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The Language of Research

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Construct

Abstraction that cannot be observed directly but are useful in interpreting empirical data and in theory building

People differ in what they can learn and how quickly they can learn. Scientist invented a construct called intelligence

other examples are: motivation, reading readiness, anxiety, underachievement, creativity, self-concept, maturity and many more.

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Specification of meaning

Constructs may be defined in a way that gives general meaning or they may be defined in terms of the operation by which they will be measured or manipulated

Constitutive definition A dictionary type of definition or formal definition For example, inteligence may be defined as the ability

to think abstractly or the capacity to acquire knowledge

Important to define so that readers know what is meant by the term and to enable other research to duplicate the research

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Operational definition

Helps researcher bridge the gap between theoretical and observable

Two types of operational definition:

measured operational definition and

experimental operational definition

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Measured operational definition: Details the operation by which the investigator measure

the construct

Example: Inteligence may be defined operationally as scores on

Stanford-Binet Intel Scale Creativity may operationally refer to…

So, when you define the construct in terms of how they are measured, you know precisely what it is meant by the term

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Experimental Operation Definition Details the steps taken to produce certain

experimental conditions

Example: Frustration in the study may take the form of

preventing subjects from reaching the goal

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Why operationally defined the construct?

To delimit a term To ensure that people understand particular way a term

is used To allow researcher to proceed with investigation that

might not be possible

Example: In practice, the investigation of the relationship between

construct creativity and the construct intelligence refers to scores on an intelligence test to scores on a measure of creativity

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Variables

Characteristics by which persons or objects can be described

Characteristics that do vary and can be put on a continuum or spectrum

Characteristics that can change from time to time for given persons or objects

There are variation within the class or subjects

Must have more than one level

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Example:To study the effect of reinforcement on

students achievementSelect 9th gradersDivide into 3 groupsTeachers give different reinforcement

(verbal praise, monetary rewards, extra points)

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Types of variables

Discrete or categorical or qualitative Can only take on specific values Do not vary in degree, amount, quantity but are

qualitatively different The simplest form of categorical variable:

gender (male-female). When there are two categories it is known as

dichotomous

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Other examples of categorical variables

Marital status Types of occupation Location of residence Ethnics Political pereference Hair colour, Brand of a car

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Quantitative variable

Also known as continous variableIt exist in some degrees along a

continuum from less to moreNumbers are assigned to indicate how

much of the variable they possessCan take on any valueIQ, Age, Height, Weigth, Interest

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Which of the folowing are categorical and quantitative Religion Cleaness Hair calor Race Gender SES Curiosity Writing ability Efficiency CGPA

Height Running Speed Teaching Mthods Leadership style Level of motivation Intelligence Komitment Job Satisfaction Level of Education Type oh Job School Climate Type of School

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Classification of variables

Independent Presumed cause Antecedent Variable predicted from Denoted by X The thing you think will

produce a difference and thing the experimenter change somehow

Treatment factors

Dependent Presumed effect Consequences Variable predicted from Denoted by Y The thing that is

supposed to change Thing that shoud be

affected Criterion

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Types of independent variable

Attribute: Variable that cannot be manipulated. [gender,

SES, IQ, Hair Color etc] Also known as assigned, measured,

organismic, personological, sociological, psycho-sociological, demographic

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Some variables can be manipulated but are not manipulated in a particular investigation Type of curriculum Section of a course Usually subject self-select the level of the

independent variable or naturally occuring Very common in ex post facto research

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Active independent variable Also called experimental variable Manipulated variable Treatment variable

Variable can be manipulated and are manipulated in a particular investigation

Method of teaching

What is manipulation? Random assigment of experimental units or

subjects to levels of the independent variable

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Intervening variable, extraneous, confounding or contaminating variables Things affecting dependent variable other than

the independent variable Cause a threat to the validity of the study This is a major problem in any study Give example

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Test wiseness affect test performance

Children who are blocked from reaching their goals exhibit more aggressive acts than children not so blocked

Girls who plan to pursue careers in science are more aggressive, less conforming, more independent and have a greater need for achievement than girls who do not plan such careers

Under intangible reinforcement conditiond, middle-class children will learn significantly better than lower-class children

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Students who have completed how to study course will make a significantly higher grade-point average than students who have never taken such a course

Individual who graduate with Doctor of Education in educational administration attain better paying jobs than those who received a Doctor of Philosophy in educational administration

Perceptions of the characteristics of the good or effective teacher are in part determined by the perceivers’ attitude toward education

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Dependent variable

Variable that the independent variable is presumed to affect

Variable that depends on independent variable Outcome variable Example:

The amount of uneasiness that applicants for a position express in an interview

How anxious students are before the examination Neatness Openness of a classroom Fluency in a foreign language

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Research in education may study the relationship between either (a) two or more quantitative variables, (b) one categorical and one quantitative

variable, or (c) two or more categorical variable

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Two quantitative variables

Age and amount of interest in schoolReading achievement and mathematics

achievementClassroom humanism and student

motivationAmount of time watching television and

agressiveness of behavior

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One categorical and one quantitative

Method used to teach reading and reading achievement

Counselling approach and level of anxietyNationality and liking for schoolStudent gender and amount of praise

given by teachers

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Two categorical variables

Ethnicity and father’s occupationGender of teacher and subject taughtAdministrative style and college majorReligious affiliation and political party

membership

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Constant

A fixed value within the study, that is all members of the class are identical

There is no variationNo change of characteristicsExample:

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Ugama yang dianuti Kecerdasan

Kebersihan Komitment

Warna mata/rambut Kepuasan bekerja

Bangsa Tahap pendidikan

Jantina Jenis pekerjaan

SES Leadership style

Curiousity Iklim sekolah

Writing ability Kualiti sekolah

Math ability Jenis sekolah

Kecekapan CGPA

Test anxiety Ketinggian

Grade level Kepantasan berlari

Kaedah mengajra Jenis kenderaan

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Yang manakah independent dan yang manakah dependent? effects of instructional variables on languange ability of preschool

children the validity of predictors of performance in law school computer based drill and practice in arithmatics: widening the gap

between high and low achieving students learning disable children self concept sex difference in choice of college science majors

Test wiseness affetct test performance Children who are blocked from reaching their goals exhibit more

aggressive act thath childern who are blocked Girls who plan to pursue career in science are more aggressive than