educated unemployment in kerala
TRANSCRIPT
EDUCATED UNEMPLOYMENT IN KERALA
~~e.ie e"h .. iU.b br t~.
GI.e~in ~nib.nit. of 'titnu an~ ~,,~ ... toJV
for the Degree of
~l1dor of '~ilosop~~ unber t~t fatuU, of "odat ~dfnu.
by
M. J. ALI-HONSA
Under the Sup9rvision of
DR. K. C. SANKARANARAYANAN
Professor & Head of the Department of Applied Economics
DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED ECONOMICS
COCHIN UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
KOCHI - 682 022
1994
~. X' ~ Yan~a".anala)'anan, .3f~;?;?o-". and' c!l1:atL
~~a".tlnent ~ ~)ih;'/ i£o-no-InIO;?,
~Ain 'l/n,ivel.;i,? 0-/ ~"no" c1 3;;hno-h?,?, . %oAf':
~".t~d' tAal' th" tAe;?i;?~ 6cluca,lecl Unempl"'1menl c!)n
!Kel'a,la i;? ~As leco-",d' 0-/ to-nap'd'tJ ".s.;ea-lcA oall""d' tlett ~
Y:. ~ho-n;?a .,/I /. unde". In)' .;?ewitJio-n. ~ tA~;?,,".? e".? tuO>.,tA
tJutmittin;? fr". ths d'7".ee 0-/ !?A.otQ~ ~ ~,,/e.,;~hJl in if:,o-n-o-Inio.;.
CONTENTS
----------------------------------------------~----~------
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
1.1 Statement of the problem
1.2 Objectives of the study
1.3 Conceptual Frame Work
1.4 Working definitions
1.5 Methodology
1.6 Scope and Limitations of the Study
1.7 Scheme of the study
CHAPTER 11 EDUCATION AND LABOUR MARKET BEHAVIOUR: A REVIEW OF THEORETICAL MODELS AND EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE
2.1 Theoretical Models
2.2 Empirical evidences based on Indian data analysis
CHAPTER III EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND CHANGING MANPOWER SUPPLY IN KERALA
3.1 Growth of School Education
3.2 Growth of Higher Education
3.3 Women Education
3.4 Expenditure on Education
CHAPTER IV ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND CHANGING STRUCTURE OF EMPLOYMENT IN KERALA
i - i i i
:v-x
xi-xxil
1-22
3
4
17
18
20
21
23 - 44
24
30
45 - 68
50
se
60
70 - 96
v
---------------------------------------------------------
.4.1 Trends in economic growth
4.2 Employment in the organized sector
4.3 Employment i n the organized sector by industry
4.4 Employment by Industry according to sex
4.5 Employment by Education and Industry
4.6 Employment by Occupation
4.7 Employment by Education and Occupation
4.8 Employment by Education and Sex
CHAPTER V STRUCTURE OF EDUCATED UNEMPLOYMENT IN KERALA
5.1 Education and Unemployment
5.2 Urban Unemployment by level of Education
5.3 Rural Unemployment by level of Education
5.4 Incidence of Unemployment and Education
5.5 Incidence of Unemployment in Kerala by level of Education,DES Survey (1987)
5.6 Educated Unemployment in Kerala, National Sample Survey, (38th and 43rd Round)
5.7 State-wise share of Unemployed persons and relative intensity of unemployment
5.8 Labour force participation rates and incidence of unemployment for the matriculates and graduates, Kerala, National Sample SurveY,(32nd and 43rd Round)
71
74
77
82
84
88
90
94
97 130
98
1 01
104
104
109
111
113
116
vi
---------------------------------------------------------
5.9 Growth of workers, non-workers and total population by level of education: Urban Kerala, 1961 - 1981
5.10 Trends in Educated Unemployment
5.11 Occupational composition of workseekers
5.12 Unemployment among professional and technical persons
5.13 Stock of educated work-seekers as percentage of the annual flow of the educated
5.14 Trends in growth of employment and unemployment in Kerala
CHAPTER VI SOCIO - ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF EDUCATED UNEMPLOYMENT: EVIDENCES BASED ON A PRIMARY SURVEY
6.1 Unemployment by family income and occupation of main earner in family
6.2 Unemployment by family income and caste
6.3 Unemployment by occupation and caste
6.4 Educational status of parents
6.5 Unemployment by age and sex
6.6 Unemployment and marital status
6.7 Unemployment by education and sex
6.8 Unemployment by education and income
6.9 Unemployment by education and caste
6.10 Unemployment by edOcation and occupation
6.11 Unemployment among graduates and postgraduates by faculty
6.12 Labour force and non-labour force
116
119
122
122
125
128
131-194
131
134
136
138
140
143
144
145
149
152
155
158
6.13 Rate of Unemployment by age and sex
6.14 Rate of Unemployment by level of education and sex
6.15 Rate of Unemployment by family income
6.16 Rate of Unemployment by occupation of main earner in family
6.17 Rate of Unemployment by caste
6.18 Rate of Unemployment by faculty of education
6.19 Job preference and education
6.20 Job preference and household income
6.21 Job preference and the minimum acceptable salary
6.22 Sectoral preference
6.23 Attitude towards starting own business
6.24 A~titude towards manual labour
6.25 Locational preference
6.26 Locational preference and education
6.27 Financial support
6.28 Education and source of information about job
CHAPTER VIr ANALYSIS OF UNEMPLOYMENT EXPERIENCE JOB-SEARCH PERIOD/ WAITING PERIOD FOR THE FIRST JOB
7.1 Duration of Unemployment (Job - search) (Unemployed)
7.2 Job-search period by age and sex
7.3 Job-search period and family income
7.4 Job-search period and caste
vii
159
161
163
164
164
166
167
171
175
181
183
184
185
188
190
192
195-262
195
1~6
198
200
viii
---------------------------------------------------------
7.5 Job-search period and occupation of main earner in the family
7.6 Job-search period and educational status of the father
7.7 Job-search period and level of education
7.8 Job-search period and academic performance
7.9 Job-search period and academic performance by level of education
7.10 Job-search period by faculty
7.11 Job-search period and academic performance by faculty
7.12 Job-search period by caste/community and academic performance
7.13 Duration of Unemployment (employed)
7.14 Waiting period by age and sex
7.15 Waiting period and family income
7.16 Waiting period and caste
7.17 Waiting period and occupation of the main earner
7.18 Waiting period and educational status of father
7.19 Waiting period and levels of education
7.20 Waiting period and academic performance
7.21 Waiting period and academic performance by levels of education
7.22 Waiting period of graduates by faculty
7.23 Waiting period by faculty and academic performance
203
205
207
213
215
222
225
228
232
234
238
240
242
244
252
253
256
259
ix
CHAPTER VIII REGIONAL VARIATION IN INCIDENCE OF UNEMPLOYMENT - A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THRISSUR AND ERNAKULAM DISTRICTS 263-309
8.1 Unemployment by family income and occupation
8.2 Unemployment by caste and income
8.3 Unemployment by occupation and caste
8.4 Unemployment by educational status of father
8.5 Unemployment by age and sex
8.6 Unemployment by education and sex
8.7 Unemployment by education and family income
8.8 Unemployment by level of education and caste
8.9 Job-search period by age and sex
8.10 Job-search period and family income
8.11 Job-search period and caste
8.12 Job-search period and occupation of the main earner in the family
8.13 Job-search period and educational status of parents
8.14 Job-search period and education
8.15 Job-search period and academic performance.
8.16 Job-search period by faculty
8.17 Job-search period by faculty and academic performance
8.18 Waiting period and family income
263
264
264
268
268
270
270
273
275
277
277
280
280
283
287
287
289
289
x
-----------------------------~---------------------------
8.19 Waiting period and caste
8.20 Waiting period and occupatipn of main earner in the family
8.21 Waiting period and educational status of the parents
8.22 Waiting period and education
8.23 Waiting period and academic performance
8.24 Waiting period by faculty
8.25 Waiting period by faculty and academic performance
CHAPTER IX SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
APPENDICES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
289
292
292
292
295
299
301
310-326
327-336
338 -356
Table No.
LIST OF TABLES
Title
3.1 Growth of Enrolments in different stages of
Page No.
School Education:Kerala,1956-57 to 1991-9? 47
3.2 Growth in the Number of Secondary Schools and Enrolment:Kerala, 1956-57 to 1991-92. 4H
3.3 Growth in the Number of Arts and Science Colleges and Enrolment: Kerala, 1956-57 to 1991-92. 52
3.4 Structure of Collegiate Enrolment: Kerala, 1960-61 to 1991-92. 54
3.5 Percentage Distribution of faculty-wise Enrolment: Kerala, 1956-57 to 1990-91. 56
3.6 Percentage Distribution of Private Registrants by faculty of Education: Kerala, 1986-1991. Sf
3.7 Enrolment of students by level of Education and sex in arts and Science Colleges: Kerala, 1975-76 to 1991-92. 59
3.8 State-wise Distribution of Expenditure on Education as a proportion of net State Domestic Product (SDP): 1980-81 to 1988-89. 61
4.1 Growt Rate of Net State Domestic Product of Kerala, 1960-61 to 1990-91 72
4.2 Net State Domestic Product of Kerala (Sectoral Share), 1960-61 to 1990-91 73
4.3 Growth of Employment in public and Private Sectors: Kerala, 1961-1992. If,
------------------------------------------------------------
xii
-------------------------------~---------------------------
4.4 Growth of Employment in Public Sector in Different Branches: Kerala, .1961-1990.
4.5 Percentage Distribution of Workers in Organised Sector by Industry: Kerala (Covered under EMI),
78
1962-1991. 79
4.6 Percentage Distribution of workers by Industrial category and sex:Kerala,1961-1991. 82
4.7 Percentage Distribution of workers by level of Education and Industry:Urban Kerala, 1961-1991. 86
4.8 Percentage Distribution of workers by Occupation and Sex: Kerala, 1961-1981.
4.9 Percentage Distribution of workers other than Cultivators and Agricultural Labourers by Education and Occupation: Kerala, Rural and
89
Urban, 1961-1981. . 92
4.10 Classification of main workers by level of Education and Sex in urban and rural Kerala, 1961-1981. 95
5.1 Percentage Distribution of Unemployed by level of Education and sex in Rural and Urban Areas: Kerala, 1961-1981.
5.2 Classification of the Unemployed by Age and Sex according for Educational Level in Urban
99
and Rural Areas: Kerala, 1971 and 1981. 102
5.3 Incidence of Unemployment by Educational Level in Rural and Urban Kerala in the Age group 15-59 According to sex,1971 and 1981. 105
5.4 Incidence of Unemployment by Educational Level and Sex in Kerala and India, 1981. 108
5.5 Distribution of Unemployed Education as Percentage of Kerala, 1987.
by Level of Labour Force:
5.6 Distribution of Labour Force by Activity
xiij
110
Status to Total Population by Sex. Kerala, 1987 110
5.7 Education specific Distribution of Unemployed perons of Age 15 and aboave According to Usual Principal Status: Kerala. 112
5.8 Incidence of Unemployment by Age, Sex and Rural-Urban Residence in Rural and Urban Status: Kerala,1983 and 1988. 112
5.9 State-wise share of Unemployed Persons (according to usual Status) and Relative Intensity of Unemployment in Kerala, 1991. 114
5.10 Unemployment rates of the educated (of age 15 years and above) by sex and Rural-Urb~n residence Status, 1988. 115
5.11 Labour force Participation Rates and Incidence of Unemployment (by Usual Principal Status) for Matriculates and graduates in Rural and Urban Kerala According to Sex, 1977-78 and 1987-88. 115
5.12 Work Participation Rate by Sex and Rural Urban Residence Status: Kerala and India, 1961-1991. 117
5.13 Percentage Distribution of Workers and non-workers by Level of Education: Kerala (Urban Areas only), 1961-1981. 118
5.14 Distribution of Work Seekers by Educational Level: Kerala, 1966-1992. 121
-----------------------------------------------------------
5.15 Occupational Distribution of Applicants on Live Registers of Employment Exchanges: Kerala, 1961-1987.
5.16 Distribution work-seekers
of Professional and Technical in Kerala, 1971-1992.
5.17 Stock of Educated Work Seekers as Percentage of the Annual Flow of the Educated:
xiv
123
124
Kerala, 1966-89. 126
5.18 Growth of Employment and Unemployment: Kerala, 1960-1992. 129
6.1 Percentage Distribution of the Unemployed by Sex According to Family Income and Occupation of Main Earner in Family: Sample Households. 133
6.2 Percentage Distribution of Unemployed by Sex According to Lavel of Family Income (monthly) and Caste: Sample Households. 135
6.3 Percentage Distribution of Unemployed by Sex According to occupation of Main Earner in Family and Caste: Sample Households. 137
6.4 Percentage Distribution of Unemployed by Sex According to Educational level of Father: Sample Households. 139
6.5 Percentage Distribution of Unemployed by Age and Sex According to Marital Status : Sample Households. 141
6.6 Percentage Distribution of Unemployed by Sex According to Level of Education and Family Income (monthly): Sample Households. 147
-----------------------------------------------------------
6.7 Percentage Distribution of Unemployed by Sex According to Level of Education and Caste: Sample Households.
6.8 Percentage Distribution of Unemployed by Sex According to Level of Education and Occupation of main Earner in Family: Sample Households.
6.9 Percentage Distribution of Unemployed Graduates by Sex According to Faculaty of Education: Sample Households.
6.10 Sample Population classified as Educated Labour force and Educated Non-labour force:
xv
150
154
156
Sample Households. 159
6.11 Incidence of Unemplyment (Educated) by Age and Sex: Sample Households. 160
6.12 Incidence of Unemployment by Educational Qualification and Sex: Sample Households. 162
6.13 Incidence of Unemployment by Sex According to Family Income: Sample Households. 164
6.14 Incidence of Unemployment by Sex According to Occupation of main Earner in Family: Sample Households. 165
6.15 Incidence of Unemployment by Sex According to Caste: Sample Households. 165
6.16 Incidence of Unemployment by Sex According to Faculty of Education: Sample Households. 166
6.17 Percentage Distribution of Unemployed by Sex According to First Preference of Category employment and Educational Qualification: Sample Households. 169
6.18 Percentage Distribution of Unemployed by Sex According to Minimum Acceptable job and Educational Qualification: Sample Households. 172
6.19 Percentage Distribution of Unemployed by Sex According to Household Income (monthly) and First preference of Category Job: Sample Households. 173
6.20 Percentage Distribution of Unemployed by Sex According to Household Income (monthly) and Minimum Acceptable job: Sample Households 174
6.21 Percentage Distribution of Unemployed by Sex According to First Preference of category Job and Minimum Acceptable Salary: Sample Households. 177
6.22 Percentage Distribution of Unemployed by Sex According to Minimum Acceptable Salary and Level of Education: Sample Households. 178
6.23 Percentage Distribution of Unemployed by Sex According to Minimum Acceptable Salary and Job Search Period: Sample Households. 179
6.24 Percentage Distribution of Unemployed by Sex According to Minimum Acceptable salary and Household Income: Sample Households. 180
6.25 Percentage Distribution of Unemployed by Sex According to Choice of Sector and Educational Qualification: Sample Households. 182
6.26 Percentage Distribution of unemployed who Find Difficulties to Start Own Business According to Age and Sex: Sample Households. 183
6.27 Percentage Distribution of Unemployed Willing to Accept Manual Job by Age and Sex: Sample Households. 184
-----------------------------------------------------------
6.28 Percentage Distribution of Unemployed According to Locational Preference by Age, Sex and
xvii
Marital Status: Sample Households 187
6.29 Percentage Distribution of Unemployed by Sex According to Locational Preference and Educational Qualification: Sample Households. 189
6.30 Percentage Distribution of Unemployed by Sex According to Financial Support Received and Family Income: Sample Households. 191
6.31 Percentage Distribution of unemployed by Sex According to Major Source of Information about Job and Educational Qualification: Sample Households. 193
7.1 Percentage Distribution of Unemployed According to Average job Search period and Duration of Unemployment by Age and Sex: Sample Households. 197
7.2 Percentage Distribution of Unemployed According to Average Job Search Period and Duration of Unemployment by Sex and Family Income (monthly): Sample Households. 199
7.3 Percentage Distribution of Unemployed according to Average Job Search Period and Duration of Unemployment by Sex and Caste: Sample Households. 202
7.4 Percentage Distribution of Unemployed According to Average Job Search Period and Duration of Unemployment by Sex and Occupation of Main Earner in the Family: Sample Households. 204
7.5 Percentage Distribution of Unemployed According to Average Job Search Period and Duration of Unemployment by Sex and Educational level of Father: Sample Households. 206
7.6 Percentage Distribution of Unemployed According to Average Job Search Period and Duration of Unemployment by Sex and Educational
xviii
Qualification: Sample Households. 209
7.7 Percentage Distr-ibution of Unemployed According to Average Job Search Period and Duration of Unemployment by Educational level. Academic performance and Sex: Sample Households. 216
7.8 Percentage Distribution of Unemployed Graduates Acccording to Average Job Search Period and Duration of Unemployment by Faculty of Education: Sample Households. 224
7.9 Percentage Distribution of Unemployed Graduates Acccording to Average Job Search Period. and Duration of Unemployment by Sex. Faculty of education and Academic Performance: Sample Households. 227
7.10 Percentage Distribution of Unemployed According to Average Job Search Period and Duration of Unemployment by Sex. Caste. and Academic Performance: Sample Households. 230
7.11 Percentage Distribution of Employed Accordinq to Average Waiting Period and Duration of Unemployment by Age And Sex: Sample Households. 233
7.12 Percentage Distribution of Employed According to Average Waiting Period and Duration of Unemployment by Sex and Family Income: Sample Households. 237
7.13 P~rcentage Distribution of Employed According to Average Waiting Period and Duration of Unemployment by Sex and Caste: Sample Households. 239
-----------------------------------------------------------
xix
-----------------------------------------------------------7.14 Percentage Distribution of Employed According
to Average Waiting Period and Duration of Unemployment by Sex and Occupation of Main Earner in the Family: Sample Households. 241
7.15 Percentage Distribution of employed According to Average Waiting Period and duration of Unemployment by Sex and Educational level of Father : Sample Households. 243
7.16 Percentage Distribution of employed According to Average Waiting Period and Duration of Unemployment by sex and Educational Qualification: Sample Households. 249
7.17 Percentage Distribution of Employed According to Average Waiting Period and Duration of Unemployment by sex, Educational Qualification and Academic performance: 254
7.18 Percentage Distribution of Employed According to Average Waiting Period and Duration of Unemployment by Sex and Faculty of Education: sample Households. 258
7.19 Percentage Distribution of Employed According to Average Waiting Period and Duration of Unemployment by Sex, Faculty of Educatlon and Academic Performance: Sample Households. 260
8.1 Percentage Distribution of Unemployed by Sex According to Level of Family Income (monthly) and Occupation of Main Earn~r in Family, Thrissur and Ernakulam Districts: Sample Households. 266
8.2 Percentage Distribution of Unemployed by Sex According to Caste and Family Income (monthly), Thrissur and Ernakulam Dlstricts: Sample Households. 266
8.3 Percentage Distribution of Unemployed by Sex According to Caste and Occupation of Main Earner in Family, Thrissur and Ernakulam
xx
Districts: Sample Households. 267
8.4 Percentage Distribution of Unemployed by Sex According to Educational Qualification of Father, Thrissur and Ernakulam Districts: sample Households. 269
8.5 Percentage Distribution of Unemployed by Age and Sex According to Educational Qualification, Thrissur and Ernakulam Districts: Sample Households. 271
8.6 Percentage Distribution of Unemployed by Sex According to Educational Qualification and Family Income, Thrissur and Ernakulam Districts: Sample Households. 272
8.7 Percentage Distribution of Unemployed by S€X According to Educational Qualification and Caste, Thrissur and Ernakulam Districts: Sample Households. 274
8.8 Percentage Distribution of Unemployed According to Average Job-Search Period and Duration of Unemployment by Age and Sex,Thrissur and Ernakulam Districts: Sample Households. 276
8.9 Percentage Distribution of Unemployed According to Average Job-Search Period and duration of Unemployment by sex and Family Income and Sex, Thrissur and Ernakulam Districts: Sample Households. 278
8.10 Percentage Distribution of Unemployed According to average Job-Search Period and duration of Unemployment, by Caste and Sex, Thrissur and Ernakulam Districts: Sample Households. 279
, --------------------------------------_ .. _----------------_.
8.11 percentage Distribution of Unemployed According to Average Job-search Period and Duration of Unemployment by sex and Occupation of Main Earner in Family, Thrissur and Ernakulam
xxi
Districts: Sample Households. 281
8.12 Percentage Distribution of Unemployed According to Average Job-search Period and Duration of Unemployment by sex and Educational Qualification of Father, Thrissur and Ernakulam Districts: Sample Households. 282
8.13 Percentage Distribution of Unemployed According to Average Job-Search Period and Duration of Unemployment by sex, level of Education and Academic Performance,Thrissur and Ernakulam Districts: Sample Households. 284
8.14 Percentage Distribution of Unemployed According to Average Job-Search Period and Duration of Unemployment by sex, Faculty of Education, and Academic Performance, Thrissur and Ernakulam Districts: Sample Households. 288
8.15 Percentage Distribution of Employed According to Average Waiting Period and Duration of Unemployment by Sex and Family Income (monthly)! Thrissur and Ernakulam Districts: Sample Households. 290
8.16 Percentage Distribution of Employed Accord1ng to Average Waiting Period and Duration of Unemployment by Sex and Caste,Thrissur and Ernakulam Districts: Sample Households. 29 1
8.17 Percentage Distribution of Employed According to Average Waiting Period and Duration of Unemployment by Sex and Occupation of Main Earner In Family and Sex, Thrissur and Ernakulam Districts: Sample Households. 293
------------------------------------------------------ ----~-
xxii
-----------------------------------------------------------
8.18 Percentage Distribution of Employed According to Average Waiting Period and Duration of Unemployment by Sex and Educational Qualification of Father,Thrissur and Ernakulam Districts: Sample Households. 294
8.19 Percentage Distribution of Employed According to Average Waiting Period and Duration of Unemployment by Sex, Educational Qualification and Academic Performance,Thrissur and Ernakulam Districts: Sample Households. 296
8.20 Percentage Distribution of Employed According to Average Waiting Period and Duration of Unempioyment by sex, Faculty of Education and Academic Performance,Thrissur and Ernakulam Districts: Sample Households. 300
8.21 Correlation Coefficients between Job-search Period and the Chosen Variables(Unemployed) 303
8.22 Regression Coefficients of the Model Y=f(x )i=1 ,2, .. 10) (pooled) 305
i
8.23 Regression Coefficients of the Model Y=f{x )i=1,2, .. 10) Thrissur District. 306
8.24 Regression Coefficients of the Model Y=f(x )i::1,2, .. 10) Ernakulam District. 306
8.25 Correlation Coefficients between Waiting Period and the Chosen Variables 307
8.26 Regression Coefficients of the Model Y=f(x )i=1,2, ... 7) (pooled) 308
8.27 Regression Coefficients of the Model Y=f(x )i=1,2, .. 7) (Thrissur District) 309
i
8.28 Regression Coefficients of the Model Y=-f(x );=1,2, .. 7) (Ernakulam Distr'ict)
i 309
-----------------------------------------------------------
CHAPTERI ===================================
==================~==============- INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Of all the severe problems Kerala encounters. the
unemployment of the educated is the most critical. Though
Kerala has achieved much progress with regards to the
spread of education. health services. social welfare
measures and infrastructural development. the state has
not been able to solve the problem of unemployment to any 1
significant extent during the last 30 years. According to
43rd Round (July 1987- June '88) of the National Sample
Survey Organisation (NSSO) Kerala has the highest
unemployment rate of the educated (of age 15 and above) by 2
sex and rural-urban categories among the Indian states
The Employment Exchange Statistics and the results of
various surveys on unemployment in the state indicate that
the problem of unemployment among the educated has been
assuming a grave dimension in recent years. Despite
various limitations the Employment Exchange statistics
show that 36.4 lakh persons were in the live register as
on.December. 1991. of which 64 per cent had an educational 3
level of SSLC and above.
1. Government of Kerala. (1984). Draft Seventh Five Year Plan 1985-90 and Annual Plan 1985-86. State Planning Board, Trivandrum. p.1
2. Sarvekshana, (1992). Vol. XVi. No.2 National Sample Survey Organisation. Department of Statistics. Ministry of Planning, Government of India.
3. Government of, Kerala. (1992). Economic Review. State Planning Board. Thiruvananthapuram. p.11.
2
1.1 Statement of the problem
The tremendous expansion in secondary and university
enrolment due to the pursuit of an open-door policy in
admissions, heavily subsidised free education, the intense
desire on the part of the new generations for a university
degree, the traditional social prestige attached to a
degree, and the high income differentials that exist 4
between the modern and traditional sectors have resulted
in a serious glut in the market for educated manpower.
Employment opportunities in the state have not increased
commensurate with the increased supply of educated
manpower. Thus the imbalance between the supply of and
demand for the educated resulted in general as well as
structural disequilibrium in the labour market leading to
unemployment and under employment of the educated in the
state. The problem of unemployment among the educated
cannot be considered in isolation from the problem of
general unemployment. It is merely an extension of the
when a large number of educated persons compete
for the limited number of jobs, the less educated
are elbowed out by the more educated. It results in
the devaluation of higher education leading to
under-employment of the educated.
4. For a detailed discussion on the relationship between education and employment see)Edgar D. Edward and Michael, P. Todaro, (1973), "Educat i ona 1 Demand and supp 1 y in the context of growing unemployment in less developed countries" World Development, Vol. 1, Nos. 3&4, p. 110·
)
Besides
invested in
involving a
educational
3
huge waste of the resources
development, the wide-spread
unemployment of educated persons creates numerous social
problems as well. Failure to get suitable employment,
despite repeated efforts, causes frustration and
discontentment to the educated who form the most vocal
section of the society and hence is a constant threat to
the security and political stability of the state. The
growing surplus of the educated unemployed reflects the
defective and inadequate educational manpower planning
since the success of the state planning should be judged
partly, but importantly on the proper absorption and full
utilization of manpower of the economy. To achieve the
objective of full utilisation of human resources,
attention to the problem of rapidly growing number of
educated unemployed is essential. Unfortunately reliable
statistics relating to the nature, extent and
characteristics of the educated unemployment in the state
are limited. In this context, studies throwing light on
the nature, magnitude, characteristics and causes of
educated unemployment in Kerala have special significance.
Hence the present study is conducted with the following
objectives:
1.2 Objectives of the study
1. To analyse the dynamics of the supply of and demand for
educated manpower and their repercussions in the labour
market.
4
2. To examine the nature and extent of unemployment among
various educational groups and its changes over the
t~me periods.
3. To identify the causes of high incidence of
unemployment among the educated.
4. To study the socio-economic implications and incidence
of educated unemployment.
5. To assess and compare the extent of unemployment among
the educated by age, sex, caste, level of education,
faculty,
of the
academic
main earner
performance,
in the
educational level of the father.
income, occupation
family, and the
6. To determine the duration of unemployment/job search
of the educated unemployed and employed in respect of
major parameters.
7. To examine the interdistrict variations in the socio-
economic status of the unemployed.
1.3 Conceptual Frame work
Many economists have attempted to conceptualise the
problem of unemployment and employment according to their
own reasoning. Before turning to the analysis of the data
on unemployment among the educated, it is proposed to
elucidate a few problems of the measurement of
unemployment.
5
The concept of unemployment
Identification of the unemployed is obviously the
first step in the understanding of the problem of
unemployment and in its solution. Since the line of
distinction between the employed. unemployed
underemployed is rather thin for the most sections of
and
the
labour force in an underdeveloped economy. it is difficult
to demarcate these statuses unmistakably or with any
degree of certainty. Hence below an attempt is made to
examine briefly the various definitions used to measure
unemployment and present a critical evaluation of the
available sources of data on unemployment in Kerala.
According to the standard terminology evolved in
economically advanced countries. the labour force
comprises of two components. viz. the employed. and the
unemployed. The rest of the population is categorised as
outside the labour force. The employed consists of all
persons who work either for their own account or in the
employment of others. In other words. employed includes
all persons engaged in customarily remunerated activities.
irrespective of age. The term unemployed refers to all
persons who are (a) without work. (b) seeking work and Cc)
able to take up a job if offered. By seeking work is meant
regi,stering at Employment Exchange. contacting prospective
employers. responding to advertisements or making similar
efforts to secure work. The labour force is the sum of
the employed and the unemployed.
6
According to many experts, the above concepts used in
labour force statistics in industrial countries are not
suitable for the socio-economic conditions of under
developed countries like India. Certain characteristic
features of
nature and
mea'surement
under developed countries
magnitude of unemployment
using the conventional
influence
rendering
concepts
the
its
and
definitions practically impossible. The predominance of
household enterprises in agriculture, manufacturing and
tertiary activities, the labour-intensive technology, the
joint family system, low degree of urbanisation etc. lead
to a wide spread practice of work sharing. As a
consequence, under - emp 1 oyment, rather than open
unemployment, is the more common phenomenon. Open
unemployment tends to be mostly confined to the urban
areas and to the educated sections of the labour force.
Even among the unemployed, seeking job is not an active
pursuit. Due to paucity of full time-paid employment
opportunities, contacting prospective employers or
responding to advertisements become a futile effort.
Employment Exchanges are few and far between and, only a
small proportion of the unemployed register their names
with the Exchanges. Thus the standard concepts and
definitions of unemployed used in industrial countries
turn out to be unsuitable for the socio-economic
conditions in countries like India. These conceptual
difficulties
literature.
have been widely recognised in the
For instance, Mahalanobis remarked that the
7
concepts of employment and unemployment as used in the
advanced industrial countries are not meaningful in the
case of household enterprises which constitute an
overwhelming proportion of productive activities in rural
areas in India and other under developed countries.
5 Raj Krishna has given four alternative criteria for
the definition of the status of unemployment viz. 1.
Working time less than some normal standard (the time
criterion). 2. Income or consumption less than some normal
standard (the income criterion) 3. Willingness to do more
work (the willingness criterion); and 4. Productivity less
than some normal standard (the productivity criterion).
But the evidence on the weaker sections tends to indicate
lower unemployment levels on the first two counts (the
time criterion and the willingness criterion) and
relatively higher levels of unemployment on the other two
(income criterion and productivity criterion). 6
K.N.Raj identified various concepts of
unemployment,
inadequacy
associated
one of which links unemployment 7
with
of productive work. Such unemployment
mainly with households without land or
5. Raj Krishna,(1973)," Unemployment in India", Economic ~ Political Wee~, Vol. 8, No.9,pp.475-484.
6. For a brief discussion on concepts of unemployment, See, K.N.Raj (1976), "Trends in Rural Unemployment in India Analysis with reference to Conceptual and Measurement problems", Economic ~ Political Weekly, Special Number, pp. 1281-1291.
7. Productive work interpreted as work Contributing to income or gain of some kind.
8
holdings too small to absorb usefully the labour
available within the family, was sought to be measured in
terms of the number of days of idleness during a year (or
a month) when members concerned could be regarded as
available for work even if they were not actually taking
it. The second concept associated rural unemployment with
the labour in peasant households that could be shifted
to other activities without reduction in the output of
these households and it was presumed that the surplus
could be estimated by using norms of work and productivity
considered appropriate for the purpose.
Following the distinction between employment as a
means of creating income and employment as a vehicle of
income distribution, Amartya Sen laid down two concepts of ~ I
unemployment, 'production unemployed'and income unemployed.
The production unemployed are that group of
population whose removal to another sector would not
effect the ouput level of the sector from where they come.
The income unemployed are that group of people who receive
income only on condition that they work and who failed to
get any work. they are, therefore, that group of people )
whose receipt of income is conditinal on work, unlike 8
production employed and unemployed .
8. S.K.Rao,(1973),"Measurement of Unemployment in Indi a", Ecnomi c ~-,"lQPQJ i ttG~1 W~~~Iy.l Review Agfriculre, pp.A78-A90
Rural of
In the 1961 census economic activity of a person was
categorised broadly under worker and non worker. Persons
seeking employment for the first time and persons employed
before but were out of employment and were seeking work
during the reference period, who came under the category 9
of non workers are termed as unemployed . For the employed
the 1961 census followed a dual reference period. The
reference period for those in regular work was one week.
In the case of seasonal activities, if a person had worked
for at least one hour a day throughout the greater part of
the working season,he was treated as a worker. The 1961
census data of the unemployed has serious limitations
arising from the concepts, definitions and reference
period used. It adopted a very wide reference period of a
working season. According to 1961 census, a person who
worked on any day in the preceding 15 days of the date of
enumeration was classified as a worker leading to an over-
estimate of the workers. Persons without job and not
seeking but available are excluded from the count of the
unemployed leading to an under estimate of the unemployed.
Again the term seeking was not defined in 1961 census.
1971 Census followed an approach different from 1961
census. In 1971 census, a distinction was made between
9. Census Qi India, ]~_QJ~ Vol.7, Kerala, Part 11 (8) (i) General Economic Tables.
10
the main activity and secondary activity. The main
activity of a person was determined according to the time
he spent. A worker was defined as a person whose main
activity was participation in economically productive 10
work by his physical or mental activity
The reference period was one week before the date of
enumeration in the case of regular work, and one year in
the case of seasonal work. If a person had participated in
any regular work on anyone of the days during the week
preceding the date of enumeration, such work was recorded
as his main activity. In the case of seasonal work, a
person's main activity was ascertained with reference to
such work in the last one year even if he was not
economically active in the work prior to the date of
enumeration. If a person did not come under the categories
of workers mentioned above, he was classified as a non-
worker. If a non-worker was also engaged in any
economic activity, obviously to the same extent as a full
time worker that activity was recorded as secondary work.
Thus in 1971, the total workforce comprised of (1) those
who reported work as the main activity and (2) those who
were involved in secondary work. Because of these changes
in definitions data are not strictly comparable between
1961 and 1971 census. The main criticism about the
------------
10. Cens~~ of India L 1981~ Series 10, Kerala, paper V of 1981, Final Total of Workers and non-workers, p. 5.
11.
definition of work adopted in the 1971 census was that the
bifurcation of the population into two broad streams of
workers and non workers under main activity ignored the
contribution of the marginal workers.
In the 1981 census, the unemployed are defined as
those other non-workers who are not included under the
other six categories of non workers, but those termed as 11
looking for work . The non-workers are those who have
not worked at any time at all in the year preceding the
enumeration period. Hence the unemployed denote the open
unemployed as in the case of 1961 census. The main drawback
of this estimate is that it covers only open unemployment
and excludes all categories of under-employed. Workers in
the"1981 census are categorised into two, the main workers
and marginal workers. The main workers are defined as those
who have worked for the major part of the year preceding
the enumeration period. The marginal workers are those who
have not worked for major part, but done some work any time
1n the reference period. The 1991 census followed the same
concepts and definitions of the unemployed and workers used
1n the 1981 census.
11. Census of India 1981, Series 10, Kerala Part III A & B (i) General Ecnomic Tables.
N.S.S. Definitions
A
problems
National
satisfactory attempt at conceptualisation
of unemployment and employment was made
Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO)
the survey
of
by
in
12
the
the
its
and successi ve
emp 1 oyment .
rounds
The
of
14th and 16th
on unemployment
rounds of the survey
classified the economic status of individuals into the
following three categories:
1.Gainfully employed, if they have some gainful work
however nominal, on at least one day during the reference
period of one week. 2. Unemployed, if they were without
gainful work through out the week and reported themselves
as seeking or available for work, and 3. Not in the labour
force (such as students, house workers, too old. too young
etc. ) .
As per the recommendations of the Dantwala Committee
NSS adopted the concept of usual status labour force in
itls 27th Round (1972-73). According to this definition. a
person ;s classified as employed if he was working for a
long period in the past and expected to continue in the
furture. However, no minimum period of work was imposed to
qualify a person as a worker. In the 32nd Round(1977-78)
the NSS defi ned usual status concept of employment
differ~ntly from the 27th Round. The referenc~ p~riod
adopted in the 32nd Round was 365 days preceding the date
of enumerat ion. I n the 27th, 32nd, 38th and 43rd NSS Rounds
three definitions were used to measure unemployment
13
based on usual status current week status and current 12
day status. Accordingly, the.population of age 5 years and
above were classified into the following three statuses:
1. Thd usual status with a reference period of 365 days
preceding the date of survey,2. Current week status with a
reference period of seven days preceding the date of survey;
and 3. The current day status with a reference period being
each day of the seven days preceding the ~ate of survey.
Accordi ng to usual status, a person is cl assi fi ed as
unemployed if he was not working but was either seeking or
was available for work for a relatively longer time during
the reference period of 365 days. The weekly status approach
classifies a person as unemployed if he has not worked for at
least one hour on any day of the week but had been seeking
work or had been available for work at any time during the
week. The rate of unemployment according to the current week
status corresponds to the unemployment measure of earlier NSS
surveys. The current day status rate is the ratio of
unemployed days per week (seeking or available for work) to
the total labour supply per week (working plus seeking plus
available days) . The major drawback of NSS data on
unemployment is that it will not be possible to develop a
time series based upon the NSS data. Since the concepts used
change between diffe~ent rounds, the thus obtained data are
not comparable.
12. ~i!!'ve kshana • ( 1992), Q!J-,- c it.
14
D.E.S. Definition
The Bureau of Economics and Statistics 1965 (later
renamed as Department of Economics and Statistics) defined
an unemployed as a person in the age group of 15-59,
without any gainful employment during the reference week 13
and either seeking or available for work An employed
is defined as a person in the age group of 15-59 with any 14
gainful employment during the reference week
The Department of Economics and Statistics (DES) survey 15
on Housing and Employment 1980 defined unemployed or
employment seekers as those persons between the age of 15-
60 who were not able to secure jobs even for a day during
the previous year and are actively searching for jobs. The
employed are defined as those persons between the age
of 15-60, who worked at least for a day during the previous
year. The survey classified employed persons as
permanently employed and not permanently employed
according to the number of days of work rendered by them.
13. Government of Kera 1 a, (1966), ~_SS ReQort No .~ Bureau of Economics and Statistics,Trivandrum.
14. Ibid.
15. Government of Kerala, (1982), Census of Housing, and Employment 1980, DES, Trivandrum, Chapter V.
15
Permanently employed are those persons who had worked for
more than 240 days in the reference year, while those who
had worked for less than 240 days are classified as not 16
permanently employed. The DES survey 1987 classified
unemployed into two groups viz. chronically unemployed and
under-employed. Chronically unemployed or open unemployed
are defined as those who have not worked for a single day
during the reference year and are available for and seeking
employment. The under-employed are defined as those who
have worked for at least one day during the year, but have
not worked for the major part of the year (less than 183
days) and are available and seeking for more days of work.
Here unemployed includes persons belonging to all age
groups of population. The survey defined a person as
employed if he had worked for atleast one day during the
reference year.
The DES Surveys have certain drawbacks. The main
drawback of the survey in 1965-66 and 1980 is the
definition used to measure unemployment as it covers
only open unemployment. On the other hand, the
definition in 1987 survey measures open as well as
16. Government of Kerala, 1987, DES, Trivandrum.
(1988), Unemployment Survey
16.
under-employment. But its main defect is the inclusion of
persons coming under all age groups as unemployed. The
estimates are also not comparable due to the lack of
uniformity in definition.
E.ployment Exchange Statistics
Live register figures of the Employment Exchanges
furnish information on the number of job-seekers on the
basis of their educational qualifications. However,
these data have several limitations. In the first place,
since all the educated unemployed do not register
themselves with the Employment Exchanges, Live Register
figures are likely to understate the extent of
unemployment. Another limitation is that Employment
Exc~anges are used not only by the unemployed, but also by
persons already in employment looking for alternative or
better employment opportunities and also by students who
are trying to establish seniority in registration. Thus
the statistics on unemployment based on
Exchange data are not very much reliable.
these limitations these data give a fair
Employment
Subject to
idea of the
trends in the unemployment situation in Kerala.
Thus, a review of the concepts and definitions used
by different organizations concerned with the study of
unemployment and employment reveal that except the NSS
27th, 32nd, 38th and 43rd Rounds and the Census estimates,
the other estimates on unemployment are not comparable
17
either due to non uniformity of the definitions used to
define unemployed or the non-uniformity of the age groups
of the unemployed. However, these data are useful to
indicate the broad changes in the nature, the trends and
magnitude of unemployment in Kerala.
1.4 Working definitions
Labour force: Labour force consists of two components
viz. the employed and the unemployed. The rest of the
population is categorised as outisde the labour force.
Employed: The employed persons include all persons in the
age group of 15-59 engaged in gainful employment for major
part of the year.
Unemployed: The unemployed persons refer to all persons in
the age group of 15-59, who are (a) without gainful
employment, (b) seeking work and (c) able to take up a job
if offered.
Educated unemployed: The unemployed having matriculation
certificate or higher qualification are classified into
the category of educated unemployed
Job search period (unemployed): Job search period refers
to the interval between the date of passing the highest
qualification and the date of survey.
Waiting period (employed): Waiting period refers
interval between the date of passing the
qualification and the date of joining employment.
to the
highest
18
1.5 Methodology
The study is based on both primary and secondary
data. Secondary data were collected from various sources
like the decennial census reports. reports of the various
rounds of the National Sample Surveys on employment and
unemployment in Kerala. Employment Exchange data.
Publications of the state Planning Board. Department of
Economics and Statistics etc. The information so
collected has been analysed by focussing attention on the
changing trend. nature and pattern of employment and
unemployment in the state of Kerala.
To make a detailed study of the magnitude.
characteristics.and causes of educated unemployment
primary data were collected through personal investigation
with the help of detailed pre-tested structured schedules
from a random sample of 400 households chosen from four
towns namely Thrissur town. Chalakudy town. Aluva town and
Ernakulam town spread over Thrissur and Ernakulam districts.
According to 1991 Census (provisional) the state had 17
a population of 290.33 lakhs . There were 36.39 lakh job
seekers in the state in the live register of Employment
17. Census of India 1991, Series-12, Kerala. Paper-2 of 1991, Provisional Population Totals.p.5.
19
18 Exchange by the end of December 1991 The percentage of
work seekers as a proportion to the total population in
the state is found to be 12.54 by the end of 1991. Based
on the proportion of work seekers to total population, the
entire districts were classified into two groups - (a) the
districts above the state average, their number being 5
and (b) the districts below the state average, their
number being 9. From these two groups, Thrissur district
(10.83) and Ernakulam district (15.23) were randomly
selected. Further, Thrissur and Chalakudy towns were
selected from Thrissur district and Aluva and Ernakulam
towns were selected from Ernakulam district. Hundred
households were selected from each of the selected towns
using random sampling technique. Separate schedules were
given to the educated unemployed and employed in each
sample household personally and the required information
were collected. The survey was conducted during October-
December 1992. After having collected data, certain
simple statistical tools such as averages. ratios.
percentages. correlation coefficients. regression
analysis. etc. have been used to examine the relationship
existing among the variables considered for the purpose.
