learning the subject matter of their chosen academic area but receive negligible
formal training in the skills they need for attaining success in the teaching profession. Training
and nurturing of faculty in other significant skills areas, such as publishing, designing
examinations, assessing students, participating in faculty governance, or establishing a research
agenda receives even less attention (Luna & Cullen: 1995, p10)
Tertiary level teachers of English are further disadvantaged because English Language Teaching
(ELT) does not fit easily within the confines of academic departments and institutions, and is
therefore frequently marginalized within academic practice and scholarship (Pennington: 1992,
p12). In the case of tertiary institutions in Pakistan, ELT units/departments are called upon to
teach English to a vast number of students but marginalized when it comes to the allocation of
resources or the development of their faculty.
As Pennington (1989, p11) points out the heart of every educational enterprise, the force driving
the whole enterprise towards its educational aims, is the teaching faculty and it is this faculty
that to a large extent determines the unique character of any language program (my italics).
Since tertiary ELT professionals, for the most part, work at the institutional periphery, post
induction faculty development cannot succeed unless it incorporates an ongoing process of
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evolution of the faculty as a functional unit within the larger organization of the program as well
as the realization of potentialities and goals of individual faculty members.(ibid)
Thus, parallel to the need for strengthening needs assessment and programme evaluation
practices is the requirement for strong faculty support structures that are built into the curriculum
framework. Graves (2000: p5) contends
that teachers are the best people to design the courses they teach (but) this doesnt preclude collaborating as much as is feasible and desirable with students, other teachers, and administrators. In fact such collaboration is important, because a course is usually part of the larger system of a curriculum and an institution. Teachers who teach within explicit curriculum guidelines can be active agents in the courses they teach if they are clear about what the processes are and how they can take responsibility for them. (my italics)
Teachers are central to the successful implementation of a programme yet it has been suggested
that in Pakistan there is a lack of
faculty support structures to accustom new entrants to the culture of the institution
support for new as well as seasoned faculty members in carrying out the curriculum
processes
supportive relationships/networks to facilitate institutional or collegial collaboration.
Growth in teaching is a process that occurs over a considerable period of time and which needs
to be fostered and nurtured. Unless such fostering is provided there is a chance that teachers will
acquire survival skills rather than attain true professional development. (Elliot & Calderhead:
1993, p 41).
3.5.1 The induction process
According to Mager (1992, p20)
induction is an effort to assist new teachers in performing..toward the end of being effective. Through induction, new teachers continue to form and refine their images of themselves as teachers in terms of their competence, performance, and effectiveness
Mager also emphasizes the need for induction to be considered other than an attempt at
remedying the deficits of preparation programmes, means of teaching the entrant everything in
one go, the instrument for socializing new teachers to the institutional culture or a way of
screening the entrant. Induction theory also allows for the interpretation of the experiences of
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veteran teachers who experience difficulty in making transitions from one teaching assignment
to another(ibid: p27).
Induction is understood to be a process of synthesis and adaptation for both individuals and
institutions (Schempp, Sparkes & Templin :1993, p448): Fabian and Simpson (2002) contend
that it is too important to be left to chance. Yet in most cases teacher induction is flawed
because the means for acclimatization to the complexities of teaching (Hatwood Futrell: 2001)
are missing. Cuddaph (2002, p3) highlights another aspect of this problem in pointing out that
unlike other professions, which scaffold entry and transitional processes, teaching is an
unstaged career in that novice and veteran teachers essentially have the same work
responsibilities (my italics). This discrepancy between work assignment and existing experience
is compounded by the fact that the complex and changing nature of teaching renders ineffective
technicist or formulaic solutions. Literature on teacher development and induction indicates that
practitioner reflectivity is one way of gaining a better understanding and handling of practice.
Reflectivity in practice has been influenced by the work of Donald Schon (1983, p68-69) who
notes that
when someone reflects-in-action, he becomes a researcher in the practice context. He is not dependent on the categories of established theory and technique, but constructs a new theory of the unique case thereby allowing reflection in action to proceed, even in situations of uncertainty or uniqueness, because it is not bound by the dichotomies of Technical Rationality
Thus learning from reflecting on ones own teaching, from researching ones own practice , from
creating teaching portfolios, from interacting with colleagues for critical peer feedback,
mentoring and participating in teacher networks, are all regarded as ways in which teachers build
up skills and acquire knowledge. This perspective also reflects the prevailing educational
philosophy of constructivism which holds that knowledge is actively constructed through social
interaction (Goker: 2006, p40) and that learning can be facilitated by experts modeling
problem-solving strategies, guiding learners in approximating the strategies while learners
articulate their thought processes (Kerka:1998).
