edu 612 assment
TRANSCRIPT
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1.0 INTRODUCTION.
In our quest to understand how organizations of any kind should operate and
function for the purpose of achieving the predetermined goals
and objectives ofsuch organization. Human organizations such as educational
system, have some characteristics that differentiate them from other non-organic
ones. Characteristics are the behaviours and interactions of the people which to a
very large extent can predict the success or otherwise of the administrator. We are
going to be looking at different theories propounded by different scholars for an
administrators success in an organization.
1.2 DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATIVE
THEOREMS.
On every day running of a school or a social institution that
its aim is to maximize production, the administrator thinks of
ways at which he/she will employ to make adequate use of
resources to produce maximum output. In the quest to do this,
the administrator deploys different means so as to effectively
manage and take care of the workers and the work.
Different people with different schools of thought started
coming out with different theorems that can best suit their
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of Fredrick Taylor was later referred to as
Taylorism. Among the disciples of Frederick Taylor were Henry
Gantt, Frank and Lillian Gilbreth (Husband and wife), Warrington,
Emerson, e.t.c. All these names were also associated with
scientific management.
Taylors scientific management advocated efficiency, which could
be achieved when workers are made to work to achieve the
objective set by the organization. The type of management
advocated is described in his Principles of Scientific Management
and may be summarised thus;
1. Time-Study Principles: All productive efforts should be
measured by accurate
time study and a standard time established for all work done.
2. Piece-rate Principle: Wages should be proportional to output
and their rates based on the standards determined by time study.
As a corollary, a worker should
be given the highest grade of work of which he is capable.
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3. Separation-of-planning from performance principle:
Management should take
over from the workers, the responsibility for planning the work
and making the
performance physically possible. Planning should be based on
time studies and
other data related to production, which are scientifically
classified. It should be
facilitated by standardization of tools, implements and methods.
4. Scientific-Methods of work Principle: Management should take
over from the
workers, the responsibility for their methods of work, determine
scientifically, the
best method and train workers accordingly.
5. Management-Control Principle: Managers should be trained and
taught to
apply scientific principles of management and control (such as
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management by
exception and comparison with valid standard) so that they can
train the workers
accordingly.
6. Functional-Management Principle: The strict application of
military principle
should be considered as the industrial organization should be so
designed that it
best serves the purpose of improving the coordination of activities
among the
various specialists.
Taylor and his followers were enormously influential in
establishing these principles in such powerful organizations as
Midland Steel, Bethlehem Steel. Santa Fe Railway, and ACMC Wire
Company among others. Taylorism was being criticized as being
too mechanistic, forceful, exploitative, inhuman, and for not
having any consideration for human factors but rather in favour of
organization and emphasized productivity at the expense of
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human elements. Some of the major critics of Taylorism are
Campbell and his associates.
1.4 ADMINISTRATIVE MANAGEMENT THEORY.
Henri Fayol was a French industrialist; he was another major
contributor to the systematic study of administration. In 1916,
Fayol came up with a book. Administration Industriale and
Generale where all his ideas on administrative theory were
embedded. Fayol created the famous five elements/functions of
management which include, Planning. Organizing, Coordinating.
Commanding, and Controlling.
Planning: To plan is to foresee and provide means to examine
the future and draw up the plan of action.
Organizing: To organize means, building up the dual structure,
material and human of the undertaking.
Coordinating: This means binding together, unifying and
harmonizing all activities and efforts.
Commanding: This implies giving directives to the subordinate,
by the superior for them to carry out.
Controlling: This implies seeing that everything occurs in
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conformity with established rule and expressed command.
These five elements/functions of management identified by Henri
Fayol have been variously modified by modern writers and
organization theorists as Luther Gulick and Lyndall Urwick. For
instance, Gulick used the acronym POSDCORB to represent the
functions of the Chief administrator in a typical organization. Each
letter represents an activity essential to the proper functioning of
the office. POSDCORB is used to mean Planning, Organizing,
Staffing, Directing, Coordinating, Reporting and Budgeting.