18. Government of Kerala.(1992). Economic Review.op.cit~ p.143.
20
1.6. Scope and Limitations of the study
The scope of the study is mainly limited to the
educated unemployment in Kerala. For the purpose of
primary level an_lysis. four urban centres spread over
Thrissur and Ernakulam districts are selected. According 19
to DES Survey (1987) the proportion of open unemployed is
relatively more in urban areas. while the proportion of
under-employed is higher in rural areas. As the present
study focuses mainly on open unemployment. the researcher
has limited the primary survey only to urban areas.
The Study is subjected to the following limitations:
1. Since the study makes use of both primary and
secondary data. it poses a variety of data problems.
The available secondary data are either inaccurate or
insufficient to establish the problem under
consideration. Several data gaps have crept into the scene
making the analysis difficult. But in the absence of a
satisfactory alternative reliance has been made on the
available data for the purpose of the study.
2. Data pertaining to educated unemployed is not
available in the 1991 census report as it is not yet
published. The change in concept and definitions
from one census to another renders the study of trend
over time very difficult.
19. Government of Kerala. (1987). ReQort of the Survey on Unemployment tn Kerala. Department of Economics and Statistics.Trivandraum. P.16
21
3. Regarding the collection of primary data, the only
facts and details that have been expressed and revealed by
the respondents are considered and their accuracy in
certain cases are doubtful. This is particularly true in
the case of information regarding income. The respondents
were really reluctant to reveal their income and the
sources of income.
4. Wherever possible, we have compared the findings of
our study with those of various authors in various studies
conducted in other States. These studies have been
conducted at different time Periods and com~arability to
that extent is limited.
5. We have collected information on a large
socio-economic variables like the attitude
unemployed,thier preference for job, location,
expectations etc .. informations obtained on these
number of
of the
salary
aspects
baserj on is based on their own perception. It is not
quantitative data.
1 . 7 Scheme of the Study
The present study is arranged in nine chapters. The
study commences with an introductory chapter in which a
brief outline of the problem, a review relating to the
problem, the objectives, methodology and limitations of the
study are given. Chapter 11 gives a detailed review of
literature on educated unemployment. In chapter III an
22
attempt is made to provide a critical evaluation of the
development of school education with special reference to
secondary schools, and higher education in Kerala from the
perspective of manpower supply.
Chapter IV provides a brief review of the
recent trends in the employment structure of the educated
in the state of Kerala since 1961 by industry. occupation
and education.
Chapter V examines the structure of educated
unemployment in the State since the formation of Kerala
State.
Chapter VI presents a detailed analysis of the
unemployed labour force by focussing attention on the
nature. magnitude and duration of unemployment. in respect
of their family income. occupation of the main earner in
the family. caste. educational level of the father. age.
sex, level of education, academic performance etc.
Chapter VII deals with the analysis of the
unemployment experiences of the educated unemployed and
employed labour force with respect to job search period
and waiting period to the first job after completion of
thier highest level of education in respect of different
socio-economic parameters.
A regional variation in incidence of unemployment is
examined in chapter VIII . •
The discussion is summarised and the findings which
emerged are presented in the concluding chapter.
CHAPTERII====================================
EDUCATION AND LABOUR MARKET BEHAVIOUR: A REVIEW OF THEORETICAL MODELS
AND EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE
CHAPTER 11
Education and Labour Market Behaviour : A review of
theoretical models and empirical evidence.
In this chapter an attempt is made to review a few
related approaches to educated unemployment. The problem
of educated unemployment in developing economies leads us
to suppose that there is a close relationship between
education and unemployment which could be studied within
the overall frame - work of the relationship between
education and employment. The researchers both in Education
and Economics have devoted their attention for examining
this relationship. However, they differ in their points of
view.
In under developed economies people invest a portion of
their income in education with the expectation of earning
something in future through employment. This implies that
education is closely related to the economy specially in a
less developed country. The demand for and supply of
education is highly influenced by the growth of the
economy.
education
The nature and extent of demand for higher
is directly related to the nature and extent of
employment opportunity which again depends on the nature
and extent of the growth of the economy. The relationship
24
between education and employment is established through
labour market which has a mediating role influencing
educational choices and employment prospects. During
periods of unemployment individuals show strong preferences
for those courses which offer better employment prospects.
Hence an important question arises as to how does the
labour market. respond to education? Several theories have
been developed to explain the relationship between
education and labour market.Some of the important theories
are briefly reviewed below.
2.1 THEORETICAL MODELS
The Class;cal theory
The Classical Theory is based on three
fundamental assumptions. (1) existence of free economy.
where the factors of production work automatically (2)
labourers are homogeneous in nature whereby they are
substitutable and (3) wages given to the labourers are
flexible in nature. According to the classical economists.
employment is the general rule and unemployment, an
exception. Unemployment is a temporary aberration and the
demand and supply forces will bring back the labour market
to a state of equilibrium. Therefore, unemployment cannot
exist in the long run. Wage rates are the equilibrating
mechanisms between demand for and supply of labour.
25
The Keynesian Theory
According to Keynes unemployment arises due to
deficiency in effective demand. Keynes argued that the
problem of unemployment could not be solved merely by
bringing down wages as the decrease in level of wages would
transfer income from the working class to the hands of the
capitalist who have a higher marginal propensity to save.
The redistribution of income in favour of the saving class
would bring down aggregate demand leading to increase in
unemployment.
The Neo-classical theory
The neo-classical economists attacked
classical assumptions of homogeneity of labour units
the
by
saying that labour units vary in skill, knowledge, ability,
willingness, health etc. and thereby in their potential and
realised productivity. Wage which is equal to the value of
the marginal physical productivity of the labourer also
differs from person to person according to the quality they
possess. Based on the two assumptions, ie., competitive
equilibrium and marginal productivity (heterogeneity of the
labourer) the neo-classicals have defined the relationship
of education with employment through labour market. lhe
most popular model which is adopted by the neo-classicals,
26
to explain education, employment and earning differentials is 1
called The Human Capital Theory
The Human Capital Theory
The Human Capital Theory is' based on three
distinct assumptions, namely (1) existence of competitive
market economy (2) wages of labourers are flexible in nature
and (3) the technique of production used in the production
process is flexible so that the demand for labour can be
substituted by capital. Similarly the less skilled labour
can be substituted by highly skilled labour. Human capital
theorists argued that individuals differ in terms of types
and levels of skill they possess. According to them
differential skills are directly related to the differential
levels of education attained by the individuals and the
levels of education attained by an individual depend on,
among other things, the amounts he invested in education
which in turn determines the level of productivity. The
emp"loyer pays higher wages to the high productive
employees who are highly educated than the less
productive employees or the less educated. They further
argued that individual's choice of investment in various
1. For a brief discussion on the Human Capital Theory, see "Schultz, T.W. (1961). "Investment in Human Capital" Amer'ican Economic Review, Vol. 5, pp. 1-17.
27
levels and types of education determines his chances of
employment in the labour market. The intervening variable
between education and job is the skills developed through
educational system. Hence unemployment can be traced to
the lack of skill possessed by an individual due to lack of
education required for the labour market, ie., the less
educated an i ndi vi dua 1 is, the 1 ess is hi s chances of
getting better employment and earning.
The Filter Theory
2 Arrow developed a theory called the Filter Theory
in 1973 as an alternative to the human capital theorY,de-
emphasising the skill development role of education. He
argued that education does not impart the skill and
knowJedge, but it helps the employees to identify the
potential ability of workers. Spence in 1973 has developed
a similar theory but with a different name 3
S~gnaling or Screening Theory. He opined that
ca 11 ed
while
selecting the employees education is used by the employers
as a screening device. In the selection process of the
employees, the employers are interested in selecting people
with more potential ability. Degree or diploma possessed
2. Arrow, M.J., (1973), "Higher Education as Filter", Journal of Public Economics, Vol. 2, pp. 193-216.
3. Spence, M., (1973), Job Market Signalling", Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 87, pp.355-374.
28
by an
ability
individual serves as a proxy signal
and productivity. Hence education
for potential
through its
signaling or screening process avoids the
misallocation of talented individuals
possibility of
and thereby
distortions in the labour market. The employers rely on
diploma or educational credential as a screening device not
only because ii is cheaper than any other device but also
because it is one of the easiest ways of identifying
potential talents. Hence employers encourage people to go
for higher education.
As to the employees, they too are interested to go for
higher levels of education with the expectation that their
talents will be identified through higher levels of
education and they will be given wages
their potential abilities. Therefore
continuing demand for education from
commensurate
there will
the domain
with
be
of
individuals. Thus demand for higher levels of education
will continue to accelerate even though education does
nothing in augmenting the productivity of individuals
because the employers use the educational achievements of
the employees as a filtering method while selecting them
for employment.
Bumping Model and Job Ladder Model
Focusing on the influence of unemployment in the
labour market process, Fields, in 1974, developed a model
29
4 called Bumping Model and Bhagawati and Srinivasan
5 developed the Job Ladder Model in 1977. According to
these models, during periods of excess supply in the labour
market, employers follow a policy of preferential hiring
practice based on educational qualifications. Accordingly
people with higher levels of education are employed first.
When the number of higher educated individuals exceeds the
number of jobs corresponding to their qualifications, they
spill over to the next best jobs, bumping out the less
educated. Eventually those who are on the lowest rung of
the ladder of education and jobs will be bumped out of the
labour market. This process distorts the existing
education-employment relations leading to chronic
unde'~mp 1 oyment of the educated and unemployment of the
less educated in the long run.
Job Competition Model
In contrast to the bumping model ,the Job Competition 6
model hypothesise that supply factors do not play a very
significant role in determining jobs and earnings of an
4. Fields, G.S., (1974), "Private Demand for Education in Relation to Labour Market Conditions in Less Developed Countries", The Economic Journal, Vol.84, pp.906-920.
5. Bhagawati, "Education in a Rule", Journal of
J.N. and Srinivasan, T.N., (1977), Job-Ladder Model and Fairness-in-Hiring
Public Economics, Vol.7, pp. 1-22.
6. Thurow, L. C. , (1972), "Educat i on and Economi c I nequa 1 i ty'~ Public Interest, Summer; Thurow, L.C., (1974), "Measuring Economic Benefits of Education", in Gorwon, M.S. (ed). Higher Education and Labour Market, Mc Graw Hill, New York.
30
individual. Thurow believed that earnings are associated
with jobs than with the qualification of the individuals
who fill the jobs. Earnings are determined depending on the
nature and types of jobs. According to this model persons
with differential levels of education may earn the same,
'provided they are in the same job. Thurow argued that
labour skills in their finite form do not exist in the
labour market. Aiming at profit maximisation, employers are
interested in reducing the training cost of their
prospective employees. Therefore the employers prefer
those who can be trained easily at cheaper costs. But in a
complex market situation the employers do not have any
reliable mechanism to assess the exact training costs of
each individual. Hence they depend on the background
characteristics in selecting the prospective employees.
Education is used as one of the background characteristics
and a proxy variable for hiring prospective employees. The
basic assumption is that the better educated pick up skills
rather quickly and therefore, their training cost will be
less. In this sense, education is important for the
purpose of job entry.
2.2 Empirical evidences based on Indian data analysis
Studies relating to the problem of educated
unemployment in Kerala are limited. However, a number of
31
studies on this problem have already been made in India in
recent years. A brief review of the studies is attempted
in this section.
A study group was set up in 1955 to examine the problem
of unemployment of the educated in India. The group
estimated that unemployment of the educated was around 0.5 7
to 0.6 million. DGE & T(1958) conducted the first survey
on unemployment of university graduates and the study was
based on the information collected from the records of 151
employment exchanges, and the total sample size was nearly
2500 graduates. The study found that 84 per cent of the
graduates seeking employment was from Arts, Science and
Commerce faculties and Arts graduates constituted the
largest share (48%). The study also showed that most of the
registrants were third divisioners and more than three 8
fourth of them were fresh graduates. DGE & T (1964)
undertook a case study of employment and unemployment of
the matriculates, based on a sample of matriculates passed
in 1954, who did not pursue higher education, from schools
in Bombay in Maharashtra, Burdwan in West Bengal, Ludhiana
in Punjab and Trichur in Kerala. The study revealed that
the incidence of unemployment is the highest in Trichur
(20%) and that unemployment is higher among females in all
7. DGE & T. Directorate General of Employment and Training, (1958), Pattern of graduate Employment, New Delhi, Ministry of Labour.
8. DGE & T. Directorate General of Employment and Training. (1964), Employment of Matriculates: B ~as~ study, New Delhi, Ministry of Labour.
32
9 regions except Ludhiana.IAMR (1965) by applying the
multipliers to employment exchange data estimated that the
number of educated unemployed has increased from 0.4
million in 1950 to 0.5 million in 1956 and 0.9 million in
1961 . The first comprehensive analytical study on
unemployment
Bl aug et
of the educated in India was 10
~.(1969) Making use of
made by Mark
the available
information from Census, N.S.S.S., DGE & T and other
studies they estimated the extent of educated unemployment
and probed into the reasons for unemployment of the
educated in India. According to them, supply factors, ie,
overexpansion of the educational system are mainly
responsible for widespread unemployment of the educated.
The causes of graduate unemployment in India run deep into
the functioning of Indian labour markets, the hiring
practices of the government, the institutions of joint
family and the attitudes of the educated Indians towards
manua 1 1 abou r . The study on the problem of unemployment
in the selected urban and rural areas of Bengal 11
(Planning
Commission,1973) was based on a sample survey of 5782
9. IAMR. Institute of Applied Manpower Research, Nature and Dimensions of Educated~employment in New Delhi, IAMR (Mimeo)
(1965) , India,
10. Mark Blang, Richard Layard and Maureen (1969). The causes of Qraduate Unemp 1 oyment in Allen Jane, The Penguin Press, London.
Woodhall, India,
11 . on
Planning Commission,(1973), B~or1 of Unemployment, New Delhi, Planning
the Qommittee Commission.
33
households. The study showed that sub-urban and peripheral
urban areas have a smaller incidence of unemployment than
that of metropolitan areas. An attempt was made by K. 12
Puttaswama i ah (1977) to examine the nature and extent of
educated unemployment in India. His study deals not only
with the magnitude of the problem of educated unemployment,
but also with other aspects of unemployment, vi z. ,
agricultural and industrial unemployment. According to
him, the main solution to the problem of educated
unemployment lies in proper manpower planning for the
country as a whole. He also suggests re-orientation and
the regulation of the present education system, and more
rapid industrialisation, particularly employment promotion
in small-scale industries, as the best solution to the
problem. 13
J.P.Saxena (1979) conducted a study on the problem of
educated unemployment in India. He opines that the
growing imbalance between the development of general and
vocational or professional type of education manifested in
huge output of matriculates and graduates in Arts, Science
and Commerce, far in excess of demand, has created the
12. Puttaswamaiah, K. ,(1977), Unemployment in India: Policy for Manpower, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi.
13.·J.P. Saxena, (1979), Educated Unemployment in India, Problems and Suggestions, Commercial Publications Bureau, New Delhi.
34,
problem of educated unemployment. The explanation for the
growing number of educated unemployed in the country lies
partly in the erroneous system of education which is book-
centred, neither providing 'academic excellence' nor
professional skills or capabilities. An attempt was made by 14
T.N. Dhar (1979) to study the problem of graduate un-
employment in India and to examine the implications of the
social and political framework within which manpower and
educational planning is taking place. It is a critical
approach to manpower planning whose limitations are seen to
arise not so much from conceptual limitations, but from the
practical difficulties of operationalization. 15
A modest attempt was made by A.K.Bhattacharya (1982)
in his study to examine the extent of educated
unemployment in India. He suggests that the problem of
unemployment among the educated could be solved only by
proper manpower planning at all levels in the economy. The
education system, specially at secondary and higher
secondary levels, should be re-oriented to give it a
technical basis for meeting the needs of a developing 16
economy. Bose et ~. ( 1983) conducted a
14. Dhar, T.N., (1979), The Politics of Manpower Planning. Graduate unemployment and the Planning of Higher Educa-tion in India, Minerva, Calcutta.
15. A.K.Bhattacharya, (1982), The Problem of Educated Unemployment in India, Meenakshi Prakashan, Meerut.
16. Bose, P.K., B.C.Sanyal and S.P.Mukerjee) (1983)) Graduate Employment and Iit9ber Education In West Bengal, Paris, International Institute for Educational Planning.
35
comprehensive study to ascertain the pattern of employment
and unemployment of the graduates in West Bengal, based on
primary data collected from four sources namely (a) 1928
students, (b) 1345 employed graduates (c) 480 unemployed
graduates and (d) 32 employees. The study revealed that
incidence of unemployment is maximum on Arts graduates
followed by S~ience and Commerce graduates and the least
for the professional graduates. The waiting period for the
first regular job is found to be more than two years, and
it is found to be longer for females than males.
17 The study made by Panchamukhi (1984) was based on
information collected from employed and unemployed
graduates of Bombay and Karnataka Universities, employers
and"employment exchanges. The study showed that incidence
of unemployment is more in rural areas than in metropolitan
areas; long waiting for jobs or actual unemployment is
voluntary in the metropolitan city of Bombay. In the case
of general stream of Arts, Science and Commerce graduates
and in rural areas unemployment was mostly involuntary. The
study also revealed that overqualified employees constitute
a larger percentage of graduates from Arts, Science and
Commerce faculties l,eading to increasing demand for higher
education and resulting in 'bumping out' process and
17. Panchamuki, P.R.,(1984), Graduates and ~ob Market:'~ Quantitative Study in India, Paris, IIEP (Mimeo)
36
shifting the incidence of unemployment to the relatively
less privileged families. The study shows a positive
association between rates of unemployment and levels of
fami 1 y income. 18
International Institute of Educational Planning
(1984) conducted a comparative study of low caste and high
caste graduates in terms of their academic performance,
employment prospects and incidence of unemployment in
Marathwada based on a sample of 1054 graduates consisting
of 494 graduates from weaker sections and 560 graduates
from high castes who passed out the Marathwada University
in the years 1977, 1978 and 1979. The study showed that the
proportion of unemployment is the highest in the case of
low caste graduates and post graduates in the faculty of
Arts. followed by Science and Commerce. In the faculties
of Law and Education proportion of unemployment is larger
among the low castes than among the high castes. On the
contrary in the field of medicine. proportion of
unemployment is more among the high castes and less among
the low caste medical graduates.
A comprehensive analytical study on unemployment of
the graduates in India, based on both primary and secondary 19
data was made by J.L.Azad (1991)· Using stratified
18. International Institute for Educational Planning (1984). Post-graduate Employment Experience of Weaker Castes. Marathwada Region. India. Paris. IIEP (Mimeo).
19. J.L. Azad. (1991). Graduate Unemployment in India, Association of Indian Universities. AIU House.16.Kotla Marg.
37
random sampling technique, a sample of three thousand
graduates were selected from the disciplines of Arts,
Science, Commerce and Law, one thousand graduates each from
the University of Gujarat, U.P. and Maharashtra. The study
found that incidence of unemployment is maximum among the
Arts graduates and minimum among graduates in Education.
Again, the rate of unemployment among the highly educated
is relatively lower than the less educated personnels and
this rate is higher among the personnels with low grade
achievement in the examinations and vice versa.
20 An attempt was made by K.V. Iyer (1967) to provide
a quantitative assessment of unemployment among the
educated with qualifications of matriculation and above,
based on Employment Exchange data.
The paper prepared by the Manpower Directorate of 21
the ~inistry of Home Affairs (1967), reviews the available
information regarding unemployment among educated persons
and their prospects during the IVth plan period. The study
is an elaborate one covering the unemployed engineers and
has also made certain suggestions, to tackle the problem of 22
unemployment. J.P. Naik (1969), after examining the
gravity of the problem of educated unemployment,
20. Iyer, K.V., (1967), "More men for fewer jobs", Yojana, Vo1.XI, No.17, pp. 13-14 & 24.
21. Manpower Directorate of the Ministry of Home Affairs, (1968), "Educated Unemployment", Manpowec Journal, Vol. IV, No. 1, pp. 75-110.
22. Naik,J.P., (1969), "The Problem", Seminar, Vol.120, pp. 10-12.
36
made a few suggestions for solving the problem, such as
vocationalisation of the secondary stage of school
education and channellisation of secondary school leavers
to jobs in various walks of life, so that pressures on
higher education would be reduced. An attempt was made by 23
J.Dholakia (1970) to examine the important features of
the unemployment situation in Gujarat. It gave a tentative
estimate of the likely supply of graduates from the Gujarat
University during 1969-70 to 1973-74 and discussed the
policy implications of the gap between supply and demand
for the educated in Gujarat. The paper prepared by A.D. 24
King (1970) covered career aspirations, job preferences,
salary expectations, plans on graduation etc., of 88 per
cent sample of student engineers graduated from one of the
Ills in 1970. It raised a number of issues of relevance to
manpower planners and policy makers in higher education. 25
Warren F.IIchman and Trilok N. Dhar (1970) dealt with the
causes of student discontent and growing indiscipline among
23. Dholakia,J.,(1970), "Some aspects of Unemployment among the educated in Gujarat", Artha Vikas Vol.6, No.2,pp.79-87.
24. King, A.D.,(1970),"The lIT Graduates: 1970 expectations and ambitions", Economic and Weekly, Vol. V, Special Number, pp. 1259-1266.
Aspirations, Political
25. Warren F. IIchman & Tri lok N. Dhar, (1970) , "Student Discontent and Educated unemployment", Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. V, Special No. pp. 1259-1266.
39
the youthsj according to the authors the malaise was
mainly due to educated unemployment. The authors felt that
in the field of higher education, Indians were experiencing
a state of hyper-educational inflation and suggested that
the inflation could be decreased only by expanding by the
government, of employment opportunities for the educated. 26
Enno W. Hommes ·and Nivedita Trivedi examined the extent
of unemployment among graduates, the procedures and
influence patterns pervalent in recruitment and the social
setting which makes unemployment impinge with quite
differing magnitudes on the different caste and class
strata. They based their analysis on a sample study of
graduates from local colleges of Bulsar in South Gujarat.
In his article IIChallenge
educational system ll , D.P. Nayar
of unemployment 27
(1971) discussed
to the
the
various causes of educated unemployment in India and
suggested remedies including manpower planning at National,
State and Local level, change in the present policy of
drift in the expansion of education system and greater
emphasis on quality in general education.
26. Enno W. Hommes & Nivedita Trivedi, (1971). liThe Market for Graduates - A Fi e 1 d Report 11, Economi c and Po 1 it i ca 1 Weekly, Vol. VI, No.50, pp. 2486-2491.
27. Nayar, D.P., (1971). IIChallenge of Unemployment to educational System", Education Quarterly, Vol.XXII, No.4, pp. 2486-2491.
4Q
28 Edgar O.Edwards and Michael P.Todaro (1973) made an
attempt to analyse educational demand and supply in the
context of growing unemployment in less developed
countries. Various reasons for the rapid increase in
private demand for higher education and the burning problem
of educated unemployment have been discussed in detail and
some pol icy considerations for governments to solve the
problem have been suggested. An attempt was made by G.D. 29
Sharma and M.D. Apte (1976) to examine the pattern and
incidence of unemployment among the educated by faculty and
by region. Two aspects of unemployment. (1) the problem at
present; and (2) the problem in perspective. covering the
period upto 1985-86. are examined in two parts. Bright 30
Singh (1977) made an attempt to estimate the extent of
educated unemployment in Tamil Nadu. His study revealed
that unemployment among educated classes in TamilNadu has
been increasing rapidly. Projections made by him
indicated that the problem is 1 i ke 1 y to
become more serious in the years to come.
28. Edgar O. Edwards & Mi chae 1 P. Todaro. (1973). "Educational Demand and supply in the context of growing Unemployment in Less Developed Countries". World Development, Vol. 1. Nos. 3 & 4, pp. 107-117.
29. Sharma.G.D. and M.D. Apte.(1976),"Graduate unemployment in India". Economic and Political Weekly. Vol. 11. No.25. pp. 915-25.
30. Dr.D. Bright Singh.(1977), "Educated Unemployment in Tami 1 Nadu, A Forecast" , Southern Economi G. Revi ew, Vo 1 . VI, No.1, pp. 1 -1 7.
41
Stud; es ; n Kera 1 a
Even though several studies have been made on the
problem of educated unemployment in India, studies made in
Kerala on the problem are very limited. A study worth
mentioning is that conducted by the Centre for Development 31
Studies (1975)based on a sample survey of the educated
unemployed (matriculates and above) registered with
Employment Exchanges in two districts of Kerala,Trivandrum
and Calicut. The study examined the socio-economic
characteristics, educational attainment and duration of
unemployment of the educated unemployed registrants and it
revealed that waiting periods are inversely related to
levels of education and family income.
A study was conducted by Manpower Division of the 32
Bureau of Economics and Statistics during 1978-79, on the
characteristics of the unemployed post-graduates in the
state. The study covered post-graduates in the disciplines
of Arts, Science and Commerce in all the then eleven
districts of the state registered with employment
exchanges. Various factors responsible for the
growing unemployment among the post-graduates and
suggestions to solve the problem are also discussed.
31. Centre for Development Studies, Trivandrum, (1975), Poverty J Unemployment and Deve 1 ODm~rlj: Po 1 icy: ~ case study of selected issues with reference to Kerala, United Nations, New York.
32. Government of Kerala, Man Power Division, Bureau of Economi cs and Stat i st i cs, Tr i vandrum, "A Study on the Characteristics of Unemployed Post-graduates in Kerala", (in Manpower Studies, Vol. Ill, pp. 81-96).
42
33 P.R.Gopinathan Nair (1981) has examined the role that
education in Kerala has played in bringing about changes in
employment, work participation rates and occupational
mobility. The nature and extent of the problem of educated
unemployment is also examined in brief. The author states
that the low income groups of the society are relatively
less educated and the average waiting period for them in
the state's employment market is extremely long.
34 P.R.G. Nair and Joseph Thomas (1983) have examined
the paradox of the market for the educated. The authors
have attempted to explain the dynamics of the behaviour of
the labour market for the educated within the frame-work of
the 'Job Competition Model' based on the hypothesis that
the growing magnitude of unemployment among the educated is
itself the major factor that leads to a rising 35
demand for higher education. B.A. Prakash (1988) has
examined the characteristics magnitude and
causes of educated unemployment in the state.
33. P.R. Gopinathan Nair,(1981), Primary Education, Population Growth and Socio-Economic Change, Allied Publishers Private Limited, New Delhi, pp. 123-162.
34. P.R.G. Nair and Joseph Thomas, (1983), "Paradox of the Market for the Educated", Paper No. 2.1 Soci ety for the Study of Regional Disparities, Fourth Annual Conference on "Edl!.cation and Regional Development", L.N. Mishra Institute of Economic Development and Change, Patna.
35. B.A.Prakash, (1988),"Educated Unemployment in Kerala: Some Observations based on ~ Field Study", Working paper No.224, Centre for Development Studies, Trivandrum.
43
The study was based on a sample survey of the job seekers
in the live register of the Divisional Employment Exchange
in Trivandrum. His study was confined to the category of
educated unemployed persons having general education from
matriculation to graduate level as this category
constitutes the largest share of educated unemployed. He
has also made certain suggestions to solve the problem of
educated unemployment in the state.
A comprehensive study on the educated unemployed in
Kerala was made by 36
Isaac (1991) based
Chandan Mukherjee and T.M.Thomas
on a sample survey of 4000 educated
registrants of the various Employment Exchanges of the
Kerala State. The major observationsof the study are: (1)
Education that raises the job expectations and the reserve
status of jobs results in withdrawal of the educated from
many of the traditional manual occupations.It could give
raise to a paradox of labour scarcity in selective sectors
despite severe macro unemployment. (2) The limited job
opportunities for the preferred status tend to prolong the
waiting period of educated job seekers and thereby increase
their stock. (3) As a survival strategy many among the
educated unemployed are forced to seek employment in the
36. Chandan Mukherjee and T.M.THOMAS ISAAC.(1991). Study of Educated unemployed in Kerala. Report of the Sample Survey of Registrants of Employment exchange. Centre . for Development Studies. Trivandrum.
44
informal sectors.which are low paying and do not guarantee
any security of tenure.but are nearer to their perceived
reserve job status.(4) Strong gender differences in job
expectations. waiting period and employment persists among
educated unemployed. (6) Given socio-economic level and
gender, higher educational qualification raises the
probability of" getting employment. even if non-commensurate
to the qualification. It would help the unemployed to
overcome socio-economic and gender handicaps.
The above mentioned studies are unanimous in their view
that growth of the higher education system in the country
in general has not at all been in conformity with its
manpower requirements and that our planners have seldom
attempted to bring the two processes into balance.
CHAPTER m
EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND CHANGING MANPOWER
================== SUPPLYINKERALA
CHAPTER III
EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND CHANGING
MANPOWER SUPPLY IN KERALA
In this chapter an attempt is made to provide a
critical evaluation of the development of education with
reference to secondary school and higher education in
Kerala since the formation of the state in 1956, from the
perspective of manpower supply.
3.1. Growth of School Education
Kerala has to her credit a long and remarkable
history of educational development both in public and
private sector. She has marched ahead of other states in
the field of education and her achievement is reflected in
the high percentage of literacy and the large proportion of
children of the various age groups, attending educational 1
institutions. The literacy rate of Kerala according to 2
1991 census stood at 89.81 per cent as against 52.19 per 3
cent at the All-India level. The process of rapid
1. Government of Kerala, Fifth Five Year Plan (1974-79), ~ Dimensional Approach, The State Planning Board, Trivandrum, p. 60.
2.Census of India 1991, Series-12 Kerala paper-3 of 1991, Final Population Totals, p.11.
3.Census of India 1991,Series-1,India,Paper-2 of 1992, Final Population Totals: Brief Analysis of Primary Census Abstract, p. 51.
46
educational growth on a massive scale began in Kerala first
in Travancore, then in Cochin, and very recently in
Malabar. The emphasis given to the strengthening and
development of Primary Education resulted in the higher
rates of enrolment at the Primary stage and higher rates of
retention within the system, compared to other parts of the
country. The wastage of human and material resources
caused by drop-outs is also the lowest in Kerala. Since
the drop-out rates from the first three classes are very
low in Kerala, the average level of educational attainment
of even pupils who do not complete elementary education is
also found to be significantly higher in the state than in 4
other parts of the country. Outstanding progress has
been achieved in Kerala in the matter of enrolment of
students at the primary as well as at the secondary stages
of school education since the formation of Kerala state as
is evident from Table 3.1.
It may be seen from Table 3.1 that the enrolment
in Primary schools rose rapidly from 24.9 lakhs in 1956-57
to 43.5 lakhs in 1991-92 indicating a rise of enrolment by
about 75 per cent within a period of about Three and a half
decades. At the same time enrolment in secondary schools
went up from 2.2 lakhs in 1956-5" to 15.6 lakhs in 1991-92,
4. P.R. Gopinathan Nair,(1980),Primary Education, population Growth and Socio-Economic Change,Allied Publishers, New Delhi, p. 180.
47
Table 3.1. Growth of enrolments in different Stages of School education: Kerala, 1956-57 to 1991-92.
(in lakh)
Primary Schools Secondary Schools Total Year --------------- ----------------- -------------
No. Index of No. Index of No. Index of
growth growth growth -----------------------------------------------------------1956-57 24.9 100.0 2.2 100.0 27.1 100.0
1961-62 30.4 122.1 4.2 190.9 34.6 127.7
1966-67 36.9 148.2 6.4 290.9 43.3 159.8
1971-72 42.3 169.9 7.5 340.9 49.8 183.8
1976-77 43.5 174.7 10.0 454.5 53.5 197.4
1981-82 43.3 173.9 13.2 600.0 56.5 208.5
1986-87 43.8 175.9 13.4 609.1 57.2 211 . 1
1991-92 43.5 174.7 15.6 709.1 59.1 218.1
Source: 1. Government of Kerala, (1975), Statistical Hand and book of Kerala. Bureau of Economics
statistics, Trivandrum.
2. Government of Kerala, (1983, 1989 & 1992).Economic Review, State Planning Board, Trivandrum.
registering a seven-fold increase over the same period.
The total enrolment in schools during this period increased
by 118 per cent, ie., from 27.1 lakhs to 59.1 lakhs. The
higher rate of enrolment in Secondary schools can be
attributed to low drop-out rates at the lower primary and
upper primary stages and also to the growing private demand
for higher education for which S.S.L.C. is the minimum
prescribed qualification. It also reflects the increasing
48
intensity in the desire of the modern youth to enter into
the organised employment sector which required S.S.L.C. as
the minimum qualification. The tremendous rate of increase
in enrolment in secondary stage also indicates the rapid
expansion of educational facilities provided in the state,
especially at the secondary stage, as is reflected from the
growing number of high schools in recent years (See Table
3.2). There were only 763 secondary schools in the state
in 1956-57, with an enrolment of 217 thousand students.
The number of high schools mounted to 2.5 thousand in 1991-
92 registering three-fold increase, while enrolment went up
to 1557.5 thousand recording seven-fold increase during the 5
same period. No close relationship is seen between the
growth rates in the number of high schools and enrolment
which indicates the unplanned and haphazard expansion in
the secondary stage of school education (See Table 3.2).
It is observed that when the number of secondary schools
increased at an annual compound growth rate of 6.6 per cent
during 1961-62 to 1966-67 as against four per cent during
1956-57 to 1961-62, the enrolment at this stage declined
5.1n view of the necessity for providing schooling facilities in the educationally backward areas, government accorded sanction for opening 226 schools in 1982-83. Among them High schools alone accounted for 112. See Government of Kerala. (1983). Economic Review. QQ. cit., p.116.
49
Table 3.2. Growth in the Number of Secondary Schools and Enrolment: Kerala, 1956-57 to 1991-92.
Secondary Schools Year
No. Index
1956-57 0.8 100.0
1961-62 0.9 112.5
1966-67 1 .3 162.5
1971-72 1 .4 175.0
1976-77 1 .7 212.5
1981-82 2. 1 262.5
1986-87 2.4 300.0
1991-92 2.5 312.5
Enrolment
No. Index
216.7 100.0
416.4 192.2
640.0 295.3
750.2 346.2
1003.7 463.2
1317.5 608.0
1340.8 618.7
1557.5 718.7
(in thousand)
CGR
No. of enroSchools lment
4.0 14.0
6.6 9.0
1 .8 3.2
3.6 6.0
4.3 5.6
2.7 0.4
0.8 4.2
CGR - Annual average compound growth rate
Source: 1. Government of Kera 1 a, (1975), Stat i st i ca 1 Hand Book of Kerala, Bureau of Economics and Statistics, Trivandrum.
2. Government of Review, State
Kerala, (1983 & 1992), Planning Board, Trivandrum.
Economic
3. Government of Kera 1 a, ( 1988) , Fact Book on Manpower Kerala, Department of Economics and Statistics, Trivandrum.
at an annual compound growth rate of nine per cent as
against 14 per cent during 1956-57 to 1961-62. It is
significant to note that, the rate of enrolment was much
higher during 1971-72 to 1976-77 (6%) than that in the
number of schools (3.6%). But the rate of enrolment was
seen to be much lower during 1981~82 to 1986-87 (0.4%) than
that in the number of schools (2.7%). This may be due to
50
the policy followed by the Government during the Sixth Five
Year Plan (1978-83) to give more emphasis on qualitative
improvement, vocationalisation and to restrain expansion
with the objective of making secondary education 6
employment-oriented and directly useful for the students.
3.2. Growth of Higher Education
The rapid growth in secondary education had its
serious repercussion on higher education. Since secondary
education is not diversified and also not vocation based,
the products of secondary schools have been facing grave
difficulties in finding suitable employment in the labour
market. The growing unemployment among secondary school
leavers induced parents to send their boys to colleges
"just to keep them busy" and the rising age of marriage
brought many girls to colleges in an attempt to utilise 7
pleasantly the period of waiting to be married. Admission
to a college is thus a drift for some and a way of
improving prospects of employ-ment for many students,
resulting in greater pressure of numbers in colleges. As
pointed out by University Education Commission (1966), the
colleges and Universities are consi dered by many as
'waiting rooms' till jobs are obtained.
6. 'Planning Commission's Draft Five Year Plan 1978-83. A Summary, State Planning Board, Trivandrum, p.63.
7 J.P. Naik, (1965), Educationf Planning Allied Publishers, Bombay, p . 18-19.
in India,
51
There has been an unplanned and rapid expansion of 8
higher education during the first four Plans. At the
formation of Kerala State there were only 32 Arts and
Science Colleges in the State with an enrolment of 26,402
students. The increase in intake of students in Arts and
Science Colleges has been fairly high (more than six-fold
during the past three and a half decades). The colleges
increased at an annual average compound growth rate of 8.0
per cent during 1956-57 to 1961-62, but declined to 2.1 per
cent during 1971-72 to 1976-77. However, after 1976, we
find that the rate of growth of enrolment was much higher
than that in the number of colleges, a phenomenon largely
due to the introduction of the shift system after 1977. It
is significant to note that the number of Arts and Science
Colleges rose rapidly from 32 in 1956-57 to 173 in 1991-92,
recording five-fold increase. Of the total 173 colleges,
53 were started in the Third Plan Period alone. The
enrolment reached the level of 2.7 lakhs in 1981-82 and
declined to 1.6 lakhs in 1991-92. The growth of colleges
and enrolment during 1956-57 to 1991-92 is depicted in
Table 3.3.
8. Planning Commission's Draft Five Year Plan 1978-83, A Summary, QQ. cit., p.64.
Table 3.3. Growth in the Number of Arts and Science Colleges and Enrolment: Kerala, 1956-57 to 1991-92.
52
------------------------------------------------------------Colleges Enrolment CGR
Year --------------- -------------- --------------No. Index No. Index No. of enrol-
Colleges ment ------------------------------------------------------------
1956-57 32 100.0 26402 100.0
1961-62 47 146.9 41739 158.1 8.0
1966-67 100 312.5 112485 426.0 16.3
1971-72 117 365.6 159216 603.0 3.2
1976-77 130 406.3 176132 667.1 2.1
1981-82 172 537.5 269207 1019.6 5.8
1986-87 172 537.5 139480 528.3 0.0
1991-92 173 540.6 162334 614.9 0.1
Source: 1. Government of Kera 1 a, ( 1964, 1965 & 1979),Statistical Hand Book of Kerala, Bureau of Economics and Statistics, Trivandrum.
2. J. Rajasekharan Nair, (1982), A Statistical Portrait of Kerala University, Lily Publishers, Lily Dale, Mettukada.
3. Government of Kerala, (1980 & 1988),Statistics for Planning, Bureau of Economics and Statistics, Trivandrum.
4. Government of Kerala, (1983, 1989 & 1992) , Economic Review, QQ cit.
Unlike at the secondary stage of school education,
in higher education, the rates of increase in the number of
colleges and enrolment are seen to be closely related. The
enrolment of students increased at an annual average
compound growth rate of 21.9 per cent during 1956-57 to
9.6
21.9
7.2
2.8
8.4
3.1
2.7
53.
1966-67 and declined to 2.8 per cent during the seventies
(1971-72 to 1976-77) partly due to the regulation of
enrolment and partly due to the adoption of a new pattern 9
of higher secondary education.
The introduction of liberal 'open door policy' in
higher education resulted in the expansion of educational
output at all levels in the general education stream (See
Table 3.4). It is observed that about 70 per cent of the
total enrolment for general education in 1991-92 came under
the pre-degree course which is more than half of the total
enrolment in higher education; while the corresponding
percentages for degree and post graduate courses amount to
28 and 3 during the same period. Enrolment in pre-degree
course showed an upward trend indicating rapid expansion in
pre-degree enrolrent. Enrolment in degree courses went up
to 78.9 thousand in 1990-91 from 20.3 thousand in 1960-61
registering a three-fold increase while at the post
graduate courses enrolment mounted to 18.3 thousand in
1990-91 from one thousand in 1960-61 recording eighteen-
fold increase indicating rising demand for higher levels of
education for upgradation of credentials which have become
indispensable for success in job competition. It is
significant to note that during the three decades 1960-61
9. Planning Commission's Draft Five Year Plan 1978-83. A Summary, ~ cit. p.64.
54
Table 3.4 Structure of Collegiate Enrol.ant.Kerala.1960-61 to 1991-92 (in thousand)
:--------------------------------------------------------------------------: : Year Pre-degree Degree Post-graduate Degree Total
(General) (General) (Professional &Technical)
No. Index No. Index No. Index No. Index No. Index: ,---------------------------------------------------------------------------: 1960-61 16.2 100.0 20.3 100.0 1.0 100.0 6.3 100.0 43.8 100.0;
(37.0) (46.3) (2.3) (14.4) (100.0)
:1970-71 60.5 373.5 49.3 242.9 4.1 410.0 7.8 123.8 121.7 277 .9: (49.7) (40.5) (3.4) (6.4) (100.0)
:1975-76 101.5 626.5 58.8 289.7 4.6 460.0 12.5 198.4 177.4 405.0: (57.2) (33. 1 ) (2.6) (7.0) (100.0) I'
'1980-81 146.6 904.9 87.5 431.0 6.0 600.0 17.1 271.4 257.2 537.2: (57.0) (34.0) (2.3) (6.6) (100.0)
:1985-86·197.31217.9 106.5 524.6 9.0 900.0 16.3* 258.7 312.8 714.2: (63.1) (34.0) (2.9) (5.2) (100.0)
* * * ** * :1990-91 191.4 1181.5 78.9 388.7 18.3 1830 17.0 269.8 288.6 658.9:
(66.3) (27.3) (6.3) (5.9) (100.0) ** * ** ** **
:1991-92 112.3 693.2 44.9 221.2 5. 1 510 NA 162.3 370.5: (69.2) (27.7) (3.1 ) (100.0)
:--------------------------------------------------------------------------: Figures in brackets indicate percentages to total.
* Includes Private Registration.
** Excludes Private Registration.
Note Professional and Technical Degree incldes Law,teacher Training, Engineering, Medicine(Allopathy,Ayurvedic&Homeopathy) ,Agriculture, Horticulture and Veterinary.
Source (1) Government of Kerala, Statistics for ~~ op.cit. (varioU$ years)
(2) Governlent of Kerala,(1989 & 1992) Economic Review. op.cit.
to 1990-91 enrolment in the higher education in the general
education stream, including the pre-degree stage,
registered an eight-fold increase, but by about three-fold
in the professional and technical education stream which
indicates that the education structure in the state is
tilted heavily towards the general education stream which
involves less outlay compared to professional and technical
education.