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3.5.2 Teacher development
In addition to mentoring, Neal (1992, p46) identifies four other common forms of teacher
development activities that exist in most educational settings: peer relationships among teachers,
staff development programmes, instructional supervision and traditional evaluation. While the
unified aim of these activities is the professional development of teachers, it is peer relationships
such as peer coaching which appear to parallel mentoring in most respects. Goker: (2006, p240)
describes peer coaching.as the process of two teachers working together in and out of the
classroom to plan instruction, develop support materials, and watch one another work with
students.as one such strategy for teacher development (ibid).
However, it is not within the scope of this discussion to carry out a detailed review of different
strategies of faculty development. Instead the focus will be on one particular strategy or process-
mentoring. The reason for this is that whatever support there is for faculty members at Pakistani
HE institutions often takes the shape of an experienced senior colleague guiding the new entrant
for a few weeks or so. Therefore, mentoring, which Alleman et al (1984, p329) describe as a
relationship in which a person of greater rank or expertise teaches, guides, and develops a novice
in an organization or profession, seems an appropriate faculty support structure to explore in
this context conforming as it does to existing practice and thereby containing the potential for
successful adaptation.
3.5.3 Mentoring
Although much has been written on the subject, the mentoring literature is distinguished by a
lack of a comprehensive definition for the mentoring process (Bogat & Redner: 1985, p851).
Mertz (2004, p543) views the absence of a shared, stipulative definition of mentoring and of
boundaries for distinguishing mentoring from other types of supportive relationships as a major
barrier to achieving a shared understanding on the mentoring phenomenon and to maximizing
the benefits of mentoring relationships. The concept of mentoring has been appropriated for
implementation within a wide swath of settings (academic, corporate, medical and so on) but the
appropriation has not always entailed a consistent conceptualization of the phenomenon.
Leaving aside the contentious issue of a shared (ibid) definition of mentoring, most mentoring
literature makes reference to mentoring as being rooted in Homers Odyssey in which Odysseus
entrusted the education of his son, Telemachus, to his friend and counsellor, Mentor thus
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securing the assistance of an older and wiser person for his inexperienced son (Sands, Duane &
Parsons, 1991, p175: Little,1990, p298:Healy& Welchert,1990, p17: Tolentino, 1999, p2: Luna
& Cullen, p14: Hadden: 1997, p17: Aldred & Garvey, 2000, p269:Siskin & Davis, 2000, p1)
The concept of mentoring is also said to have been impacted by the ideas of Levinson (in Kartje,
1996, p116) who examined the mentor-protg relationship in terms of the adult development
theory and described the mentor as playing a key role in helping the protg articulate and realize
the vision or dream he held for his life.
At a less abstract level, Head, Reiman & Thies-Sprinthall (1992, p14) describe mentoring in the
following way:
the heart and soul of mentoring is an outgrowth of belief in the value and worth of people and an attitude toward education that focuses upon passing the torch to the next generation of teachers
Within this description can be discerned a number of elements that would seem to constitute the
mentoring process as it is widely understood. The empowerment of new teaching professionals is
attempted by experienced colleagues who undertake to provide a supportive and developmental
environment for the new generation of teachers. Within this scenario we can also detect the
working of Eriksons (in Mertz: 2004, p544-545) concept of generativity which helps the
mentor to realize the developmental milestone of transcending the self in serving others and the
future through the protg.
Kelly, Beck & AP Thomas (1995, p253) argue that self development is rarely successful without
the support of other people. A system of mentoring offers that support by providing individuals
with someone who can give feedback, question, share, discuss, challenges, confront and guide
one through the learning cycle. (my italics)
The keywords here are a system of mentoring. The strengthening of needs assessment and
course evaluation procedures and provision of systematised faculty support can not only enhance
the effectiveness of language courses but also ensure the maintenance of quality of the teaching
and learning environment.
Mentoring can be rationalised in terms of the fact that new teachers require support as well as
ongoing staff development to succeed in the teaching profession. Mentoring serves as an
effective induction strategy benefiting the mentors, protgs and institutions alike in the process
itself (Newcombe: 1988, p5).