Among Fayols achievement was his attempt to raise the level of
administrative practice by providing a framework of principles and
functions, which are being referred to as Fayols 14 principles
include the following:
i. Division of work
ii. Authority and Responsibility
iii. Discipline
iv. Unity of Command
v. Unity of Direction
vi. Subordination of Individual interest
vii. Remuneration of personnel according to efforts
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viii. Centralization
ix. Chain of Command
x. Order
xi. Equity
xii. Stability of job and tenure
xiii. Initiative and
xiv. Espirit de Corps (Team spirit)
1.5 ABRAHAM MASLAW THEORY OF BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCE.
Abraham Maslaw possibly the most famous scholar of the
behavioral science approach. The behavioral science approach
tends to see more of the individual than the organization. The
behaviorists developed their theorems based on individuals and
not the organization.
Abraham Maslaw developed his hierarchy of needs. His
theory suggested a pyramidal structure of human needs that
every individual seeks to have met. These needs moves from the
basic physiological needs, such as food and water to safety needs
and the need for self-actualization.
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According to Maslaw, these needs are important in that
schools and institutions must help to provide employees with the
ability to satisfy their needs so that they can become more
productive employees. The behavioral science scholars integrated
the worker and the work in a way that production can flow, they
considered three elements here,
The man,
The money, (the job)
The material (the social settings)
THE MAN ELEMENT;- Taking the employee into consideration, how
to make him more comfortable towards effective production.
THE MONEY (THE JOB)ELEMENT;- The money element takes care
of the work and how to be more productive, making sure that the
main purpose of establishing the institution is not being
compromised, in this case that the students results really reflects
that the teachers are really doing their work.
THE SOCIAL SETTINGS ELEMENT;- This element tends to consider
the outside environment of the worker, the social environment of
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the worker, any activity outside the working environment that will
make the worker to be more productive. In this case the co-
curricular and extra-curricular activities of both the learner and
the teacher.
1.6 DOUGLAS MC GREGOR THEORY OF X AND Y.
Mc Gregor suggested what he called theories concerning the
relationship between an individual ion a supervisory job and
workers. In this theory he suggested that a theory x manager is
one who thinks that all workers are lazy, that they have no
interest in the success in the organization and they have a strong
dislike for work. To achieve a reasonable level of production, the
manager must control and threaten workers. Theory x suggests
that workers must continually be directed and further, that they
actually deserve a constant supervision of an authority figure.
They must constantly be probed since they have no desire to see
the organization succeed.
On the other hand theory y suggests the opposite. Thus that
the workers wants the organization to grow and that physical and
mental effort to work is natural and that these factors are
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desirable by employees.
Some 21 years after Mc Gregors publication of the theory of X and
Y, Professor William Ouchi developed this theory Z which is
considered to be a cornerstone of the Japanese industry. this
theory suggests that to obtain maximum productivity from
workers, they must be given a sense of ownership in the
organization. They must feel that they are important and worthy
and further that their ideas and suggestions are considered by the
management.
1.7 Two Factor Theory Of Motivation
Fredrick Herzberg is famous for developing what he called the two
factor theory of motivation. He distinguished factors known as
hygiene factor and motivation factors
Hygiene factors :- these are factors that cause or prevent job
dissatisfaction these include companies policies and
administration working conditions and salary. According to him,
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these factors do not contribute to job satisfaction but the absence
of them leads to job dissatisfaction.
Motivation factors :- these are factors that contribute to job
satisfaction, it allows for a sense of satisfaction among workers,
these factors include a sense of achievement, recognition by the
organization and the potential for growth and advancement n the
organization.
1.8 Participatory Management Theory
Rensis Likert is known as a participatory management theorist,
He devised a 4- part system of stages of management consisting
of Exploitative, authoritarian, benevolent and participative. Rensis
Likert is of the opinion that the combination of these qualities in
an educational administrator will make for a better productivity in
a school system.