In Kerala, the general education group constitutes
nearly three-fourth of the share in total enrolment in
higher education (see Table 3.5). There has been enormous
growth in the number of graduates since 1970. Analysis of
enrolment in regular system of higher education reveals
that number of students attracted to science subjects is
more than the number going for studies in Arts (See table
3.5). This phenomenon may be due to intense desire of
students for professional and technical studies for whom
the probability of success in the job competition in the
organised sector is comparatively higher. The enrolment of
students under general education increased from 9508 in
1956-57 to 48553 in 1990-91 recording eight-fold increase
within a period of three and a half decades. The
majority of students in the professional categories were
enrolled in the faculties of Engineering and Medicine. The
enrolment in the faculty of Agricultural Science was 'the
lowest in 1991 (Table 3.5). The educational facilities
TAIlE 3.6 Percentage Distribution of Faculty-wi_ Enrol_nt: Kerala, 1866-67 to 1880-81
l'56-51 1962-63 1910-11 1915-16 1980-81
No I ndex No I ndex No Index No Index No Index
; ..... 1 Education
;1. Arts 4061 100
(32.6)
5582
(11.3)
;2. Science 4395 100 16324
(35.2) (50.6)
:3. Co.erce 1052 100
(8.4)
2115
( 6.1)
131.525042
(40.9)
311.4 24512
(40.1)
206.1 3641
(6.3)
616.6 27561 618.8
(36.3)
557.7 29926
(39.4)
680.9
14000* 344.7
(27.2)
9962*
(19.4)
226.7
365.1 6459
(8.5)
614.0 11547* 1097.6
(22.4)
1985-86
No Index
12588** 310.0
(28.1)
11681** 265.9
(26.6)
3341 ** 317.6
(7.6)
56
1990-91
No
21064
(32.2)
21280
(32.5)
6209
(9.5)
Index :
518.7
484.2
590.2
: .-.-------------------- ---------------------------- -- -- - --- -------- ---------------- -----------------_ ... - : : Sub-total 9508 100 24081
: (1 to 3) (76.2) ( 74.6)
253.3 53401
(87.3)
561.6 63952
(84.3)
672.6 35509*
(69.0)
373.5 27616** 290.5
(62.9)
48553
(74.1)
510.7 :
: ----_ ... _----------- -------------------- ----------------------------------------------- - --- --------- -- -- --:Pro'nltOllal I Technical Education
:4.Edu~tion 1372 100
(11.0)
:S.Enllineer- 388 100
: ing and (3.1)
: Technology
:e.lledici ne 424 100
(3.4)
:7.Agriculture126 100
(1 .0)
:8. Yeteri nary 122 100
(1.0)
:8.law 540 100
(4.3)
2185 159.3
(6.7)
3198 824.2
(10.0)
1544 364.2
(4.8)
219 113.8
(0.7)
259 212.3
(O.8)
486
(1.5)
90.0
1772
(2.9)
1877
(3. 1)
2347
129.2
483.8
553.5
(3.8)
203161.1
(O.3)
235 192.6
(O.4)
1325 245.4
(2.2)
1958 142.7
(2.6)
3756 968.0
(4.9)
3609 851.2
(4.8)
319 253.2
(0.4)
182 149.2
(0.2)
2130 394.4
(2.9)
2626
(5.1 )
5686
(11.1)
3722
(1.2)
191.4
1465.5
877.8
111 88.1
(0.2)
319 261. 5
(0.6)
3474
(6.8)
643.3
2861 208.5
(6.5)
8343 2150.3
(19.0)
4422 1042.9
(10.1 )
224 177.8
(O.5)
446 365.6
(1 .0)
NA
NA
10318 2659.3
(15.7)
5122 1208.0
(7.8)
548 434.9
(0.8)
972 796.7
(1.5)
HA
: ---------- -------------------- - - --------------- - - - -- ------------- ----------- - --------- -- - - - - -- - - - ------ : : Sub-total
: (4 to 9) 2972 100
(23.8)
7891
(24.5)
265.5 7759
(12.7)
261.1 11954
(15.7)
402.2 15938
(31.0)
536.3 16296
(37.1)
548.3 16960
(25.9)
570.7 :
: ------------ ---_._----------------------------------- ------------ - - - - -- -- - - ----- --------------------- -- - : : Gruel Total
: (1 to 11) 12480 100 32274
(100.0) (100.0)
258.6 61160
(100.0)
490.1 75906
(100.0)
608.2 51447
(100.0)
412.2 43912
(100.0)
Excluding nu.ber of students appeared for exa.ination in Calicut University.
.. Sanctioned intake.
Source: 1. J.Rajasekharan Nair,(1982), Op.cit.
2. Govern.ent of Kerala,(1983 & 1988), Statistics for Planning, Op.cit.
3. Govern.ent of Kerala, (1992), Economic Review,Op.cit.
351.9 65513
(100.0)
524.9 :
57
provided in the state for private registration in pre-
degree, degree and post-graduate levels in Arts, Science
and Commerce subjects to cater to those students who could
not get admission to the regular courses in colleges has
resulted in tremendous growth in the supply of Arts and
commerce students in the labour market. The number of
private registrants in the state mounted to 50.9 thousand
in 1991 from 29.7 thousand in 1986 registering nearly two-
fold increase within a period of five years. Of the total
private registrants in 1991 Arts students constitute the
highest proportion (55.7%) followed by Commerce students
(38.4%) and science students (5.9%) (See table 3.6).
Table 3.6. Distribution of Private Registrants by faculty of Education,Kerala 1986-1991
Year Arts Science Commerce Total
1986 15110 1016 13620 29746 (50.8) (3.4) (45.8) (100.0)
1987 13985 1016 13570 28571 (48.9) (3.6) (47.5) (100.0)
1988 18931 1468 17055 37454 (50.5) (3.9) (45.5) (100.0)
1989 22296 1911 16901 47258 (54.2) (4.6) (41.1) (100.0)
1990 25391 2456 19411 47258 (53.7) (5.2) (41.1) (100.0)
1991 28357 2979 19565 50901 (55.7) (5.9) (38.4) (100.0)
------------------------------------------------------------Source Government of Kerala, (1989 & 1992) , Economic
Review, Qil.. cit.
58
3.3. Wo.en Educat ion
Kerala is regarded as the most progressive state in
the matter of women's education. According to 1991 census 10
the female literacy rate is 86.17 per cent in the state 11
as against 39.19 per cent at the national 1 eve 1 . The
enrolment of girl students in schools stood at 28.96 lakhs
in 1992 which. constituted to 49 per cent of the total 12
school enrolment. The number of girl students in high 13
schoo 1 s went up to 7.7 lakhs in 1992 from 4.7 lakhs in 14
1977 registering nearly a two-fold increase within a
period of one and a half decades.
Kerala continues to record the highest percentage
of women enrolment among all the states in India in all
stages of higher education in the general education stream.
Rapid progress of girls' education at the university
level is a remarkable feature of educational development in
the state. The enrolment of women in Arts and Science
colleges in the state mounted to 85.7 thousand in 1991-92
from 77.8 thousand in 1975-76 (See table 3.7). The table
10. Census of India,(1991), Series-12, Kera"la, Paper-3 of 1991, Op. c it., p. 11 .
11. Census of India,(1991), Series-1, India, paper-2 of 1992, ~ cit., p.51.
12. Government of Kerala, (1992), Economic Review,Op. eit. p.92.
13. Ibid, p. 249.
14. Government of .!S...~.ra 1 a, Bu reau p. 171.
Kerala)(1979), Statistical Hand Book of of Economics and Statistics, Trivandrum,
59-
Tlbl. 3.7 Enrol_t of Students by level of EdUClltion and Sex in Arts and Science COll ...... hr.I ••
1176-78 to 1811 - 12
(in thousand)
'Pre-degree
Percent
age of
Degree
Percent
age of
Post-graduate
Percent
age of
Total
Percent
age of
Year Male Feeale feeale Male Feeale fe.ale Male Female Feeale Male Feeale feeale
to total to total to total to total
1975-76 I.A N.A N.A N.A N.A N.A 88.4 77.8 46.7
19A~-86 I.A N.A N.A N.A N.A N.A 153.1 159.7 51.1
1988-89 49.7 52.9 51.6 18.4 23.2 55.8 1.9 2.8 59.6 70.1 78.9 53.0
1989-90 51 .0 54.0 51.4 19.1 22.5 54.1 2.1 3.1 59.6 72.3 79.5 52.4
1990-91 50.7 55.6 52.3 20.8 23.9 53.5 2.0 3.0 60.0 73.5 82.5 52.9
1981-82 54.7 57.6 51.3 20.0 25.0 55.7 2.0 3.0 58.8 76.7 85.7 52.8
Source (1) Govern.ent of Kerala, (1984), ~ of ~ High level co..itte Qfl Education and
Ewploywent.Volu.e II.Report Qfi Higher Education,State Planning Board,Tr;vandru., P.4.
(2) Govern.ent of Kerala, (1988), Fact ~ Qfi Manpower Kerala. Department
of Econo.ics and Statistics, Trivandru., P.l00.
(3) Govern.ent of Kerala, (1989-90,1991-92), Economic Review. Op.cit.
60
also reveals that females constitute higher proportion than
males at all levels of education in the general· education
stream indicating the growing demand of girls for higher
education. The rapid growth in the supply of women
graduates in the labour market in the absence of adequate
employment opportunities suitable for women in the state
aggravates the problem of educated female unemployment in
the state.
3.4. Expend;ture on educat;on
Kerala is the only state in India that spends more
than six per cent of its domestic production (SDP) on
education, a norm recommended by the Education Commission
(1966). Nearly 10 per cent of the State Domestic Product
is being spent on education by government and private 15
agencies put together. The state spent 6.52 per cent of
its domestic product on education in 1988-89 while the
corresponding proportion for the nation was 3.65 per cent
(See table 3.8). The total expenditure on education as per 16
revised
from Rs
estimate mounted to Rs 793.27 crores in 17
141.2 crores in 1976-77 recording
1991-92
seven-fold
15. Government of Kerala, (1992), Resources Commission, Interim Reports, p. 42.
16. Government of Kerala, (1992), Economic Review, Op.Cit., p. 95.
17. Government of Kerala, (1979), Statistical Hand Book of Kerala, ~ Cit., p. 178-179.
61
increase within a period of one and a half decades. Of the
total expenditure on education in 1991-92, Rs 396.71 crores
were spent on primary education (50%) and Rs 230.56 crores
for secondary education (29%), Rs 115.60 crores for
University education (14.6%) and Rs 43.96 crores for 18
technical education (11.1%). The per capita government
expenditure on education increased by more than nine times
Table 3.8. State-wise Distribution of Expenditure on Education as a Proportion of net State Domestic Product (SDP»1980-81 to 1988-89
Sl. Per cent No~ State/Year
1980-81 1985-86 1986-87 1987-88 1988-89
1. Kerala 2. Bihar 3. Orissa 4. Rajastan 5. Karnataka 6. Tamil Nadu 7. Andhra Pradesh 8. West Bengal 9. Madhya Praddesh 10. Gujarat 11. Uttar Pradesh 12. Maharashra 13. Haryana 14. Pujab
All States
5.81 3.79 3.33 3.59 2.92 3.34 3.12 2.79 2.79 2.69 2.49 2.51 2.41 3.05
2.89
6.80 4.35 3.47 4.25 3.57 4.01 4.01 3.43 3.45 4.04 3.21 3.01 2.73 2.83
3.29
6.87 3.48 4.23 4.53 3.52 3.98 3.97 4.01 3.70 3.48 3.23 3.42 2.94 2.75
3.47
6.54 3.41 4.51 5.23 4.17 3.81 4.17 3.76 3.75 4.10 3.21 3.33 3.51 3.13
3.56
6.52 4.59 4.42 4.41 4.05 4.04 3.96 3.91 3.83 3.69 3.67 3.41 3.28 3.26
3.65
Source. M.A. Oommen, (1993), Essays on Kerala Economy, OXFORD & IBH Publishing Co.Pvt.Ltd; New Delhi,p.131
18. Government of Kerala, (1992),Economic Review,~ cit., p. 95.
62
from Rs 28.25 in 1970-71 to Rs 268.6 during 1990-91. while
the corresponding all India figures are Rs 14.5 and Rs 190.4 19
respect i ve 1 y . During period 1971-1991 per pupil
expenditure at the primary level increased by thirty two
times (from Rs 28.25 to Rs 912.40). the corresponding
increase at the secondary stage was eight times (from Rs 20
176.23 to Rs 1480.86). The expenditure on university
education increased from Rs 54.50 crores in 1985-86 to Rs
115.60 crores during 1991-92 while expenditure on Technical
education rose to Rs 43.96 crores in 1991-92 from Rs 20.55 21
crores in 1985-86. The proposed outlay for University
and higher education in the state for the eighth five year
plan is Rs 34 crores while the corresponding figure for 22
technical education is Rs 94 crores.
Although costs at all levels of education have been
rising rapidly. there has not been corresponding increase
in the revenue receipts from education since education is
free in the state upto and including the pre-degree stage
19. Government of Kerala. (1992). Economic Review,~ cit .• p. 95.
20. Government of Kerala. (1970 & 1992). Economic Review, QQ. cit.
21. Government of Kerala. (1992). Economic Review.QQ. cit .• p. 95.
22. Government of Kerala. (1991). Draft Eighth Five Plan 1992-97 and Annual Plan 1992-93. Vol.ll. Planning Board. Thiruvananthapuram. p. 72 & 75.
Year State
63
and the tuition fee levied at the collegiate level is very
low. While the revenue expenditure on education in 1989-90
was Rs 623.6 crores, the receipts from the same sector was
only Rs 18.01 crores which formed only 2.9 per cent of the
expenditure on education. The amount collected by.way of
tuition fee as proportion of total expenditure on salaries
has been declining annually and it stood at less than 10 23
per cent in 1986-87 while in advanced countries about 25
per cent of the total cost of education is met from fees
collected from the students. The existing rates of fee
fixed by the universities of Kerala are much lower than the 24
rates fixed by most of the other universities. The
financial burden of the government has increased
considerably as the government has taken up the entire
responsibility of meeting the educational expenditure in
the private sector including salary of the teachers and
maintenance of buildings. The most important problem that
has arisen in the field of education is the sharp increase
in salaries which accounts for over 95 per cent of the 25
expenditure.
23. Government of Kerala, (1989), Eighth Five Year Plan 1990-95. Report of the Task Force on Higher Education, ~ cit. I p.21.
24. Ibid, p. 21.
25. Government of Kerala, (1992), ResourcesCommission Interim Report, p. 42-43.
64
The preceding analysis indicates that expansion in
secondary education in the state has been explosive in the
past two decades. Various factors accounted for the
continuously growing demand for higher education. For
instance, rapid increase in the enrolment at the level of
secondary education and liberal assistance to the students
of backward co~munities have increased the push effect on 26
enrolment in higher education. Moreover the traditional
social status attached to a university degree has also
pushed up enormously the demand for higher education. But
at the same time employment opportunities failed to expand
adequately to absorb fully the stream of annual output of
educated manpower and paved the way for a 27
growing
educational inflation in the state. The basic reason why
there is such a lure for a degree is that for a vast number
of jobs in organised public sector a degree is prescribed
as a minimum qualification. Since for those looking for
26. The increase in demand for higher education was mainly the result of push factors like the increase in the number of school final pass outs which increased from 59 thousand in 1962 to 284 thousand in -March 1992. For a discussion on push and pull factors on higher education, see P.R. Panchamukhi, (1979), QQ. cit., pp.34- 36.
27. For a brief discussion on the phenomenon of educational inflation, see M. B1aug, et ~. (1969), QQ. eit., p. 55.
6S
employment. the best course seems to be to try to get into
government service. the pressure for admission into
colleges continues unabated. even while the number of 28
jobless degree holders keeps swelling.
The students and families view education as a passport
for entry into the modern. urban. industrialised economy
with its disproportionately high-paying employment
opportunities resulting in increasing demand for higher 29
educati on. The most important of all the factors which
have led to such expansion of higher and secondary
education is the close link that has come to be established
over the years between education and a good job in the 30
organised sector. Secondary schools and colleges are
also often started to meet the ambitions of the local
communities or to serve as the power-base for politicians.
A large number of institutions of secondary and higher 31
" educat ion in the state are run by pri vate effort. About
28. L.K. Jha. (1982). "Education and Employment". Social Welfare. p. 4.
29. Edgar.O. Edwards and Michael. P. Todaro. (1973). "Educational demand and supply in the context of growing unemployment in less developed countries".
'World Development. Vol.1. Nos. 3&4. P.109.
30. J.P. Naik. (1975). Equality. quality and quantity. Allied Publishers. Bombay. p.22.
31. For a discussion on the role of private institutions in education. see A,R. Kamat, (1965),"Private Institutions of Education" The .fcono~ic and political Weekly, pp. 1691-96.
66
78 per cent of the colleges in Kerala are run by private 32
management. Majority of the private colleges aim at
organised political strength, commercial gains, neglecting
the national goals of equity, efficiency and standard.
Higher education has been organised by the private
entrepreneurs largely as an industry, the sole objective 33
being maximisation of profit, resulting in increasing
enrolment in higher education.
The development strategy adopted by the country
and the widening scope of the government activity have 34
caused a pull effect on enrolment. The organised sector
has a great capacity to absorb the highly educated persons
than the unorganised agricultural sector. The increase in
the allocation of plan resources to the development of
heavy and large scale industries over the past two and half
decades induced the matriculates to acquire higher
educational qualification, leading to strong and persistent
demands for more and more colleges and universities.
32. Government of Kerala, (1982), Economic Review. Op.cit., p.116.
33. K.N.Raj. (1971),"Crisis of Higher Education in India", Science and Culture, p. 119.
34. P.R. Panchamukhi, (1979), QQ. cit., p.35.
67
With a view to restricting the explosive expansion
;n higher education, the Education Commission advocated a 35
policy of selective admission. But the parliamentary
Committee did not endorse the recommendation of the
Education Commission and stated: ". we
believe that every effort should be made to provide
admission to institutions of higher education to all 36
eligible students who desire to study further".
Consequently the plan allocation to higher education
increased indiscriminately.
In the absence of adequate resources on the part
of the government to meet the popular demand for higher
educat ion, unplanned and haphazard growth of higher
education was permitted leading to the dilution of
standards of education which in turn intensified the
popular demand for further expansion. Due to paucity of
funds to expand educational facilities commensurate with
35. The Commi ssi on Stated: "there is no escape but to 1 ink broadly the total enrolments in higher education to manpower needs. and to bridge the gap between these enro1ments and the demand for higher education by adopting a system of selective admission". Government of India. (1967), "Report of the Education Commission 1964-66, Education and National Development. New Delhi. p. 305.
36. Government of India. (1967),"Report of the Committee of Members of parliament of Education" National Policy on Education, Ministry of Education, Govt. of India, p.4.
68
increase in social demand. three major developments took
place in Kerala in the field of higher education during the
seventi es. The granting of permission for Private
registration in the Kerala University in 1971 and in the
Calicut University in 1977 led to the mushroom growth of 37
'parallel colleges' in the state. The introduction of
"Eveni ng Coll eg'es" in 1965-66 and the start i ng of an
Insti tute for Correspondence Course by the Kerala
University in 1976 also paved the way for the rapid
exparision in higher education in the state.
Thus all the above mentioned factors which exerted
push- pull effects caused unprecedented expansion in higher
educati on. Education being a state subject. the targets
given in the Planning Commission Reports. can hardly be
taken to reflect the intentions of the state policy makers
who operate under several socio-political influences. On
~the basis of the above discussion it is concluded that
enrolment expansion in the state can be predominantly
attributed to pressures of social demand. and not to
educational planning.
37. For the state as a whole, students attending parallel Colleges in 1980 accounted for nearly half the student population enrolled in regular colleges; See. Nair. P.R.G. and Ajit. D. (1984), "Parallel colleges in
" Kerala: Enrolment. costs and Employment. Economic and Political Weekly. Vol. XIX. Nos.42 and 43. pp. 1840-1847.
69
The analysis of the functioning of the educational
system in the state. since the formation of Kerala State
reveals that the expansion in secondary and University
enrolment in the 1960'5. 1970'5 and 1980'5 has been
unplanned and haphazard which resulted in a serious glut of
educated manpower in relation to the estimated needs. This
;n turn contributed to the growing problem of educated
unemployment in the state.
CHAPTER IV
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND CHANGING STRUCTURE OF
EMPLOYMENT IN KERALA
CHAPTER IV
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND CHANGING STRUCTURE
OF EMPLOYMENT IN KERALA
Educated unemployment basically arises due to the
mismatch between the supply of and the demand for manpower.
The growth and structure of manpower supply were discussed
in the earlier chapter. Since the demand for labour is
larg~ly determined by the nature and pattern of economic
development. an attempt is made in this chapter to examine
the recent trends in economic development and the changing
pattern of employment in the state. Despite the tremendous
progress achieved by the state in the matter of improving
the quality of life of its population as a consequence of
heavy investment made in the successive Five Year Plans and
Annual Plans for the development of education. health
'. services and physical infrastructure. the growth of the
commodity producing sectors. especially agriculture and
industry has been stagnating.A sum of Rs 5172 crores was 1
spent as plan expenditure in Kerala between 1951 and 1990 •
However. there has been no perceptible improvement in
generation of employment especially in the productive
sectors of the economy. Heavy investment in human capital
1. Government of Kerala. (1991). Draft Eighth Five Year Plan 1992-97 and Annual Elan )992-93.Vol.I.State Planning Board. Thiruvananthapuram. p. 5.
71
in the state in the absence of significant improvement in
generation of employment in productive sectors of the
economy led to the worsening of the problem of mounting
unemployment particularly educated unemployment in the
state.
4.1. Trends ;n econom;c growth
An analysis of the growth trends of the state and
structural performance of the economy over a
1960-61 to 1990-91 reveals the pattern
period from
of economic
development and structural changes that have been taking
place in the state. Kerala was not able to achieve an
impressive industrial growth. Among the registered and
unregistered manufacturing industries a moderate growth was
achieved only in the case of registered industries (Table
4.1). The annual average growth rate of net state domestic
product during the period reveals that among the three
sectors, the growth rate of primary sector has been
stagnating since 1970's. At the same time the growth rate
of secondary sector shows a declining trend since 1970's.
The growth rate of the tertiary sector declined from five
percent in 1960's to 3.7 percent in 1970's. However it
increased to 4.6 percent in 1980's.
The sectoral composition of State's income also
underwent significant changes during the period 1960-61 to
1990-91 (Table 4.2). The table reveals that the share of
Primary sector declined from 56 percent to 50.5 percent
T..,l. 4.1 a..TH RATE OF .ET STATE DmESTIC PRODUCT OF KERALA
Annual average ••
growth rate
Industry of origin
Annual average.
growth rate
fro. 1960-61
Annual average.
growth rate
fro. 1970-71 fro. 1960-81
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
to 1970-71 at
1960-61prices
Agriculture 2.6
Forestry and logging 9.3
Fishing 5.2
Mining & Quarrying -1.9
Sub Total Pri_ry 2.8
Manufacturing registered 8.8
Manufacturing unregistered 0.6
Construction 3.8
E1ectricity,gas and
Water supply 8.9
Stlb Total Secondary 5.1
Rai lway 5.7
Transport by other
_ans and storage 6.6
Co-unication 12.9
Trade,Hotels and
Restaurants 5.5
Banking & Insurance 6.9
Real Estate,Ownership
of dwelling etc .. 2.7
AcMIinistration 9.8
Other services 2.4
Sub Total Tertiary 5.0
Net oa.estic Product 3.8
Average of the annual growth rates.
to 1980-81 at
1970-71prices
0.3
0.1
-0.1
8.2
0.2
5.6
1.9
7.2
11.3
4.8
3.7
5.4
8.3
1.3
9.9
2.7
11 .0
2.1
3.7
2.3
to 1990-91 at
1980-81prices
2.7
-15.5
-2.5
9.2
1.7
8.8
1.7
1.3
9.2
4.4
8.8
7.2
7.3
2.6
15.1
-14.9
8.6
2.1
4.6
3.5
Source: 1. Govern.ent of Kera1a,(1977),Statistics for planning.
Bureau of Econo.ics and Statistics, Page 73
2. Governllent of Kerala,(1992),State ~ and Related aggregate of
Kerala 1983-84 ~ 1985-86J Oepartment of Ecnomics and statistics.
3. ..Ca.puted fro. Govern.ent of Kerala, Econo.ic Review.OD.c~
page 132-138.
72
Table 4.2. NET STATE DOMESTIC PRODUCT OF KERALA (SECTORAL SHARE)
Industry of origin
Sectoral share
(percent) at
1960-61 prices
1960-61 1970-71
I.Agriculture
2.Forestry & logging
3.Fishing
4.~ining & Quarrying
Sub Total Pri.ary
5.Manufacturing
Registered
6.Manufacturing
Unregistered
7.Construction
8.E1ectricity,gas
and water supply
Sub-Total Secondary
9.Railway
10.Transport by other
Means and storage
II.Communication
12.Trade,Hotels and
53.4
1 .1
1.1
0.4
56.0
6.2
6.2
2.3
0.5
15.2
0.7
2.6
0,4
Restaurants 9.7
13.Banking & Insurance 0.9
14.Rea1 estate,ownership
of dwelling etc.. 2.7
15'iAdministration 2.6
16.0ther services 9,2
Sub Total Tertiary 28.8
Net domestic product
of factor cost
Source: Same as Table 4.1
10U,0
47.7
1 .7
1.0
0.1
50.5
9.6
4.6
2,1
0.8
17.1
0.8
3.3
0.8
11.3
1.3
2.4
4.4
8.1
32.4
100.0
Sectoral share
(percent) at
1970-71 prices
H170-l1 1980-81
46.4
0.9
2.0
0.1
49.4
5.6
6.9
2.9
0.9
16.3
0.5
3.7
0.7
13.0
1 .3
1.9
3.0
lD.3
34.2
100.0
38.1
0.7
1.4
0.1
40.3
7.5
6.5
4.4
2.2
20.6
0.6
4.9
1.2
11.7
2.5
2.0
6.3
10.0
39.2
100.0
Sectoralshare
(percent) at
1980-81 prices
1980-81
33.8
3.2
2.0
1.2
39.2
7.6
6.3
9.0
1.4
24.4
0.1
2.8
0.6
15.1
3.0
3.2
4.0
7.6
36.4
100.0
1990-91
31.6
0.5
1.2
0.2
33.5
11.9
5.4
7.5
1.5
26.3
0.2
3.9
0.9
14.0
7.8
0.6
6.1
6.8
40.2
100.0
73
74
between 1961 and 1971 at 1960-61 prices. In terms of 1970-
71 prices it also declined from 49.4 percent during 1970-71
to 40.3 percent in 1980-81. In terms of 1980-81 prices it
fell down to 33.5 percent in 1990-91 from 39.2 percent
during 1980-81. Share of the Secondary sector has remained
alm~st stagnant during the same period. However. the share
of the tertiary sector in the state's income rose steadily
from 28.8 percent in 1960-61 to 32.4 percent in 1970-71 at
the 1960-61 prices; and from 34.2 percent~1970-71 to 39.2
percent in
percent in
the 1980-81
performance
satisfactory
1980-81 at the 1970-71 prices; and
1980-81 to 40.2 percent in
from 36.4
1990-91 at
prices. Thus the analysis reveals that the
of primary sector and secondary sector is not
and that the tertiary sector has emerged as
the most significant sector both in terms of annual average
growth rate of the state's domestic product and in terms of
the sectoral shares of income.
4.2. Eaployment in the organised sector
Since majority of the educated are absorbed in the
organised sector. that is. in the public sector or in
private firms large enough to absorb at least 25 persons.
analysis of the recent trends in the growth of employment
opportunities in this sector will highlight the employment
position of the educated in the state economy in recent
years. Data on the growth rates of employment in public and
7S
private sectors in the state throw light on the fact that
only public sector employment has increased while private
sector employment in the organised sector has been almost
stagnant (See Table 4.3).
It may be seen from Table 4.3 that the increase
in total employment during the period 1961 to 1991 in the
public and private sectors together was only about 117 per
cent or 14.2 per cent per annum. The increase in
employment in public sector alone during the same period
was nearly 221 per cent or 21.8 per cent per annum, while
that in the private sector was only about 55 per cent or
8.3 per cent per annum. It is significant to note that the
performance of the public sector in job creation has been
much better than that of private sector. The share of the
public sector in organised employment which was 44.5 per
cent in December 1971 increased to 54.9 per cent in 1991.
Private sector employment showed, however, a declining
trend since December 1981. It declined from 5.28 lakhs at
the end of 1981 to 5.25 lakhs by 1991. It may also be
noted that since most of the public sector
cater to the 'Services', the productivity of
'intangible' , whatever expansion has taken
enterprises
which is
place in
the tertiary sector
in response to
may not
changes
necessarily
in the
have been
productivity
Table 4.3. Growth of Employment in Public and Private sectors: Kerala,1961-1992
(in thousands)
Index of growth
76
Year Public Private Total Col.3 as Public Private Total sector sector percent-
age of sector sector col. 4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 -------------------------------------------------------------1961 199.0
1966 260.5
1971 333.3
1976 438.2
1981 516.5
1986 576.8
1991 639.2
* 1992 653.1
* refers to
Source: 1 .
338.8 537.8 63.0 100.0 100.0
448.9 709.4 63.0 130.9 132.5
415.1 748.4 55.5 167.5 122.5
483.6 921.8 52.5 220.2 142.7
528.3 1044.8 50.6 257.3 154.6
519.1 1095.9 47.4 289.8 153.2
525.9 1165. 1 45.1 321.2 155.2
528.0 1181.1 44.7 328.2 155.8
31-3-1992
Government of Kerala,(1980), Statistics Planning, Department of Economics Statistics, Trivandrum.
100.0
131 .9
132.9
171 .4
192.6
203.8
216.6
219.6
for and
2. Government of Kerala, (various years),Economic Review, ~ cit.
in that sector or in other sectors,but due to
liberalisation of staff-norms in the public sector
institutions. This in turn, might partly explain the
difference in the growth of employment that exists between 2
public and private sectors. The details of public
2. P.R.Gopinathan Nair and Joseph Thomas, "Paradox of . the Market for the Educated" in Tilak B.G.(ed.),(1986), Education and Regional Yatan,New Delhi, P.54.
Jandyala, Development,
77
sector employment in different branches are given in Table
4.4. Employment in Central Government is found to have
increased by 208 per cent while in the state governments.
it increased only by 103 per cent between 1961and 1990.It
is observed that percentage share of employment has
declined in all the sectors except quasi government
establishments, .where it has increased from 10.8 percent in
1961 to 36.4 per cent in 1990. Although the volume of
employment in the public sector when compared to that in
the private sector has increased.the growth of employment
opportunities in this sector has not been high enough to
absorb the ever increasing supply of educated persons
turned out annually from the various educational
institutions in the state.
4.3. E~loy.ent ;n the organ;sed sector by ;ndustry
Employment opportunities in the various industries
in the organised sector have not increased adequately so as
to absorb the rap;dly increasing number of educated persons
in the labour market (See table 4.5). It is observed that
in 1990 the service sector accounts for just over half of
public sector jobs (58%) in 1990 providing jobs mainly to
the educated in administrative services. education
services. health services and community development
programmes. In services. public sector employed 367.9
thousand persons and private sector 193.2 thousand persons
in 1990. The proportion of employment in private sector
78
Table 4.4 Growth of Employment in Public sector in Different Branches Kerala. 1961 - 1990
:Vear Central State Quasi Local Index of Growth Govt. Govt. Govt. Govt. ---------------------------------------
1961 31.8 136.7 21.4 9.1 (16.0) (68.7) (10.8) (4.6)
1966 40.8 164.4 43.4 11.9 (15.7) (63.1) (16.7) (4.6)
1971 48.9 181.7 66.9 17.9 (15.5) (57.6) (21.2) (5.?)
1976 61.6 215.1 131.8 18.2 (14.4) (50.4) (30.9) (4.3)
1981 66.5 238.3 172.3 22.2 (13.3) (47.7) (34.5) (4.4)
1986 86.5 259.0 202.3 23.4 (15.1) (45.3) (35.4) (4.1)
1990 97.8 276.9 228.9 25.0 (15.6) (44.1) (36.4) (4.0)
Central
100
128.3
153.8
193.7
209.1
272.0
307.5
Note Figures in brackets indicate percentage.
State
100
120.3
132.9
157.4
174.3
189.5
202.6
Quasi Local
100 100
198.1 130.8
312.6 196.7
615.9 200.0
805.1 244.0
954.3 257.1
1062.6 274.7
Source 1. Government of Kerala. (1980 &1988).Statistics for Planning. Op.cit.
2. Directorate General of Employment and Training.THIRUVANATHAPURAM.
79
Table 4.5 Distribution of Workers in the Organised Sector by Indu~try, Kerala (covered under Elm 1962 - 191f
(i n thousallls)
PlR.IC ~
1 Year Total Index Plarufa- Inde)( Electri- Index Trade Inde)( Trans- Index Servi- Index 1 of cturing of city,gas of r. of port r. of ces of
SrOMth 6rOMth Water r. SrOMth CoMerce 6rOMth c~- SrOMth 6rOMth Sanitary nicat-
1 service ion 1 119112 199.0 100.0 9.2 . 100.0 8.01 100.0 29.2 100.0 29.1 100.0 108.0 100.0 1 (4.61 (4.01 (14.71 (14.61 (SIt.31 11971 315.3 158.4 20.9 227.2 11.6 144.8 12.8 43.8 48.3 166.0 tlN.S 175.7 1 (6.61 (3.7) (4.11 <15.3) (60.2) 11981499.3 250.9 73.3 796.7 16.3 203.5 3.6 12.3 69.9 240.2 262.0 242.6 1 (14.7) (3.3) (0.7) (14.0) (52.5) 11986 571.2 287.0 81.1 881.5 16.4 204.7 5.5 18.8 88.6 304.5 289.9 268.4 1 (14.2) (2.9) (1.0) (15.5) (SO.8) 11990 634.4 318.8 91.9 998.9 19.0 237.2 5.9 20.2 101.0 347.1 367.9 340.6 1 (14.5) (3.0) <0.11 (15.9) (58.0) 119'/1 639.2 321.2 N.A N.A N.A N.A. N.A
PRIVATE ~ 1 119112 385.0 100.0 179.9 100.0 0.33 100.0 42.3 100.0 8.8 100.0 75.7 100.0
(46.7) <0.09) (11.0) (2.3) (19.7) 11971 386.4 100.4 168.1 93.4 0.22 66.7 17.5 41.3 6.0 68.2 117.7 155.5 1 (43.5) (0.06) (4.5) (1.6) (30.5) 11981 518.0 134.5 250.1 139.0 0.03 9.1 12.8 30.3 4.5 51.1 147.4 194.7 1 (48.3) (0.01) (2.5) (0.9) (28.5) H986 509.9 132.4 228.8 137.2 0.05 15.2 13.8 36.6 3.4 38.6 156.8 207.1
(44.9) (0.01) (2.7) <0.7) (30.S) 11990 517.B 134.5 214.0 119.0 0.82 248.5 16.0 37.B 3.B 43.2 193.2 255.2 1 (41.3) <0.2) (3.11 <0.7) (37.3) 119'/1 525.9 136.6 N.A N.A N.A N.A N.A 1
Note : Figures in brackets indicate percentage.
Source: 1. 6overr-.ent of Kerala,(1966 r.1976) Fact Book Q!l PlaIJlOMer Departlent of EconDIics and Statistics, Trivalllrua.
2. 6overOlent of Kerala, (1980 r. 1988)Statistics for Planning. ~Cit.
3. 6overOlent of Kerala, (1992) ,EconDIic Review. QQ..&!.h
80
increased from 31 per cent in 1971 to 37 per cent in 1990.
By contrast. in public sector the proportion declined from
60 per cent in 1971 to 58 per cent in 1990.
The composition of the State economy and commodity
production structure have more or less remained stagnant in
the absence of any appreciable growth in the economy. The
economy of the state is characterised by low per capita
income and low standard of living. The per capita income
of the state in 1991-92 was less at both current and at 3
constant prices than those of India as a whole. Kerala
stands tenth in terms of per capita income at current
prices and eleventh in terms of constant prices among the 4
different states of India. The growth of employment
opportunities for the educated has not been commensurate
with the rapid growth in the annual output of the educated.
The unfavourable employment situation in the state may be
mainly attributed to stagnation of the private industries
sector of Kerala and the slow pace of economic development
of the state.
3. The per capita income of Kerala in 1991-92 at current prices was Rs.4626 (and at constant 1980-81 prices Rs.1890). As against this per capita income for India as a whole stood at Rs.5529 at current prices (and Rs.2174 at constant prices) during the same year. See Govt.of Kerala. (1992). Economic Review. ~ cit .. p. 9.
4. Ibid.
81
The above analysis of the growth of employment
opportunities
not however.
in the organised sectors of the
divulge much about the
state does
industrial.
occupational and educational characteristics of manpower
demand. In fact a comprehensive analysis of manpower
demand requires the formulation and interpretation of the
relations between (1) Employment and industry (2)
Occupation and education and (3) Education and industry.
An attempt is made here to examine in brief the
changes in employment opportunities that have taken place
in the state during the period 1961 to 1991 by industry.
occupation
analysis
jobs is
and education using the census
of the occupational and educational
confined to 1961. 1971 and 1981 as
data. The
pattern of
the relevant
details according to 1991 census are not yet available.
4.4 E.ployment by Industry
The classification of the employed persons by
industry is important as it thorws light on the level of
economic development of the state. The percentage
distribution of workers by industry groups during the
period 1961 to 1991 is given in table 4.6. It is evident
from the table that there has been a decline in the share
of primary workers from 60.7 per cent in 1961 to 48 per
cent in 1991. It may be observed that there has been a
remarkable change in the proportion of cultivators and
agricultural labourers, both for males and females, since
82
T~I. 4.8 Percen~age Di.~rubu~ion of Workers by Indu.~rial Ca~egory and Sex Kerala.1981-1981
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------: 1961
I ndust ri a 1 Category
F T
2 3 4
:Cultivators 22.9 16.3 20.9
:Agricultural labourers 27.5 39.5 31.2
:lIining, Quarryi ng, Live-
:Stock, forestry, fi shi ng,
:hunti ng, PI anta·t i 0115,
:orchar.ds & all i ed
:activiti es.
:Total Pri .. ry
: Househo Id i ndu.st ry
:lIanufacturi ng other
: than househo 1 d
:industry
:Construct ion
:Total Secondary
:Trade and eo-erce
: Transport ,storage
: and ca..unications
: Other servi ces
:Total teritary
10.1 5.3 8.6
60.5 61.0 60.7
4.8 17.8 8.7
10.0 8.1 9.4
1. 7 0.2 1.3
16.5 26.1 19.4
7.5 1.4 5.7
3.7
11.8
ZJ.O
0.5
U.O
11.9 :n.1J
1971 1981*
F T III F T III
5 6 7 8 9 10 11
21.8 4.6 17.8 16.0 7.5 13.7 14.2
25.1 49.1 30.7 24.4 43.1 29.5 22.4
8.1 5.6 7.5 11.5 6.1 10.0 11.2
55.0 59.3 56.0 51.9 56.7 53.2 47.8
3.1 8.2 4.3 2.4 8.3 4.0 1.6
11.2 12.3 11.5 11.8 14.3 12.5 10.7
2.2 0.3 1.7 3.7 0.8 2.9 4.9
16.5 20.8
11.3 2.0
4.8
12.5
28.6
1.0
17 .0
20.0
17.5 17.9 23.4 19.4 17.1
9.1 13.0 2.9 10.2 15.0
3.9
13.6
26.6
6.1
11. 1
30.2
1.5
15.5
19.9
4.9
12.3
27.4
7.3
12.7
35.0
1991**
F
12
5.6
36.1
7.0
48.6
5.9
14.8
0.9
21.6
4.6
1.5
23.7
29.7
T
13
12.2
25.5
10.2
48.0
2.6
11.6
4.0
18.2!
12.6
6.0
15.2
33.8
:----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------: :Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 :
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------: • lIain and lIIarginal Workers; ** Details relating only to lIIain Workers are available.
Source 1. j;ensus of India 19961. Vol.V11,Kerala Part 11 B(i), General Report, Superintendent,
Census Operations, Kerala.
2. ~~nsus of India ~ Series 9, Kerala, Part 11 - B(i) Economic Tables, Director of
Census Operations, Kerala.
3.Census of India 1981, Series 10,Part 11 B(i) General Economic Tables Director of Census
Ol>erations, Kerala.
4. ~~nsus of India 1991, Series-l, India,Paper-2 of 1992, Final population Totals: Brief
ilnalysis of Primary Census Abstract,Amulya Ratna Registrar General & Census Commissioner,
India.
8]
1961. The percentage of cultivators has declined from 20.9
in 1961 to 13.7 in 1981 and further declined to 12.2 per
cent in 1991. The proportion of agricultural labourers
went down to 29.5 per cent in 1981 from 31.2 per cent in
1961 and again declined to 25.5 per cent in 1991. The
decline in the, proportion of cultivators is accounted for
mainly by the growth of population and the consequent 5
decline in land-man ratio rather than by education.
The significant development in the changing pattern
of employment in the tertiary sector was the rise in the
share of workers between 1961 and 1991. In tertiary
sector, the share of workers is found to have increased
from 20 per cent in 1961 to 33.8 per cent in 1991.
Although there had been a considerable increase in the
share of workers of trade, commerce, transport and
communication between 1961 and 1991, significant increase
is not seen in the proportion of jobs in 'Other Services',
both for males and females. This sector includes personal
services and public administration which absorbs majority
of the educated persons. The proportion of workers in this
sector increased from 11.5 per cent in 1961 to 15.2 per
cent in 1991. The proportion of jobs in Trade and Commerce
ha~ gone up to 12.6 per cent in 1991 from 5.7 per cent in
1961 , wh i 1 e in Transport, storage and Communication,
it increased to 6 per cent in 1991 from 2.7 per cent in
5. P.R. Gopinathan Nair,(1981), Primary Education, Po~tion Growth and Socio-Economic Change, ~ cit. J
p.154.
84
1961~ But it has to be pointed out that the increase in
the proportion of jobs in these industrial sectors is very
insignificant when compared to the population growth rates
during the same period.