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3.5.4 Definitions of mentoring
Alleman et al (1984, p329) describe mentoring as a relationship in which a person of greater
rank or expertise teaches, guides, and develops a novice in an organization or profession. The
experience has an unusually beneficial effect on the protgs personal and professional
development. Anderson & Shannon (1987, p29) define mentoring as a nurturing process in
which a more skilled or more experienced person , serving as a role model, teaches, sponsors,
encourages, counsels, and befriends a less skilled or less experienced person for the purpose of
promoting the latters professional and/or personal development. Mentoring functions are carried
out with the context of an ongoing, caring relationship between the mentor and protg.
Healy and Welchert (1990, p17) consider:
mentoring to be a dynamic, reciprocal relationship in a work environment between an advanced career incumbent (mentor) and a beginner (protg) aimed at promoting the career development of both. For the protg, the object of mentoring is the achievement of an identity transformation, a movement from the status of understudy to that of self-directing colleague. For the mentor, the relationship is a vehicle for achieving midlife generativity....
Roberts (2000, p162) views mentoring as a formalised process whereby a more knowledgeable
and experienced person actuates a supportive role of overseeing and encouraging reflection and
learning within a less experienced and knowledgeable person, so as to facilitate that persons
career and personal development
Brysons (2001, p xi) description of mentoring parallels that of Anderson & Shannon although
he chooses to describe it as a framework of affirmative encouragement by practised and capable
staff to colleagues new to teaching or new to an institution. Mentoring allows abilities,
knowledge, skills and understanding to be transferred to less self-assured colleagues. This
difference in perception may be due in part to the fact that Mentoring has evolved as a field and
todays mentors are not only experienced practitioners but also receive substantial training to
nurture, train or guide their protgs. Garvey (2004, p161) describes mentoring as a relationship
between two people, with learning and development as its core purpose which involves certain
human qualities and attributes such as trust, commitment and emotional engagement and
includes the use of certain skills such as listening, questioning, challenging and supporting.
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Although limited in number, these definitions provide some sense of the complexity of the
mentoring process and participant roles. Mentoring participants include the mentor and the
protg. The role of the more experienced colleague/mentor is viewed as that of supporting and
nurturing less experienced colleagues so as to assist their induction into the work environment.
Healy & Welcherts (ibid) definition is indicative of the views of theorists who see the mentoring
relationship as a more equal one in that it allows for the development of both the mentor and the
mentee rather than just the protg as in earlier and more traditional conceptualizations of
mentoring.
3.5.5 Models of mentoring
Bryson (2001: p28-32) speaks of three prevalent models found in the literature on mentoring:
The apprenticeship model which consists of working alongside an experienced
practitioner who also serves as a model for the trainee
The competency model which consists of the mentor acting as a systematic
trainer providing training according to a list of pre defined competencies
The reflective practitioner model in which the mentor takes on the role of co
enquirer with the trainee
The models enable the visualization of what kind of mentoring teachers may need at a particular
stage in their careers. As always the cultural fit of an idea accounts for its success or failure
within the implementation stage. For socio cultural reasons, Pakistans HE context is
characterised by high power distance as well as a top down style of management which make
Brysons apprenticeship and competency models of mentoring more appropriate than that of the
third model which presupposes a less directive relationship between the mentor and protg. It is
considered suitable for protgs to model their professional conduct (encompassing work
responsibilities as well as behaviour) on that of an experienced and seasoned practitioner. In
most cases, institutions also prefer inductees to develop predefined competencies with the help of
a trainer as these competencies are more quantifiable and therefore easier to assess.
Brysons (ibid: p16) list of the six common types of mentors is also a helpful aid in identifying
the kind of mentoring relationship that may exist within a particular context and that has the
potential to take root in a particular institution:
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1. Traditional mentors
2. Supportive bosses
3. Organizational sponsors
4. Professional mentors
5. Patrons
6. Invisible godparents
Discussion in the data analysis section 5.1 will reveal which type (s) of mentors may function
more effectively in the Pakistani context.
The models of mentoring have been viewed from another perspective by Clutterbuck (2004, p43)
who differentiates between the sponsorship focused model which is predominant in literature
emerging from North America and which functions on the premise that it is the mentors ability
to do things on behalf of someone more junior that drives the relationship and the development
focused model which sees the mentee as the main driver of the process. The developmental
model encourages the mentee to maximize the benefits of the mentoring relationship by being
proactive in his or her own development.