The likert system further developed Mc Gregors theory of X and Y
and approaches Ouchis theory Z in suggesting that the best
school administrators are participative, thus every day should be
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part of the decision making body at his/her own level.
1.9 System Theory
One of the most recent ways of viewing educational
administration is through the system theory approach. the system
approach defines a system as a set of interrelated element in
such a way that all the element of the system most work for the
entire system to work effectively. the system theory approach
when used in education is based on looking at the entire
organization or system while being mindful of the interrelatedness
of all the facets of the school system.
To better explain the system theory approach as applied to the
school system where we have three (3) facets that make up the
school system,
1. Input ( in this case the students that are to receive the
knowledge)
2. Transformation( in this case the process of knowledge transfer
from the teacher to the learner)
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3. The output (in this case the product, the graduating students,
how is he and how can we improve on the quality of the next
group of graduating students.)
1.10 Human Relations Theory (Mary Parker Follett )
Mary Parker Follett of the human relations theory stressed the
need for the interactions of management and workers, she looks
at management and leadership holistically, presaging modern
system approaches, she identifies a leader as someone who sees
the whole rather than the particular. she was one of the first to
integrate the idea of organizational conflict into the management
theory and is sometimes considered the ''Mother of c conflict
resolution'' She is of the opinion that productivity can be
enhanced if there is a better relationship between the school
administration and its workers (academic and non academic) she
worked towards introducing decentralization consultative decision
making and making sure that productivity is enhanced through
participatory style which involves everybody. her core values is
that the welfare of the workers remains paramount. in this case,
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the following remain paramount in a school administrator,
Involving every body
eye on staff development
teacher motivation
building a dynamic interpersonal relationship within the
school.
she came up with the two most powerful phrases in human
relation
* power- over
* power- with
She perceived power- over as a coercive power and power-with
as a power gained through participative decision making showing
how consultative decision making "power with" can be better than
power over which she sees as coercive and authoritarian.
1.11 HAWTHORNE EFFECT.
The Hawthorne studies resulted in what is sometimes called the
HAWTHORNE EFFECT. Three separate studies or experiments
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were done at the general electric plant in New york during the
1920s centering on how to increase the productivity of the
workers. Researchers were surprised at the findings and they
came with the theory that says working conditions are not as
important to a worker as is the idea regarding his/her worth to the
institution. Because of these studies, management began to
focus much more on the social conditions of a job including the
concept of the relation between the worker and the organization.
THE BUREACRATIC THEORY;
According to Max Weber, the bureaucratic concept of
organization and administration is; A pyramidal, hierarchical
organizational structure in which all power formaking decisions
flows from superordinates to subordinates.
Weber emphasised that bureaucratic apparatus would be very
impersonal, immunizing, irrational, personal and emotional
factors. Weber therefore proposed the following for the modern
organization in order to bring forth efficiency and productivity.
i. Division of work and specialization
ii. Hierarchy of Authority
iii. Rules and Regulations
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iv. Impersonal Orientation
v. Career Orientation
vi. Official documentation/record keeping.
i. Division of work and specialization: According to Weber,
the principle of the bureaucracy demands competence therefore,
assignments should be allotted
individual workers based on their technical knowledge and
capacity. This, he
says, would bring about efficiency and high productivity to the
organization.
ii. Hierarchy of Authority: In Webers view, it is the job of the
higher officer to
supervise and control the junior officers. He emphasized that in
an ideal type
organization, where things worked well, each lower officer is
under the control
and supervision of a higher one.
iii. Rules and Regulations:This principle according to Weber is
a continuous
organization of official functions bound by rules. Bureaucracy
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believes in
creating rules and regulations, which cover the rights, duties and
operations of all
members.
iv. Impersonal Orientation: Impersonality in official matters
means that the
administrator or manager should be impersonal in his official
dealings and should
not personalise the means of production or owning any property
in the
organization. He should therefore neither reflect his personal
interest nor protect
the interests of anybody in his dealings with official matters.
v. Career Orientation: Weber emphasized that employment
and promotion of staff should be based on qualifications,
technical knowledge or competence and
experience/skills acquired over time.
vi. Official Documentation/Record Keeping: Weber
advocated that all official transactions and matters in the
organization should be done officially and properly documented.