4.5. E.ployment by Education and Industry
To study the changing pattern of employment for the
educated. an industrial classification of workers has been
presented by educational level from the Census data. The
percentage distribution of workers by education 6
and
industry in Urban Kerala during the period 1961 to 1981
is presented in Table 4.7. The majority of the matriculates
are employed in the Services other than trade and transport
in 1961. 1971 and 1981. About 62 thousand matriculates
were employed in the services sector in 1981 (36.7%) and
nearly 44 thousand were employed in Trade and Commerce
sector (26%). Their proportion is seen to be the lowest in
mining and quarrying (0.1%). When compared to 1961. we find
that employment of matriculates in other services has
considerably declined in 1981. Their proportion went down
to 36.7 per cent in 1981 from 56.4 percent in 1961. The
corresponding proportion in construction went up from 2.4
per cent in 1961 to 3.1 per cent in 1981 while their
6. Specific details on employment by education and Industry of rural Kerala are not available.
proportion
Mining and
percentage
decline in
85
remained fairly stable in Cultivations and
Quarrying. In all other industries their
share is seen to have slightly increased. The
the employment of matriculates in 'Other
Services' indicates the low scope of employment for them in
this sector in the face of growing numbers of graduates and
post graduates. It is significant to note that the
employment of graduates and post graduates in 'Other
services' has declined from 73 per cent in 1961 to 48.4 per
cent in 1981, while the employment of technical diploma
holders has gone up to 70.9 per cent in 1981 from 67.3 per
cent in 1961. Hence the decline in the employment of
matriculates in Services may be attributed to the
employers' preference to technically qualified persons or
persons with additional qualification in vocational and
technical courses. Compared to 1961, the employment of
graduates and post-graduates has declined in 1981 in all
industries except in Trade and Commerce, and Manufacturing
where it has more than doubled. (See Table 4.7) Around 21
thousand technical degree holders (83%) were employed in
'other services' in 1981 as against eight thousand (80%) in
1961. The proportion of technical degree holders has also
declined in almost all the industries except in Services,
Manufacturing and Construction. The proportion of
employment of non-technical diploma holders remained fairly
constant in most of the industries. However their
proportion in Services declined from 90 per cent in 1961 to
86
Table 4.7 Distribution of WOrkers by Level of Education and Industry: Urban Kerala. 1861 - 1aB1
Educational
Level
"atri cul at i on
Non -techn i ca' diplo.a
Technical
diplo.a
Graduate and
post-graduate
Technical
degree
All workers
Cultivators
1961
2677
(3.9)
24
(1.7)
40
(1.5)
1971
4267
(3.7)
50
(1.8)
90
(.5)
1981
4019
(2.4)
4
(0.2)
201
(0.6)
408 482
Agricultural
labourers
1961 1971 1981
46
( . 1 )
344 1635
(.3) (1.0)
5 6
(.2) (0.2)
Mining
quarrying
1961 1971 1981
565
( .8)
4
( . 3)
871 105
(.8) (0.1)
5
( .2)
72 14 60 36
(0.2) (.5) (.3) (0.1)
33 96 135 35 369
(2.8) (1.3) (0.7) (0.1) (0.04) (. T) (.4) (0.04)
100
(1 .04)
3210
50
( .4)
4865
35
(0.1)
4741 49 349 1146
39
( .4)
25
( .2)
118 1096
20
(0.1)
196
Household
Industry
1961 1971 1981
308
(.5)
3
( .2)
7
(.3)
553 1777
(.5) (1.1)
10
( . 14)
20
( .11)
5
(0.2)
62
(0.2)
7 30 151
(0.2) ( .05) (.09)
5
(.05)
330
5 42
( .04) (0.2)
618 2037
(contd ..... )
81
(Table 4.7 cont .... )
Edueat i ona I Manufacturing Trade and Transport, Storage Other service
level other than house Construction Ca..erce and c~unication
hold industry
------------------ ---------------- ---------------- .------------------- -----------------
1961 1971 1981 1961 1971 1981 1961 1971 1981 1961 1911 1981 1961 1971 1981
..... --------- ----- ------- - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -- -- - - - - - - - - - --litrieu- 6114 16001 30426 1621 1103 5176 11426 26653 43934 6388 1357 19115 38560 52776 61604
lation (9.08) (13.8) (18.1) (2.4) (1.0) (3.1) (16.7)(23.0)(26.2) (9.4)(11.7)(11.4) (56.4)(45.4) (36.7)
IIon-tech- 25 120 121 3 20 10 52 150 153 34 20 35 1311 2364 2236
nieal (I. 7) (4.4) (4.7) (0.2) (0.7) (0.4) (3.5) (5.5) (6.0) (2.3) (0.7) (1.4) (90.0) (86.2) (87.0)
diplOlla
Tech- 252 1860 5667 268 75 1339 64 614 1051 246 539 1527 1836 15603 24217
nieal (0.2) (9.9) (16.6) (9.8) ( .4) (3.9) (2.3) (3.3) (3.1) (9.0) (2.9) (4.5) (67.3) (82.7) (70.9)
diplOlla
Graduate 673 3006 7501 111 65 792 1692 8500 23278 637 1488 5148 9684 17846 35115
lAd Post- (5.1 ) (.09) (10.3) ( .8) (.2) ( 1 . 1 ) (12.8) (27.0) (32.1) (4.8)(4.7) (7.1 )(73.0) (56.7) (48.4)
graduate
Tech- 531 1028 2146 287 80 916 598 275 798 355 230 400 7706 11922 21251
nieal (5.5) (7.6) (8.4) (3.0) ( .6) (3.6) (6.2) (2.0) (3. 1 ) (3.7)(1.7) (1 .6) (80. 1 )( 87.6) (83.0)
degree
All 8195 22021 45861 2296 1343 8233 13832 30192 69214 7660 15855 26225 59097 100511 144423
IOrkers
Source: 1. Census Qf India. 1961. Vol. 11 , Kerala, Part II-B(i), General Economic Tables.
2. Census of ~ ~ Series-9, Kerala, Part 1I-6(ii), Econo.ic Tables.
3. Census of India. 1981. Series-l0, Kerala, Part Ill-A. 8 (I), General Econo.ic Tables.
88
87 per cent in 1981. The analysis throws light on the fact
that a significantly high proportion of the educated
persons are absorbed in Services. and that the declining
absorptive capacity of the industrial sectors reflects the
industrial stagnation of the state.
4.6 Employ.entby Occupation
Economic development is usually associated with an
occupational shift of labour force from Primary to non-
primary occupations. Hence an attempt is made to examine
the trend and pattern of occupational shift that had
place between 1961 and 1981. Although 1981 census
taken
data
suffers from the limitation that it excluded marginal
workers. it gives the broad trends in occupational shifts.
A disturbing occupational shift that had taken place was
the sharp decline in the share of production related
workers. transport equipment operators and labourers.
(See Table 4.8).
The major change that has occured is the three
inrease in clerical jobs. Their proportion rose to
per cent in 1981 from 3.1 per cent in 1961. In 1981
thousand educated persons were employed in clerical
males and females accounting for 94.7 thousand (11%)
25.8 thousand (13.1%) respectively. Compared to
fold
11.4
120.5
jobs.
and
other
occupations. this occupational group has shown the greatest
increase in female employment. which is evident from the
89
Table 4.8 Percentage Distribution of workers other than cultivators and agricultural
labourers by Occupation and sax : Kerala. 1N1 - 1881
Occupational
Group
Professional,
Technical and
related workers
Ad.inistrative,
Executive and
Managerial
lIK>rkers
Clerical and
related workers
Sales workers
Other workers
1961
P M F
6.2 6.2 6.4
3.5 4.6 0.5
3.1 4.0 0.7
8.3 10.6 2.2
78.9 74.6 90.2
1971 1981
P F P M F
10.1 8.5 16.3 11. 3 8.1 25.4
3.0 3.7 0.2 4.1 4.6 1.0
6.8 7.7 3.4 11.4 11.0 13.1
11.4 13.7 2.7 14.0 16.2 4.4
68.8 66.5 70.4 59.2 59.9 56.1
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Source; 1.Census of India 1961, Vol.II, Kerala, Part 11-8(i), General
Economic Tables.
2.Census of India, ~ Kerala, Series 9, Part II B (ii),
General Econo.ic Tables.
3. Census of India 1981, Series 10, Kerala Part III-A&B (iii),
General Economic Tables.
90
fact that proportion of females in this group increased
from 0.7 percent in 1961 to 13.1 per cent in 1981,
recording a nineteen fold increase within a period of two
decades. The large increase in the number of clerical jobs
reflects the expansion of service industries, and trade and
communications,
proportion.
in which clerical workers occupy a major
4.7. E.ployment by Education and Occupation
It is observed that the highest proportion of
graduates and post graduates as well as matriculates were
employed in clerical jobs followed by professional and
technical jobs in 1961, 1971, and 1981 (see Table 4.9).
The proportion of sales workers was seen to be higher among
matriculates. A vast majority of the technical degree
holders were employed in professional and technical jobs
(87%) while only 0.7 per cent of them were employed as
sales workers in 1981. It is observed that employment of
matriculates in professional and technical jobs declined
from 26.7 per cent in 1971 to 19.8 per cent in 1981. Same
trend is observed in both the rural and urban areas of the
state.(See Table 4.9). While the employment of matriculates
in administrative jobs increased from 7.9 per cent in 1971
to 8.9 per cent in 1981, their employment in clerical jobs
declined from 34.5 per cent in 1971 to 30.1 per cent in
1981. In all the other occupations their employment is seen
to have increased, but only marginally. The employment
91
of'graduates and above'in professional and technical jobs
deciined from 61.9 per cent in 1971 to 55.2 per cent in
1981 . In contrast, their employment in clerical jobs went
up to 28.4 per cent in 1981 from 24.6 per cent in 1971.It
is significant to note that the employment of matriculates
in clerical jobs decreased by 4.4 per cent during the same
period.The la~ger increase in the employment rates of
graduates and postgraduates in clerical jobs when compared
with that of matriculates indicates the phenomenon of 7
"Diploma Disease" or the "Paper qualification syndrome".
It also reflects the decreasing scope of employment for
matriculates in clerical jobs resulting in the phenomenon
of "higher educational inflation" in the 1960's and 1970's.
Although a remarkable increase is seen in the employment of
technical degree holders in professional and technical
occupations, their employment in all the other occupations
has declined. A considerable increase is seen in the
employment of technical diploma holders in professional
and technical occupations,while a substantial decline is
noted in their employment in administrative occupations.
The analysis leads us to the conclusion that employment
opportunities for the educated in various occupations of
the state have not increased commensurate with their
increasing supply in the labour market, indicating
the low level of economic development of the state.
7. For a brief discussion on "Paper qualification syndrome" see P.R.Gopinathan Nair and Joseph Thomas, "Paradox of the Market for the Educated" , in Ti 1 ak Jandya 1 a, B. G. (ed. ), (1986), Op. c i t~p. 47
Tabl
e 4.
9 Pl
rten
tag'
dil
trlb
util
ll o
f II
rkln
oth
er t
hin
Cul
tint
an II
Id l
'II)r
itultu
rll 1
....
. 1
bV l
duca
tilll
and Ik
~til
ll,
wal
a,
Rura
l iII
d li'
bill,
196
1 -
1981
.
Educ
atlll
lal
Prof
el5i
lIIa
l A
dli n
1 'tr
ati I
II C
leric
al
Sale
s ta
ker
, O
ther
, To
tal
leve
l Te
chnb
ical
1961
19
71
1981
19
61
1971
19
81
1961
19
71
1981
19
61
1971
19
81
1961
19
71
1981
19
61
1971
19
81
:-82
37~
926:5
9 24
535
41bb
6 10
6S75
14
0840
2h
5'iO
57~
b87'/
l 13
!ilb2
30
8BbO
40
7835
I ll
atnc
ulat
el
(26.
7)
119.
B)
(7.9
) (
B.9)
(3
4.~)
(3
0.11
(B.b)
11
2.3)
(2
2.3)
(2
8.9)
(1
00)
(100
)
: sec
onda
ry
R
-59
9b9
bb44
7 12
bBV
2514
2 -
b292
B 85
183
-13
559
3312
4 -
4839
5 94
498
1975
31
3043
94
(30.
4)
(21.
B)
(b.4
) 1
B.3)
13
1.9)
(28.
0)
Ib.9
) \1
0.9)
\2
4.5)
i3
1.0)
(lO
O)
liwJ
U
liB43
22
wo
2b21
2 iB8
11
1185
5 10
524 2~
43b4
7 55
05;
srl27
13
031
2438
4 94
14
M9b
4V
bb4
b454
9 1I
J335
1~1
(27.
b)
(20.
11
I1b.O
) 11
2.2)
11
0.b)
\10.
l) (3
6.4)
(3
9.2)
(3
4.1)
(
9.2)
(1
1.7i
11
4.91
114.
b)
I1B.
3)
(24.
9)
(100
) (1
00)
UOO)
:---
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
---
1 --
-Ib
17b
242
--
--92
0 --
-1b
3 --
-41
7 17
924
(90.
2)
\1.4
) (5
.2)
10.9
) (2
.3)
11(0
)
: N
on-te
chni
cal
R -
1401
1 Ib
h --
-72
8 --
--
122
--
33
2-
1535
9 di
ploa
a (9
1.2)
11
.1)
(4.7
i (0
.8)
(2.2
) 11
(0)
U
1051
22
50
2165
21
6 40
7b
71
15
0 19
8 23
50
41
bb
19
5 B5
14
27
2b85
25
b5
173.7
) (8
3.B)
(8
4.4)
11
5.1i
11
.5)
(3.0
) (S
.O)
(S.6
) (7
.71
l1.b
) U
.9)
11.6
) (4
.b)
(7.3
) (3
.3)
(100
) (1
00)
(100
)
----
----
: T
11
0388
2b
70 --
52S8
-1
46
1>
17
437
1372
19:
(BO.
4)
11.9
) (3
.B)
11.1
) 11
2.7)
(1
00)
:
Tech
nica
l R
-85
944
1593
--
3SM
--
980
--
1125
0 -
1033
31
: di
ploa
a (8
3.2)
11
.5)
(3.4
) (0
.9)
110.
9)
(100
) :
U
1691
14
350
2444
4 21
5 37
0 10
77
311
1910
16
94
19
150
48b
417
19S5
bl
B7
2b53
IB
ns
338B
B :
(03.7
1 (7
b.b)
(7
2.1)
(B
.O)
(2.0
) (3
.2)
(11.
7)
(10.
2)
(S.O
) 10
.7)
to.B
) (9
1.4)
US
.71
(10.
4)
I1B.
3)
(100
) (1
00)
11(0
) :
\0
N
(con
t ...
.. )
Educ
atlD
llal
Pro
fllS
I ana
l A
dlln
lstrlt
lDII
Lllf
lCll
&ile
s M
Orke
rs O
tner
s To
t 11
Ilvl
l Tl
thnb
icu
19b1
19
71
1981
19
b1
1971
19
81
1961
19
71
1981
19
b1
1971
19
81
19.1
1971
19
81
1961
19
71
1981
5423
i ll
bm
&4
10
1864
4 21
521
b019
b 21
95
n43
3210
81
61
8757
3 21
1b93
. Ib
l.9)
(55.
2)
(7.3
) (8
.8)
(24.11
) (2
8.4i
(2
.5)
(3.7
) (3
.7)
(3.9
) (1
00)
1100
)
£ndu
ate
R --
3033
7. 6
91
54
t--
1970
t 69
74 t
--
8960
t 3U
34bt --
530t
26
94.
1553
t %
bIt
4335
0t
1137
84.:
~ t
170.
0)
(bO
.8)
14.5)
16
.1l
(20.
7)
(2b.
71
11.2
) i2
.3)
(3.b
) (4
.1l
(100
) (1
00)
abDv
e U
49
13
2390
0 47
775
2m
39
55
llb70
39
36
125&
1 29
850
501
1665
50
94
b35
1657
~
1276
2 43
223
9788
9 (3
8.5i
15
4.0)
148.8
) 12
1.8)
112.
9i
111.9
) 130
.8)
128.4
) 13
0.5i
13.9i
13
.8i
15.2
) 15
.0)
13.7
) 13
.6)
1100
) (1
00)
1100
) :-
----
----
----
-T
--
:
TKhm
cal
R
-;
deqr
ee
U
1153
9 12
045
2235
0 10
48
4B5
1473
15
37
641
1318
17
0 95
18
3 34
9 32
0 36
9 96
43
1358
6 25
963
I 16
7.8)
IBB.
7) 18
7.0)
110.9
) 13
.6)
15.7
) 11
5.9)
14
.7)
(5.1
) 11
.8)
10.7
) 10
.7)
13.11
) 12
.4)
11.4
) (1
00)
(100
) (1
00)
I
T
-15
3212
3J
61S2
-
3135
:i b3
222
-13
0156
20
7'l11
J 2B
985
66B
J 74
151
1611
77
-41
7859
83
4651
:
I 13
6.7)
140.
3)
(7.5
) (7
.6)
131.1
) 12
4.S)
16.9
) (S
.~)
117.7
) U
9.ll
UOOi
(1
00)
I \ I
R
9030
6 2
3m
14
b50
3387
5 -
71BBB
A
ll _
kif"
13
7.4)
143.
9)
1198
21
1408
9 36
875
4994
8 11
0741
-24
0881
53
b868
I
16.1)
16
.3)
(29.
8)
(22.
3)
(5.8
) 16
.9)
(2CI.7
) (2C
I.6)
11(0
) (1
00)
I
U
3203
7 62
906
1005
96
1213
5 16
705
2934
7 29
340
5B2b
8 87
399
b640
13
5.2)
135.5
) 13
3.8)
11
3.3)
19.4)
14
896
3000
5 10
882
242C
1l 50
436
9103
4 17
6978
297
783
I 19
.9)
132.2
) 13
2.9)
129.3
) (7
.3)
18.5
) 11
0.1i
11
2.0)
113.7
) 11
6.9)
(1
00)
(100
) (1
00)
:
Incl
udes
Pro
fess
iona
l an
d TK
hnic
al d
eqre
e •
--,
• So
urce
: 1.
Cen
sus
Qf J
Mii
1961
, Y
ol.ll
, ke
rlla
Part-
ll-B
Ii)
&ln
tral
EcDl
lDlic
Tab
les.
2.Ce
nsus
Qf I
ndia
197
J,ser
ies-
9,ke
rala
, Pa
rt-l
l-B
IW,
Econ
lllic
Tibl
et.
3.Ce
nsus
Qf I
ndia
198
1,5e
ries-
I, In
dia,
Par
t-1I1
-Blv
i) ,G
ener
al Ec
onlll
ic Ta
bles
.
~
w
4.8 EMployment by Educat;on and Sex
The percentage distribution of workers by level of
education and sex in Urban and Rural Kerala during the
period 1961 to 1981 is presented in table 4.10. About 951
thousand educated persons were employed in Kerala in 1981
as against 260 thousand in 1961~ males and females
constituting 733 and 218 thousand respectively in 1981. It
is found that 574 thousand matriculates were employed in
1981 as against 359 thousand in 1971, while 218 thousand
graduates and post graduates were employed in 1981 as
against 91 thousand graduates and post graduates in 1971.
Although an increase is seen in the employment of
matriculates in absolute figures, their proportion has
declined from 63.8 per cent in 1971 to 60.3 per cent in
1981, while the proportion of graduate and post graduate
employment has increased to 23 per cent in 1981 from 16 per
cent in 1971. The same trend is observed in both the
rural and urban areras of the state. (see Table 4.10). The
increasing proportion in the employment of graduates and
post-graduates as compared to matriculates throws light on
the fact that employers increasingly demand higher levels
of education for the same level of job and use education as
a screening device. A significant increase can be noted in
the employment of technical diploma holders; their
proportion had gone up from 7.9 per cent in 1971 to 14.8
per cent in 1981 registering about two-fold increase within
a period of one decade. By contrast, the proportion in the
employment of non technical diploma holders has declined
Table 4.10 Classification of Main workers by level of education and sex in
Urban and Rural Kerala J 1881 - 1881
Level of
Education
Matriculation/
Higher
Secondary •
T
R
1961
M F
133.6 30.6
1971
T M F
307.0 51. 5
(85.6) (14.4)
164.2 209.6 32.8
(86.5) (13.5)
(in thousand)
1981
T M F T
358.5 485.0 88.7 573.7
(63.8) (84.5) (15.5) (60.3)
242.4 345.2 58.2 403.4
(64.0) (85.6) (14.4) (62.6)
U 56.2 12. 1 68.3 97.4 16.7 116. 1 139.7 30.5 170.3
(82.3) (17.7) (71.4) (83.9) (16.1) (63.5) (82.0) (17.9) (55.6) ~ - - -- -.- --- - - - -- - - --" y- --- - - - - - - - - - -- - -- --3-7 ~6 -- - jO-.lI- - - 67-.6 - - -8 :-9- - - 9. -;(- - f8-. 3--'
Non -techn i ca 1 (55. 6) (44. 4) ( 1 2.0) (48. 6) (51. 4) ( 1. 9)
diplOllla R 36.1 28.8
(55.6) (44.4)
U 1.0 0.4 1.4 1.5 1.2
(71.4) (28.6) ( 1.6) (55.6) (44.4)
64.9 7.9 7.9 15.8
(17.1) (50.0) (50.0) ( 2.5)
2.7 1.0 1.5 2.5
( 1.5) (40.0) (60.0) ( 0.8)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -T - - ---= -- - - 25-.2 - - 111-:"- - - 44. if - 82-:-3" -58.7 - '-4'1.0-(56.5) (43.5) (7.9) (58.4) (41.6) (14.8)
',"
Technical
diplOllla R 15.6 10.1
(56.5) (22.6)
25.7 62.5 44.1 106.6
( 6.8) (58.6) (41.4) (16.5)
U 2.3 0.5 2.8 9.6 9.3 18.9 19.7 14.6 34.4
(82.1) (17.9) ( 2.8) (50.8) (49.2) (10.3) (57.3) (42.4) (11.2) ---------------r ----- -------- - -11-:-0-"l9.~-- 9o.~-f5r.1- -lfo:-,,-tH.-g-·
Graduate
and
above··
R
(78.1) (21.9) (16.2) (72.1) (27.9) (22.9)
36.3 9.4 45. 7 86. 6 32 . 1 18.8
(79.4) (20.6) (12.1) (72.9) (27.0) (18.4)
U 11.8 1.5 13.3 25.9 5.6 31.5 70.4 28.7 99.1
(88. 7) (1 1 . 3) (13.9) (82. 2) ( 17 .8) ( 17 • 2) (71.0) (29.0) (32. 3) - --- -- -- - - -- ---- - - - - - - --- -- - - - - -- -- - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- -_ ... -Professional T
&
Technical
degree
Total
R
U
T
R
U
7.3 2.5 9.8 8.8 4.9 13.7
(8.4)
15.3
(64.2) (35.8) ( 7.5) (59.3) (40.7)
212.2 47.6 259.8 440.8 110.3 581.6 733.2
(81.7) ( 18.3)( 1 00.0) (78.5) (19.0) (100.0) (71.1)
133.6 30.6 164.2 297.6 81. 1 378.7 502.2
(81.4) ( 18.6)( 1 OIL 0) (78.6) (21.4) (100.0) (71.9)
78.6 17.0 95.6 143.2 39.7 182.9 230.9
(82.2) (17 .8)(100.0) (78.3) (21.7»(100.0) (75.4)
10.5 25.8
217.7 950.9
(22.9)(100.0)
142.3 644.5
(22.1)(100.0)
75.5 306.4
(24.6)(100.0)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Itriculate and above
lelude professional and technical degree.
1. Cen~ of India 1961, Vol.11, Kerala,Part 11-B(i),General Economic tables.
2. Census of India 1971, Series 1,lndia,Part 11-B(ii),General Economic Tables.
3. Census of India 1981. Series 10,Kerala, Part 111 - A & B (i).
96
from 12 per cent in 1971 to 1.9 per cent in 1981. The
large increase in the proportion of the employment of the
technical diploma holders indicates higher demand for the
technically skilled personnel in the state as compared to
those without any special qualification in professional and
vocational courses.
Compared to males, the proportion of female
employment is significantly lower. This is reflected in
the fact that only 110.3 thousand females were employed in
1971 as against 440.8 thousand males and only 217.7
thousand females were employed as against 733.2 thousand
males in 1981. If we consider their employment rates by
educational levels, it can be seen that their proportion is
low as compared with males in all educational categories in
1971 and 1981 in both the rural and urban areas (See Table
4.10). However, it is noted that the proportion of female
employment has gone up in 1981 in all educational levels
except in the case of technical diploma holders, reflecting
the higher educational attainment of females in 1981 as
compared to 1971.
The analysis of the Employment Exchange Statistics
and Census data by industry, occupation and education
throws light on the fact that there has been only a
marginal increase in the employment opportunities in the
state and that the growth in employment opportunities has
not been high enough to absorb fully the stream of annual
output of the educated job seekers, leading to the chronic
problem of educated unemployment.
CHAPTERV ==================
STRUCTURE OF EDUCATED UNEMPLOYMENT IN KERALA
CHAPTER V
STRUCTURE OF EDUCATED UNEMPl.OYMENT IN KERALA
The discussion in the previous chapter has
highlighted the fact that unemployment among the educated
is a chronic problem in the State. It has been assuming
more serious dimensions in recent years, despite the
various measures of employment generation adopted by the
government during the last three decades through successive
Five Year Plans. The studies made by various committees
highlight the fact that the problem of educated
unemployment is more chronic and acute in Kerala than in
the rest of India. The imbalance in the state between the
growth rates of the educational sector and manpower-
absorption in the state leads to high growth rates of
educated unemployment, longer periods of waiting for jobs
and large scale under-employment. In this chapter an
attempt is made to review the available evidence relating
to the nature and magnitude of educated unemployment in
Kerala.
Although a series of enquiries were carried out in
Kerala on the problem of general unemployment in the past,
only a very limited number of enquiries have been made on
the nature and extent of the problem of educated
unemployment. As early as in the nineteen-twenties, an
Unemployment Enquiry Committee was set up in the former
Trava~core State to enquire into the extent of educated
98
unemployment. The Committee found that there existed then
three educated employment seekers per every suitable job.
According to 1931 Census report, the total number of
educated unemployed in Travancore was 1583 of which 1249
were unemployed for more than one year. The Census Report
for 1931 observed that the rapid growth of population has
been the prime cause of unemployment in the country. The
sample survey on employment and unemployment conducted in 1
1965 showed that 1.45 lakhs of educated persons were
unemployed in the state in that year. Among them the
Matriculates constituted 1.3 lakhs (95%) and graduates
accounted for 6.5 thousands (4.5%), whilE~ post-graduates
formed 720 (0.5%). Unemployment among the educated has
been aggravated in recent years by the rapid expansion of
education which has created in the minds of the youth an
aversion to manual labour and a craving for employment in
government service.
5.1 Educat;on and Unemployment
Data Pertaining to unemployment in Kerala by level
of education and sex available in 1961, 1971 and 1981
Census reports are presented in Table 5.1. Among the
educated persons unemployed in the statE!, matriculates
constitute the highest proportion both for males and
1. Government of Kerala, (1976), Planning for Employment Di Kerala,Bureau of Economics and Statistics, Trivandrum, p.41
Table 5.1 Distribution of une.ployed by level of Education and Sex J keral. 1981-1981.
Leve I of
[ducati on male
1961
Matriculation/ • HIgher
Secondary
Non techni
cal Diploma
Techni ca I
Di ploma
R 36030
(100.0)
U 9/3b
(88.2)
R
U 16
R
U
(0.1 )
202
(1.8)
1911
female Person male
* 20012 56042
90538
* (80. 1 )
73840
(81.1) (100.0) (100.0)
5949
(85.1)
68
(1.0)
206
(2.9)
15684 16698
(87.0) (75.9)
84
(0.5)
408
(2.3)
2351
(2. 1 )
2251
(2.5)
100
(0.5)
6981
(6.2)
5332
(5.9)
1649
(1.5)
female
56055
(73.2)
43868
(74.5)
12181
(69.1)
6650
(8.7)
6190
(10. !J)
440
(2.5)
4/19
(6.2)
3035
(5.2)
1684
(9.5)
person
146593
(77.3)
117708
(18.5)
28885
(72.9)
8981
(4. l)
8441
(5.6)
540
( 1 .4)
11100
(6.2)
8367
(5.6)
3333
(8.4)
1981
male
374365
(83.8)
294169
(84.6)
80196
(81.6)
1117
(0.3)
993
(0.3)
124
(0. 1 )
28785
(6.4)
22971
(6.6)
5814
(5.9)
felllale
432834
(87.1)
329872
(88.6)
102762
(83. !i)
3496
(0.7)
person
80aY99
(85 .. 5)
82"041
(88.7)
182958
(82.6) .
4613
(0.5)
2929 3822
(0.8) (0.6)
561 691
(0.5) (0.3)
9221
(2.0)
7161
(1.9)
20110
(1.7)
38008
(4.0)
30132
(4.2)
7814
(3.6)
13181.. 9143.. 22324** 42461*. 51332** 93193**
(11. I) (11.9) (11.8) (9.5) (10.3) (9.9) Graduation
and Post
Graduation
R 9628*. 5820.. 15448** 29385** 32190*. 6157h.*
lechnlcal
Professi 0-
U fill
(6.1)
al Degree R
Total
u 409
(3. I)
4{069
(100.0)
R 36030
(100.0)
391
(:; .1)
36{
(5.3)
26999
(101).0)
1014
(6.0)
116
(4.3)
14068
(10.6)
2850
(13.0)
{03
(3.2)
113051
(100.0) (100.0)
20012 56042 91051
(100.0) (100.0) (100.0)
(9.9)
2813
(16.0)
510
(2.9)
16547
(100.0)
!i8913
(100.0)
U 11039 6987 18026 22000 17634
(100.0) (10(1.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0)
Note: * denotes 'matrl<:ulates and ahove' .* denotes 'Grddudtes and above'
(10.3) (8.5)
5663
(14.3)
12127
(12.3)
(8.6)
1 T722
(14.4)
1213
(3. 1 )
949 1420
(1.0) (1.2)
189598
(100.0)
446728
(100.0)
149ij64 347518
(100.0) (100.0)
396:14
(100.0)
98261
(100.0)
496683
(100.0)
372152
(100.0)
123111
(100.0)
(8.6)
29049
(1:1.5)
23fl9
( 1.1)
943411
(100.0)
719670
(l00.0)
221372
(100.0)
SOUIICl 1. Cens'ls of !.ngL~ .... ~_6_L .. Vol.Vll,Kerala, I',lrt ll-·f!(iil.General tconomic Tables.
2. ~e!!.:;;y~ Q9 lmiLa-L l.lU.L.Series 9 Kerala, Part 11--B(i i) ,Econolllic Tables.
3. Q.~!lSU:;; Qf In!;!i!l, .UHtL. Series 1 India, Part
100
females irrespective of rural urban difference in 1971 and
1981 (See Table 5.1). While the proportion of unemployed
matriculates in the state went up to 85.5 per cent in
1981 from 77.3 per cent in 1971. the proportion of
unemployed 'graduates and above' declined to 9.9 per cent
in 1981 from 11.1 per cent in 1971. A declining trend is
also observed in the state in the proportion of the
unemployed professional and technical diploma and non-
technical diploma holders as between 1971 and 1981 in rural
and urban areas. While the proportion of the unemployed
graduates and above category in the urban state declined
from 14.3 per cent in 1971 to 13.5 per cent in 1981. their
proportion in rural state declined from 10.3 per cent to
8.6 per cent during the same period. It is significant to
note that unemployment of the technical degree holders in
Urban areas has declined from 3.1 per cent in 1971 to 1.1
per cent in 1981 while the unemployment of technical'
diploma holders has come down to 3.6 per cent in 1981 from
8.4 per cent in 1971. The higher proportion of unemployment
among the matriculates possibly reflects the fact that
employers prefer persons with higher levels of education to
the less educated. due to the surplus of educated work-
seekers available in the labour market. 2
They use education
as a filter, a screening and grading device in selecting
-------_._-_._---_._-_._-_._------------_._--------
2. For a brief discussion on the filter theory. see. Arrow. M.J·) (1973q)."Higher Education as Filterll.Journal pf .E.ub 1 i~ f_conom_i C~L.9.P. c it. pp. 193-216.
1~
the employees, leaving the less educated jobless. The
comparatively lower proportion of unemployed in the
categories of technically qualified persons indicates
perhaps the higher demand for those with special
qualification in vocational and technical courses and low
demand for those without any additional qualification; it
could also be that the output of persons with such
qualification is not much in excess of demand.
5.2 Urban Unemployment by level of education
Composition
educational level
of the unemployed by
in Urban and rural
age-groups
areas of
and
the
state in 1971 and 1981 is depicted in table 5.2. It may be
observed that the Unemployment in urban areas
increased by 718 per cent while that in rural areas
increased
absolute
thousand
by
terms,
in
851 per cent between 1971 and
urban unemployment mounted
1981 from 89 thousand in
1981.In
to 728
1971
recording eight-fold increase within one decade. Of
the 728 thousand unemployed persons in the urban
state in 1981, matriculates accounted for 25 per cent as
against 32 per cent in 1971. Graduates and post-graduates
formed about 4 per cent in 1981 as against 6 per cent in
1971. Unemployment was seen to be the lowest among the
technical and professional degree holders both in 1971 and
1981 in the Urban areas. The proportion of the unemployed
was higher among the younger age groups and lower among the
TAI.ll
.E 5
.2
Cla
ssif
icat
ion
o
f th
e U
nNpl
oyed
by
A
ge
gro
up
s an
d E
du
cati
on
al
lev
el
in
Urb
an
and
Rur
al arH
5 A
ccor
ding
to
se
ll
1---
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
--1
1 ~
Rt.I
lAL
I 1-
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
--1
1971
19
81
1971
19
81
1 1 E
duca
tlona
I Pe
rcen
tage
Dis
trib
utio
n in
Pe
rcen
tage
Dis
trib
utio
n In
Pe
rcen
tage
dis
trib
utio
n in
Pe
rcen
tage
Ois
trib
utio
n in
l I
Leve
l SE
X TO
TAL
----
----
----
---
TOTA
L --
----
----
----
----
----
--T
OT
AL
---
----
----
----
----
----
-TO
TAL
----
----
----
----
----
I 15
-19
21)-2
4 25
-29
30 a
nd
15-1
9 20
-2"
25-2
9 30
and
15
-19
20-·2
4 25
-29
30 a
nd
15-1
9 21
)-24
25-2
9 30
and
,
abov
e ab
ove
abov
e ab
ove
1---
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
-1
1 "
b300
3 30
.4
~2.1
13
.7
13.8
33
7837
35
.5
31.B
14
.1
IB.b
19
6081
32
.8
45.0
12
.6
9.b
1205
920
39.0
22
.9
12.8
18
.3
I 1
(100
.0)
(100
.0)
(100
.01
1100
.01
'TOTA
L F
2532
b 30
.8
50.2
13
.0
b.O
3903
77
29.4
30
.1
18.2
22
.3
7826
7 35
.9
49.8
10
.7
3.6
1408
477
33.5
28
.9
16.0
21
.6
(100
.0)
(100
.01
1100
.0)
(100
.0)
T
8898
9 30
.5
44.4
13
.5
11.6
72
8214
32
.2
30.9
16
.3
2O.b
27
4948
33
.7
46.3
12
.1
7.9
2614
397
36.0
29
.3
14.5
20
.2
1100
.0)
(100
.0)
(100
.0)
1100
.0)
~ -
--
--
... -
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--.
--
--
--
--
--
_ -
_ _
_ _
_ _
_ _
__
_ J
M
28
55
29.8
22
.7
9.6
37.9
14
150
24.6
14
.1
8.1
53.2
75
43
36.6
19
.6
9.9
33.7
76
939
23.8
12
.6
8.4
55.2
(1
00.0
) (1
00.0
1 (1
00.0
1 11
00.0
1 , I
LLIT
ERAT
E F
84
2 20
.0
12.4
15
.4
52.2
32
295
11.7
14
.b
14.0
59
.7
2360
40
.0
15.3
10
.3
33.9
18b
992
14.2
14
.4
14.b
56
.8
I 11
00.0
) (1
00.0
) <1
00.0
1 (1
00.0
) I
T
3697
27
.6
20.3
11
.0
41.1
46
445
15.b
14
.4
12.2
'57
.7
9903
37
.6
18.6
10
.0
33.7
263
931
17.0
13
.9
12.8
56
.3
I
I 11
00.0
) 11
00.0
) (1
00.0
) (1
00.0
1 I
L ..
_ _
_ _
_ -..
_
_ _
_ _
_ _
_ _
_ _
_ _
_ _
_ _
_ _
_ _
_ _
_ _
_ _
_ _
_ _
_ _
_ _
_ _
_ _
_ _
_ _
_ _
_ _
_ _
_ _
_ _
_ _
_ _
_ __
-I
I !1
3587
48
.9
23.8
6.
7 20
.7
2748
7 22
.8
16.4
9.
1 '51
.7
9637
48
.7
23.4
7.
1 20
.8
1045
42 2
5.1
15.0
8.
4 51
.4
I (1
00.0
1 11
00.0
) (1
00.0
) (1
00.0
1 . IL
lTER
AlE
F
530
53.8
21
.7
11.3
13
.2
3255
5 17
.0
17.0
14
.1
51.5
14
18
67.6
18
.3
4.2
9.9
1257
61 2
1.6
18.4
14
.0
46.0
( 1
00~.
O)
(100
.01
1100
.0)
(100
.0)
T
4117
,,9
.5
23.5
7.
3 19
.7
6004
2 19
.6
16.8
12
.0
51.6
11
055
51.1
22
.7
b.8
19.4
23
0303
23.
2 16
.9
11.5
48
.4
(100
.0)
( 100
.0)
1100
.01
{100
.01
~-----. -
---
--
--
---
---
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
--"
3522
1 34
.6
38.7
12
.5
14.2
19
6990
40
.2
31.0
13
.7
15.1
88
450
38.2
39
.9
11.1
10
.8
676W
!!1 4
5.2
28.5
12
.4
13.9
,
PRIP1
ARV
1100
.01
(100
.0)
(100
.0)
(100
.0)
, Po
F b3
20
47.3
39
.3
7.8
5.6
2009
96
33.8
30
.6
18.4
17
.1
1557
6 51
.2
40.3
5.
1 3.
4 ~39.0
30.1
16
.4
14.5
I
"ID
Il.£
(100
.0)
(100
.0)
(100
.0)
(100
.0)
I T
41~1
36.5
38
.8
11.8
12
.9
3979
86
37.0
30
.8
16.1
16
.1 1~
40.2
39
.9
10.2
9.
7 llt
OO50
8 42
.0
29.3
II
t.5
IIt.2
(1
00.0
) (1
00.0
1 (1
00.0
) (1
00.0
) ... 0 N
(can
td ..
.. )
Tab
le 5
.2 C
ontd
...
I 1
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
1
1 lfl
BAN
Rl
JlAI...
1
1---
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
---
----
----
----
-----------1
19
71
1981
19
71
1981
I
IEdu
caho
nal
! Le
vel
Perc
enta
ge O
lstr
lbut
lon
In
Perc
enta
ge D
istr
ibut
ion
In
Perc
enta
ge d
istr
ibut
ion
In
Perc
enta
ge D
i~tributlon
In
SE1
TOTA
L -----------------T
OT
Al -------------
roTA
l ----------
TOTA
l -
-------
15-1
9 . ~
t)-2/t
25-2
9 30
and
15
-19
20-21
+ 25
-29
30 a
nd
15-1
9 2O
-2/t
25-2
9 30
and
15
-19
21}-2
1+
25-2
9 30
and
ib
ove
ibov
e ab
ove
ibov
e 1-
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
--1
I M
1b
698
26.0
1+
9.2
15./t
9.
4 B
0196
37.4
3'
7.2
IIt.2
11
.2
7381
t0 30
.5
52.2
12
.4
'+.9
29
4169
39
.6
38.6
13
.'+
8.1+
I 11
00'()
) 11
00.0
) 11
00.0
) (1
00.0
) IM
ATRI
CUL-
F 12
187
32.6
51
.3
12.8
3.
3 10
2762
35.
7 33
.8
18.2
12
.3
,+386
8 38
.8
48.9
10
.2
2.1
3298
72
40.4
35
.2
15.2
9.
2 11
H[(I
VH
IGI-£
R (l(
M).O
) I::
iELO
Otiw
o r
2888
5 28
.8
SI).
1 Il
t.3
6.8
I 11
00.0
)
1100
.0)
1929
58 3
6.1+
35.3
16
.4
(100
.0)
11.8
11
00.0
) 11
7708
33.
6 50
.9
11.6
3.
9 '1
00.0
)
1100
.0)
621+1.
.141
1+0 • 0
(1
00.0
) 36
.8
11+.'
+ 8.
8
~ -
--
--
--
--
--
--
-.-
--
---
--
. -
---
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
_.
--
--
---
--
_.
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
_.
--
--!
1 DIP
LOM
A M
17
49
10.2
64
.7
18.2
6.
9 59
38 1
2.6
48.5
25
.3
13.6
75
83
9.6
b2.5
21
.9
6.0
2395
4 12
.8
50.2
23
.8
13.2
1 T
ECHN
ICAL
.' (1
00.0
) ( 1
00.0
) (1
00.0
) ( 1
00.0
) I N
ON-
F 21
21+
12.7
62
.1
20.5
4.
7 26
27 1
2.4
39.3
25
.6
22.7
92
25 1
2.7
65.3
18
.6
3.4
1008
5 13
.6
45.1
t 22
.0
18.9
IT
ECtfH
CAL
(100
.0)
(100
.0)
1100
.0)
( 100
.0)
T
3873
11
.6
63.3
19
.5
5.6
8565
12.
5 45
.7
25.4
16
.4
Ib80
8 11
.3
64.0
20
.2
'+.6
34
039
13.0
48
.8
23.3
14
.9
(100
.0)
( 100
.0)
(100
.0)
(100
.0)
I--
--
--
--
--
.-------------------------------------------------------------1
I
1'1 28
50
1.8
66.9
23
.4
7.9
1212
7 1.
5 55
.6
30.9
12
.0
9628
t 0.
8 64
.3
28.4
6.
5 29
3851
1.
1 54
.2
31.3
13
.4
IGRA
DUAT
lOO
(100
.0)
1100
.0)
',100
.0)
(100
.0)
I r.
F
2813
3.
9 76
.5
14.2
5.
3 17
722
2.4
53.4
27
.9
16.3
58
201
0.9
79.5
18
.2
1.4
3219
0+
2.1
50.3
28
.9
12.6
I P
OST
-(1
00.0
) (1
00.0
) (1
00.0
) (1
00.0
) IG
RAfJU
A TI 0
0 T
5b
b3
2.8
71.7
18
.9
6.6
2984
9 2.
0 54
.3
29.1
14
.6
1544
84
0.8
70.0
24
.5
4.6
6157
54
1.6
55.3
30
.1
13.0
1
(100
.0)
(100
.0)
(100
.0)
(100
.0)
L _
__
__
•
__
__
__
__
__
-
--
---
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
-I
1 11
703
1.4
53.9
'r
l.6
7.1
949
1.2
35.0
38
.6
25.2
---
----
--
--
---
---
I IT
EotII
CA
l (1
00.0
) (1
00.0
) t P
RlF
ESS
IIJoW
. F
510
54.9
41
.2
3.9
1420
0.
4 31
.8
45.6
22
.0
tllE
lHE
(1
00.0
) (1
00.0
) T
12
13
0.8
54.3
39
.1
5.8
2369
0.
7 33
.1
42.B
23
.4
---
-------
4 G
radu
ates
and
abo
ve
Sou
rce:
Cen
sus
of I
ndii
197
1. S
enes
9
kera
la.