3.5.6 Phases of mentoring Researchers have noted a progression of four to six phases through which mentoring
relationships develop. Phillips (in Head, Reiman & Thies- Sprinthall:1995 ,p21) has identified
these as invitation, sparkle, development, disillusionment, parting and transformation. Hunt &
Michael (ibid) have categorized these as initiation, protg, break up and lasting friendship and
Kram (1983, p614) has described the phases in terms of initiation, cultivation, separation and
redefinition. The phases described by most theorists follow a similar pattern. Once initiated the
mentoring relationship matures into a deeper and reciprocally meaningful interaction which
lessens in intensity as the mentee becomes more empowered and independent. Once the protg
has become independent of the mentor the final stage becomes that of redefining the role so that
mentors and protgs can set for themselves the parameters of future interaction on a basis of
collegial parity.
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3.5.7 Benefits of mentoring by not mentoring, we are wasting talent. We educate and train, but dont nurture.
(Wright & Wright: 1987, p207)
Faculty mentoring helps to create new incentives and career opportunities and eases the
transition of new faculty into the professoriate to a great extent (Kanuka: 2005, p3).It also serves
as a strategy to personalize individual faculty development and to empower entrants as well as
veterans within the teaching profession through strong supportive relationships. Its benefits have
been well documented and include the advancement of organizational culture, provision of
access to informal and formal networks of communication and provision of professional
stimulation to all faculty members (Luna & Cullen: 1995, p 5). Mentoring is also supportive of
professional growth and renewal (ibid, p6) and promotes faculty productivity, advocates
collegiality, and encourages a broader goal of attracting, retaining, and advancing faculty
members (p14, ibid). The benefits of mentoring are not restricted to the protgs only. Kanuka
(2005, p3) discusses Reich as commenting that mentors are in a position to gain satisfaction
from assisting new colleagues, improving their own managerial skills, and increasing stimulation
from bright and creative new faculty members. Mentoring would thus appear to be a meaningful
and advantageous induction/support mechanism for faculty induction, development and
retention.
3.5.8 Disadvantages of mentoring While mentoring has great utility it must not be considered a panacea for all problems in a
department, college, or institution (Luna & Cullen: 1995, p68). Mentoring is as susceptible to
dysfunction as other supportive relationships and Wright & Wright (1987, p207) enumerate
some of the characteristics of counter productive mentoring interactions which can include
exploitive relationships, stagnation, and conflicting personalities or value structures. Mentoring
can only thrive if both mentor and protg are willing participants, if the interaction is based on
mutually desired outcomes, and if the requisite institutional support is available.
The dangers of fostering counter productive mentoring partnerships can be preempted by first of
all viewing it as an ever evolving phenomenon, rather than a static one, because it pivots on
human interaction and human relationships (which are very susceptible to change) taking place
within a profession that continues to develop at a frenetic pace. In an article marking the new
millennium, Hargreaves and Fullan (2000, p52-55) commented that the growing complexity of
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the teaching profession meant that teachers had to deal with a diverse clientele, face increasing
moral uncertainty and contend with the vested interests of diverse groups. They concluded that
mentoring, as an induction and support mechanism, had to be seen as central rather than adjunct
to the task of transforming the teaching profession itself. (my italics). Mentoring had to change
from being the source of hierarchical dispensation of wisdom to being the catalyst for shared
inquiries of wisdom and had to become instrumental in creating strong professional cultures
involving all teaching professionals and not just the new teachers.
It may be noted here that while Hargreaves & Fullans view that mentoring should lead to
shared inquiries of wisdom has immense potential, the fact that the Pakistani HE context is more
conservative than most may make the development of a nurturing or training relationship into
one of shared inquiry somewhat difficult to conceptualise and bring about. Indeed, while faculty
mentoring is a powerful induction and development strategy, Luna & Cullen (1995, p6) point out
that it must fit the culture and environment of the educational institution, and faculty must be
involved in the design and implementation of strategies and plans for mentoring if it is to serve
the purpose of faculty development.
This point has great bearing on the use of mentoring as an induction tool within the Pakistani HE
context and further discussion will take note of the need for cultural fit of mentoring within the
context under discussion.
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CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 Research Findings
4.1 Results of the questionnaires The responses the questions in both qustionnaires have been collated in textual or graphical form and
presented in Appendix IV for ease of reference.