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The ideas preached and advocated by the classical school of
thought is efficiency and high productivity in organization.
2.0 PUBLIC RELATION IN SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION
In school administration, the need for a good relationship
with the internal and external environment cannot be
overemphasized because of the need for a proper evaluation and
innovation process.
The essence of public relation was outlined by emerald
group when it says that effective internal and external
communication is crucial for successful organization as it affects
the ability of strategic managers to engage employees and
achieve objectives.
Internal and external communication involves exchanging
information between the management and the environment it
operates, this environment includes the employees which are the
teachers, students and the non-academic staff members which
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constitute the internal relations. the communication within this
area concentrates on allowing every member of this group both
staff and students to air their view concerning issues about the
school administration for effective management and
administration of a school.
The school principal or the proprietress has to take the
contribution of the of the members of the community into
consideration and make sure that their views are not submerged
by management interest. In this way, the overall administration of
the school will be a collective effort.
According to William Harms, Public Relations "Relations with
the Public encompasses all interactions and communications
with the public by everyone in the school community from school
secretaries to maintenance workers to teachers, principals, board
members, students and the entire community. A good public
relation is something everyone involved with a school should be
practicing every day.
He went ahead to narrate that for a proper good public
relations in the school, the relationship with the outside
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environment must have the core principles example, contact of
parent, school-student-parent-community relationship.
2.1 WHAT IS SCHOOL PUBLIC RELATIONS.
Educational public relations is a planned and systematic
management function to help improve the programs and services
of an educational organization, it relies on a comprehensive two-
way communication process involving both internal and external
publics with a goal of stimulating a better understanding of the
role, objectives, accomplishments and needs of the organization.
educational public relations programs assists in interpreting
public attitudes, identify and help shape policies and procedures
in the public interest and carry on involvement and information
activities which earn public understanding and support. The
essential element in community and school community relation is
RELATIONSHIP. The educational leader must establish a positive
relationship among all key stakeholders. These key stakeholders
consist of parents, students, teachers/staff, and
community/business people. The major idea here is to develop a
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good relationship with both the internal and external stakeholders
(Gallagher, Bagin, & Moore.)
2.2 INTERNAL RELATONS,
This encompasses all the internal communications that
influences the policy making, administration and day to day
running of the school as an organization. In making a good
internal public relations, they must have the factors that
constitute the internal relation within the school system.
* The teacher
* The student
* Nonacademic staff.
The Teacher, :- The teacher plays a major part in the policy
making by the school administrator, the teacher stands between
the students and the school management and so stands a better
chance in contributing to the policy that guides the school as an
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organization. the relationship between the students and the
management can be enhanced if the relationship between the
teacher and the student and that of the teacher and the
management is good. Thus the teacher passes the mind of the
management to the student and in turn passes the mind of the
student to the management of the school. So for a proper
relationship in a school system, the teacher plays a pivot role in
seeing that the school maintains a persistent growth in its role of
education.
The Student :- The student as a factor in internal relations in a
school administration policies are centered on how to satisfy the
student thus equipping the student so as to be relevant to the
environment after graduation. There must be an affection
relation, between the student and the internal environment so as
to achieve this objective. So many scholars have stated that the
only factor that brings about a school organization is the learner
(student) So a perfect understanding of the student -environment
relationship will make for a better administration of the school
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organization.
Non Academic Staff :- This factor of internal relation in an
academic organization also plays a role in school administration .
Their understanding of the environment will also make them to
contribute in policy making process in educational administration
and planning.
2.3 EXTERNAL RELATIONS,
A communication plan that is developed collaboratively by the
school management and the community people will serve to
foster student achievement through the establishment of a
positive school climate and parent and citizen involvement and
build citizens knowledge and understanding leading to financial
support. In designing a communication a proper attention should
be given to both internal and external public, but more attention
should be given to the external because a better external relation
will make way for understanding, support and participation of the
public and public trust.