Par
t 11
-B
(iiI
. Ec
OO
Olic
Tab
les.
C
ensu
s o
f In
dia
1981
. S
erie
s -
10.
keri
la.
Dil
l 11
1 -
AUI.
EcO
lmic
Tab
les.
~
0 W
104
highetage groups both for males and females in 1971 and
1981 . About 88 per cent of the unemployed in 1971 were
seen to be in the age-group 15-29; the corresponding
proportion in 1981 formed 79 per cent indicating higher
incidence of unemployment among the youth in both 1971 and
1981 .
5.3 Rural Unemployment by level of education
Rural unemployment formed more than three-fourth of
the total unemployment in the state in both 1971 and 1981.
It increased from 275 thousand (75.5%) in 1971 to 2614
thousand (78.2%) in 1981. The rural areas also accounted
for the largest proportion of the educated unemployed in
the state in both the census years(Table 5.2). Of the total
number of educated unemployed (Matriculates and above) in
the state as a whole, 80 per cent in 1971 and 77 per cent
in 1981 were in rural areas. In contrast to 1961 and 1971
the proportion of unemployment among the educated in 1981
was relatively higher in urban than in rural areas. While
in 19"'1 , 'Matriculates and above' constituted 43 per cent ,
of the unemployed in urban areas as against 55 per cent in
rural areas, the corresponding proportions in 1981 were
30.4 per cent and 27.5 per cent respectively.
5.4 Incidence of unemployment and Education
The incidence of unemployment by levels of
education and sex as per 1971 and 1981 census is shown in
Table 5.3. The table shows unemployment as a percentage of
Tilli!
..E 5
.3
Inci
denc
e of
Une
tlplo
v.en
t bv
Edu
caho
nal
leve
l" (R
ural
and
Urb
anl
Ker
ala.
lln t
he a
ge g
roup
15
-59
Acc
ordi
ng
to S
ex,
1971
I.
1981
1-
------
------
------
------
------
----
------
------
------
------
------
------
------
------
------
------
------
------
------
-----I
1
1971
19
81
• '"
....
....
....
.. -'
------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------' I
I E
duca
tiona
l W
orH
orce
lJ
neep
loym
ent
'4 of
une
tlplo
Ylle
nt
~rkforce
UTle1
IIpiov
lllE!n
t Pe
rcen
tage
of
1 le
vel
11n
thou
sand
s)
\In
thou
sand
s)
\In
thou
sand
s)
(In
th
ousa
nds)
U
ne.p
ioyt
llE!n
t 1
t1 F
r
t1 F
r
t1 F
T
H
F
T
P1
F
r H
F
I·
...
....
.•..
. ----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
-!
I r
11(1
It.8
813.
12
1917
.9
10.3
98
3.20
2 13
.bO
O
0.94
0.
39
0.71
74
2.2
81b.
8 15
59.0
83
.0 2
11.8
29
4.7
11.2
25.9
18.
9 1
1 Il
lite
rate
R
975.
41
738.
3 17
13.7
7.
543
2.36
0 9.
903
0.77
0.
32
0.58
65
2.0
736.
2 13
88.2
69
.9 1
80.8
25
0.7
10.7
2q.
b 18
.1
1 U
12
9.ql
7q
.9
2()q
.2
2.8b
0.
8 3.
697
2.21
1.
12
1.81
90
.2
80.6
17
0.8
13.0
31
.0
'+'t.
l 14
.q 3
8.S
25.8
T 8
21.9
2 18
8.ql
10
10.3
3 13
.22
1.95
15
.17
1.61
1.
03
1.5
1052
.1 q
Ob.
l lq
58.2
12
4.2
lSO
.5
286.
7 11
.8 3
8.5
19.2
I
lite
rate
R
7b
2.6
Ibb.
S 89
3.0
9.64
1.
42
11.0
6 1.
33
O.S
S 1.
24
882.
1 31
8.q
1226
.5
98.3
121
+.3
222.
6 11
.i 3
9.0
13.2
I
I U
95
.q
21.9
11
7.3
3.59
.5
30
Q.l
ll
3.76
2.
42
3.50
17
0.0
61.7
23
1.7
25.9
32
.2
58.0
15
.252
.225
.0
r 18
13.7
28
9.9
I P
rllll
afV
R
11
101.3
25
2.9
I U
m
.q
37.0
, !
r 67
0.78
b6
.77
1 l1
iddl
e R
51
1t.7
52
.19
1 U
15
6.41
14
.57
I H
atri
c t.
T m
.6
107.
6 I
Hig
her
R 2
83.4
76
.7
I Se
cond
ary
U
114.
1 30
.9
2103
.6
53.0
6.
342
59.2
9 28
.26
2.19
2.
74 1
773.
1 71
2.82
1+85
.9
318.1
+ 37
3.7
b92.
2 18
54.2
38
.21
4.5
42.7
30
9.4
lq.S
1.
8 Ib
.b
737.
54 7
0.72
15
.SS
86.2
8 56
6.56
SO.
21t
11.0
8 61
.32
170.
98 2
0.1t
S 4.
47
24.9
5
SOS.
1 9O
.S
56.1
llt
O.6
36
0.1
73.8
43
.9
117.
7 14
5.0
Ib.7
12
.2
28.9
2.4
1.8
2.3
11+6
0.8 5
97.8
205
8.5
252.
2 m
.l
551.
3 5.1
+ 5.
0 5.
36
312.
3 11
5.0
427.
3 6b
.2
74.b
14
0.8
1.54
23.
3 11
.7
1507
.1 6
82.4
218
9.b
550.
0 54
9.7
1099
.7
9.77
21.
23 1
0.82
117
q.l
S3S.1
+ 17
09.S
~.5 4
23.6
84
4.1
13.1
30
.68
14.5
9 33
3.0
147.
0 48
0.0
129.
5 12
6.1
255.
7
22.8
52
.1
29.0
26
.1
57.2
32
.7
14.6
39
.4
19.9
847.
8 52
0.8
1368
.7
631.
8 38
7.7
1019
.5
216.
0 13
3.1
31+9
.1
373.
6 43
2.5
806.
1 29
3.7
329.
8 62
3.5
79.9
102
.7
182.
6
18.0
SV+
27.8
17
.3 5
0.0
26.8
21
.2 b
4.9
33.0
36.S
80.
6 50
.2
35.8
79.
1 49
.4
38.9
SS.
S 53
.3
Q4.1
83.0
58.9
46
.S 8
5.1
61.2
37
.077
.252
.3
1--
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
-,
----
----
----
----
----
--t. T
able
co
ntd ..
.. 1
.... o Vt
ITab
le 5
.3
cont
d ••
•• J
--------------------------------------------~~-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------;
1971
19
81
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
,
I Ed
ucat
ion.
l lio
rkfo
rn
Une
lplo
Yle
nt
t of
une
lplo
Yle
nt
lIork
forc
e U
neap
loY
lent
Pe
rcen
t.ge
of
, le
vel
\in t
hous
ands
I It
n th
ousa
ndsl
(in
th
ousa
nds)
lin
tho
usan
dsi
Unl
!lplo
Vle
nt
: /'I
F
/'I F
tt
F
tt F
T
It
F
T
tt F
T
j---
----
_._-
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
--:
:Hon
-T
39
.9
3b.b
7b
.O
.2.~
b
.b
'i.v
5.9
IB.l
11. 7
9.
B 12
.9
22.b
1.
1 3.
5 4.
b 11
.2 2
7.1
2v.2
; T
echn
ical
R
38
.3
35.v
73
.3
2.3
0.2
B.4
5.9
I i • i
11
.5
B.b
Iv.8
14
i.4
1. V
2.
9 3.
9 l1
.b 2
b.9
20.l'
:Dip
lola
u
1.0
l.i
3 • .2
v.1
v.4
V.b
b.
L 21
1.3
10.4
1.
1 2.
1 3.
2 v.
l U.
b 0.
7 9.
1 28
.6 2
1.2
I : Tec
hRlc
al
T
32.1
24
.1
5b • .
2 7.u
4.
7 i1
.1
21.7
19
.b
20.8
10
9.b
b7.7
17
7.4
28.5
9.
2 37
.7
26.0
13.
b 21
.3
:Dip
loaa
R
20
.9
13.1
3~.u
5.3
1 .
.... u
8.
4 25
.5
23.1
24
.b
84.3
51
.1
135.
4 22
.B
7.1
29.9
27
.0 1
3.9
22.1
U
11
.2
11.0
22
.2
1.7
1.7
3.3
14.7
15
.4
15.0
25
.3
Ib.b
41
.9
S.8
2.0
7.8
22.9
12.
0 IB
.i
:Sra
duite
T
14
.b
23.11
98
.2
12.5
8.
b 21
.1
16.7
3b
.6
21.5
11
9b.7
112
.0
308.
7 14
2.3
51.3
t 93
.bt
21.5
45.
8 30
.3.
, iP
.G d
egre
e R
45
.9
15.2
11
1.1
~.o
5.8
15.4
21
.0
38.4
25
.3
114.
b 64
.3
178.
9 12
9.3
32.2
t 61
.5t
25.6
50.
1 34
.4
:, a
bove
U
28
.7
8.4
37.1
2.
9 2.
8 5.
7 9.
9 33
.3
15.3
66
.1
35.8
10
2.0
12.1
li
.7
29.8
18
.3 4
9.4
29.2
: Ttc
hnic
al
T
----
----
----
:Deg
ree
R
----
----
----
U
9.5
5.4
14.8
v.7
0.
5 1.
2 7.
4 9.
5 B.
2 Ib
.O
11.9
27
.9
0.9
1.4
2.4
5.b
11.8
B.
4
T 5
015.
4 15
50.3
bS
65.4
259
.7
103.
0 36
2.8
5.2
6.b
23.2
b2
3B.5
333
4.b
9570
.0 1
521.
1 17
88.2
330
9.3
24.4
53.
b 34
.b
: Tot
al
R 42
42.2
13
49.9
55
5b.0
196
.5
78.3
27
4.9
4.6
5.8
4.9
5008
.3 2
727.
6 77
35.9
118
7.7
1399
.8 2
587.
5 23
.7 5
1.3
33.4
U
8~'
.2
200.
4 10
09.4
63
.2
24.7
87
.9
1.B
12.3
B.
7 12
30.1
b0
7.0
1834
.1
333.
5 38
B.4
721.
8 27
.1 b
4.0
39.4
:-
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
t G
radu
ates
and
ab
ove.
Sour
ce:
1. C
ensu
s of
In
dia
liLlL
Ser
ies
I,
Indi
a, P
art
Il-B
(iil
, G
en!r
.l E
tono
lic T
abI!
s.
2.
Cens
us o
f In
dia
1981
, Se
ries
-10
, ke
rala
, Pa
rt 11
1 -
A'B
(il,E
cono
lic T
abl!
s.
.... ~
107
the respective category in the workforce. The rate of
unemployment increases with levels of education and reaches
a peak at the matriculate and higher secondary level and
comes down at the non-~echnical diploma level and slowly
rises at the technical diploma level and further goes up at
the 'graduate and above' level. Ratio of unemployment
shows that the incidence of unemployment becomes
substantial from the post-primary levels of education only.
This may be due to the fact that a substantial proportion
of the workforce with education till primary level are
absorbed in the primary sectors mainly in the agricultural
sector. Unemployment to them may be seasonal and
disguised. On the other hand, most of the educated people
(metric and above) are employed in the organised sectors
and in wage employment. Therefore unemployment at this
level becomes more open and pronounced. As may be seen from
Table 5.3, the rate of unemployment among the educated is
higher
than in
for almost all levels of education in
urban areas in both 1971 and
to note that between 1971
rural
1981.
and
areas
It is
1981 , significant
unemployment among females increased at a faster rate in
rural areas, while increase in unemployment in the case of
males was much less (See Table 5.3).
It may be noted that the incidence of unemployment
is higher in the state both for males and females among all
the educational categories in 1981, when compared to the
country as a whole (See table 5.4). While the matriculates
Tab
le 5
...
Inci
denc
e o
f ul
lNpl
oYll
ent
bv
leve
l of
ed
uca
ho
n a
ccor
ding
to
sex
(U
rban
an
d R
uraU
K
eral
a an
d In
dia
, 19
81
Le'/
ei
of
~ducatJon
KERA
lA
INDI
A
Wor~
fo
rCE
Unem
p IO
'y'lII
ent
'1 ~
M
F
[111
tera
t.e
8'?'7.
5 91
2.9
1810
.'+
112.
2 2~
2.3
35'1.
5
llte
nte
12
4,+.
9 '15
'+.1
lb99
.0
165.
3 18
5.9
351.
2
prlll
",arv
1'
1bl.l
79
1.2
2752
.3
401.
2 43
5.8
837.
0
Mid
dle
1582
.:3
730.
3 23
12.6
59
9.2
595.
1 11
94.3
M
atrI
cula
te
'Hlq
er s
ec-
860.
0 5~.5
1382
.~
375.
1 43
3.8
808.
9 on
darv
No
n te
chm
-:a
l dl
plM
a 11
).1)
12.9
22
.9
1.1
3.5
'I.b
Tec
hnlc
al
111.
1 bB
.O
179.
1 t:a
.8
9 J
"J
38.1
di
plO
llld
Deg
ree
and
ibov
e(ge
ne-
199.
6 11
2.2
311.
7 42
.5
51.3
93
.8
ral,
tech
nica
l t.
prof
esS
iona
l --
----
----
----
-_._
--T
otal
68
66.4
360
7.1
101t
73.5
172
5.3
1957
.0
3682
.3
perc
enta
Qe
of
unel
llplo
vlle
nt
!'\ F
12.5
26
.5
13.3
40
.9
20.5
55
.1
n.9
81.5
'13.6
83
.0
11.0
27
.1
25.9
13
.7
21.3
45
.7
T
lQ.6
2!).7
30.4
51.6
58.5
20.1
21.3
43.0
------
25.1
54
.3
35.2
--
----
----
----
--
Wor
k fo
rce
lJne
ftIpl
ovlle
nt
1'1
F
T
t1 F
9205
4.1
4161
8.8
3123
2.8
2163
.2
3591
.3
21)4
23.9
23
93.1
22
617.
0 86
0.3
542.
0
2914
9.7
3394
.8
3254
4.5
1726
.2
1104
.4
188'+
4.2
2015
.8
2086
0.0
2107
.6
llb4
.0
2084
0.4
260'+
.4
2344
4.93
116.
7 15
32.7
89.1
39
.7
128.
9 9.
0 11
.7
91+5
.0 12
'7.3
1072
.3
120.
6 38
.7
6150
.9
1159
.8
7310
.8
850.
4 .. 8
5.8
6534
9.95
3443
.8
8315
1.0
1095
4.3
8470
.6
Not
e •
Wor
k fo
rce
incl
ude
aain
NCI
rker
s an
d un
ellp
loye
cHpe
rson
s se
ekin
g an
d av
ailm
le f
or N
Ork
) S
ourc
e: C
ensu
s of
In
dia
1981
,S
erie
s 10
, K
eral
a pa
rt I
II A
&: B
(iI
Gen
eral
ECl
'lOlli
c T
able
s.
57S'
t.5
141)
2.3
2830
.6
3271
.6
4649
.4
20.7
159.
3
1336
.2
1942
4.9
\ 1 n
thou
sand
:'
perc
enta
ge c
l' un
et!p
loyt
Der
.t t1
F
2.3
B.6
18.4
,+.2
29
.3
b.l
5.9
32.5
8.
7
11.2
57
.7
15.7
15.0
58
.9
19.8
10.1
29
.5
1~.1
12.8
30
...
14.9
13.8
41
.9
18.3
----
---
16.8
15
.8
23.4
.... 0 CD
109
constituted 59 per cent of the total unemployed in
the state. they formed only about 20 per cent for the
country as a whole. The corresponding proportions for the
'graduates and above' for the state and the country as a
whole were 30 per cent and 18 per cent respectively (Table
5.4).
5.5 Incidence of Unemployment in Kerala by level of Education, DES Survey (1987)
According to the survey on unemployment conducted by
department of Economics and Statistics in 1987 (DES
Survey), the educated unemployed accounted for 29 per cent
of the total unemployed (See Table 5.5) The rate of
unemployment was found to be the highest for the SSLC
holders (54.5%) and the lowest for the 'post-graduates and
above' category (27.8%). The graduates accounted for 39.6
per cent. The survey also found that 52 per cent of the
technical certificate holders. 22 per cent of the technical
diploma holders and 12 per cent of the technical degree
holders were unemployed. The survey results suggest that
unemployment in Kerala is mainly a problem of the youth as
nearly 75 per cent of the unemployed belonged to the age
group of 15-29. The survey also showed that for 41 per
cent of the total unemployed the waiting period ranges
between two to five years and 21 per cent of the
unemployed had a waiting period of more than five years
TIIble 5.5 Distribution of Una.ployed by Educational Leyel
Labour force Unemployed
Leve I of Educat i on
1. III iterate 1191
2. III iterate without
forllal Education 668
J. Prilllary 2924
4. Above Primary but
below 55LC 3507
5. SSLC· 1947
6. Graduate 444
T. Postgraduate an
above 72
Total 10753
Percentage Number
(in thousands)
11 . 1 385
6.2 19t>
27.2 8'70
32.6 1600
18.1 10e2
4.1 176
0.7 20
100.0 4308
Percentage
(in thousands)
8.9
4.5
20.2
37.1
24.7
4.1
0.5
100.0
Source Report of the Survey on UnemploYlllent in Kerala, 1987,
D.E.5, (TRIVANDRUM ; 1988)
Unemployed
as percentage
of labour force
32.3
29.2
29.7
45.6
54.5
39.6
27.8
40.0
Table 6.6 Distribution of Labour force by activity status to total Population
Cate90ry
Rural
(in thousands)
Urban
(in thousands)
Total
(in thousands)
Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female total
1. Eaployed
2. Under etIIP I oyed
J. Open Unemployed
Total Unetllployed
(2+3)
4472
813
1116
1927
4. Total labour force 6401
5. Under emp I oyed
as percentage of
labour force
6. Open une.ployed
as per'centage of
1 abour force
7. Total Unemployed
as percentage of
12.1
17.4
30.1
1153
534
1168
1702
2855
18.7
40.9
59.6
5625
1347
2284
3631
9256
14.5
24.7
39.2
658
134
202
336
994
13.4
20.3
33.8
161
47
295
342
503
9.3
58.6
68.0
819
181
497
678
1497
12.1
33.2
45.3
Source; Report of the Surveyor Unemployment in Kerala
1987,D.E.5,(TRIVANORUM ; 1988)
5130
947
1318
2265
7395
12.8
17.8
30.6
1314
581
1463
2044
6444
1528
2781
4309
3358 10753
17.3 14.2
48.9 25.8
60.9 40.1
110
111
indicating the chronic and severe nature of unemployment
prevailing in the state. The survey estimated the open
unemployed as 27.81 lakhs accounting for 25.8 per cent of
the labour force. Compared to men, the rate of unemployment
was found very high among women(see Table 5.6). The
survey also estimated that 15.28 lakh persons constituting
14 per cent of the labour force were under-employed. The
rate of under-employment was found to be higher for women
as compared to men; While the rate of under-employment was
higher in rural areas, the rate of open unemployment was
higher in urban areas both for males and females (see Table
5.6).
5.6 Educated unemployment in Kerala. National Survey. (38th and 43rd Round)
Sample
According to 43rd (1987-1988) Round survey of the
National sample survey organisation (NSSO) 6.34 lakhs of
educated persons were unemployed in Kerala by usual
principal status. Their proportion increased from 15.7 per
cent in 1983 to 20.98 per cent in 19U7 (See Table 5.7).
Incidence of unemployment is found to be higher in the
younger age groups irrespective of rural-urban difference
both for males and females (See Table 5.8).
112
TABLE 5.7 Education-specific Distribution of Unemployed persons of age 15 and above according to Usual Principal Status: Kerala
(in lakhs)
Educati.onal Qualificattion
38th Round(1983) 43rd Round(1987-88)
Not literate' 0.473( 1.65%)
Literate but below secondary 6.443( 6.51%)
Secondary and abvoe 3.513(15.7%)
All 10.429( 6.95%)
0.751( 2.98%)
8.069( 7.65%)
6.335(20.98%)
15.155( 9.42%)
Source: 1. ~~v~k~halJ~.l(1988). Vol. XI ,No 4, Issue No. 35 2. --------- ,(1992), Vol. XVI, No 2. Issue No. 53
Table 5.8 Incidence of unemployment by age,sex and ruralurban residence status: Kerala.1983 and 1987-88.
Year/ 1983 (38th Round NSS)
Age Group M F P
1987-88 (43rd Round NSS)
M F P
----------------------------------------------------------Rural
15 - 29 22.4 33.3 26.1 25.7 44.9 32.4 30 - 44 4.0 5.3 4.4 4.7 11. 7 7.1 45 - 59 1 .4 1.8 1 .4 3.0 5.5 3.5 60 & above 1 .0 2.0 2.2 1 .4 4.9 2.3
Urban
15 - 29 25.0 46.5 31.6 27.9 57.8 37.5 30 - 44 4.5 11 .2 6.2 5.8 12.1 7.3 45 - 59 1 .5 1 .2 3.7 2.9 3.6 60 & above 1 .8 1 .4 1.3 9.4 2.7
------------------------------------------------------------Source: 1.?arve~shan~,(1988) Vol. XI ,No 4, Issue No. 35
2. --------- ,(1992) Vol. XVI, No 2, Issue No. 53
113
5.7 State-wise share of unemployed persons and relative intensity of unemployment
Kerala which accounts for only 3.4 per cent of India's
population has nearly 16 per cent of the usual status
unemployed persons of India and registers the highest
intensity of unemployment among the Indian states. The 3
relative intensity of unemployment of Kerala works out to
4.63 and is much above that of Tamil Nadu which comes next
to Kerala in rank. (See Table 5.9). According to 43rd
Round NSSO Kerala has the highest unemployment rate of the
educated (of age 15 years and above) by sex and rural urban
categories, among the indian states (See table 5.10). The
rate of educated unemployment is found to be higher for
females than. males in both the rural and urban areas.
However, the unemployment rate of the educated females is
higher in rural areas (57%) than in urban areas (41.7%)
which indicates that the gravity of the problem of female
educated unemployment is more acute in rural areas than in
urban areas. The chronic problem of female educated
unemployment exerts greater pressure in the market for
teaching and clerical categories which are considered to be 4
natural preference areas for the female work seekers.
3. Relative intensity of unemployment of a state is a ratio of the states share of the unemployed (i n the total unemployed of the country) to its population share. Any figures above unity means relatively high incidence of unemp 1 oymen t .
4. The Degree holders Survey conducted along with 1981 Census reveals that 38.7 per cent of degree holders were in ~ministrative work and 36 per cent in the teaching profession. See Degree Holders and Technical Personal Survey, Census 1981, Vol.S.
114
Table 5.9 STATE-WISE SHARE OF UNEMPLOYED PERSONS (USUAL STATUS)('OOO) AND RELATIVE INTENSITY OF UNEMPLOYMENT
... _--------- -- ---------- ----- ------------------------ -- -- --- -----------------------Population % Unemployed % Relative
State ( 1991 Census) Persons('OOO) Intensity of Unemployment
--------------- ----- --- - - -- ----- ------- ------------ -- --- -------------------- ---- . __ ... 2 3 4 5 6
_ ... _------- --- ---- ------- - -------------- ---- --------------------------------- ----.-- ".
Kerala 29011237 3.44 1879 15.90 4.63
Tami 1 Nadu 55638318 6.59 1344 11.37 1. 72
West Bengal 67982732 8.06 1311 11 .09 1.38
Assam 22294562 2.64 402 3.40 1. 29
Andhra Pradesh 66304854 7.86 1163 9.84 1.25
Haryana 16317715 1. 93 283 2.39 1. 24
Orissa 31512070 3.73 545 4.61 1. 24
Himachal Pradesh 5111079 0.61 68 0.58 0.95
Punjab 20190795 2.39 259 2.19 0.92
Maharashtra 78706719 9.33 941 7.96 0.85
Rajastan 43880640 5.20 476 4.03 0.77
Gujarat 41174060 4.88 416 3.52 0.72
Karnataka 44817398 5.31 444 3.76 0.71
Bihar 86338853 10.23 691 5.85 0.57
Madhya Pradesh 66135862 7.84 413 3.49 0.45
Uttar Pradesh 138760417 16.44 844 7.14 0.43
Others 29753550 3.53 339 2.87 0.81
All-India 843930861 100.00 11818 100.00 1.00
~te Column 2 Provisional 1991 Census Figures; Figures in other columns are worked out from statement 40,43rd Round NSSO,1990.
Source M.A.Oommen (1993), ~ssays on K~ral~ f~ono!!!YL ~~iL £...110
115
TABLE 5.10 Unemployment rates of the educated (15+) by sex and Rural-Urban residence status
Rural Urban State/All-India ------------------------------------------
Male Female Male Female
1 2 3 4 5 -----------------------------------------------------------All-India 11 .5 34.9 6.3 21.9
(7.5) (24.0) (7 . 1 ) (17.8)
Assam 18.5 43.7 6.8 34.1 (12.0) (19.5) (5.9) (23.0)
Gujarat 6.2 5.2 6.1 (2.0) (4.6) (5.7)
Kera"' a 26.9 57.0 17.9 41.7 (24.4) (43.7) (12.9) (32.4)
Maharashtra 7.9 9.2 6.8 11 . 7 (4.6) (6.5) (6.0) (9.3)
Tamil Nadu 14.7 30.1 9.0 29.6 (12.1) (26. 1 ) (8.2) (26.2)
West Bengal 13.6 43.3 11 .8 38.8
Note
Source
(7.6) (30.7) (9.6) (29.4)
Figures in parentheses are the corresponding rates excluding the subsidiary status workers. The subsidiary status workers are those who pursued some gainful activity during the year as against the principal status workers who are identified on the basis of a major time criterion used in deciding the ususal status of persons.
Ray S.N. J and Paul Jacob, (1990), "Employment, Unemployment and under _ employment-current dimensions and conceptual issues: A study based on NSS 43rd round results", JA§.~!. Quarterly. Vol.9,No.1 & 2.
116
5.8 Labour force participation rates and incidence of unemployment for the matriculates and graduates, Kerala, National Sample Survey. (32nd and 43rd Round)
Labour force participation rates and incidence
of unemployment (by usual principal status) for
matriculates and graduates as estimated by 32nd round
(1977-78) and 43rd Round NSSO,(1987-88) is depicted in
Table 5.11. While for male matriculates, the labour force
participation rate (LFPR) has remained stable in the rural
areas with a marginal decline in the incidence of
unemployment, there was a decline in LFPR in the case of
graduates and a sharp decline is noted in the incidence of
unemployment. For females, LFPR is slightly lower and the
incidence of unemployment is slightly higher both for
matriculates and graduates in rural areas. In urban areas a
decline is observed in the LFPRs and unemployment rates
both for male and female matriculates and graduates.
The declining work participation rates of Kerala as
compared to all India during the period 1961 to 1991 also
indicates the growing magnitude of unemployment in the
State (See Table 5.12).
5.9 Growth of workers, non-workers ~~ to~l population by level of education : Urban Kerala. 1961-1981
An attempt is also made here to compare the
census data on workers and non-workers in 1961, 1971 and
1981. Table 5.13 shows the growth of workers, non-workers
and total population by level of education. The
matriculate workers increased by 149.2 per cent between
1961 and 1981, while the matriculate non-workers increased
117
'i~1e 5.11 , Labour Force Participation Rates and Incidence of Unemployment (by Usual Principal Status) for Marticulates and Graduates
'm/ 1977-78 1987-88 ~ve 1 of
:;Jcat ion Rural Urban Rural Urban M F M F M F M F
t.wlculates Jbour Force Part i - 70.1 48.6 68.4 39.4 70.6 43.6 58.5 25.3
(21.7) (53.5) (19.2) (50.2)(17.5)(58.5)(25.3) 55.3 21.9 51.3 28.9 59.8 16.2 38.9
::pation Rate (49.3) ,1employment Rate 29.6 ;'aduate and above .lbour Force Parti:'pation Rate "elllployment Rate
90.2 75.5 92.5 77.3 86.4 69.4 89.6 63.3 (66.3)(47.3) (82.5) (51.7) (70.1)(38.1)(83.7)(51.8) 26.5 37.4 10.8 33.2 18.9 45.1 6.7 18.3
ate: lource:
Figures in brackets relate to worker participation rates. Mridul Eapen, (1994), Employment and Unemployment in Kerala Ove~viewJBackground Paper 3, State Planning Board & Centre for Development Studies Thiruvananthapuram.
fABLE 5.12 Work Participation Rate by sex and rural-urban residence status: Kerala and India,1961-1991
Kerala India Census Year ---------------------------------------------------
Persons Male Female Persons Male Female
196i Census Total 33.31 47.20 19.71 42.71 57.08 27.94 Rural 33.97 47.42 20.88 45.03 58.17 31.39 Ur ban 29.57 45.98 13.00 33.48 52.40 11.09 1981 ~£D-~u s Tota 1 30.53 44.89 16.62 36.77 52.65 19.76 R'Jr'al 31.25 45.23 17.72 38.87 53.81 23.18 Urban 27.42 43.41 11 .76 30.00 49.07 8.32 1991. Census Tota I Rura 1 Urban
Source
32.05 47.81 16.90 37.68 51.56 32.67 48.02 17.94 40.24 52.50 30.34 47.22 14.00 30.44 48.95
1. Censu~ of lndi 9. I1HU--,_ Series 10, Kerala, Paper 5 of 1981, p.11 & p.12.
2. Census 9f India 1991i Series - 12, Kerala,
22.73 27.20 9.74
Paper - 2 of 1991, Final Population totals,P.77. 3. Census of India 1~~ Series - 1,India,Paper - 2
of 1992, .Final populat.ion totals, Amulya Ratna Nanda,Registrar and Census Commissioner, India.
Tab
le
6.1
3
Perc
en
tag
e D
i.tr
ibu
tio
n o
f w
ork
er.
an
d non-~rker.
by
le
vel
of
ed
ucati
on
: ~eraJa
(Urb
an A
rea.
on
ly),
18S
1 an
d
18
81
(i
n
tho
usa
nd
)
:ld
uc:a
t.o
nal
lev
el
Po
pu
lati
on
In
dex
W
ork
ers
In
dex
N
on
-wo
rkers
In
dex
:
1961
19
11
1981
1
96
1=
10
0
19
61
1
9/1
19
81 1961~100
19
61
19
11
1981
1961~10
:Matr
icu
latl
on
/Hig
her
:Sec
:on
dar
y
, , . :No
n-l
p.c
hn
ical
dipl
ol11
a
: 1 e
ch
rn c
a I
DIp
lom
a
:Un
ivers
ity
d
eg
ree
and
:Po
st
gra
du
ati
on
:lech
nlc
al
~egree
14
9.6
1.8
3.
I
18
.2
13
.3
28
9.8
6
10
.0
34
6.6
4.3
3
.1
20
6.6
26
.6
46
.:'
12
29
.1
49
.1
12
0.7
6
63
.2
17
.0
30
.1
22
6.3
68
.3
11
6.2
1
10
.2
24
9.2
8
1.2
1
13
.63
41
.1
42
8.2
1.6
2
.1
2.6
1
66
.7
0.3
1
.6
1.2
4
00
.0
2.1
1
8.9
3
4.3
1
21
0.3
1
.0
6.
, 1
1.2
1
12
0
13
.3
26
.6
13
.3
55
1.1
5
.0
18
.2
41
.4
94
8
9.8
1
3.6
2
5.8
2
63
.3
5.5
3
.4
4.3
7
8.2
:---
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
--S
ou
rce
1.
Cen
sus
of
Ind
ia
19
61
. V
ol.
Vll
, K
erB
1B
, P
art
1
1-8
(i)
Gen
era
l E
co
na.i
c
Tab
les.
2.
Cen
sus
of
Ind
ia
19
71
. S
eri
es
-9
, K
era
la,
Part
1
1-8
(i)
Eco
no
mic
T
ab
les.
3.
Cen
sus
of
Ind
ia
19
81
. S
eri
es
10
, K
era
la,
Part
ll
l-A
&
8(i
) G
en
era
l E
co
na.i
c T
ab
les.
.... .... Q:)
119
the matriculate population was 246.5 per ceut. In the case
of graduates and post-graduates, workers increased by 451.1
per cent while the non-workers went up by 848 per cent and
the population in this group by 563.2 per cent. Workers in
the group 'technical degree holders' increased by 163.3 per
cent, but non-workers declined by 21.8 per cent as against
an increase of 126.3 per cent in their population. By
contrast, the volume of unemployment has increased in the
case of both the technical diploma and non-technical
diploma holders. It has to be pointed out that this
percentagt.: of non-workers is not a clear indicator
of unemployment as the population below 14 years and above
60 years are included. However, the analysis throws light
on the fact that the incidence of unemployment has been
high among all levels of educated persons except the
technical degree holders.
5.10 Trends in Educated Unemployment
Absolute figures furnished by the Census and
regional sample surveys are not exactly
time because of differences in coverage
comparable over
and definitions.
Evidence of the increasing gravity of the problem of
educated unemployment is available from the Employment
Exchange data as well. An added advantagp. of this source
is that they are available for a longer period of time on
an annual basis. The Live Register figures maintained by
the Employment Exchanges, despite their various
limitations, indicate that the problem of educated
120
unemployment has been worsening during the last two 5
decades, especially after 1977. The percentage growth of
total work seekers from 31-12-1981 to 31-12-1991 was 131.5.
The distribution of work seekers in Kerala by
educational level during the period 1966-1992 is furnished
in Table 5.14. It is seen that there has been explosive
expansion in the number of educated job seekers in recent
years, and that the increase has been high among all
educational categories (See Table 5.14). Among the
educated work seekers, matriculates account for the
highest proportion. However, with the rapid growth in
the number of colleges and enrolment during the 1960's,
the number of registrants with higher qualification began
to rise steadily from the 1960's onwards. The proportion
of educated work seekers (S.S.L.C. and above) increased
from 54.7 per cent in 1971 to 65 per cent in september
1992. The number of matriculate registrants rose from 71
thousand in 1966 to 2094 thousand in 1992, recording
thirty-fold increase within a period of 26 years. Over the
same period, the number of Pre-degree registrants went up
to 293 thousand from 2.9 thousand registering an increase
by 98 times. In the case of graduate registrants, the
-----------
5. Government of Kerala,(1982), Economic Review, QQ. cit. ,p.16.
Tab
le
5.1
4 D
i.tr
ibu
tio
n o
f W
Ork
-Seek
er.
b
y
Ed
ucati
on
al
Lev
el:
K
er.
la.
Ieee
-Iee
e (i
n
tho
u.a
nd
)
8elo
w
Ind
ex
In
dex
P
re-
Ind
ex
G
rad
u-
Ind
ex
P
ost-
Ind
ex
5
.5.
L. C
. In
dex
P
erc
en
t-
Ye
ar
S.S
.L.C
. u
f S
.S.L
.C.
of
deg
ree
of
ate
s
of
gra
du
-o
f &
o
f ag
e o
f
gro
wth
g
row
th
g"o
wth
g
row
th
ate
s
gro
wth
ab
ov
e
gro
wth
to
tal
wo
rk
~:-----------------------------------------------------~-------------------------------------------------------
31
-12
-19
66
7
0.7
1
00
.0
70
.9
10
0.0
2
.9
10
0.0
3
.6
10
0.0
0
.4
10
0.0
8
6.2
1
00
.0
54
.8
31
-12
-19
71
1
66
.3
23
4.6
1
67
.8
21
1.
6 1
0.2
Jt.
~ .
1 2
0.6
5
77
.8
2.3
5
75
.0
20
1.1
2
33
.3
54
.7
.31
-12
-19
76
3
44
.5
48
5.9
3
15
.6
39
8.0
3
8.2
1
31
7.2
4
9.1
1
38
0.6
5
.6
14
00
.0
40
9.1
4
74
.6
54
.3
31
-12
-19
81
9
79
.8
13
81
.9
74
8,9
9
44
.4
90
.3
31
1:;
.8
77
.7
21
58
.3
7.0
1
75
0.0
9
23
.9
10
71
.8
48
.5
31
-12
-19
86
1
20
9.5
1
70
5.9
1
25
1.8
1
57
8.6
1
36
.2
46
96
.6
97
.2
27
00
.0
10
.2
25
50
.0
14
95
.4
17
34
.8
53
.3
31
-;2
-19
91
1
31
8.5
1
86
4.9
1
88
5.3
2
65
9.1
2
57
.2
88
69
.0
16
0.0
4
16
6.7
2
7.8
6
95
0
23
20
.3
26
91
.8
63
.8
30
-09
-19
92
1
38
5.6
1
95
9.8
2
09
4.1
2
95
3.6
2
92
.8
10
09
6.6
1
62
.8
45
22
.2
28
.9
72
25
2
57
8.5
2
99
1.3
6
5.0
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
-
So
urc
e:
1.
Go
vern
.en
t o
f K
era
la.
(19
80
).
Sta
tisti
cs ~9L pla~~
Qp
.cit
.
2.
Go
vern
.en
l o
f K
era
la.
( 1
98
3.
19
88
. 1
98
9
&
19
92
). EconOtlli~
Rev
iew
. 2I
L. ~
~
W ~
122
number mounted to 163 thousand from 3.6 thousand, recording
an increase of 45 times; the corresponding increase in the
number of post-graduates was 29 thousand from 0.4
thousand, by about 73 times.
5.11 Occupational composition of work-seekers
The occupational composition of work-seekers is
analysed in Table 5.15. The table shows that the number of
work-seekers increased from 1.1 lakhs in 1960 to 27.3 lakhs
in 1987. Workers not classifiable by occupation .
constituted the highest percentage which implies that
unemployment is highest among persons without any
professional or vocational training or work experience.
Their proportion declined from 82.1 per cent in 1960 to 77
per cent in 1987, indicating that there has been an
increase in the opportunities for education and vocational
training on the one hand and increase in the number of
educated work-seekers on the other.
5.12 Unemployment Among Professional and Techllical Persons
Among the educated persons, unemployment was found
to be acute not only among the matriculates, and graduates
in Arts and Science subjects but also among persons with
professional and technical qualifications. However, their
proportion is seen to be quite low compared to the non-
professional categories (see Table 5.16). There were 100.9
thousand professional and Technical work-seekers in the
Table 5.15 Occupational Distribution of Applicants on Live Register of
Eaploywent Exchanges: Kerala. 1960 - 1981
:Sl.No. Occupation
1. Professional, technical related workers
excluding Primary and Middle school teachers
2. Primary and Middle school teachers
3. Administrative, executive and managerial
workers
4. Clerical and related workers excluding
unskilled office workers
5. Sales workers
6. Service workers excluding watchers, gatesmen,
and sweepers
7. Famers, Fishermen, loggars etc. excluding
agricultural and plantation workers
8. Production related workers, transport equipment
operators and labourers excluding loaders,
unloaders and labourers etc.
9. Unskilled office workers
10. Other unskilled workers
11. Workers not classified by occupatio"
Total
1960
10.4
(9.5)
N.A.
0.2
(0.2)
7.4
(6.1)
0.1
(0.1)
N.A.
1.5
(1.4)
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
90.4
(82. 1 )
110.0
(100)
1969
29.0
(14.7)
N.A.
1.0
(0.5)
19.9
('0.1)
0.1
(0.1)
N.A.
2.0
(1 .0)
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
145.4
(73.7)
197.4
(100)
12l
(in thousand)
1919
55.5
(4.4)
7.8
(0.6)
2.0
(0.2)
94.5
(7.6)
0.8
(0.1 )
4.1
(0.3)
11.8
(0.9)
82.9
(6.6)
15
(1.2)
60.6
(4.9)
914.4
( 73.2)
1249.4
(100)
1981
88.7
(3.3)
24.7
(0.9)
3.7
(0.1)
203.1
(7.5)
1.0
(0.03):
15.0
(0.6)
23.9
(0.9)
169.4
(6.2)
18.8
(0.7)
79.2
(2.9)
2098.8
(77.0)
2126.7
( 100)
:-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------:
• Note: Figures in brackets are percc"tages to total.
Source: Government of Kerala, (1980),~~~isti~~ for Plann~9i Op.cit., p.17
Tab
le 5
.1e
Dis
trib
uti
on
o
f P
rofe
s.i
on
al
an
d
Tech
nic
al
wo
rk-s
eek
ers
in
K
er.l
..
18
71
-18
92
.
year
Med
ical
gra
du
ate
s
En
gin
..,e
rin
g
gra
du
ate
s
Ih p
Ia-a
ho
lders
in
en
gin
e('
rin
g
I. r
. I.
C
er
tific
ate
ho
lders
~gricultural
Vcti
narv
graduate~
gra
du
at
No.
In
d"x
N
u.
Ind
ex
N
o.
Ind
,!x
N
o.
Ind
ex
N
o.
Ind
ex
N
o.
lnd
..,x
N
o.
19
11
4
05
1
00
.0
20
68
1
00
.0
33bO
1
00
.0
98
64
1
00
.0
12
8
10
0.0
1
16
1
00
.0
15
93
1
19
76
6
11
lb
O.9
1
72
9
83
.6
40
09
1
19
.1
20
74
7
21
0.3
2
9
22
.7
15
64
.1
27
20
0
19
81
6
81
1
68
.1
12
17
b
8.8
7
86
6
23
4.8
3
35
69
3
40
.3
10
3
80
.5
14
1
2.1
4
34
50
19
86
1
27
0
31
3.6
3
80
5
18
4.0
1
48
12
4
42
.1
59
22
5
60
0.4
2
09
1
63
.3
14
12
.1
79
33
5
19
91
1
95
9
48
3.1
6
93
3
33
5.3
1
99
02
5
94
.1
11
65
1
72
6.4
3
31
2
58
.6
85
1
3.3
10
08
61
.. 1
99
2
28
73
1
09
.4
19
20
3
83
.0
27
12
6
80
9.1
8
15
56
8
26
.8
16
5
12
8.9
7
9
58
.11
19
71
9
• rela
tes to
3
0-9
-19
92
So
urc
e:
Go
vern
.en
t o
f K
era
la.
(19
80
. 1
98
8.
19
89
&
19
92
).
Eco
ng
Wic
R
ev
iew
. ~ ~i~
To
tal
Ind
ex
10
0.0
17
0.7
27
2.7
49
8.0
63
3.1
75
1.5
.....
I\)
~
125
state by the end of 1991 as against 15.9 thousand in 1971.
About seven-fold increase is seen in their unemployment
within a period of 20 years. Among them the proportion of
diploma holders and I.T.I. Certificate holders is quite
high. These two categories together accounted for 90.8 per
cent of the share in the total unemployment among the
professional and technical work-seekers. The number of
diploma holders seeking employment increased from 3.4
thousand in 1971 to 19.9 thousand in 1991, registering an
increase of about 494 per cent within a period of 20 years,
while I.T.I. certificate holders recorded an increase of
626 per cent. A considerable decline is seen in the case
of veterinary graduate registrants. Their number declined
to 85 in 1991 from 116 in 1971, indicating the lowest
proportion of unemployment among the veterinary graduates.