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CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 Discussion
5.1 Faculty questionnaire
This chapter will discuss relevant issues raised by the research findings in relation to the main
headings under which the questionnaire was structured
Background information Needs assessment Mentoring Programme development
All three areas addressed by the questionnaire provide interesting information on the research
focus of this dissertation. While graphical representation of questionnaire results in Appendix IV
may enable the reader to understand what the data superficially signifies, there is still more to be
gained from interpreting the responses to each question.
Because women faculty tend to show different trajectories than do men (Bronstein &
Farnsworth: 1998, p558) the fact that the survey was answered by almost an equal number of
female faculty as male faculty was helpful in generating data that stemmed from different
perspectives and experiences. Also, the respondents were fairly representative of age and career
level. 42% of the respondents held an MA qualification whereas 2 of the respondents had
additional qualifications in the form of MA TEFL and MBA. Another 2 were in the process of
completing research degrees.
The minimum teaching experience at HE level was 3 years and the maximum 33 years. Again
the variation in the length of time spent teaching at tertiary level was helpful as it provided the
insights of faculty members who were fairly new to the profession as well as mature
professionals well used to teaching at universities.
In question 6, the respondents described their preservice/inservice teacher training and only one
respondent indicated that he/she had not received such training at all. Two of the respondents had
completed training imparted by the Educational Branches of Pakistans military services as these
respondents had at one point served in the Air Force and Navy respectively. NUST and the
Pakistani military services jointly run several of the Armed Forces institutions hence serving
officers with the requisite subject expertise are at times seconded to NUST colleges. It was also
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revealed that inservice/preservice training usually consisted of workshops, certificate and
diploma courses and that the training for each respondent depended on individual circumstances
and institutional imperatives.
For question 7, three of the respondents wrote that their training or experience in curriculum
development consisted of working out objectives, course plans and syllabi during the course of
their work. This is indicative of the situation highlighted in section 1.1 in which it was pointed
out that teachers in Pakistan lack specialized training in curriculum development. Most teachers
learn on the job and hence the quality of what they learn cannot be certified. Question 8 revealed
that the respondents were well experienced in teaching English.
In question 9, respondents were asked which aspect (s) of organizing a course they had ever been
responsible for. The lowest percentages-57% and 71%-were recorded for needs assessment and
course evaluation respectively thereby corroborating the general view that needs assessment and
course/programme evaluation do not feature prominently in the Pakistani teachers repertoire of
responsibilities. The responses to question 10 also highlighted an interesting fact that only in
42% of the cases were the English programmes run by the Department of English; in the case of
an overwhelming 71%, the Humanities and Science Division had a greater role in the running of
these programmes. Since the Humanities and Science Division cannot aspire to the kind of
subject focus the Department of English may have, this fact alone has great bearing on how
English programmes and faculty may be short changed in terms of expertise, resources and
faculty development.
In question 11, it was indicated that English was both a core and support subject by 57% of the
respondents respectively. Here it must be understood that by core the respondents do not mean
that English is taught as a main subject such as for e.g. object oriented programming for the BIT
students in NUSTs Information Technology Institute but that it is taught as a subject which must
be passed in order to progress to the next semester. None of the respondents polled worked at
institutions offering English as a degree subject. The substantial percentages affirm the
importance of English as a subject, whether support or core, in Pakistans HE sector. Responses
to questions 12 to 14 indicated that all the respondents taught undergraduate students whereas
42% also taught at the postgraduate level and that the courses they taught were all graded using
the same pattern as the other subjects in the university.
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35
Question 15 yielded the data that decision making as to syllabus, books and materials was
overwhelmingly (85%) in the hands of the teachers with the university the closest second at 42%.