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According to Barry lucas & loraine thompson, every school
should have three types of information about the community it
serves.
1. Information about the composition of the community such
as the income, educational level and occupation of the
majority of the residents,
2. What community opinion is regarding both broad
educational issues and the day to day operation of the
school itself
3. The school should also have some familiarity with the
educational resources available in the community in order
that they can be ultilized to enrich and enhance the school
program.
That the above will make for a better planning within the school
organisation.
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3.0 SCHOOL FINANCE.
According to ogbonnaya,.
- educational finance is concerned with the income and
expenditure of educational authorities.
- educational finance is the process by which tax revenue and
other resources are derived for the establishment and operation
of educational authorities.
- it can be described as a process by which funds are allocated to
institutions in different geographical areas.
- it deals with the important examination of cost versus
expenditure in the production of educational services.
The above definition implies that there must be funds and
resources for the operation of educational businesses, and that
these funds are generated from the outside environment as a
result of trade between the educational institution and the
environment. in essence. school finance can be seen as the
process by which revenue and other resources are derived for the
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establishment and operation of the school system ranging from
sources of funds to management of funds.in school finance there
are two must important aspects, sources of school finance and
school finance management. we shall be looking at these two
components of school finance one after the other.
3.1 SOURCES OF SCHOOL FINANCE,
there are different sources of school funds based on the level of
population administration. below shows the different levels of
education in Nigeria and their sources of funds.
Primary schools :- funds received from local government units of
the universal basic education commission.
Post-primary Schools:- funds received from the post primary
management board or the secondary education management
board and other revenues such as the parents teachers
association levy and other internally generated revenues. And for
the federal secondary schools, the federal ministry of education
have a monthly allocation for the proper running of the schools
under them.
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Tertiary Institutions :- these include the colleges of educations,
polytechnics, and universities. For federal colleges of education,
their funds comes the national commission for colleges of
education, and for the state colleges of education, the states
funds their different colleges of education. For the federal
universities, their funds are from the national universities
commission. For the state universities, the different states fund
their different state universities.
Looking at the different aspects of funding of schools and the
different agencies that fund these schools, it is also good for us to
note that this analysis is for the public schools. Now for the
private schools, that finance system in private school is a
collective effort of the school management and the different
stakeholders in the system. The stakeholders in this case include
the school management, the parents and the host community.
The school management: - the school management as a
stakeholder in school finance is the entity that provides the
educational services so as to fund the school and also for profit.
At this level, how he manages the fund raised through services
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provided will also say how long he goes in making profit. If the
service he provide is low then, low finance will be sourced leading
to low profit and vice-versa.
Parents: - the parents as a source of school finance pays the
school fees and other related fees and in turn receives services.
The parents becomes an automatic stakeholder in the school and
have a social responsibility of participating in financing the
school.
Community:- some scholars have argued that the community
remains a strong stakeholder when it comes to funding the school
system.it goes to say that since the community takes part in
enjoying the outcome of a school system, the community should
also participate in funding the school. In some instances, we have
seen some schools being totally funded by communities e.g
community schools. In some instances, some communities go as
long as paying teachers, erecting structures and other services.
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REFERECES.
McGregor, D. (1967) The Professional Manager. New York:
McGraw-Hill publishers.
BUTLER,L.M., & R.D. Howell (1980). Community needs
assessment techniques. Corvallis:Prentice-Hall Inc
Oghonnaya N, O. (2005). Foundation of Educational Finance.
Nsukka: Hallman publishers.
Adepoju, T. L. (2003). Educational Administration at a Glance. Ibadan:
Corporate publishers.
Weihrich, H. and Koontz, H. (2001). Management: A Global Perspective (10th
Edition). New Delhi: McGraw Hill
Scott, W. G. and Mitchell, T. R. (1972). Organization Theory: A Structural and
Behavioural Analysis (Revised Edition). Illinois: Richard D. Irwin Inc.
Publications.
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