5.13 Stock of educated work-seekers as percentage of the annual flow of the educated
We have already seen that the incidence of
unemployment is higher among the educated, particularly
among the matriculates. This phenomenon is explained in
part by the widened scope for vertical mobility and the 6
re~ulting increase in the number of matriculates. But at
the same time, employment opportunities in the state did
not increase commensurate with the rapid expansion in the
number of educated persons. Consequently, the stock of the
educated unemployed as a percentage of the annual flow of
this category has iricreased over time (See Table 5.17).
6.Centre for Development Studies,Trivandrum,(1975), Poverty, Unemployment and Development policy, QQ.cit., p. 127.
126
Table 5.11 Stock of Educated work seekers as percentage of the annual Flow of the Educated: Kerala. 1966-89
Educational qualification
Matriculates
Pre-degree holders
Graduates Post-graduates
1966
88
170
33 33
1972
250
55
90 120
1978
250
N.A.
368 168
1989
554
182
291 427
Source: (1) Centre for Development Studies. Trivandrum. (1975). Poverty. Une-.!!!IiL9.Y!nent and Development Policy. ~cit .. p.127
(2) Government of Kerala. Economic Review. (various issues).~cit.
Table 5.11 shows that in 1989. for every 100 new
matriculate entrants into the labour market there were
already 554 persons of similar qualification waiting for
jobs. It is noted that the situation has worsened
considerably since 1966 for almost all the educational
categories. In 1989. the stock of the educated as a
percentage of their annual flow is the highest in the case
of matriculates (554). postgraduates coming next (427)
followed by graduates (291).
At the present trend, the level of unemployment
is likely to go up to 39 lakhs by the end of Eighth Plan as
another 8 lakh persons are expected to enter into the
127
7 labour force during the plan period. Of the estimated 39
lakhs of unemployed persons, about 20 lakhs will be facing
open unemployment. This will include around 11 1 akh
educated persons consisting of 6.2 lakh matriculates, 2.2
lakh Pre-degree holders, 1.7 lakh graduates, 53 thousand
post-graduates and 20 thousand professional degree
holders. Among the 19 lakh under-employed persons, 3 lakh
may come under the category of educated involving 1.6 lakh
matriculates, 65 thousand Pre-degree holders, 45 thousand
graduates, 27 thousand Post-graduates 8
professional degree holders.
and 5 thousand
Although no estimates of the rate of expansion of
salaried jobs are available during the period, it must be
clear from the preceding discussion that employment
opportunities have not expanded at a rate fast enough to
catch up with the increase in the number of the educated in
the labour market. According to the Employment Exchange
data, the matriculate registrants swelled from 70.9
7. The level of unemployment at the commencement of the Eighth Plan is estimated at 31 lakhs consisting of 16 lakhs persons totally unemployed and 15 lakhs underemployed. State Planning Board, Thiruvananthapuram, ( 1992) • Emp lQYJ!Lent Ge/Lera_t i 01} St rat~J}Y tn the Ei ghth five Year 'plan-,- p. 14.
8. State Planning Board. Thiruvananthapuram. (1992), Employment; Generation Strategy .i.D. the Eighth Five Year
Plan-!_ p. 14.
128
thousand in 1966 to 2094.1 thousand in 1992; the Predegree
registrants went up to 292.8 thousand in 1992, the graduate
and the post-graduute registrants mounted to 162.8 thousand
and to 28.9 thousand respectively during the same period.
5.14Trends in growth of employment and unemployment in Kerala
In the absence of data on the number of applicants
placed in employment by educational levels, we have to rely
on the employment exchange data on the number of applicants
placed in employment and number of applicants on the Live
Register in general to highlight the employment position
and magnitude of unemployment in the state during 1960-92.
The Employment Exchange data, despite their various
limitations show that unemployment has been increasing at a
faster rate than the increase in employment (See Table
5.18) .
It is clear from Table 5.18 that there has been a
rapid rise in the number of job-seekers. In 1970, the
total number of applicants on the Live Register of
Employment Exchanges stood at 293.8 thousand as against
151.5 thousand in 1960, 1579.2 thousand in 1980 and 3638.8
thousand in 1991. In 1970, the number of applicants on the
Live Registers of Employment Exchanges was 293.8 thousand,
but the number of applicants who obtained the jobs through
the employment exchanges was 17.9 thousand. In 1980, there
were 1579.2 thousand applicants, but only 29.6 thousand
TibIa 5.1, Growth of e.p1o~nt and Una.p1o~nt : Kera1a. 1980-1992.
(i n thousand)
No. of
Year applicant Index No. of applica- Index Column
placed in of nt on the live of as per
2
cent
employment growth register growth of column 4
2 3 4 5 6
.----------------------------------------------------------------------------------1960 11. 6 100.00 151.5 100.0 7.7
1970 11.9 154.3 293.8 193.9 6.1
1975 23.9 206.0 691.2 456.2 3.5
1980 29.6 255.2 1579.2 1042.4 1.9
1985 12.0 103.4 2574.1 1699.0 0.5
1990 14.3 123.3 3320.0 2191.4 0.4
1991 15.6 134.5 3638.8 2401.8 0.4
1992 16.7 144.0 3964.1 2616.0 0.4
• Relates to 30-9-1992.
Source: 1. Government of Kerala, (1980 & 1988), Statistics for Planning. ~ cit.
2. Government of Kerala, (1989 & 1992) Economic Review, Op.cit.
12·9
130
applicants were provided with jobs during the same year.
Of the 3638.8 thousand applicants in 1991,
thousand applicants were placed in employment.
be observed that in 1970 the percentage of
only 15.6
It may also
applicants
placed in employment out of the total number of registrants
during this period was 6.1. But in 1991 the percentage of
applicants placed in employment out of the registrants
during the same period declined to 0.4. It is clear from
these figures that while the number of registrants rapidly
increased during the period 1960-91,
employment lagged far behind.
opportunities for
among
various
Analysis of the data pertaining to
the educated, as provided by Census
sample surveys and Live Registers
unemployment
reports and
of Employment
Exchanges have thus unmistakably revealed that the increase
in the volume of educated unemployment has been large and
rapid.
CHAPTER VI
SOCIO· ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF EDUCATED UNEMPLOYMENT: EVIDENCES BASED
===== ONAPRIMARYSURVEY
CHAPTER VI
SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF EDUCATED UNEMPLOYMENT
EVIDENCES BASED ON A PRIMARY SURVEY
In the preceding chapters we have analysed the
dimensions of unemployment at the macro level using
secondary data available from different official sources.
However,an indepth investigation on the socio-economic
characteristics and correlates of educated unemployment
could not be attempted due to the limitations of available
data .In this context a detailed primary survey has been
carried out into two regions namely Ernakulam and Thrissur
districts.The details of the study areas are presented in
Appendix-A. IN the present chapter an attempt is made to
analyse the data collected through primary survey with a
view to get more insights. The analysis carried out in
terms of selected socio-economic indicators are presented
below.
6.1. Unemployment by family income and Occupation of main earner in family
The income level of a household can be typically
low or high depending on the nature of occupation of the
workers in the famjly. Table 6.1 gives the distribution of
the unemployed by levels of family income and occupation of
the main earner in family. It is noted that the wage
labour households and the families in which the main earner
132
has white-collar salaried employment represent two
extremes; whereas the former belong mostly to the low
income group the latter are represented in 1
greater
proportion in the high income group. While 44.7 per cent
of the unemployed in the wage labour households belong to
the lowest income group of less than Rs. 500/- per month.
the unemployed in the salaried white collar families
belonging to the same income group constitute only 0.8 per
cent. The proportion of the unemployed is the lowest in
households with agriculture as the main occupation (2.1%).
while it is the highest in salaried white collar households
(35.8%). Out of the 332 unemployed persons, 16 per cent
hail from the households in the lowest income group'less
than Rs. 500 ' whi le only 11.7 per cent belong to
households in the highest income group 'above Rs.5000'
Their proportion is seen to be the highest in the income
group Rs. 501-1500 (29.2%).With the exception of households
in the lowest income group we may conclude that with the
increase in the income of the households, proportion of the 2
unemployed decreases. It is observed that females dominate
1. For a similar trend, see. Centre for Development studies, Trivandrum, (1975),Poverty.Unemployment and Development Policy: A case Study of Selected issues with reference to Kerala J United Nations, New York. p.223.
2. For a similar trendJ see. Centre for Development Studies, Tr;vandrum, (1975), Q1L.. cit., p. 224. See also Martin Carnoy,(1987),IIEP Research Project No. 64,H~he~ Education anq Graduat~ employment in India. ~ Summary of thre~ case studie~ International Institute of Educational Planning. Paris, p. 224.
Tab
le
b.1
Dis
trib
uti
on
o
f un
elpl
oyed
by
se
x ac
cord
ing
to
faai
ly
inco
ee
(.an
thly
) an
d o
ccu
p.t
ion
o
f ..
in
e.rn
er
in
faai
ly
Fa.
l1v
Occ
upat
ion
of
_aln
ear
ner
In f
a.l
lv
IncQ
!le
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
'.o
nth
-S
elf
eepl
oved
In
S
elf
ellP
10ve
d E
lse-
Waq
e la
bour
S
alar
ied
Whi
te
Sal
aned
non
-whl
te
rota
l lv
' A
qn
cult
ure
lo
Iher
e co
t"u
r co
llar
----------
----
----
----
----
---
----
----
----
----
----
---
----
----
----
----
---------------
',Rs.
,' H
F
!1
F M
F
H
F
T
1'1
F M
F
',SOO
lll
t.8!
1(1.
9)
5123
.8)
5(15
.b)
1011
8.9)
13
161.
9) 2
5178
.1)
38(7
1.7)
1(
4.8)
1(
1.9)
l(
lt.B
) 2(
b.3)
3(
S.7)
21
<39.
6)32
(60.
4)53
1100
) Ib
.71
1~.3
* II
.bl
13.5
+ 12
.5+
~6.~1
~3.9*
~4.71
2.2*
0.
81
7.71
7.
11
7.31
15
.ltl
16.3
* Ib
.('*
SOl-
112.
b)
111.
0)
1313
3.3)
12
(20.
7) 2
5(25
.8)
1112
8.2)
21(
33.0
) 32
(30.
0) 7
(17.
9)
9<1S
.5)
16(l
b.5)
7(
17.9
) 16
(27.
6' 2
3123
.7)3
9(ltO
.2)5
8(S9
.8)9
7(I0
0)
1500
Ib
.7*
14.3
* 3
0.2
13
2.1
.*
31.3
1 39
.31
36.8
* 37
.b*
15.2
* 12
.3*
13.lt
l 53
.8*
57. I
t 56
.11
28.7
* 29
.6+
29 .2
+
IS01
-1(
2.2)
11
1.3)
12
137.
S)
11(2
3.9)
23(
29.S
) 2(
6.3)
10
(21.
7)
12(1
5.4)
16
(50.
0)
Ib(3
4.8)
32
(41.
0) 2
(6.3
) 8(
17.4
) 10(12.8)32(41.0)46(59.0)78(1~))
2500
10
0+
14.3
+ 27
.91
29.7
* 28
.91
7.11
17
.5+
14.1
1 34
.81
21.9
+ 26
.91
15.4
1 28
.6*
24.4
1 23
.5+
23.5
+ 23
.51
2S01
-3\
12.
0)
-50
00
50.0
1
'5001
1I
S.3)
an
d 16
.71
abov
e
3(4.
6) 7
(28.
0)
7(17
.5)
1412
1.5)
2(8
.0)
42.9
* 16
.3*
18.9
1 17
.5+
7.11
1(2.
6) b
(31.
6)
2(10
.0)
8(20
.5)
14.3
1 14
.01
5.4+
10
.01
1<2.
5)
3(4.
6)
1.81
3.
5+
11(4
4.0)
30(
75.0
) 41
(63.
1)
2(9.
0) 2
(5.0
) 4(
6.2)
25
(38.
5)40
(61.
5)05
(100
) 23
.91
41.1
1 34
.51
15.4
1 7.
11
9.81
18
.41
20.4
1 19
.bl
11<5
7.9)
18
(90.
0) 2
9(74
.4)
1(5.
3)
1(2.
6)
19(4
8.7)
20(5
1.3)
39(1
00)
23.9
1 24
.711
24
.41
7.71
2.
41
14.0
1 10
.21
11.7
1
----
----
----
Tot
al 6
(4.4
) 1(
0.5)
7(2
.1)
43(3
1.6)
37(
18.9
) 80
(24.
1) 2
8(20
.6)
57(2
9.1)
85(
25.6
)46(
33.8
1 73
137.
21
119(
35.8
) 13
(9.6
) 28
(14.
3141
(12.
3113
6(41
) 19
6(S9
) 33
2(10
0)
1 ()(
)t
1 ()(
)t
1 ()(
)t
100+
1 (
)()t
1 (
)()t
1 (
)()t
1 (
)()t
1 (
)()t
1 (
)()t
1 (
)()t
1 (
)()t
1 (
)()t
1 (
)()t
1 (
)()t
1 (
)()t
lO
Ot
100f
----------------------
Not
e f
deno
tes
perc
enti
ge f
ra.
colo
u.n
tota
l an
d fi
gure
s in
bra
cket
den
ote
perc
enta
ges
fra.
rOM
to
til.
.... W c.u
males in almost all the income groups, except in the
hi ghest income group. However' thei r cl usteri ng is maxi mum
in the lower income gruup 'Rs.501-1500'(29.6%).It is
interesting
proportion
to note that females constitute
than males in agricultural and
households (See table 6.1).
6.2. Unemployment by family income and caste
lower
business
The data in Table 6.2 show the caste-income
relationship among the educated unemployed. A large
proportion of the households belonging to 'lower' castes
are characterised by lower levels of income whereas the
majority of the forward castes households belong to
higher income groups. Thirty three per cent of the
scheduled castes and 21 per cent of the "Other Backward
Castes" belong to the lowest income group less than Rs.
500/- while only 17 per cent of forward Hindus (Brahmins
and Nairs) and 11 per cent of Christians represent the same
income group. Data on the proportion of the different
castes among the u~employed show that unemployment is the
highest among the Christians (48.5%) and lowest among the
scheduled castes (6.3%).Where as females constitute lower
proportion than males in the highest income group among
all the castes females dominate males in the lowest income
group in almost all the castes except forward hindus and
scheduled castes (see Table 6.2)·
Tabl
e 0.
2 D
istr
ibut
ion
of
une.
ploy
ed
by
se~
acco
rdin
g to
le
vel
of
faai
ly
lnco
ee (
.ant
hlyl
an
d ca
ste
Fa/lH
lv
CA
S T
E
i C
0 M
M U
NIT
Y
1l1C
0tIe
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\lIO
nth-
Hin
du
{N.ll
r an
d C
hn
stia
n
l'1u
511~
OB
e se
Tota
l lv
' B
rahl
llnl
\Rs.
} 1'1
F
1'1 F
T
11 F
T
11 F
r
1'1 F
r 11
F
'.500
,+
119.
0)
3{9.
41
7113
.2)
7(33
.3)
11(3
4.41
18
(34.
0)
114.
8)
319.1
+)
1+{7
.5)
6(28
.b)
11(3
1+.4
) 17
(32.
11
3114
.3)
4(12
.5)
7(13
.2)
21(3
9.6)
32
(~).
I+)
53(1(~)
~.O+
12.0
+ 17
.1+
9.9+
12
.2+
11.2
+ 9.
11
18.8
+ 14
.8+
\8.8
+ 22
.0+
20.7
+ 50
.1 )+
26
.7+
33.3
+ 15
.4*
16.3
+ Ib
.l;'
501-
215.
11·
'+(1:1
.91
bI6.
2)
17(4
3.6)
31<
53.4
) 48
{5e.
5)
317.
71
315.
21
011:1
.21
15(3
8.51
15
(25.
9) 3
0130
.9)
215.
1)
5\8.
6i
7<7.
2)
39(4
0.2)
581
59.8
) 97
(100
)
151)0
i2
.5*
\6. i
)-t
14.6
+ 23
.91
34.1+
+ 29
.8+
21.3
~ 18
.81
22.2
1 ~b.qf
30.0
1 3b
.61
33.3
* 33
.3+
33.3
* 28
.'7+
29.6
+ 29
.2*
1501
-5(
15.6
) 8(
17.4
) 13
(lb.
7) 2
2168
.8)
16(3
4.8)
391
48.7
; 2(
6.3)
4(
6.7)
6(
7.6)
2(
6.3)
13
(28.
3)
15(1
9.2)
11
3.61
5(
10.9
) 6(
7.7)
32
(41.
0) 4
1:1(
59.0)
78(
100)
25
00
31.3
+ 32
.0+
31.7
1 31
.0+
17.8
1 23
.6+
18.2
+ 25
.01
22.2
1 6.
31
26.0
+ 18
.31
Ib.7
1 33
.3*
28.0
1 23
.5+
23.5
1 23
.51
2501
-3\
12.0
) 8(
20.0
) 11
(16.
9)
13(5
2.0)
19
(47.
5) 3
2(49
.21
2(8.
0)
4<10
.0)
619.
2)
7(28
.0)
8(20
.0)
15(2
3.1)
1<
2.51
1(
1.51
25
(38.
5) 1
+0(6
1.5)
05(
100)
50
(10
18.8
1 32
.0+
26.8
* 18
.3*
21.1
1 19
.9*
18.2
* 25
.0+
22.2
+ 21
.9*
16.0
1 18
.31
6.71
4.
8+
18.4
+ 20
.41
19.6
1
abov
e 2(
10.
5)
2110
.0)
4110
.31
1216
3.2)
13
165.
0) 2
5164
.1)
3( 1
5.8)
2(
10.0
) 5(
12.8
) 2(
10.5
) 3(
15.0
) 5(
12.8
1 19
(48.
71 2
0(51
.3)
39(1
00)
')OO
(j 12
.5+
8.01
9.
81
16.9
+ 14
.4+
15.5
+ 27
.3*
12.S
f 18
.51
6.31
b.
Ot
6.11
14
.0*
10.2
+ 11
.7*
--_
._--
----
----
----
-_.
Tot
al
16(1
1.81
25(
12.8
1 41
(12.
3)71
(52.
2)
90(4
5.9)
161(
48.5
) 11
(8.1
1 16
(8.2
1 27
(8.1
) 32
(23.
5) 5
0(25
.51
82(2
4.7)
61
4.41
15
(7.7
)21(
6.31
13
6(41
1 19
6(59
) 33
2(10
0)
lOOt
lO
Ot
lOO
t lO
Ot
lOOt
lO
Ot
1001
lO
Ot
lOO
t lO
Ot
100+
lO
Ot
100+
1 (
))+
1 0
0t
lOO
t lO
Ot
1001
--
----
----
----
----
_._
-_._
----
-N
ote
+ d
enot
es p
erce
ntag
e fr
oa c
olou
.n t
otal
and
fi
gure
s in
bra
cket
den
ote
perc
enta
ges
fro
. rO
N to
tal.
.... w
VI
136
6.3. Unemployment by Occupation and caste
The relationship between caste and income among
the educated unemployed is explained to a considerable
extent by the association between caste and occupation. It , is observed from Table 6.3 that the other
» backward caste
households account for the largest proportion of the wage
labourers (47.6%) followed by scheduled caste households
(28.6%) . In contrast forward Hindu caste households
constitute the largest proportion of the salaried white
collar workers (68.3%) followed by Christians (35.4%).
These findings imply that majority of the forward caste
households have a regular source of income, while majority
of the Other Backward Castes and scheduled castes
households do not have any regular source of income as
compared to forward caste households. It is significant to
note that a fairly high proportion of the unemployed
belonging to "Scheduled Castes" and "Other backward castes"
are from households of white collar salaried earners.
Their corresponding proportions are 28.6 per cent and 24.4
per cent respectively. However~ the income levels of these
households are generally low (see Table 6.2). Hence it may
be conclu0ed that, although the occupation of the main
earner is classified as "white collar", salary levels are
low. The explanation for this may lie in the reservation
system under which a certain proportion of salaried jobs
are reserved for these caste groups , but they cannot take
advantage of the system to any great extent in respect of
Tabl
e 6.
3 D
istri
butio
n of
un
elpl
oyed
by
se
x ac
cord
ing
to
occu
patio
n of
..
in
earn
er
in
faai
ly
and
cast
e
~c~~
CA
ST
E/C
OM
MU
NIT
Y
~lon o
f --
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
--lIa
ln e
ar-
Hlnd
U IH
air
and
Ch
nst
ian
Pl
uslla
OB
e ne
r in
Sr
ah.m
J f a
ll 11
\' --
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
---.
11
F T
M
F
T
M
F
T
M
F T
M
H
1I1b
.7)
1(14
.3)
5(83
.3)
5<71
.4)
£; ;- o E
;;3*
2.41
7.
0*
3.11
318.
11
3(3.
8)
2816
5.1)
22(
59.5
) 50
(&2.
5)
ili14
.1H
5<
13.5
1 11
l13.
B)
91.2
0.91
7(1
8.9)
16
(20.
01
12.O
t 7.
31
:~.41
24.1+
1 31
.11
5'+.5
1 31
.31
40.7
. 28
.1t
14.O
f 19
.51
~II0.'71
'+17.0
1 71
8.21
b(
21.4
) 23
\40.
41 2
9\34
.1;
1I3.
bl
3\5.
31
4Ift.
7)
14(5
0)
25\4
3.91
39(
45.9
) 41
14.3
) 18
.81
Ib.O
* 17
.11
8.5+
2S
.bl
18.0
1 9.
1+
18.8
+ 14
.8+
43.8
1 SO
.OI
47.6
1 bb
.7+
12
\2b
.0
It(2
1.9
) 28
123.
5)
2b15
6.51
31(
42.5
) 57
(1+7
.9)
311:
.5'
6(8.
2+)
917.
0)
5<10
.91
15(2
1).5
) 20
116.
S)
112.
2;
".5*
b4.0
* b8
.3*
36.6
* 34
.41
35.4
1 27
.3+
3'7.5
1 33
.3+
15.b
l 30
.1)1
2'
+.4'
Ib
.?~
217.
i 1
3.0+
2l
ft.e
n 4.
9*
6i46
.2)
14(S
O.0
) 20
148.
81
li7.
7)
8.5*
15
.&1
12.4
* 9.
11
217.
1;
317.
3)
4130
.8)
3110
.7)
7i17
.11
1(7.
71
12.5
* 11
.11
12.S
t b.
Ot
8.~
Ib.7
*
3C
iota
l
F
T
1'1 F
T
1(10
0)
1<14
.3)
6(85
.71
1(14
.3)
7(10
0)
~.7*
4.
8*
4.4*
0.
5+
2.11
,+31
53.81
37(
%.2
i80t
1()(
i1
31.1;
1 18
.9*
24.1
'
213.
5)
b(7.
1I
28(3
2.9)
57(
67.1
1 85qC~)
13.3
* 28
.6*
2I).b
* 29
.1*
25.b
*
5i6.
81
33.3
+ 6(
5.01
41:(3
8. '1
) 73
(61.
3) 1
19{ 1
001
28.6
* 33
.8+
37 .2
1 35
.B+
7(25
.01
8(19
.511
3(31
.7)
28(6
8.3)
411
1001
4~.71
38.1
1 9.
b*
14.3
1 12
.3*
----
----
---
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
-ro
ta I
Ib\I
I.8;
25(
12.8
) 41
(12.
3)71
(52.
2) 9
O(4
5.91
161{
48.5
) 11
{8.1
1 lb
{8.2
) 27
(8.1
) 32
123.
5) S
O(2
5.5)
82{
24.7
) 6(
4.4)
15
(7.7
) 21
(b.3
1 13
6(41
.0)1
96{5
9.0)
332(
loo)
lO
Ot
lOO
t lO
Ot
lOO
t 1O
\)f
1O\)f
lO
Ot
lOO
t lO
Ot
1O\)f
1O
\)f
1001
lO
Ot
1O\)f
1 U
OI
1 (II~
lOO
t lO
Ot
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
---
----
----
----
----
---_
.---
----
._---
------
------
---N
ote
f de
note
s pe
rcen
tage
fro
. co
lDU
ln t
otal
and
fig
ures
In
bra
cket
den
ote
perc
enta
ges
free
rDM
tot
al.
f.\ -
Self
e.pl
oyed
In
Agr
icul
ture
; B
-Se
lf e
.plo
ved
else
Mhe
re:
C -
Wag
e la
bour
; 0
-Sa
larie
d ~ite c
olla
r;
E -
Sala
ried
llDIH
Ihite
col
lar
.... W
-.J
138
jobs with high salaries, since securing such jobs would
require higher levels of education than is general among 3
these groups. It is observed that among the unemployed
belonging to forward castes a significant proportion also
belongs to households where the main earner is engaged in
low-income occupation ie, wage labour. This explains why
the forward castes are well represented in both low and 4
high income groups .
It is significant to note that females constitute
lower proportion than males in salaried white collar
families among the forward Hindu castes and Christians,
while their proportion is higher in the same occupational
category of household among the' Other Backward Castes'.
scheduled castes and Muslims. In the wage labour
households, females account for higher proportion than
males in almost all the castes, except forward Hindu castes
and Scheduled castes (See Table 6.3)
6.4. Educational Status of Parents
As the economic aspirations and opportunities of a
person are to a large extent conditioned by the educational
status of his parents, an attempt is made to analyse the
educational background of the father of the unemployed
3. Centre for Development Studies, Trivandrum. (1975). QQ. ~it., p. 226.
4. Ibid, p. 226.
Table 6.4 Distribution of Unemployed by Sex according to educational qualification of father
Educational qualification of father
III iterate
Pri mary
Secondary but below SSLC
S.S.L.C.
P.D.CjP.U.C
Graduat ion and Post graduat ion
Total
Male
1 (0.7)
65 (47.8)
17 (12.5)
37 (27.2)
3 (2.2)
13 (9.6)
136 (100)
Number of Unemployed
Female
6 (3.7)
99 (50.5)
23 (11.7)
44 (22.4)
(3.6)
17 (8.7)
196 ( 100)
Total
7 (2. 1 )
164 (49.4)
40 (12.0)
81 (24.4)
10 (3.0)
30 (9.0)
332 (100)
Note: Figures in bracket indicate percentage.
140
in the sample population. As may be seen from Table 6.4 the
educational level of the father of most of the unemployed
in our sample is low. Majority of the fathers (61%) have
education only below S.S.L.C. while graduates constitute
only nine per cent. The maximum clustering of the
unemployed in the category of fathers with primary level of
education and minimum clustering in the category of fathers
with graduate level of education indicate that unemployment
is influenced by fathers' educational level ie., higher the
education level of father, lower the proportion of
unemployed and vice versa. A male-female break-up of the
unemployed by father's educational level reveals that
unemp10yment is inversely related to father's educational
level both for males and females, with the exception of
illiterate fathers (See Table 6.4)
6.5. Unemployment by age and sex
Percentage distribution of the total unemployed in the
sample population by age and sex is presented in Table 6.5.
Out of the 332 unemployed persons, 56.9 per cent belong to
the age group 20-24 years, the corresponding proportion for
males and females being 53.7 and 59.2 per cent
respectively. Twenty two per cent of the unemployed are in
the age group 25-29, males constituting 25.7 per cent and
females 19.9 per cent. These two age groups together
account for a little over three-fourth of the unemployed
141
Table 6.5 Distribution of Unemployed by age and Sex according to Marital status
Martial Sex 15-19 status
M 14[10.9] 100.0*
Si n9 1 e F 13[9.3] 100.0
T 27[10.0] 100.0*
M
Marri ed F
T
M 14[10.3] 100.0*'
Total F 13[6.6] 100.0*
T 27[8.1] 100.0*
20-24
73[56.6] 100.0*
98[70.0] 84.5*
171[63.6] 90.5*
18[32.1] 15.5*
18[28.6] 9.5*
73[53.7] 100.0*
116[59.2] 100.0*
189[56.9] 100.0*
25-29
34[26.4] 97.1*
22[15.7] 56.4*
56[20.8] 75.7*
1[14.3] 2.9*
17[30.4] 43.6*
18[28.6] 24.3*
35[25.7] 100.0*
39[19.9] 100.0*
74[22.3] 100.0*
30 & Above
8[57.1] 57.1*
7[5.0] 25.0*
15[5.6] 35.7*
6[85.7] 42.9*
21[37.5] 75.0*
27[42.9] 64.3*
14[10.3] 100.0*
28[14.3] 100.0*
42[12.7] 100.0*
Total
129[48.0] 94.9*
140[52.0] 71 .4*
269[100.0] 81. 0*
7[11.1] 5.1*
56[88.9] 28.6*
63[100.0] 19.0*
136[41.0] 100.0*
196[59.0] 100.0*
332[100.0] 100.0*
Note : * Denotes percentage from coloumn total and figures in bracket denote percentage from row total
142
persons (79.2%).The table also reveals that the incidence
of unemployment is more chronic among the young persons
between 15 and 29. The higher incidence of unemployment
among the youth can be attributed to various factors, viz.
(a) the problem of entry into the labour force, (b)
acceleration of population growth, (c ), expansion of
education (d) slow economic growth and (e) preference for 5
workers from the kin groups. The higher incidence of
unemployment among the educated youth in the state is
partly due to their inexperience and the preference of the
employers for experienced workers. The importance of this
factor is suggested by the fact that majority of the
unemployed youth tend to be new entrants into the labour
force, seeking work for the first time. The survey
revealed that of the 332 unemployed only 23.5 per cent had
previous job experience, the corresponding proportions of
males and females are 54.9 per cent and 45.1 per cent
respectively. More than three fourth of the unemployed
(76.5%) are first time entrants into the labour market
without a~y prior job experience leading to the problem of
massive unemployment among the youth. Out of the total
sample population of 332 unemployed persons, 41 per cent
--.-----~--. - -_ .. ~--~~ .. ---~-------------------- -------
5. For a detailed discussion on reasons for higher incidence of unemployment among the youth, see, Pravin Visaria, (1986), Wor'king Paper No.5, Unemp]Qym~nt amOIl9 th~ I ndi~1J Yo~th: £!.r:-evi ew of its l~veJ~.!!.~_~ ~lld £QQ_seg.l:!~Dj:;_~S, Pr i tamra i Marg, Ahmedabad, p.23-31.
143
are males and 59 per cent, fema 1 es wh i ch imp 1 i es that the 6
incidence of unemployment is more acute among females. The
rising standard of educational attainment among women, the
social factors restricting the women folk from working,
lack of suitable white collar categories of jobs for
women in private sector and lack of opportunities for self
employment are some of the factors which contribute to the 7
chronic and ac~te unemployment among women.
6.G. Unemployment and Marital Status
A study of marital status and unemployment throws
light on the fact that out of the 332 unemployed only 19
per cent are married. Such married status is found to be
more in the case of females (28.6%) than males (5.1%). The
higher percentage of married females among the unemployed
as compared to males can be attributed to the prevailing
custom and the social responsibility of the parents to get
their daughters married whether they are employed or not.
The proportion of the unmarried to the total unemployed is
high for both males and females in all age groups (See
Table 6.5). It is significant to note that of the 42
unemployed in the age group '30 and above', 35.7 per cent
6. For similar findings .. see. (1) Prakash B.A.,(1988), Working paper No. 224, Educ~teQ Unemployment in !ier:..~.I~-L Some Q_bs~~at ;_o~~ b_Cl.?eq on Cl fj e 1 d study , Op cit., p.30.
7. Ibid, pp. 30-34
144
are unmarried while 64.3 per cent are married. Whereas 25
per cent of the females in this age group are single, 57.1
per cent of the males remain unmarried in the same age
group.
6.7. Unemployment by education and sex
Our sample confirms the observation made earlier
during the discussion on the basis of secondary data that
persons with professional and technical qualifications are
less prone to unemployment than those without any
additional qualification (See Table 6.6). It is observed
that, of the 332 unemployed persons, 209 (63%) persons are
those who did not have any special qualification. Among
the professionally and technically qualified persons,
unemployment is seen to be lower for the diploma holders
and higher for the certificate holders. Diploma holders
constitute 8.1 per cent while the certificate holders
account for 80.5 per cent. Professional and technical
degree holders constitute 11.4 per cent. The higher
incidence of unemployment among the professional and
technical degree holders as compared to diploma holders may
be partly due to employers' preference for the diploma
holders to the degree holders. In the general
education group, graduates constitute the highest 8
propor't ion (39.2%) followed by matricu"lates (34%) ,
undergraduates
8. See. N.V. E rIlQJQyme!l.t
(19.1%) and post-graduates (7.1%).
Vargheese, (1986) , Hi ghee Educat ion in India: A Bev~e~, QQ ~i1., p.29.
145
It is observed that the proportion of the unemployed is
relatively higher for females than males in almost all
levels of education (Table 6.6).
A sex-wise break-up of thp. unemployed in the
general education group reveals that females dominate males
at all levels of education except at the undergraduate
level. The proportion of females is seen to be lower among
the professional and technical diploma and degree holders
~hile their proportion is higher among the professional and
technical certificate holders. It is also observed that
females constitute the highest proportion in the age group
20-24 in almost all levels of education'
6.S. Unemployment by Education and income
The composition of the unemployed by education and
family income is presented in Table 6.6. In the general
education group, 26.8 per cent of the matriculates belong
to the lowest income group of less than Rs. 500/- while
only 9.8 per cent of the graduates fall in the same income
group. It is significant to note that among the post
graduates not even a single person belongs to the lower
income groups, less than Rs. 500 and Rs. 501-1500. Out of
the 33 unemployed in the general education category, ln the
family income group of less than Rs. 500/- matriculates
constitute the highest proportion (57.6%) followed by
graduates (24.2%). Of the 60 unemployed in the income
group of Rs. 501-1500, matriculates again account for the
146
hi ghest pr'oport ion (46.7%) fo 11 owed by gr"aduates
(28.3%).Converse1y, graduates constitute thG highest
proportion in the higher income group of Rs. 2501-5000
(56.4%) followed by post-graduates (17.9%); Again, in the
highest income group above Rs.5000, graduates constitute
the largest proportion (44.4%) followed by post-graduates
(22.2%) . The same observation is made in the case of
professional and technical degree holders and, diploma
holders, and professional and technical certificate holders
also (See Table 6.7). Lower levels of education are thus
found associated with lower levels of family income, while
higher levels of education are associated with higher 9
levels of income. It is observed that the proportion of 10
the unemployed declines with increase in family income
As compared to males, females are seen in higher proportion
in lower income groups, while their proportion is lower in
higher income groups (see Table 6.6). However, the
proportion of females in each income group varies with
educational qualification.It is observed that in the
general education group,34 per cent of female matriculates
belong to the lowest income group while only 9.5 per cent
9. For a similar trend, See.Centre for Development Studies, Trivandrum, (1975), Qp. ~i_t., p. 227.
O. For a similar trend,see,Chandan Mukherjee and T.M.Thomas Isaac, (1991) ,Q.Q_~_c;:_it. ,p. 76.
14'7
Table 6.6 Distribution of Unemployed by sex according to level of education and family income (monthly)
Level Family income (Monthly) of ---------------------------------------------------------edu- ~oo 501-1500 1501-2500 2501-5000 5001 & Total cation above
General without special education
M 2(9.5) 10(47.6) 5(23.8) 2(9.5) 2(9.5) 21(29.6) 18.2* 47.6* 25.0* 14.3* 20.0* 27.6*
S.S.L.C. F 17(34.0) 18(36.0) 12(24.0) 2(4.0) 1(2.0) 50(70.4) 77 .3* 46.2* 40.0* 8.0* 5.9* 37.6*
T 19(26.8) 28(39.4) 17(23.9) 4(5.6) 3(4.2) 71(100) 57.6* 46.7* 34.0* 10.3* 11 .1* 34.0*
M 5(22.7) 6(27.3) 3(13.6) 4(18.2) 4(18.2) 22(55.0) 45.5* 28.6* 15.0* 28.6* 40.0* 28.9*
P.D.C F 1(5.6) 9(50.0) 4(22.2) 2(11.1) 2(11.1) 18(45.0) 4.5* 23.1* 13.3* 8.0* 11.8* 13.5*
T 6(15.0) 15(37.5) 7(17.5) 6(15.0) 6(15.0) 40(100) 18.2* 25.0* 14.0* 15.4* 22.2* 19.1*
M 4(13.8) 5(11.2) 10(34.5) 6(20.7) 4(13.8) 29(35.4) 36.4* 23.8* 50.0* 42.9* 40.0* 38.2*
Degree F 4(7.5) 12(22.6) 13(24.5) 16(30.2) 8(15.1) 53(64.6) 18.2* 30.8* 43.3* 64.0* 47.1* 39.8*
T 8(9.8) 17(20.7) 23(28.0) 22(26.8)12(14.6) 82(100) 24.2* 28.3* 46.0* 56.4* 44.4* 39.2*
M 2(50.0) 2(50.0) 4(25.0) 10 .0* 14.3* 5.3*
P.G. F 1(8.3) 5(41.7) 6(50.0) 12(75.0) 3.3* 20.0* 35.3* 9.0*
T 3(18.8) 7(43.8) 6(37.5) 16 (100 ) 6.0* 17.9* 22.2* 7.7*
---------------------------------------------------------------------M 11(14.5) 21(27.6) 20(26.3) 14(18.4) 10(13.2) 76(36.4)
Sub- 100* 100* 100* 100* 100* 100* Total F 22(16.5) 39(29.3) 30(22.6) 25(18.8) 17(12.8) 133(63.6)
100* 100* 100* 100* 100* 100* T 33(15.8) 60(28.7) 50(23.9) 39(18.7) 27(12.9) 209(100)
100* 100* 100* 100* 100* 100* ---------------------------------------------------------------------
(cOltcl ..• J
14.8
(Table 6.6 contd ... ) ---------------------------------------------------------------------Professional & Technical Oiplo.a
M 1(12.5) 1(12.5) 4(50.0) 1(12.5} 1(12.5} F 2(100} T 1(10.0} 1(10.0} 4(40.0} 3(30.0} 1(10.0}
Professional & Technical degree
B.Tech.
Degree+ B.Ed.
P.G.+B.Ed
SubTotal
M F T
M F T
M 1 (100) F T 1(33.3}
M 1(12.5} F T 1(7.1}
2(28.6) 3(42.9} 2(28.6} 1(50.0) 1(50.0} 3(33.3) 4(44.4} 2(22.2}
1(50.0} 1(50.0} 1(50.0) 1 (50.0)
1(50.0) 1(50.0) 1(33.3} 1(33.3}
2(25.0) 3(37.5} 2(25.0) 2(33.3) 2(33.3) 1(16.7} 1(16.7} 2(14.3} 4(28.6} 4(28.6} 3(21.4}
Professional & Technical certificate
M 8(18.2} 17(38.6) 6(13.6} 7(15.9} 6(13.6} F 10(18.2} 17(30.9} 14(25.5} 12(21.8} 2(3.6) T 18(18.2) 34(34.3) 18(18.2) 19(19.2) 8{S.1)
B(BO.O} 2(20.0} 10(100}
7(77.8} 2(22.2)
9(100}
2(100} 2(100}
1(33.3) 2(66.7)
3(100}
8(57.1} 6(42.9} 14(100}
44(44.4) 55(55.6) 99(100)
M 21(15.4) 39(28.7)32(23.5) 25(18.4) 19(14.0) 136(41.0) Grand- F 32(16.3) 58{22.6)46(23.5) 40(20.4) 20(10.2) 196(59.0) Total T 53{16.0) 97(29.2)78(23.5) 65(19.6) 39{11.7) 332(100)
Note : * denotes percentage: from column total and figures in bracket denote percentage from row total.
149
of the male matriculates belongs to the same income
group.In contrast,among the graduates, females are seen in
lower proportion than males in the same income group. The
corresponding proportions of males and females are 13.8 per
cent and 7.5 per cent respectively.(Table 6.6)
6.9 Unemployment by Education and Caste
The percentage distribution of the unemployed by
levels of education and caste is presented in Table 6.1.
It is observed that among the unemployed in the general
educat ion category graduates constitute the highest
proportion among the forward Hindus (60%) and Christians
(45.1%). In contrast matriculates account for the 1argest
proportion among Muslims (36.4%), Other Backward Castes
(50%) and Scheduled castes (56.3%). These findings
confirm that lower levels of education are associated with
"lower castes" and higher levels of education are " ., 1 1
associated with higher castes. Females are seen to be
unemployed in higher proportion than males in almost all
the castes in a 1 most all 1 eve 1 s of education in the
general education group (See Table 6.7)
It significant to note that among the
unemp 1 oyed i n the general education category only
17 per cent of females from the lowest caste group
have a graduate degree while 48 per cent of ------------------------ --- ------------------------------------------
11. For a similar finding, see, Centre for Development Studies, Trivandrum, (1975), QQ cit., p. 131.
150
Table 6.1 Distribution of unemployed by level of education and caste according to sex
Education Level
Hindu Christ- Muslim (Nair & lan Brahmin)
OBe SC Total
General without special education M 11(52.4) 1(4.8) 7(33.3) 2(9.5) 21(29.6)
25.0* 16.7* 58.3* 50.0* 27.6* S.S.L.C F 4(8.0) 17(34.0) 7(14.0) 15(30.0) 7(14.0) 50(70.4)
26.7* 29.3* 43.8* 46.9* 58.3* 37.6* T 4(5.6) 28(39.4) 8(11.3) 22(31.0) 9(12.7) 71(100)
__________ J Q... 9! _ _ 27.5* 36.4* 50.0* 56.3* 34.0* M 3(13.6) -lof4-5~5) -4(18.-2)- -3(13~6-)--2(9~ ff 22C55~Or
30.0* 22.7* 66.7* 25.0* 50.0* 28.9* P.D.C F 2(11.1) 6(33.3) 4(22.2) 3(16.7) 3(16.7) 18(45.0)
13.3* 10.3* 25.0* 9.4* 25.0* 13.5* T 5(12.5) 16(40.0) 8(20.0) 6(15.0) 5(12.5) 40(100)
20.0* 15.7* 36.4* 13.6* 31.3* 19.1* -- - - - - -'- -M -n 24.1,)-- -19(65-.0) -1 (3.-4-) --2(6.9) - - - - -- -29(3-5-:-:4)
70.0* 43.2* 16.7* 16.7* 38.2* Degree F 8(15.1) 27(50.9) 5(9.4) 11(20.8) 2(3.8) 53(64.6)
53.3* 46.6* 31.3* 34.4* 16.7* 39.8* T 15(18.3) 46(56.1) 6(7.3) 13(15.9) 2(2.4) 82(100)
60.0* 45.1* 27.3* 29.5* 12.5* 39.2* - -- - - - - ---~.,-- -:: - - - - - -'H fOO r - - :: -- - -- -: - - -- - -: - - - - 4(25~Or 9.1* 5.3*
P.G. F 1(8.3) 6.7*
8(66.7) 3(25.0) 12(75.0) 13.8* 9.4* 9.0*
T 1(6.3) 4.3*
12(75.0) 3(18.8) 16(100) 11.8* 6.8* 7.7*
M 10(13.2) 44(57.1) 6(7.9) 12(15.8) 4(5.3) 76(36.4) Sub-Total F 15(11.3) 58(43.6) 16(12.0) 32(24.1) 12(2.0) 133(63.6)
T 25(12.0)102(48.8) 22(10.5) 44(21.1) 16(7.7) 209(100)
Professional & Technical Diploma M 2(25.0) 5(62.5) 1(12.5) F 2(100) T 2(20.0) 7(70.0) 1(10.0)
Professional & Technical Degree M 2(28.6) 5(71.4)
B.Tech. F 1(50.0) 1(50.0) T 3(33.3) 5(55.6) 1(11.1) M
Degree+ F 2(100) B.Ed. T 2(100)
M 1(100) P.G.+ F 2(100) B.Ed. T 3(100)
M 2(25.0) 6(75.0) Sub-Total F 1(16.7) 4(66.7)
T 3(21.4) 10(71.4) 1(16.7) 1(7.1)
8(80.0) 2(20.0) 10(100)
7(77.8) 2(22.2) 9(100)
2(100) 2(100)
1(33.3) 2 (66.7) 3(100)
8(57.1) 6(42.9)
___ _ ~~(_1P9)_
151
--- - --- - - -.- .. ----------.- ---.-.-
Professional M
S. S. L. C+ F Nursery T
M S.S.L.C+ F Type T
& Technical Certificate 1
P.D.C+ Type
M F T M
Degree+ F Type T
P .G. + Type
M F T M
S. S. L. C+ F
1(33.3)
3(50.0) 3(50.0)
3(15.0) 10(50.0) 4(17.4) 10(43.5)
1(33.3) 1(25.0)
3(50.0) 3(33.3)
1(5.9)
1(33.3) 1(25.0) 2 (66.7) 2(33.3) 4(44.4) 1(50.0)
1. T. I T 1(5.0)
1(50.0) 4(23.5) 3(100) 7(35.0) 2(33.3) 1(50.0) 3(37.5) 1(50.0)
P.D.C+ 1. T. I
Degree+ I.T.!.