This is not so much reflective of teachers independence as reflective of the lack of standardised
curriculum development and implementation as already discussed in Section 1.1. Interestingly,
while in question 9, 57% of the teachers indicated that they did not conduct needs assessment, in
question 16, 71% respondents indicated that learner needs were assessed during the course of
their teaching. The apparent contradiction may be tied in with the response to question 17 which
shows that in 71% of the cases the needs assessment took the form of discussion with students in
initial sessions. It is possible that faculty members do not easily equate formal needs assessment
with discussions with students and believe that needs assessment must take a more visible form
such as questionnaires in order to be recognized as such. In question 18, only one respondent
indicated that he/she was aware of a formal mentoring programme in a Pakistani university
whereas the remaining six answered not sure or no to this question. In question 19, only 42%
pointed out that their institutions had some kind of faculty induction policy. In question 20, a
similar percentage of respondents explained teacher support structures as taking the form of
understudying a senior colleague, guidance from a senior colleague or peer development
strategies. The variation in the forms of teacher support structures cited confirms the supposition
that faculty induction is a less than organised or standardised activity in most universities in
Pakistan. In question 21, when asked to describe mentoring support the respondents may have
received, 57% cited guidance by senior colleague and weekly departmental seminars, post
induction collegial support, one to one counselling relationship with HoD and unstructured
modelling of ones teaching behaviour on the way senior colleagues teach as the kind of support
they received once inducted into the universities. Again what is striking is the variation in the
form of support experienced and the absence of an established and systematized induction
programme for faculty members. In question 22, 57% respondents strongly agreed and 42%
agreed that course effectiveness can be increased if faculty is supported through support
structures such as a mentoring programme (faculty questionnaire). The respondents
overwhelmingly favoured mentoring programmes because faculty induction in Pakistan depends
chiefly on collegial initiative rather than uniform induction policies and programmes across the
universities. In question 23, all the respondents indicated that faculty support structures would
enable inductees to benefit from the experience of more experienced teachers and a lower
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percentage of respondents (71%) believed that it would also help in adjusting to institutional
culture and the sharing of knowledge. In part B of question 23, the respondents stated that
experienced teachers could guide and coach new teachers and share their knowledge and
experience with them and also facilitate their adjustment in the new environment. Other
respondents wrote that such structures would help in making the whole environment more
congenial and in understanding the needs of the students at different levels. Another
respondent wrote that these could serve as starting points for teachers and help them to fill
gaps in own skills and knowledge. Key words in these responses were guide, coach and
help in adjustment to the new environment. It was also notable that respondents tended to view
support structures as relationship based which is the underlying rationale for mentoring
programmes. These views confirmed the need for a well planned induction programme. In
question 24, 71% of the respondents chose traditional mentors and supportive bosses as the
ideal mentoring combination. The choice was not surprising as culturally Pakistan is a country
with high power distance and top down decision making and administrative setup. The
respondents views affirmed the need to have a culturally appropriate mentoring combination for
successful programme implementation. As one respondent put it, the matrix of existing social
relationships between inductees and senior colleagues makes a mentoring model combining
supportive boss and traditional mentor appropriate for faculty members in Pakistani universities
In question 25, an audit of mentoring functions by the respondents revealed that 85% of those
surveyed viewed the Director and Dean as being responsible for assessing. The assessment role
for the HoD was recorded at a lower percentage (57%) but interestingly the management role
was recorded at the same percentage (71%) for Director, Dean and HoD. The HoDs role was
considered the most supportive (71%) followed by that of the Dean and then the Director. This
reveals that mentoring functions are performed but not at the same level by the same individual
again reflecting the top down style of management in Pakistan.
Responses to questions 26 and 27 confirmed the suppositions that learners were the primary
evaluators of the course and that the quality of teaching was the primary focus of a programme
evaluation. Programme evaluation/course effectiveness recorded the lowest percentage at 71%
compared to 100% for the quality of teaching. Evaluation was thus seen as the evaluation of
teacher effectiveness rather than holistic programme evaluation. Answers to questions 28 and 29
confirmed that in most cases evaluation occurred both during and at the end of the course and
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that questionnaires were the chief mode of such evaluation. Question 30 showed that in 85 % of
the cases evaluation resulted in changes to the course but the results very rarely led to research
of any kind (14%). Question 31 showed that respondents while acknowledging that current
evaluation practices were focused on teacher effectiveness (85%) unanimously understood it to
evaluation of all the aspects of the programme and not just the teacher.
In question 32, the most number of respondents cited the following as impacting programme
effectiveness:
1. Unclear goals and objectives
2. Lack of appropriate administrative arrangements
3. Problems caused by students
4. Lack of information for learners about the course
5. Lack of skills/experience on the part of teachers
6. Heterogeneous groups and diverse learner types or needs
7. Lack of support resources (self access etc)
8. Lack of curriculum guidelines models
9. High teacher turnover
1,5 and 8 are related directly to curriculum development and implementation whereas 3 and 6
pertain indirectly and directly to the need for needs assessment. 5 and 9 can be linked to post
induction faculty development.
Question 33 asked respondents to rate who performed curriculum tasks in their present setup.
With reference to University Headquarters (UHQ), 42 % respondents rat