M F T M F T 1 ( 50.0 )
1(33.3)
1(4.3)
3(50.0) 3(50.0) 1(33.3) 6(30.0) 7(30.4) 1(100) 1(33.3) 2(50.0) 1(33.3) 1(16.7) 2(22.2) 1(50.0)
1(50.0) 2 ( 11 .8) 9 ( 52 .9)
2(10.0) 9(45.0) 1(16.7) 3(50.0)
3(12.5) 3(37.5) 1(50.0)
1(50.0)
6(100) 6(100)
3(13.0) 1(5.0) 20(87.0) 1(4.3) 23(100)
1(25.0) 3(75.0)
4(100) 3(33.3) 6 (66.7) 9(100) 2(100)
2(100) 1(5.9) 17(85.0)
3(15.0) 1(5.0) 20(100)
6(75.0) 1(50.0) 2(25.0) 1(12.5) 8(100)
2(100)
2(100)
M 2(5.9) 10(29.4) 4(11.8) Sub-Total F 7(17.5) 20(50.0)
17(50.0) 1(2.9) 34(46.0) 11(27.5) 2(5.0) 40(54.4) 28(37.8) 3(4.1) 74(100) T 9(12.2) 30(40.5) 4(5.4)
Other Professional M
S.S.L.C+ F
& Technical 3(42.9) 2 (66.7) 5(50.0) 1(100)
Other T
p.D.e+ Other
M F T M
Degree+ F Other T
P.G.+ Other
M F T
1(25.0) 1(25.0) 1(20.0) 2(40.0)
2(100) 1(14.3) 2(28.6) 1(11.1) 4(44.4)
1 ( 100) 1 ( 1 00)
M 6(60.0) Sub-Total F 2(13.3) 6(40.0)
1 2(8.0) 12(48.0),
Certificate 3(42.9) 1(33.3) 4(40.0)
1(25.0) 1(20.0)
4(57.1) 4(44.4)
1(14.3)
1(10.0)
1(25.0) 1(20.0)
7(70.0) 3(30.0) 10(100) 1(20.0) 4(80.0)
5(100) 2(22.2) 7(77 .8) 9(100)
1(100) 1 ( 1 00)
3(30.0) 1(10.0)10(40.0) 6(40.0) 1(6.7) 15(60.0) 9(36.0) 2(8.0) 25(100)
M 15(11.0) 71(52.2) 11(8.1) 32(23.5) 6(4.4) 136(41.0) Grand F 25(12.8) 91(46.4) 16(8.2) 50(25.5) 15(7.7)196(59.0) Total 1 40(12.0) 162(48.8) 27(8.1) 82(24.7) 21(6.3) 332(100)
Note : * denotes percentage from coloumn total and figures in bracket denote percentages from row total.
152
females from the upper caste group ha~e a graduate degree·
Among the professional and technical diploma and degree
holders, females are found in lower proportion than males
in the" forward hi ndu caste" wh i 1 e among the profess i ona 1
and technical certificate holders females are seen in
higher proportion than males in the same caste (see Table
6.1) .
6.10. Unemployment by Education and Occupation
The percentage distribution of the unemployed by
levels of education and occupation of main earner in family
is depicted in Table 6.e.Significant difference is noted in
the composition of each educational category with respect
to different occupational groups. Amo~g the unemployed in
the general education category, matriculates constitute the
highest proportion in the wage-labour households (43.7%).
In contrast ,graduates and post-graduates constitute the
highest proportions in the salaried white collar families,.
the corresponding proportions being 46.3 per cent and
81.3 per cent respectively. These findings indicate
that unemployed belonging to wage labour households
are found in higher proportion in the matriculate
category than in the higher educational groups.
12. Upper caste group includes forward castes viz., Nairs and Brahmins and Christians while the lowest caste group includes Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, Middle caste includes Backward Caste.
153
The reverse is true of the unemployed from families of
white collar salary earners who dominate the groups of 13
graduates and post-graduates. In the professional and
technical education category, professional and technical
diploma holders and professional and technical degree
holders constitute the highest proportion in the salaried
white collar families, their corresponding proportion being
the same (50%).On the other hand professional and technical
certificate holders account for the highest proportion in
the wage labour households(37.8%).A sex-wise break-up of the
unemployed by level of education and occupation reveals
that among the matriculates females constitute the
highest proportion in wage-labour households (46%)
as compared to their male counterparts (38.1%). In
contrast, among t~e undergraduates,graduates and post
graduates the females constitute the highest proportion in
the salaried white collar families.Among the professional
and technical degree holders, females constitute higher
proportion than males in salaried white collar families
while among the professional and technical certificate
holders, females constitute higher proportion than males in
wage labour households(See Table 6.8).
13. For a similar finding, see ,Centre for Development
Studies, Trivandrum, (1975), 9]2. ~:t., p. 227.
154
T~le 8.8 Distribution of una.ployed by sex according to level of education and occupation
of .ain earner in f .. ily
Sex Self p.mployed Self employed Wdge
in agriculture else where labour
: GENERAL WITHOUT SPECIAL EDUCATION
:SSLC M
F
M 1( 4.~»
:P.O.C. F
T 1( 2. b)
4(19.0)
12(24.0)
16(22.5)
7(31.8)
1 ( 5.6)
8(20.0)
8 (38.1)
23(46.0)
31 (43. 7)
3 (13.6)
5(27.8)
8(20.0)
Salaried
white collar
6(28.6)
5{10.0)
11 (15.5)
7(31.6)
9(50.0)
16(40.0)
Salaried oon- Total
white collar
3(14.3)
10(20.0)
13(18.3)
4(18.2)
3(16.7)
7(17.5)
21(29.6)
50(70.4)
71(100.0)
22( 55.0)
18( 45.0)
40(100.0)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------:Oegree M
F
T
:Post- M
:grad- F
:uate T
:SUB- M
: TOTAL F
2(6.9)
1 (1. 9)
3( 3.7)
3(3.9}
I(O.B)
4(1.9}
11(37.9)
13(24.5)
24(29.3}
2(50.0)
2( 12 .S}
24(31.6)
26(19.5}
50(23.9)
4(13.8}
4( 7.5)
S( 9.B)
1( 8.3)
1( 6.3}
15(19.7)
33(24.8}
48(23.0)
11(37.9}
27(50.9)
38(46.3}
2(50.0}
11(91.7)
13( 81. 3}
26(34.2)
52(39.1)
78(37.3)
1 ( 3.4)
8(15.1)
9(11.0)
8( 10.5)
21(15.8)
29(13.9}
29( 35.4)
53( 64.6)
82(100.0)
4( 25.0)
12( 75.0)
16(100.0)
76( 36.4)
133( 63.6)
209(100.0)
,------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------_. , , PROFESSIONAL TECHNICAL DI PLOMA
M
F
T
1 (12.5)
1(10.0)
2(25.0}
1(50.0}
3(30.0)
1 (12. 5)
1 (10.0)
4(50.0)
1(50.0)
5(50.0)
8( 80.0)
2( 20.0)
10 (100.0)
:-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------; PROfESSIONAL AIID TECHIIIICAL DEGREE
M
F
T
1(12.5}
1 ( 7.1)
4(50.0)
1 (16.7)
5(35.7)
1(16.7)
1( 7.1)
PROFESSIONAL AIID TECHNICAL CERTIFICATES
'" F
GRAIIID TOTAL
M
F
T
1( 10.0)
1 ( 6.7)
2( 6. O}
6(4.4}
2(1.0}
8C? 4)
13(29.5}
10 (10.2)
23(23.2}
12(27.3)
22{40.0)
34(34.3}
43(31.6} 28(20.6}
38(19.4} 56(28.6)
81(24.4} 84(25.3}
Note: Figures in bracket indicate percentage.
3(37.5}
4(66.7)
7( 50. O}
11 (25.0)
14(25.5)
25(25.3)
44(32.4)
71(36.2}
115 (34. 6)
7(15.9}
8(14.5)
15(15.2)
15(11.0}
29(14.8)
44(13.3}
8( 57.1)
6( 42.9)
14(100.0}
44( 44.4)
55( 55.6)
99(100.0)
136( 41.0)
196( 59.0}
332(100.0)
155
6.11. Unemployment among graduates and post-graduates by faculty
Compared to the problem of matriculate and
undergraduate unemployment, the problem of unemployment
among graduates and post-graduates deserves special
attention from the point of view of policy formulation,
since huge amount of capital is being invested both by the
government and households for their education. Viewed from
this point, unemployment of graduates and post-graduates
entails heavy waste of scarce and limited national
resources. Of the 332 unemployed persons, 138 are
graduates and post-graduates (41.6%). The number of post
graduates is only 22 (6.6%) indicating higher incidence of
unemployment for graduates as compared to that of post-
graduates. In other words share of graduates 14
in
unemployment is higher than that of post-graduates
A faculty-wise analysis of the unemployed graduates
reveals that unemployment is the highest in the faculty of
Arts and the least in Education.It is noted that out of the
124 graduates and post-graduates unemployed in the general
education category,unemployment is the highest among the 15
arts graduates (37.1%) and the lowest among the science ._----------_ .. _---14. For a similar finding, see J N.V. Varhgese, (1986) ,
.~Q!J_ca~LoJ:! ~nd LC!.bouJ:. ~2..!:k~_ Qp_._ f.:i t., p. 64.
15. For a similar finding,seel (1) P.R. Panchamukhi, (1984), p~~ ci.J., p. 231, 0.231, (2) N.V.Varghese, (1986), IJig..ber ~~!,J~.~.ti.Qi! ~nd J:J!Ipl oyment tn. Lndi ~~~ci t., p. 29 (3) N.V.Varghese, (1986),Educatiol! ~nd Labour Market ~ .su~y'~y ()_~ !!!9-.i.an E~JQ~_nc?-,-- Qp-,-- ~.L1:.., p. 63
156
Table 6.9 Distribution of Unemployed graduates by sex according to faculty of education.
Faculty
ARTS
SCIENCE
COMMERCE
EDUCATION
ENGINEERING
TOTAL
Male
17(37.0) 32.7*
14(35.9) 26.7*
13(33.3) 25.0*
1(20.0) 1 .9*
7(77.8) 13.5*
52(37.7) 100.0*
Female
29(63.0) 33.7*
25(64.1) 29.1*
26(66.7) 30.2*
4(80.0) 4.7*
2(22.2) 2.3*
86(62.3) 100.0*
Total
46(100) 33.3*
39(100) 28.3*
39(100) 28.3*
5(100) 3.6*
9(100) 6.5*
138(100) 100.0*
Note *denotes percentage from column total and figures in bracket denote percentage from row total.
157
and commerce graduates, their proportion being the same
(31.5%).(see table 6. ~). Among the professional graduates
unemployment is seen to be the lowest for those in
Education (35.7%) and the highest for Engineering graduates
(64,3%). Table 6.10 also reveals that unemployment is the
highest among the graduates in the general education group
(89.9%) and the least in the case of professional and 16
technical graduates (10.1%). Out of the 138 graduates and
post-graduates unemployed, 89.9 per cent constituting
about three fourth of the unemployed graduates and post-
graduates, belong to the general education groups, while
only 10.1 per cent have degree in professional and
technical courses. The same trend is noted among the
employed graduates also. Of the 143 employed graduates 72
per cent belong to general education group while 28 per
cent belong to professional and technical education
category. Sex-wise, incidence of unemployment is seen to be
higher for females than males in almost all the disciplines 17
except in the Engineering Course . The lower incidence of
female unemployment in the case of those with degree in
engineering may be due to the lower proportion of females
going for graduation in engineering as compared to males.
16.
17.
For a similar finding, see, N.V· Varghese, Educatio,"! p_nd .Labour Market, QQ cit., p.63.
For a similar finding, see,N.V. Varghese, Edu_cat ion 9nd .La.90ur Market, QQ ~jj; .. , p. 64.
(1986),
( 1986) ~
158
Incidence of educated unemployment is manifested in
the rate of unemployment of a particular education
category. Labour force paticipation rate and rates of
unemployment for different types and levels of education
are worked out and analysed here.
6.12. Labour force and non labour force
A classification of the sample population in terms
of 'educated labour force'and 'not in labour force'is given
in Table 6.10. It may be seen from the table that 13.2 per
cent of the sample population are employed (educated), 17.8
per cent, unemployed (educated) and 69 per cent belong to
the category of 'not in labour force' 18
(educated).
Accordingly, the work participation rate of the sample
population is quite low (13.2%). A sex-wise break-up shows
that 16.6 per cent of the male and 9.0 per cent of the
female population are employed which implies that the male
work participation rate is significantly higher than that
of the females. This strikingly low level of female work
participation rate may be due to the lack of suitable
employment opportunities for women in the state.
--------- -----------------------------------------------------------
18. Work participation rate = Total workers Total population
x 100
159
Table 6.10. Sample population classified as educated labour force and non-labour force.
Category of
Educated emp 1 oyed
Educated unemployed
Educated labour force
Not in Educated labour force
Total population
Male
165 (16.6)
136 (13.7)
301 (30.2)
695 (69.8)
996 (100.0)
Female
80 (9.0)
196 (22.2)
276 (31.2)
608 (68.8)
884 (100.0)
6.13. Rate of Unemployment by age and sex
Total population
245 (13.2)
332 (17.8)
577 (31.0)
1283 (69.0)
1860 (100.0)
An inverse relationship is found between age and
rate of unemployment; higher the age lower the rate of
unemployment and vice versa (See table 6.11). The
unemployment rate is seen to be the highest for those in
the age group 15-24 (93.9%) fo 11 owed by those in the age
group 25-29 (63.8%) and the lowest for those in the age
group 30 and above (18.1%). The two age groups 15-24 and
25-29 together account for 84.1 per cent of the total
labour force, indicating a strikingly higher incidence of 19
unemployment among the youth
19. For a similar trend, see,Government of Kerala,(1987)r !:.~ort of the ~!!rv~ Q!:! 1!nempJ_Q~~n1; .i n Kera 1 a I
Department of Economics and Statistics,Trivandum,p.12.
160
The higher incidence of unemployment among the
educated youth (those in the age group 15-29)(84.1%) than
the total educated population (57.5%) implies that the
educated youth form a relatively significant group among
Table 6.11
Age groLlp
Sex
Incidence of unemployment by age and sex
Total labour force
No.of unemployed Percentage of persons unemployed to
total labour force -------------------------------------------------------------
M 98 87 88.8 15 to F 131 129 98.5 24
T 229 215 93.9
M 66 35 53.0 25 to F 50 39 78.0 29
T 116 74 63.8
M 137 14 10.2 30 and F 95 28 29.5 above
T 232 42 18. 1
M 301 136 45.2
Total F 276 196 71.0
T 577 332 57.5
the educated unemployed. As revealed by Table 6.11. 84.1
per cent of the total educated unemployed persons belong to
the age group 15-29 of which males constitute 89.7 per cent
and females, 85.7 per cent. A male female break up reveals
161
that incidence of unemployment among females exceeds that
among males in all the age groups. It further reveals a
higher incidence of youth unemployment among females than 20
among males (See Table 6.11).
6.14 Rate of unemployment by level of education and sex
The distribution of unemployed persons in relation
to total labour force by level of education and sex is
presented ln Table 6.11. It is observed that in the
general education group without any additional
qualification the rate of unemployment increases from 71
per cent among matriculates to 75.5 per cent among the
undergraduates and declines to 58.2 per cent among the
graduates. It further falls to 36.4 per cent among the post
graduates. Thus the analysis reveals that the rate of
unemployment is inversely related to the level of 21
education with the exception of undergraduates. In other
words. as the level of education rises, the rate of
unemployment decreases in almost all the educational groups
in the sample population except in the case of
undergraduates. ---------- _.-- -.- -----.----
20. See also Pravin Visaria,(1986), The Gujarat Institute of Area Planning Working Paper Series, Working Paper No. 5, Unemployment among the Indian Youth, QQ. cit., p.22.
21. For-a similar trend .. see. Government of Kerala, (1988), Report Q~ Survey on Vnemploym~nt in Kerala 198_~Department of Economics and Statistics, p.10(a)
162
Table 6. 12. Incidence of un~ploy.ent (educated) by educational
qualification and sex
Level of
Education
1 ota 1 1 abour
force
F T
Number of Un-·
employed persons
1
Percentage of Un
employed to total
labour force
F 1
------------------------------.--------------------------------------------------!General education without special qualification.
!S.S.L.C. 45 55 100 21 50 71 46.7 90.9 71. 0
!P.O.C. 33 20 53 22 18 40 66.7 90.0 75.5
: Graduatf', 73 68 141 29 53 82 39.7 77 .9 58.2
: Post graduate 19 25 44 -1 12 16 21. 1 48.0 36.4
!Sub Total 170 168 338 76 133 209 44.7 79.2 61.8
:-------------------------------------------------------------------------------: !Professional .. Technical education
!Professional
:& Technical 12 2 14 6 2 10 66.7 100.0 71. 4
!diploma
:Professional
:& Technical 36 2;! 58 8 6 14 22.2 27.3 24.1
!degree
!Professional
:& Technical 68 51 125 34 40 14 50.0 70.2 59.2
!Certi ficate
:Other Profe-
:ssional & ! 1 echni ca 1 15 27 42 10 15 25 66.7 55.6 59.5
:cer"tificatp
!Sub Total 131 108 239 60 63 123 45.8 58.3 51.5 , ,------------------------------------------------------------------------------: Grand Total 301 216 577 136 196 332 45.2 71.0 51.5
:-------------------------------~--------------------- --------------------------:
163
In the professional and technical education
category, the rate of unemployment is found to be the
lowest for professional and technical degree holders
(24.1%) while it is the highest for professional and
technical diploma holders (71.4%) . The rate of
unemployment for professional and technical certificate
holders and other professional and technical certificate
holders is more or less the same, their corresponding
proportion being 59.2 per cent and 59.5 per cent
respectively.
A male-female break-up of the rate of unemployment
shows that the rate of unemployment is higher for females
than males, their corresponding proportions being 71 per
cent and 45.2 per cent respectively. It is observed that
in the general education category the rate of unemployment
is inversely related to the level of education for females
at all L'vels of education while in the case of males the
rate of unemployment is inversely related to the level of
education at almost all levels of education with the
exception of undergraduates (see Table 6.12). It is noted
that the rate of unemployment is significantly higher for
females than males at all levels of education (Table 6.1~).
6.15' Rate of uoemployment by family income
Inverse relationship is observed between the rates of 22
unemployment and level of family income. Sex-wise brea~p ---_._ .. _--_. __ ._._._--_._----_._._--_._-_ .. _------- ._--------22. T.N.Dhar,A.S.Ilchman and W.F.Ilchman, (1976),Education
aQd EmQJ_QYmen.i .iD. IDdi a I The po 1 icy nexus, Mi nerva Associates (Publications) Pvt. Ltd., Calcutta, p. 69.
164
shows that rate of unemployment among females is
significantly higher in all income groups. (See Table 6.13)
Table 6.13 Incidence of unemployment by sex according to familly income
Fami 1 y Income (monthly) (Rs. )
M
Total Labour force
F T M
Number of unemployed
F T
percentage of unemployed to
total labour force
M F T -------------------------------------------------------------less than 500 25 33 58 21 32 53 84.0 97.0 91.4
501 - 1500 61 59 120 39 57 96 63.9 96.6 80.0
1501 .- 2500 56 56 112 32 47 79 57.1 83.9 58.9
2501 - 5000 87 66 153 25 41 66 28.7 62.1 43.1
above 5000 72 62 134 19 19 38 26.4 30.6 28.4
All 301 276 577 136 196 332 45.2 71.0 57.5
6.16 Rate of unemployment by occupation of main earner in family
The rate of unemployment is found to be the highest
among the wage labour households (98%) and the lowest among
the salaried white-collar families (36.3%) Same trend is
observed for females (see Table 6.14).
6.17 Rate of unemploym~ by easte
Unemployment rate is higher among the low castes
(73 ~ 9%) than the high caste(50.4%). The rate of
unemployment is found to be the higest for Muslims(84%)
followed by scheduled castes(78%) and Other Backward
castes(70%); it is the lowest among the forward Hindus and
Brahmins. Significant gender difference is noted in the
unemployment rates among all the castes. The rate of
unemployment is significantly higher for females than males
in all the castes. (see Table 6.15)
165 Table 6.14 Incidence of unemployment by sex according to
occupation of main earner in family
Occupat ion of Total Labour Number of percentage of main earner in force unemployed unemployed to fami 1 y persons total labour
force ------------- ------------- --------------
M F T M F T M F T ---------------------------------------------------------------se 1 f-emp 1 oyed in agriculture
self-employed else where
Wage labour
Salaried white coll ar
Sal ari ed nonwhite collar
Total
8 2
66 38
30 57
180 148
17 31
301 276
10 6 1 7 75.0 50.0 70.0
104 43 37 80 65.2 97.4 76.9
87 28 57 85 93.3 100.0 97.7
328 46 73 119 25.6 49.3 36.3
48 13 28 41 76.5 90.3 85.4
577 136 196 332 45.2 71.0 57.5
Tab 1 e 6. 1 S Incidence of unemployment by sex according to Caste
caste / Tota 1 Labou r communi ty force
Hindu (Nai r & Brahmi n)
M
49
F T
46 95
Christian 170 136 306
Mus 1 i m 14 18 32
O.B.C 59 58 117
S.C 9 18 27
Total 301 276 577
M
16
71
1 1
32
6
Number of unemployed persons
F T
25 41
90 161
16 27
50 82
15 21
136 196 332
percentage of unemployed to total labour force
M F T
32.7 54.3 43.2
41.8 66.2 52.6
78.6 88.9 84.4
54.2 86.2 70.1
66.7 83.3 77.8
45.2 71 .0 57.5
166
6.18 Rate of unemployment by faculty of education
The rate of unemployment is surprisingly found to be
the highest among commerce graduates(65%) and lowest among
science graduates(48%) in the general education group. In
the· professional technical education category rate of
unemployment is seen to be the higest among graduates in
Education(36%).(see Table 6.16)
Table 6.16 Incidence of unemployment by sex according to faculty of education
Faculty of education
M
Total Labour force
F T
Number of unemployed persons
M F T
percentage of unemployed to total labour force
M F T -------------------------------------------------------------Arts 44 42 86 17 29 46 38.6 69.0 53.5
Science 38 43 81 14 25 39 36.8 58.1 48.1
Commerce 29 31 60 13 26 39 44.8 83.9 65.0
Educati on 2 12 14 1 4 5 50.0 33.3 35.7
Engineering 24 5 29 7 2 9 29.2 40.0 31.0
Medicine 4 1 5
Law 6 6
Total 147 134 281 52 86 138 35.4 64.2 49.1
An attempt is also made to discuss some of the
qualitative dimensions of the problem of educated
unemployment. Sometimes it is argued that the educated have
strong preferences about types of employment location for
employment, levels· of income, job status etc. and such
attitudes may be largely responsible for the wide-spread
167
unemployment among the educated. Our survey data lends
broad support to these contentions.
6.19.Job preference and education
Irrespective of the Educational background, a marked
preference is noted for white collar jobs (See table 6.11).
The largest percentage of the unemployed prefer clerical
grade white collor jobs (42.2%) and nearly 30% want to be
employed in officer grade jobs (22.9%). The reason for
higher preference for clerical jobs may partly be explained
by the fact that these occupations do not require any
special qualification. Hence almost all the unskilled job
seekers prefer clerical jobs. It is observed that of the
209 unemployed in the general education group without any
additional qualification in professional and technical
courses, the largest proportion want to be clerks (46.9%).
Again it is noted that of the 140 job seekers who show
first preference for clerical jobs, 70 per cent have only
general education without any special education while only
30 per cent have additional qyalification in professional
and technical courses. The higher preference of the
unemployed for clerical jobs can also be attributed to the
high traditional social status attached to white collar
jobs as compared to manual jobs. It is noted that the
largest proportion of the unemployed matriculates in the
general education group, expressed first preference for
clerical jobs (78.9%), whereas the largest proportion of
168
the graduates and post gra~uates want to be officers. their
corresponding proportions being 50 per cent and 62.5 per
cent respectively.
Among the unemployed in the professional and
technical education category, the largest percentage of the
professional and technical diploma holders (50%) and the
largest percentage of the engineering graduates (66.7%)
want to be engineers while a large majority of the
graduates and post graduates in education (60%) show their
first preference to be teachers and 70 per cent of the ITI
certificate holders want to be technicians indicating the
tendency of the unemployed to prefer occupations which are 23
most suited to the training they have received
Sex-wise analysis reveals that among the unemployed
who show first preference for clerical jobs. females
constitute a higher proportion than males at all levels of
education in the general education group and in almost all
the levels of education among the professional and
technical certificate holders (See table 6.17).
23. T.N. Dhar, A.S. I1chman and W.F. Ilchman, (1976), Iducation and Employment iD Indi~L The policy nexus. Minerva Associates (Pub1ications)Pvt.Ltd. ,Ca1cutta.p.69.
169
lilth.17 Dhtribution of unllployed by sex according to first preference of category IIplOYllllt and educatiDllal qualificatiDII
ElplOYllllt Category (first preferenct) :tllili-IX llanager Engineer Lecturer Journa- Officer TNCher tVse Clerk Supervi- Techni- Business :Will list
" IL F T
" :/1: F T
" 5 m.2] -
:t_te F 1 [1.9) -T 6 [7.3] -
~ " 1 [25.0] -
:t.t, F T I [6.3] -
" b [i.9] -
: .. tatll F 1 [O.B] -T 7 [3.3] -
IVrofIlliIlllll + TKhnlcal DlplDII
2 [6.9] 1 [3.4] 2 [3.8) -4 [4.9] 1 [1.2]
2 [50.0] -1 [8.5] -3 [18.8] -
4 (5.3] I U.3] 3 [2.3] -7 [3.3] 1 [0.5)
" 1 m.5] 5 [62.5] -F T 1 [10.0) 5 [50.0) -
:Vroflllilllal + TKhnical Degree " 2 [28.6] 5 m.4] -
ILTICh. F 1 [50.0] -T 2 [22.2] 6 [66.71 -
"
1 [4.8] -3 [6.0] 1 [2.0]
I U.4] 3 [4.2] 1 U.4]
4 U8.2] 1 [4.5] 1 [5.6] 4 [22.2] -5 [12. 5] 5 [12.5] -15[51.71 1 [3.4] 26[49.11 7 [13.2] 3 [5.7] 41[50.0] 8 [9.8] 3 [3.71
1 [25.0] -9 [75.0] 1 [8.3]
10 [62.5] 1 [6.3]
21 [2l.bl 2 [2.6] -36 [27.11 15 [11.3] 4 [3.0] 57 [27.3] 17 [8.11 4 [1.9]
1 [50.0] -1 [10.0] -
1 [50.0] -1 [11.11 -
I': + B.Ed F 1 [50.0] 1 [50.0] -I T 1 [50.0] 1 [50.0] -
" 1 [100] -116 + B.Ed F
T
" :Q; total F T
1 [33.3] -
3 £37.5] 5 [62.5] -1 [16.71 -
3 [21.4] 6 [42.9] -
:Proffllilllll + T Khnical Certi fi cate :lLt " :1\111 F
T
" I" + F IT)'IIt T
(Contd ••••• )
2 [lOO] -2 [66.71 -
1 [16.71 4 [bb.71 -1 [7.11 4 [28.6] -
scr dan
13 [61.9] 3 [14.3] 3 [14.3] 1 [4.8] 43 [86.0] 1 [2.0] 1 [2.0] 1 [2.0] 56 [78.9] 4 [5.6] 4 [5.6] 2 [2.8]
11 [50.0] 3 [13.6] 1 [4.5] 2 [9.11 13 £72.2] -24 [60.0] 3 [7.5] I [2.5] 2 [50.0].
4 [13.8] 1 [3.4] 1 13 [24.5] 1 [1.9] -17 [20.71 1 [1.2]
1 [8.3] 1 [6.3]
2B [36.8] b [7.9] 70 [52.6] 2 [1.5] 98 [46.9] 8 [3.8]
1 £12.5]
1 [10.0]
2 [66.7] -20 UOO] -22 [~.71 -
moo] 3 [100]
4 [100]
- 1 [1.2]
4 [5.3] 4 [5.3] 1 [0.8] 1 [0.8] 5 [2.4] 5 [2.4]
1 £12.5] -1 [50.0] -2 [20.0] -
1 [33.3] I
1 [4.3]
" -'11", F I £16.7] -T 1 [11.1J -
Itl m :hiliat T
" Itl F :m T
"IITIF T
:l11TI F T
" :jt tiil F I [2.5] -T 1 [1.41 -
2 [b6.7l -5 [83.3J -7 m.BJ -
1 [SO.OJ 1 [SO.O] -
1 [SO.O] 1 [SO.O] -
3 [SO.O] 1 [!b.n 3 [SO.O] 1 [!b.n
1[SO.O] -
1 [SO.O] -
4 W.Bl 1 [2.91 5 £12.51 3 [7.5] I [2.51 9 [12.21 4 [5.41 1 [1.41
1 U6.7] 1 [16.7]
2 Ul.B] 2 [116.7]
4 [20.0]
2 [33.3] 1 [SO.O] 3 [37.5]
1 [SO.O]
1 [SO.O]
B [23.51
1 [33.5J -
1 W.ll -
--
---
---
--
1 [2.91
1 [!b.7l -1 [16.7] -
15 [88.21 -1 [33.5] -16 [80.01 -
4 [b6.7l -I [SO.O] -5 [62.5] -
170
27 [b7.5] -19 [55.9] 1 [2.9] 3 [7.5] -
35 [47.31 1 [1.41 22 [29.n 1 [1.4] ---------_._-------_._---,
• PrDfHlilllal + Technical terti Hcate
lit· " :iirF Itrtifi- T
:CJIt
:11 I " :iirF :crtifi- T
:cif
it_ " :trtifl- F :ciI T
ifS I " ilk F :trtlfi- T lcil
" IfIi totil F T
1 U4.3] -2 [b6.7l -3 [30.0] -
2 [28.61 -
2 [20.0] -4 [57.11 7 [70.0) 1 1 [33.3] 3 [30.0] 1 5 [SO.O] 10 [100]
1 [25.0] -1 [20.01 -
1 [25.0] 2 [SO.Ol -1 [20.01 2 [20.01 -
moo) 1 [20.0] 4 [80.0)
1[20.0] 5 [100]
2 UOO] -4 [57.11 -b [bb.71 -
1 [1001 -1 [1001 -
2 [20.01 1 tlM») -6 [40.01 2 [13.3] 1 [b.7] B [32.0] 3 tl2.0] 1 [4.0]
2 [22.2] I 7 m.tll 9 [1001
1 UOO] 1 [lOO]
-: 2 [20.01 4 [40.01 HlO.O] 10 [40.0] : 5 [33.3] 1 [b.7l 15 [60.0] 1 7 [28.0] 5 [20.0] 1 [4.0] 25 tlOO] :
" 10 [7.4110 [7.4] 4 [2.9] 1 [0.7l 27 [19.9] 4 [2.9] - 3B [27.9] B [5.9] 28 [20.6] b [4.4] 136 [41.0]1 It. F 2 [1.0] 1 [0.5] 3 U.5] - 49 [25.0] 24 [12.2] b [3.1l102 [52.0] 2 [1.0] b [3.11 1 [0.5] 196 [59.0]: Ilatll T 12 [3.61 11 [3.3] 7 [2.11 1 [0.3] 76 [22.9] 28 [B.41 b [1.81140 [42.2110 [3.0] 34 [10.2] 7 [2.1] 332 UOO] 1
,-----------------------------, litt: Figures in bracket indicate percentage to total.
171
Even as the minimum acceptable job only 14.2 per
cent opted for class IV employee job (peons), 22.6 per cent
want salesman/girl job, 4.8 per cent want technician's job,
and 58.3 per cent prefer white collar work (See Table
6.18). It is observed that among the unemployed who want
class IV emplo~Ljob as a last resort, matriculates
constitute the highest proportion followed by
undergraduate$ and graduates in the general education group
(Table 6.19).
6.20 Job preference and Households income (monthly)
Job preference is broadly related to economic
background of the unemployed. It is observed that in all
the family income groups, except the highest income group,
the largest proportion of the unemployed prefer clerical
jobs (See Table 6.19). In the highest income group of
above Rs. 5000 the largest percentage of the unemployed
prefer o~ficer's job (50%). Among them females constitute
a higher proportion (68.4%) than males (31.6%).
When the minimum acceptable job pattern is examined,
a significant downward shift is seen in the job preference
of all income groups. Among the lower income groups the
shift has been from clerical grade employment to the lower
grade jobs like salesman/girl job and to class IV employee
job. It is observed that the proportion of the unemployed
willing to undertake lower grade jobs declines with family
income (See Table 6.20).
fab
le b
. u
r D
istr
ibu
tio
n
of u~loyed
by
S
e.
Kco
rdin
q
to
.in
i_
A
Cce
ptA
ble
ja
b
And
ed
uC
Ati
on
Al
qU
Ali
ficA
tio
n
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
Mln
i.u.
acc
epta
ble
Job
Edu
catlo
---
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
--na
l Q
ual-
Man
ager
En
gine
er
Lec
ture
r O
ffic
er
Edi
tor
Hed
::al
Re-
Teac
her
Cle
rk
Supe
rvis
or
Tech
nl-
Sale
s M
an
Cla
ss I
V To
tal
flca
tlon
i pr
esen
tativ
e C
lan
or a
lrl
elpl
ovee
s --------~------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------~------------------------------
Gen
eral
Edu
catlo
n w
lthou
t sp
ecla
l qu
alif
lcat
lon
1'1 1(
4.B
] W
•• 8
] 5
[23.
B]
13 [
61.9
] 1
[4.8
] 21
[2
9.b]
3SlC
F
~
[B.O
] 7
[14.
0]
2 [4
.0]
15 [
30.0
] 22
[~.O]
SO [
70.~]
T
5 [7
.0]
8 [1
1.3]
7
[9.9
] 28
[39
.4]
33 [
4b.5
] 71
[10
0.0]
11
! [4
5.0]
1
[4.5
] 6
[27.
3]
~ [1
8.2]
7
[31.
8]
3 [1
3.6]
22
[55
.0]
POC
F
5 [2
7.8]
2
[11.
1]
6 [3
3.3]
5
[27.
8]
18 [
1t5.
0]
T
1 [2
.5]
1 [2
.5]
11 [
27.5
] 6
[15.
0]
13 [
32.5
] 9
[20.
0] 4
0 [1
00.0
] M
I
[3.4
1 3
[10.
3]
3 [1
0.3]
7
[21t
.11
b [2
0.7]
2
[6.9
] 6
[20.
7]
1 [3
.4]
29 [
35.4
] G
radu
ate
F (.
[3.8
] 14
[2b
.lt]
19 [
35.8
] 8
[15.
11
7 [1
3.2]
3
(5.7
] 53
[64
.6]
T
1 [1
.2]
5 [b
.11
3 [3
.7]
1~ [1
7.11
2b
[31.
71
14 [
17.1
1 (.
[2.4
1 13
[15
.91
It [4
.91
82 [
100.
01
Post
.1'1
1
[25.
0]
1 [2
5.0]
1 [
25.0
1 1
[25.
0]
It [2
5.0]
Sr
adua
te
F (.
[{b.
71
1 [8
.3]
2 [l
b.71
b
[SO
.O]
1 (B
.3]
12 [
75.0
] T
1
[b.3
] 2
[12.
51
(. [{
2.S]
1
[6.3
] 2
[12.
51
b [3
7.5]
1
[b.3
] 1
[b.3
] lb
[10
0]
,---
----
---
----
----
M
(. [2
.b]
5 [b
.b]
1 [1
.31
3 [3
.9]
2 [2
.6]
14 [
18.4
] 15
[19
.7]
(. [2
.b]
27 [
35.5
] 5
[b.b
] 7b
[30
.'+]
Sub
tota
l F
2 [{
.S]
3 [2
.3]
-20
[15.
0] 3
7 [2
7.8]
13
[9.
8]
28 [
21.1
1 30
[22
.6]
133
[63.
bl
T
(. [1
.0]
2 [1
.01
8 [3
.8]
1 [0
.5J
3 [1
.4]
22[1
0.5]
51
[24.
41
28 [
13.4
1 2
[1.0
1 55
[26
.3]
35 [
lb.7
1 20
9 [1
00.0
] --
----
----
----
----
----
----
--Pr
ofes
sion
al L
Tec
hnic
al D
iplo
aa
" 1
[12.
5]
5 [6
2.51
2
[25.
01
8 [B
O.Ol
F
1 [S
O.O
] 1
[SO
.O]
2 [2
0.0]
T
(.
[20.
01
6 [b
O.O]
2
[20.
v]
10 [
{00.
01
Prof
essi
onal
L T
echn
ical
Deg
ree
" 3
[37.
5]
1 [1
2.5]
1
[12.
5]
2 [2
5.01
1
[12.
5]
8 [5
7.11
F
2 [3
3.3]
(.
[33.
3]
2 [3
3.3]
6
[42.
9]
T 3
[21
.4]
1 [7
.11
2 [1
4.3]
1
[7.1
1 2
[14.
3]
3 [2
1.4]
2
[14.
3]
14 [
100.
0]
Prof
essi
onal
L T
echn
ical
Cer
tifi
cate
..
5 [1
1.4]
14
[31.
8]
3 [6
.81
10 [
22.7
] 9
[20.
5]
3 [b
.8]
" ["
.4]
F 1
[6.7
] '8
[14
.5]
21 [
38.2
] 3
[5.5
] 2
[ 3.
6] 1
1 [2
0.0]
9
[16.
4J
55 [
55.6
] ... ....
:I T
1
[4]
13 [
13.1
] 35
[35
.4]
6 [6
.1]
12 [
12.1
] 20
[20
.2]
12 [
12.1
1 99
[lO
O]
I'))
Not
e :
Figu
res
in b
rack
et i
ndic
ate
perc
enta
ges
173
Table 6.%9 Oi stri buti on of unemployed by sex according to first preference category of employment and household income(monthly)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------Employment category Sex < 500 501-1500 1501-2500 2501- above Total (1st prefer- 5000 5000 ence) --------------------------------------------------------------------------
M 1(10.0) 2(20.0) 4(40.0) 3(30.0) 10(83.3) Manager F 1(50.0) 1(50.0) 2(16.7)
T 1(8.3) 3(25.0) 5(41.7) 3(25.0) 12(100)
M 1(10.0) 5(50.0) 2(20.0) 2(20.0) 10(90.9) Engineer F 1(100) 1(9.1)
T I (9. 1 ) 6(54.5) 2(18.2) 2(18.2) 11(100)
M 1(25.0) 2(50.0) 1(25.0) 4(57.1) Lecturer F 1(33.3) 2 (66.7) 3(42.9)
T 1(14.3) 2(28.6) 2(28.6) 2(28.6) 7(100)
M 1 ( 1 00) 1 (100) Journalist F
T 1 ( 1 00) 1(100)
M 2(7.4) 6(22.2) 11 (40. 7) 2(7.4) 6(22.2) 27(35.5) Offi cer F 2(4.1 ) 5(10.2) 10(20.4) 19(38.8) 13(26.5) 49(64.5)
T 4(5.3) 11(14.5) 21(27.6) 21(27.6) 19(25.0) 76(100)
M 1(25.0) 2(50.0) 1(25.0) 4(14.3) Teacher F 3(12.5) 10(41.7) 8(33.3) 2(8.3) 1(4.2) 24(85.7)
T 4(14.3) 12(42.9) 8(28.6) 2(7.1) 2(7.1) 28(100)
M Nurse F 1(16.7) 2(33.3) 3(50.0) 6(100)
T 1(16.7) 2(33.3) 3(50.0) 6(100)
M 10(26.3) 12(31.6) 4(10.5) 9(23.7) 3(7.9) 38(27.1) Clerk F 24(23.5) 36(35.3) 23(22.5) 16(15.7) 3(2.9) 102(72.9)
T 34(24.3) 48(34.3) 27(19.3) 25(17.9) 6(4.3) 140(100)
M 2(25.0) 3(37.5) 2(25.0) 1(12.5) 8(80.0) Superviser F 1(50.0) 1(50.0) 2(20.0)
T 2(20.0) 4(40.0) 3(30.0) 1(10.0) 10(100)
M 3(10.7) 13(46.4) 5(17.9) 4(14.3) 3(10.7) 28(82.4) Techniciam F 1(16.7) 3(50.0) 1(16.7) 1(16.7) 6(17.6)
T 4(11.8} 16(47.1) 6(17.6) 5(14.7) 3(8.8) 34(100)
M 1(16.7) 2(30.3) 3(50.0) 6(85.7) Busi nees F 1(100) 1(14.3)
T 2(28.6) 2(28.6) 3(42.9) 7(100) --------------------------------------------------------------------------Note : Fi gures in bracket denote percentages to total.
17.
Tabl e 6. 2() Distribution of unemployed by sex according to Household incolle (monthly) and minimum acceptable job.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------Mi ni mum Household income (monthly) accept- Sex < 500 501-1500 1501-2500 2501-5000 5000 & above Total able job ----------------------------------------------------------------------------Admi ni s- M 1 [20] 3 [60] 1 [20] 5 [ 1 00.0] trator/ F Manager T 1 [20] 3 [60] 1 [20] 5 [100.0]
M 1 [100 ] 1 [100.0] Engi neer F
T 1 [ 1 00 .0] 1 [100.0] Co 11 ege M Lecturer F 2 [66.7] 1 [33.3] 3 [100.0]
T 2 [66.7] 1 [33.3] 3 [ 1 00 .0] M 2 [40.0] 3 [60.0] 5 [50.0]
Offi cer F 1 [20. 0] 2 [40.0] 1 [20.0] 1 [20.0] 5 [50.0] T 1 [10.0] 4 [40.0] 4 [40.0] 1 [10.0] 10 [100.0] M 1[100.0] 1 [100.0]
Edi tor F T 1[100.0] 1 [100.0]
Medical M 1[25.0] 2 [50.0] 1 [25.0] 4 [100.0] Represen- F tative T 1[25.0] 2 [50.0] 1 [25.0] 4 [100.0]
School/ M 3[30.0] 4 [40.0] 3 [30.0] 10 [25.6] Nursary F 1[3.4] 6 [20.7] 8 [27.6] 10[34.5] 4 [13.8] 29 [74.4] Teacher T 4 [10.3] 10[25.6] 11 [28.2] 10 [25.6] 4 [10.3] 39 [100.0]
M Nursing F 1 [20.0] 4 [80.0] 5 [100.0]
T 1 [20.0] 4 [80.0] 5 [100.0] M 1 [2.9] 10 [29.4] 10 [29.4J 4 [11.8] 9 [26.5] 34 [37.8]
Typist/ F 3 [5.4] 17 [30.4J 15 [26.8] 12 [21.4] 9 [16.0] 56 [62.2] Clerk T 4 [4.4] 27 [30.0] 25 [27.8] 16 [17.8J 18[20.0] 90 [100.0]
Supervi- M 4 [22.2] 6 [33.5] 4 [22.2] 3 [16.7] 1 [5.6] 18 [ 50] sari F 1 [5.6] 8 [44.4] 3 [16.7] 4 [22.2] 2 [11.1] 18 [50.0] Fieldwork T 5 [13.9] 14 [38.9] 7 [19.4] 7 [19.4] 3 [8.3] 36[100.0]
M 4 [28.6] 3 [21.4] 3 [21.4] 1 [71 ] 3 [21.4] 14 [87.5] Techni- F 1 [50.0] 1 [50.0] 2 [12.5] cian T 4 [ 25] 3 [18.8] 4 [25.0] 2[12.5] 3 [18.8] 16[100.0]
Salesman/ M 7 [19.4] 15 [41. 7] 5 [13.9] 8 [22.2] 1 [2.8] 36 [48.0] gi rl F 15[38.5] 13 [33.3] 3 [7.7J 6 [15.4] 2 [5.1] 39 [52.0]
T 22[29.31 28 [37.3] 8 [10.7] 14 [18.7] 3 [4.0] 75 [100.0]
Class IV M 1 [12.5] 1[12.5] 2 [25.0] 2 [25.0] 2 [25.0] 8 [17.0] employees F 12 [30.8] 11[28.2] 11 [28.2] 5 [12.8] 39 [83.0]
T 13 [27.7] 12 [25.5] 13 [27.7] 7 [14.9] 2 [4.3] 47 [100.0] ------------------------------------------------------------------------------Note : Figures in bracket denote percentages to total.
175
6.21. Job preference and the minimum acceptable salary
Among the job seekers who offer themselves for jobs
for a minimum monthly salary of more than Rs. 825, the
largest proportion prefer officer's job (37.6%). Among
them females constitute a higher proportion (51.1%) than
males (26%). On the other hand among the unemployed who
offer themselves for jobs for a minimum monthly salary of
Rs. 200-400, Rs. 400-600 and Rs. 600-825, the largest
percentage prefer clerical jobs (see table 6.21)
Under conditions of wage rate competition, an excess
of job seekers in any job category would bring down wages.
Table 6.22 shows that about 61 per cent of the unemployed
are prepared to offer their service for a monthly salary of
less than Rs. 825, 42 per cent for less than Rs. 600/- and 24
six per cent for less than Rs. 400/- Around 40 per cent
are prepared to offer their service only if they get
24. At the time of the survey the starting salary of a lower division clerk in the state service was about Rs. 825/- per month. see,government of Kerala (1989), Fi nance Q~p.~r·tment L Government Orders On The Recommendations Of the Fifth kerala ~ Commission Relating to Scales Of Pay and Allied Maters, S.G.P At the Government Press," Mannanthala, P.13
176
Rs.825/- and more than Rs. 825/- per month Which indicates
that for more than half of the total unemployed. the
reservation price is found to be lower than the going
salary level. Among the unemployed in the general
education group under the minimum acceptable monthly salary
group of more than Rs.825/-, post-graduates constitute the
largest proportion (75%) followed by graduates (54.9%),
Undergraduates (30%) and matriculates (19.7%) indicating
positive relationship between the level of education and
reservation price (minimum monthly acceptable salary).
Among the unemployed in the professional and technical
education category under the minimum acceptable salary
group of Rs.825/- and more than Rs. 825/- professional
and technical diploma holders account for the highest
proportion (90%) followed by professional and technical
degree holders (78.6%) and professional and technical
certificate holders (28.3%).
Minimum acceptable salary and job search period
The average job-search period as expected,is found
to be inversely related to the minimum acceptable salary
both for males and females~but it is not strong except
among persons whose minimum acceptable salary is more than
Rs. 825/- per month (See Table 6.23).
Minimum acceptable salary and household income
The minimum acceptable salary is found to be
influenced decisively by household income. A direct
relationship is observed between the minimum acceptable
r.bl
e 6
.2r
Dis
trib
utio
n of
une
.plo
yed
by s
ex .
ccor
ding
to
firs
t pr
efer
ence
of
c.te
qory
jo
b .n
d .
lni.
u. .ccept~l ... l.
ry (~thly'
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
--El
Iplo
Ylll
ent
201
-,+
00
,+00
-bO
O
bOO
-8C
5 S2
5 fa
abov
e To
tal
Cl
Lat
eQon
(1st
pre
fer-
M
F
T
11 F
T
M
F
M
F
T
M
F
T
en
ee)
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
---
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
--M
anag
er
10
2 12
10
2
12
(100
.0)
(100
.0)
(100
.01
(83.
31
(16.
7)
(100
.01
Eng H
er
9 1
10
10
1 11
(9
.11
( 90
.0)
(100
.01
(90.
9)
(90.
9)
\9.1
1 (1
00.0
1 L
ectu
rer
.. 3
7 'I
3 7
(100
.0)
(100
.01
<100
.01
(57.
11
(42.
9)
(100
.01
Jour
nali
st
1 1
1 1
(100
.01
( 100
.01
1100
.0)
(100
.01
Off
icer
3
3 6
21
27
21
CS
'16
27
'19
7b
{6.1
I (3
.9)
(22.
91
(42.
91
(35.
5)
(77.
8)
(51.
0)
(bO
.51
( 35
.51
(bIt
.51
(100
.01
Teac
her
11
12
7 7
3 6
9 If
24
28
'2
5.0)
(4
5.8)
(4
2.9)
(2
9.21
(2
5.0)
(7
5.0)
(2
5.01
(3
2.11
(
14.3
) {8
5.71
(1
00.0
) rlJ
rse
2 2
2 2
2 2
b b
(33.
3)
{33.
31
(33.
3)
(33.
31
(33.
3)
(33.
3)
(100
.0)
(100
.01
Cle
rk
16
17
lb
70
8b
11
9 20
10
7
17
38
102
140
(2.6
1 (1
5.71
<1
2.11
II
f2.ll
(b
B.6
) (b
l.4)
(28.
9)
(8.8
1 <1
4.31
\2
6.3)
(6
.9)
<12.
11
{27.
1I
(72.
9)
(100
.01
Supe
rvis
or
1 1
2 2
'I S
5 8
2 10
11
2.5)
(1
0.0)
\2
5.0)
11
00.0
) (4
0.0)
(b
C.5
) iS
O.O
I (8
0.01
(2
0.01
(1
00.0
) Te
chni
cian
1
2 9
1 10
6
3 9
12
13
28
6 34
\3
.b)
(lb.
7)
(5.9
) (3
2.11
<1
b.71
(2
9.41
(2
1.4)
(S
O.0
)(26
.5)
(42.
9)
\16.
9)
(38.
21
(82.
4)
i17.
61
(100
.0)
Bus
ines
s 1
1 5
1 b
b 1
7 \lb
.7)
(14.
3)
(83.
3)
(100
.01
(85.
91
(85.
71
( 14.
3)
(100
.01
----
----
----
----
-To
tal
3 17
20
~
89
118
24
42
66
80
't8
128
136
196
332
12.2
) 18
.7)
(6.0
1 (2
1.3)
(4
5.41
(3
5.51
(1
7.b)
(2
1.4)
(19.
9)
(58.
8)
(24.
5)
(38.
6)
(41.
0)
(59.
0)
(100
.0)
----
----
----
Not
e :
Figu
res
in b
rack
et i
ndic
ate
perc
enta
ges
• ~
...:I ~
118
Table 6.22 Distribution of Unemployed by sex according to Minimum acceptable salary (Montly) and educational qualifications
Minimum monthly acceptable salary (in Rs.)
Leve 1 of educat i on
200-400 400-600 600-825 825 & above
General education without special qualification.
M S.S.L.C. F 14(28.0)
T 14(19.7)
10(47.6) 29(58.0) 39(54.9)
2(9.5) 2(4.0) 4(5.6)
P.D.C M F T
1(4.5) 5(22.7) 6(27.3) 12(66.7) 4(22.2)
1(2.5) 17(42.5) 10(25.0)
9(42.9) 5(10.0)
14(19.7)
10(45.5) 2(11.1)
12(30.0)
Total
21(29.6) 50 (70.4)
71(100)
22(55.0) 18(45.0)
40(100) --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - -- - - -- - - -- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - -- --- -- ---
M Graduate F
T
2(6.9) 5(17.2) 16(30.2) 14(26.4) 18(22.0) 19(23.2)
22(75.9) 23(43.4) 45(54.9)
29(35.4) 53(64.6) 82(100)
- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --- - --M
Post- F GraQ-,uate T
M 1(1.3) Sub-total F 14(10.5)
T 15(7.2)
4(100) 1(8.3) 3(25.0) 8(66.7) 1(6.3) 3(18.8) 12(75.0)
17(22.4) 13(17.1) 58(43.6) 23(17.3) 75(35.9) 36(17.2)
45(59.2) 38(28.6) 83(39.7)
Professional & Technical Diploma
M F T
1(12.5)
1(10.0)
7(87.5) 2(100)
9(90.0)
Professional & Technical Degree
M F T
8(100) 2(33.3) 1(16.7) 3(50.0) 2(14.3) 1(7.1) 11(78.6)
4(25.0) 12(75.0)
16(100)
76(36.4) 133(63.6) 209(100)
8(80.0) 2(20.0) 10(100)
8(57.1) 6(42.9) 14(100)
- - - - - - - - - - - --- --- - - ------------------------------ -------Professional & Technical Certificate
Grand Total
M F T
M F T
3(6.8) 11(25.0) 8(18.2) 3(5.5). 29(52.7) 17(30.9) 6(6.1) 40(40.4) 25(25.3)
4(2.9) 17(8.7) 21(6.3)
28(20.6) 22(16.2) 89(45.4) 41(20.9)
117(35.2) 63(19.0)
22(50.0) 6(10.9)
28(28.3)
82(60.3) 49(25.0)
131(39.5)
44(44.4) 55(55.6)
99(100.0)
136(41.0) 196(59.) 332(100)
---------------------------------------------------------------------Note: Figures in bracket denote percentages to total.
17.9
Tabli 6.23 Distribution of Unemployed by Minimum acceptable salary (monthly) and Job search periods (months)
Job search period
less than six
M F T
200-400
Minimum acceptable salary
400-600
4 [16.0] 9 [40.9]
13 [27.7]
600-825 825 & above
5 [20.0] 8 [36.4]
13 [27.7]
16 [64.0] 5 [22.7]
21 [44.7]
Total
25 [53.2] 22 [46.8]
47 [100.0]
-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --M
6 - 12 F T
M 12 - 24 F 3 [10.3]
T 3 [5.9)
M 24 - 36 F 3 [14.3]
T 3 [8.81]
1 [14.3] 1 [33.3] 1 [33.3] 2 [20.0] 1 [10.0]
5 [22.7] 2 [9.1] 9 [31.0] 6 [20.7)
14 [27.5) 8 [15.7)
4 [30.8] 2 [15.4] 4 [19.0] 6 [28.6] 8 [23.5] 8 [23.5]
--------------------- - -
M 3 [14.3] 6 [28.6] 2 [9.5] 36 - 48 F 8 [44.4] 5 [27.8]
T 3 [7.7] 14 [35.9] 7 [17.9]
6 [85.7) 1 [33.3] 7 [70.0]
15 [68.2] 11 [37.9] 26 [51.0]
7 [53.8) 8 [38.1]
15 [44. 1 ]
- - - - - - - -10 [47.6]
5 [27.8] 15 [38.5]
7 [70.0] 3 [30.0]
10 [100.0]
22 [43.1] 29 [56.9]
51 [100.0]
13 [38.2) 21 [61.B]
34 [100.0]
--------21 [53.8] 18 [46.2]
39 [100.0]
.-. - - - --- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
M 48 - 60 F 2 [9. 1 ]
T 2 [6.3]
2 [20.0] 3 [30.0] 1 5 [68. 2] 2 [ 9 . 1 ] 17 [53.1] 5 [15.6]
5 [50.0] 3 [13.6] 8 [25.0]
10 [31.3] 22 [68.8]
32 [100.0]
-- - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - ---
60 and above
Total
M 2 [5.3] F 9 [11.1] T 11 [ 9.2]
M 5 [3.7] F 17 [8.7] T 22 [6.6]
6 [15.8] 8 [21.1] 43[53.1] 13 [16.0] 49 [41 .2] 21 [17.6)
28 [20.6) 22 [16.2] 89 [45.4) 41 [20.9]
117 [35.2] 63 [19.0]
22 [57.9] 16 [19.8] 38 [31.9]
38 [31. 9] 81 [68.1]
119 [100.0]
81 [59.6) 136 [41.0] 49 [25.0] 196 [59.0)
130 [39.2] 332 [100.0]
Note: Figures in bracket denote percentage to total.
180
salary and Family income. Considerable gender differential
is 9bserved in respect of household income and minimum
acceptable income/salary (See Table 6.24).
Table 6.24.Distribution of umemployed by household income (monthly) and minimum acceptable income(monthly) of the unemployed according to sex
HOUSE!
hold Minimum acceptable income/salary
income Sex 200-400 400-600 600-825 825 & above Total
M 1 [4.8] 4 [19. 0] 7 [33. 3] 9 [42.9] 21 [39. 6]
< 500 F 10 [31.3] 15 [46.9] 3 [9.4] 4 [12.5] 32 [60.4]
T 11 [20.8] 19 [35.8] 10 [18.9] 13 [24.5] 53 [100]
M 1 [2.6] 12 [30.8] 9 [23.1] 17 [43.6] 39 [40.6] 501 to F 7 [12.3] 31 [54.4] 11 [19.3] 8 [14.0] 57 [59.4] 1500
1501
to
2500
2501
to
T 8 [8.3] 43 [44.8] 20 [20.8] 25 [26.0] 96 [100]
M
F
T
6 [18.8] 4 [12.5] 22 [68.8] 32 [40.5]
26 [55.3] 12 [25.5] 9 [19.1] 47 [59.5]
32 [40.5] 16 [20.3] 31 [39.2] 79 [100]
M 3 [12.0] 3 [12.0] 1 [4.0] 18 [72.0] 25 [37.9]
F 14 [34. 1] 13 [31. 7] 14 [34. 1 ] 41 [62. 1 ]
5000 T 3 [4.5] 17 [25.8] 14 [21.2] 32 [48.5] 66 [100]
above
5000
Total
M 3 [15.8] 1 [5.3] 15 [78.9] 19 [50.0]
F 3 [15.8] 2 [10.5] 14 [73.7] 19 [50.0]
T 6 [15.8] 3 [7.9] 29 [76.3] 38 [100]
M 5 [3.7] 28 [20.6] 22 [16.2] 81 [59.6] 136 [41.0]
F 17 [8.7] 89 [45.4] 41 [20.9] 49 [25.0] 196 [59.0]
T 22 [6.6] 117 [35.2] 63 [19.0J 130 [39.2] 332 [100]
Note: Figures in bracket indicate percentage to total.
181
6.22 Sectoral Preference
More than three fourth of the unemployed (86 %) prefer to
get employment in the public sector. Wide gender
difference is not observed in the sectoral preference. While
89 per cent of the unemployed females prefer to work in
public sector the corresponding proportion for males is 83
per cent. Around 13 per cent of the females prefer private
secotr job as against 15 per cent of males. As can be seen
from Table 6.25, the proportion of unemployed prefering
public sector jobs is higher in general education group. Of
the 287 unemployed prefering public sector job, 62 per cent
have only general education with out any special
qualification. Among them matriculates constitute the highest
proportion (39 %) followed by graduates(34.5 %). Of the 109
unemployed persons in the professional and techinical
education category preferring Public Sector job, professional
and technical certificate holders constitute the largest
proportion(84.4%). Among the unemployed who showed first
preference for private sector job, graduates constitute the
largest proportion, the corresponding proportion of males and
females being 31 per cent and 23 per cent respectively. (See
Table 6.25).
educated in
Higher incidence of
the state can partly
unemployment among
be attributed to
the
the
insistance of the unemployed to get employment in the public
sector as is evident'from table 6.25.
182
Table 6.25 DISTRIBUTION OF UNEMPLOYED BY LEVEL OF EDUCATION AND SEX ACCORDING TO THEIR CHOICE OF SECTOR
Level of Public sector private sector educat ion
M F T M F T
General without special education
5.5. L. C
P.D.C
GRADUATE
POST GRADUATE
Profess i ona 1
Profess i ona 1 & technical degree & diploma holders
Profess i ona 1 & techn i ca 1 certificate holders
Total
&
20 49 69 1 (29.0) (71.0) (97.2) (50.0)
21 18 49 1 (53.8) (46.2) (92.9)(100.0)
22 39 61 9 (36.1) (63.9) (74.4) (42.9)
2 6 8 1 (25.0) (75.0) (50.0) (12.5)
technical education
11 7 18 6 (61.1) (38.9) (75.0)(100.0)
1 (50.0)
12 (57.1)
7 (43.8)
2 (2.8)
1 (2.4)
21 (25.6)
8 (50.0)
6 (25.0)
37 55 92 2 5 7 (40.2) (59.8) (92.9) (28.6) (71.4) (7.1)
113 174 287 20 25 45 (39.4) (60.6) (86.4) (44.4) (55.6) (13.6)
Note: Figures in bracket indicate percentage to total.
183
6.23 Attitude towards starting own business
Of the 332 unemployed a vast majority reported that
they find difficulties to start own business. Around 92 per
cent of the unemployed find it difficult to start business.
Among the unemployed who find difficulties to start own
business females constitute higher proportion (59%) than
males (41%); their concentration is maximum in the age
group 20-24 both for males and females (see Table 6.26).
Around 60 per cent of the unemployed reported lack of
capital as the major difficulty to start own business.
Table 6.26 Distribution of unemployed who find difficulties to start own business according to age and sex
Age
15-19
20-24
25-29
30 and above
Total
Male
11(47.8)
* 8.8
69(40.4 *
55.2
32(45.7)
* 25.6
13(31.7)
* 10.4
125(41.0) 100.0
Female
12(52.2)
* 6.7
102(59.6)
* 56.7
38(54.3)
* 21 . 1
28(68.3)
* 15.6
180(59.0) 100.0
Total
23.0(100.0)
* 7.5
171(100.0)
* 56.1
70(100.0)
* 23.0
41(100.0)
* 13.4
305(100.0) 100.0
Note: * denotes percentage to co~umn total and figures in bracket denote percentage to row total.
184
6.24 Attitude towards manual job
It is noted that only 46 per cent of the total
unemployed are willing to accept manual jobs. Among them
males constitute higher proportion than females (see Table
6.27). Among the unemployed willing to accept manual jobs
the largest percentage is seen in the age group 20-24 both
for males and females. It is significant to note that 68
per cent of the total unemployed males are willing to
accept manual jobs. In contrast, only 31 per cent of the
tota.l unemployed females are willing to accept jobs
involving manual labour. The higher incidence of
unemp 1 oyment among the educated females as compared to
males can be partly attributed to their aversion towards
manual labour as is evident from Table 6.27.
Table 6.27 Distribution of unemployed willing to accept manual job according to age and sex
Age Male Female Total
15-19 12 [57.1] 9 [42.9] 21 [100.0]
* * * 13.0 14.8 13.7
20-24 40 [56.3] 31[43.7] 71 [100.0]
* * * 43.5 50.8 46.4
25-29 28 (70.0] 12[30.0] 40 [100.0]
* * * 30.4 19.7 26.1
30 & 12 [57.1] 9 [42.9] 21 [100.0] ABOVE * * * 13.0 14.8 13.7 ------------------------------------------------------TOTAL 92 [60 . 1 ] 61 [39.9] 153 [100.0]
100.0 100.0 100.0
Note: * denotes percentage to column total and figures in bracket denotes percentage to row total
185
6.25. Locational preference
Only 17 per cent of the unemployed are willing to go
any where in the world and another 12 per cent any where in
India for employment. However the largest proportion of the
unemployed (40.7%) prefer to work within the home district
indicating the lower mobility of the unemployed.
Higher incidence of unemployment among the educated can
thus partly be attributed to their lack of mobility.
Significant gender difference is observed in the locational
preference of the unemployed (Table 6.28).While 35 per cent
of the unemployed males are willing to go abroad only 5 per
cent of the females are willing to do so. In contrast,
while only 20.6 per cent of the unemployed males insist on
a job within home district, around 55 per cent of the
females want a job within home district. The lower
proportion of females showing their preference to work
anywhere in the world and their higher proportion
to work within their home district indicate lower
willing
mobility
on the part of females; probably it is due to their sex or
the sociological attitude of parents towards the employment
of females. Many parents prefer to provide university
education to their daughters, without being particular
about getting any job until they get a suitable match for
them in the matrimonial market.
The age level of the unemployed is also found
to have significant influence on locational preference for
employment. Of the 57 unemployed, preferred to work
anywhere in the world, around 39 per cent each belong to
the age group 20-24 and 25-29 while only 14 per cent
belong to the age group 30 and above (See Table 6.28). Out
of 41 unemployed willing to work anywhere in India, 78 per
cent are in the age group 20-24 and nearly 15 per cent
belong to the age group 25-29 while only 5 per cent belong
to the age group 30 and above. Of the 96 unemployed
willing to work anywhere in Kerala 60 per cent belong to
the age group 20-24 and 18 per cent fall in the age group
25-29 while only 13 per cent belong to the age group 30 and
above. Of the 135 unemployed, willing to work within home
district, 56 per cent belongs to the age group 20-24 and 20
per cent belongs to the age group 25-29.
18'1
~ble 6.28 Distribution of Unemployed by age J marital status and locational preference according to Sex
Locational Martial Sex 17-19 preference status
20-24 25-29 30 & Above
Total
.... ------------- --- -- - ---- -- ----- - -- ------ - -- - -- - - - - -- --- --,,)- - --- - - -- - -- -- -- ---
Any Where in the World
M Single F
M Married F
M Total F
M AnyWhere Single F in Indi a M
Any where in kerala
Wi thi n Home district
Married F M
Total F
M Single F
M Married F
M Total F
M Single F
M Married F
M Total F
M With in Single F Home town (Loca 1 ) M
Marri ed F M
Total F
5[11.1]
5[10.4]
1[5.6]
1[5.3]
5[13.5] 4[9.5]
5[12.8] 4[7.0]
3[11.1] 9[13.0J
3[10.7] 9[8.4]
16[35.6J 6[66.7]
16[33.3] 6[66.7]
14[77.8] 15[78.9]
3[100.0] 14[73.7J 18[81.8]
24[64.9] 29[69.0]
5[33.3] 24[61.5] 34[59.6]
18[66.7] 48[69.6J
10[26.3J 18[64.3] 58[54.2]
19[42.2] 2[22.2] 1[33.3]
20[41.7] 2[22.2]
3[16.7]
5[11.1] 1[11.1] 2[66.7J
7[14.6J 1[11.1]
3[15.8] 1[5.3J 1 [100.0 J
3[15.8] 1[5.3] 3[13.6] 1[4.5]
6[16.2] 6[14.3]
5[33.3] 6[15.4]
11[19.3]
5[18.5] 10[14.5]
12[31.6J 5[17.9]
22[20.6]
2[5.4] 3[7.1]
2[100.0] 5[33.3] 4[10.3] 8[14.0]
1[3.7] 2[2.9]
1[100.0] 16[42.1]
2[7.1] 18[16.8]
1 [50.0] 1 [50.0] 1[100.0]
1 [50.0] 1 [50.0J 1 [100.0]
Note: Figures in bracket indicate percentage~
45[83.3] 9[16.7]
3[100.0]
48[84.2] 9[15.8)
18[48.6] 19[51.4] 1[25.0] 3[75.0]
19[46.3] 22[53.7]
37[46.8] 42[53.2] 2[11.8]
15[88.2] 39[100.0] 57[100.0]
27[28.1] 69[71.9]
1[2.6] 38[97.4] 28 [20.7]
107[19.3]
2[66.7] 1 [33.3]
2[66.7] 1 [33.3]
188
6.26. Locational Preference and Education
The willingness to move to distant locations
in search of job is also influenced by the educational
background of the unemployed. The proportion of the
unemployed in the general education group, willing to
accept employment outside Kerala rises from 18 per cent in
the case of SSLC holders to around 31 per cent among the
graduates; It further incereases to 38 per cent among the
postgraduates indicating a positive relationship between
mobility and level of education. The gender differential is
very sharp in the locational preference when educational
background is considered. While the proportion of
unemployed willing to accept jobs outside kerala rises from
2 per cent among the SSLC holders to around 33 per cent
among the postgraduates in the case of unemployed females,
the percentage of the unemployed males willing to accept
mployment outside kerala increases from 33 per cent in the
case of SSLC holders to 50 per cent in the case of
postgraduates (see Table 6.29).
189
h~e 6.2, Distribution of unemployed by sex according to locational preference and level of education.
~eve 1 of [ducat ion
Any where Any where Any where Within in world in India in Kerala home
Home town Total
~~~l Education without special qualification M 7 [33.3] 7 [3.33] 7 [33.3] 21 [22.6]
28.0* 29.2* 50.0* 27.6* SSLC F 1 [2 . 0 ] 5 [1 0 . 0 ] 1 8 [36. 0 ] 26 [52. 0 ] 50 [70. 4 ]
25.0* 29.4* 46.2* 36.1* 37.6* T 8 [11.3] 5 [7.0] 25 [35.2] 33 [46.5] 71 [100.0]
27.6* 17.2* 39.7* 38.4* 34.0* ······_··--M--fT31.-8y- --sTfi.3-] ---- {f1i7~-3f -- - -i-19 .-f]-- - ---f-[4~5f ---22 -[55~Or ---
28.0* 50.0* 25.0* 14.3* 100.0* 28.9* ?DC F 1 [5.6] 5 [27.8] 12 [66.7] 18 [45.0]
25.0* 12.8* 16.7* 13.5* T 8 [20.0] 6 [15.0] 11 [27.5] 14 [35.0] 1 [2.5] 40 [100.0]
27.6* 20.7* 17.5* 16.3* 50.0* 19.1* .. _. - -",rl0- [34 :sf - - 5 -[11~2r- - 9-[3f.-01- - - -5- Tll:-2f - - - - -:- - - -- -29 -[3s:-f(--
40.0* 41.7* 37.5* 35.7* 38.2* Srduuate F 2 [ 3 . 8] 8 [15. 1 ] 11 [ 20 . 8 ] 31 [ 58 . 5] 1 [1. 9] 53 [64. 6 ]
50.0* 47.1* 28.2* 43.1* 100.0* 39.8* T 12 [14.6] 13 [15.9] 20 [24.4] 36 [43.9] 1 [1.2] 82 [100.0]
41.4* 44.8* 31.7* 41.9* 50.0* 39.2* ·····_·_--1.1--·1- -f 25 ~O] -----1- f 25~ 0] - --- 2- [50~of - --- -- - - - - - -- - -- - - ... - - - - -4-125-:of --~t 4.0* 8.3* 8.3* 5.3* jraduate F 4 [33.3] 5 [41.7] 3 [25.0] 12 [75.0]
23.5* 12.8* 4.2* 9.0* T 1 [6. 3] 5 [31.3] 7 [43.8] 3 [18.8] 16 [100.0]
3.4* 17.2* 11.1* 3.5* 7.7* _ .. _. -.-. M--25132~-9r- -12-1 f5~ aY- -24 -[31 .-6 f -14[18-: if - -1- [1:3] - - 76 136-.41--iubtotalF 4 [3.0] 17 [12.8] 39 [29.3] 72 [54.1] 1 [0.8] 133 [63.6]
T 29 [13.9] 29 [13.9] 63 [30.1] 86 [41. 1 ] 2 [1.0] 209 [100.0] sriifessfoiial-i fecfinlcaT-Ofi>1oma - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- - - - - -- - - - - - - -- _.
M 3 [37.5] 3 [37.5] 2 [25.0] 8 [80.0] F 2 [100.0] 2 [20.0] T 3 [30.0] 2 [20.0] 3 [30.0] 2 [20.0] 10 [100.0]
Professfonaf+-T-echnfcaT -Oegree- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - --- - - - - -- - -- ----M 3 [37.5] 3 [37.5] 1 [12.5] 1 [12.5] 8 [57.1] F 3 [50.0] 3 [50.0] 6 [42.9] T 3 [21.4] 3 [21.4] 4 [28.6] 4 [28.6] 14 [100.0]
'Prolesslonil1-+- TecfiriTc-aT-cert1flcafe- - - - --- -~- - - - - -- ~-- --- - ----M 17 [38.6] 4 [9.1] 11 [25.0] 11 [25.0] 1 [2.3] 44 [44.4] F 5 [9.1] 3 [5.5] 15 [27.3] 32 [58.2] 55 [55.6] T 22 [22.2] 7 [7.1] 26 [26.3] 43 [43.4] 1 [1.0] 99 [100.0] M 48 [35.3] 19[14:0] 39 [28.7] 28 [20.6] 2 [1.5] 136 [41.0]
Grand F 9 [4.6] 22[11.2] 57 [29.1] 107 [54.6] 1 [0.5] 196 [59.0] Total T 57 [17.2] 41[12.3] 96 [28.9] 135 [40.7] 3 [0.9] 332 [100.0]
lote: * denotes percentages from coloumn total and figures in bracket denote percentages from row total.
190
Significant difference is not observed between the
unemployed persons with only general education and those
with additonal qualification in professional and technical
courses as far as locational prefernce for employment is
concerned. However. among the professionally and
technically qualified persons, professional and technical
certificate holders show grater mobility (see Table 6.29).
6.27. Financial Support (Dependency)
It is noted that all the unemployed are
getting financial support from parents guardians or their
relatives in one form or the other. Compared to men. women
are seen to be depending on other members in larger
proport ion for their livelihood; corresponding
proportions of males and females are 41 and 59 per cent
respect i ve 1 y . Social institutions like the joint family
system, extend financial and other assistance to the
unemployed during the job hunting period since the elder
members of the family feel that it is their responsibility
to extend support until the unemployed get some sort of
income yielding occupation. In advanced capitalist
countries there has been lack of family support to the 25
educated unemployed. However this can be considered only
as a temporary stop-gap and cannot be
25. Jitendra Dholakia, (1970).~n~ffiQloyment and Employment
191'
Table 6.3e Distribution of umemployed according to financial support received by household income (monthly)anO sex
Monthly household income Supporter Sex----------------------------------------------------------------
< 500 501-1500 1501-2500 2501-5000 5000 & above Total
M 17 [14.9] 28 [24.6] 32 [28.1] 21 [18.4] 16 [14.0] 114 [45.2]
Parents F 22 [15.9] 43 [31.2] 34 [24.6] 23 [16.7] 16 [11.6] 138 [54.8]
T 39 [15.5] 71 [28.2] 66 [26.3] 44 [17.5] 32 [12.7] 252[100.0]
---------------------------------------------------------------M 1 [50.0] [50.0]
2 [66.7]
[20.0] 3 [60.0]
Guardi an F
T
[33.3]
[20.0]
2 [40.0]
3 [60.0]
5 [100.0]
---------------------------------------------------------------M 1 [100.0] [ 1 00 . 0]
Fri ends F
T [100.0] [100.0] ---------------------------------------------------------------M [100.0] 1 [100.0]
My pro- F perty i n-come T [100.0] 1 [100.0]
-------~-------------------------------------------------------M 3 [16.7] 9 [50.0] 4 [22.2] 2 [11.1] 18 [24.7]
Others F 10 [18.2] 12 [21 .8] 12 [21.8] 8 [32.7] 3 [5.5] 55 [75.3]
T 13 [17.8] 21 [28.8] 12 [16.4] 2 [30.1] 5 [6.8] 73 [100.0]
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------M 21 [15.4] 39 [28.7] 32 [23.5] 2 [18.4] 19 [14.0] 136 [41.0]
Total F 32 [16.3] 57 [29. 1 ] 47 [24.0] 4 [20.9] 19 [9.7] 196 [59.0]
T 53 [16.0] 96 [28.9] 79 [23.8] 6 [19.9] 38 [11.4]332 [100.0] ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Note: Figures in bracket indicate percentages to total.
192
relied upon for a long time. A majority of the unemployed
is seen to be depending on parents for their
livelihood. (see Table 6.30) Among them females account for
the largest proportion (54.8%) while males constitute only
45.2 per cent. It is noted that the largest proportion of
the unemployed depending on parents for their livelihood
belongs to the income group Rs. 501 - 1500 (28.2%), the
corresponding proportion of males and females
and 31.2 per cent respectively. It is observed
being
that
24.6
only
one male belonging to the highest income group of 'Rs. 5001
and above' is seen to have his own property income for
meeting his livelihood during his job search period.
Again, only one male is seen to be getting financial
assistance from his friends during the job search period.
Of the 332 unemployed 22 per cent received financial
assi stance from the category of "others". Among them
females account for the largest proportion 75.3 per cent
while males constitute 24.7 per cent. The prolonged job
search period of the unemployed for public sector jobs may
be due to the financial and other support received by
them from other members of the households during their
job-search period.
6.28. Education and source of information about job
Often the deficits and surpluses of manpower occur
because adequate signals of manpower demand are not thrown
by the employment mprket and also because these signals do
not reach the job seekers. The degree of competition in
193
Table 6.31 Distribution of unemployed by sex according to major source of information about job and level of educati~n
Leve 1 of educati on
Selection board
Other News Friends/ paper adve- relatives rtisement
~neral Education without special qualification
SSLC
PDC
M F T
M F T
M Graduate F
T
15 [100.0] 18 [85.7] 2 [9.5] 33 [91.7] 2 [5.6]
11 [91.7] 9 [100.0] 20 [95.2]
22 [91.7] 45 [97.8] 67 [95.7]
1 [4.2] 1 [2.2] 2 [2.9]
Direct personal approach
[4.8] 1 [2.8]
[8.3]
[4.8]
[4.2]
1 [1.4]
Total
15 [41.7] 21 [58.3]
36 [100.0]
12 [57.1] 9 [42.9]
21 [100.0]
24 [34.3] 46 [65.7]
70 [100.0]
'Cost -" ... M . - -.. -_ .. - - - .' . :3 . [75.-0']' - .--. --- . - -- '1- [i 5'.-O( -- - .. - -4- [£5''-Oj--Graduate F 1 [8.3] 11 [99.7] 12 [75.0]
T 1 [6.3] 14 [87.5] 1 [6.3] 16 [100.0]
M Sub tot a 1 F
T 1 [1.1] 1 [0.7]
51 [92.7] 83 [94.3]
134 [93.7]
Professional & Technical Diploma
M F T
4 [80.0]
4 [80.0]
Professional & Technical Degree
M 1 [14.3] F T 1 [7.7]
Professi ona 1 & Technical
M F T
6 [85.7] 6 [100.0] 12 [92.3]
Certifacte
31 [81.6] 42 [93.3] 73 [88.0]
5
1 [1.8] 3 [3.4] 4 [2.8]
[20.0]
[20.0]
[13.2] 3 [6.7 ] 8 [9.6 ]
2
2
3 [5.5] 1 [1.1] 4 [2.8]
[5.3]
[2.4]
55 [38.5] 88 [61.5]
143 [100.0]
5 [100.0]
5 [100.0]
7 [53.8] 6 [46.2]
13 [100.0]
38 [45.8] 45 [54.2]
83 [100.0] --------------------------------------------------------------------------
M 1 [1 .0] 92 [87.6] 7 [6.7] 5 [4.8] 105 [43.0] Grand F 1 [0.7] 131 [94.2] 6 [4.3] 1 [0.7] 139 [57.0] Total T 2 [0.8] 223 [91 .4] 13 [5.3] 6 [2.5] 244 [100.0]
--------------------------------------------------------------------------Note: Fi gures in bracket i ndi cate percentages to total.
194
the employment market woul d depend upon the openness of the
recrui tment procedure and the effi c i ency of the job
informat i on system. Tab 1 e 6.31 revea 1 s that the 1 argest
percentage of the job-seekers (91.4%) comes to know about
the vacant job positions through news paper advertisements
whi 1 e the lowest percentage (0.8%) relies upon the
Selection Board (PSC) for job information. Friends and
relatives act as a source of information only to a very
small percentage of the j ob seekers (5.3%). On 1 y 2.5 per
cent of the j ob seekers comes to know about the vacant jobs
through di rect personal approach. It is significant to
note that none of the job-seekers rel i es on Employment
exchange as a source of i nformat i on for job. It is
observed that the maj ori ty of the unemp 1 oyed in all levels
of education applied for jobs after seeing the news paper 26
advert i sement s . Females depend on news papers as the
major source of i nformat i on much more than ma 1 es in a 1 most
all levels of education (See table 6.31). Reliance on news
paper advertisements may be high due to the fact that most
of the employment opportuni ties are in pub 1 i c sector where
job advert i sement pri or to recrui tment is a statutory
requi rement.
26 For a" similar finding, See (1) Blaug et ~ (1969). QQ ci t. '- p~ 1.£1 N. V.L Varghese. 1.1 986) • Hi gher Education and Employment in India QQ cit .• p. 24.
CHAPTERVII ==================================
ANALYSIS OF UNEMPLOYMENT EXPERIENCE: JOB· SEARCH PERIODIWAlTING PERIOD
FOR THE FIRST JOB
CHAPTER VII
ANALYSIS OF UNEMPLOYMENT EXPERIENCE :
JOB-SEARCH PERIOD/WAITING PERIOD FOR THE FIRST JOB
Socio-economic characteristics of the unemployed and
their mutual associations were examined in the previous
chapter. However the gravity of the problem of unemployment
can be better understood only by examining in detail the
duration of their job serch/unemployment. Hence an attempt
is made in this chapter to examine the unemployment
experience of the unemployed and the employed with respect
to the first job by exploring its relations with a few
selected characteristics. The discussion is arranged in
two sections. These sections respectively discuss the
unemployment experience of the unemployed and the employed
according to their age, sex, family income, occupation of
main earner in family, caste, educational status of father,
educational level and academic performance of both the
unemployed and the employed.
SECTION 1- Job search period of the unemployed
7.1. Duration of Unemployment (Job-search)
The distribution of the unemployed according to the
total time spent since the completion of the highest level
of education to the date of survey is depicted in Table
7.1. It;s observed that more than three fourth of the
196
sample population (83.1%) have beensearching for job for
more than one year. While the largest percentage (36.1%)
have remained unemployed for 60 and more than 60 months
the lowest percentage (2.7%) remained unemployed only for 6
to 12 months. Among the unemployed who have searched for
more than 12 months females dominate· males; the
corresponding proportion of females and males being 87.2
per cent and 77.2 per cent respectively. The longer job
search period for the females is partly due to their lower
mobility in the labour market and hence their limited job
search possibilities and partly due to lesser employment
opportunities available for them in the state. It is
observed that among the unemployed females 41.3 per cent
have remained jobless for 60 and more than 60 months. while
among males, only 28.7 per cent have remained unemployed
for the same period. Thus from thp point of view of
incidence of unemployment and duration of unemployment, the
prob 1 em of u nemp 1 oyment is seen to tJ,· W 1 de- spread among
the females than males.
7.2. Job-search period by Age and Sex
A positive relationship is found between average
Job-search period and age. As expected.the job search
period is found to be lower for the lower age groups and 1
higher for the higher age groups. The average j ob search
1. For a similar finding, see.Joseph Thomas, (1988), ~om~ aspects Qf !:!igher educat ion .i!l .re 1 at i on to employment ~nd incQ_I1l~, Ph.D. Thesis (unpublished),QQ. elt .• p.186.
hb
l.
7.1.
D
htrtb
uUon
of
U
lllIII
loyt
d IC
cn
.. tD
1_
11
)1 j
Db1
WdI
pt
riDd
and
clln
Uon
of
U
IIIIII
ICJ¥
llllt
by
. III
d Il
l.
----
----
_._
----
----
----
-
:Aqe
lIVer
age
J Db"
"1Hl
' ch
per I
Dd "
Iont
h"
11
:---
----
LK6
thi/\
b
~ F
T
:15
9.7
21.5
15
.4
b(42
.9)
4(30
.B)
10m
) :to
t
t
: 19
24
IB.2
21
.3
,.
Dw
ltion
of
lNIp
lCJ¥
llllt
lath
ll
b -
12
12 -
24
24 -
36
F T
,.
F
T
11 T
117.7
1 1(
3.n
7(~)
3(
23.1
) 10
(37)
1(
7.11
w
.n
W.4
) t
t t
t t
t t
t
33.3
11
.1
31.B
10
.3
lU
7.1
4.B
5.7
36
-48
48
-bV
(!b
ov.
bIi
,. F
T
,.
F
T
11 F
2(15
.41
2(7.
4)
2(15
.41
217.
4)
t t
t t
10.5
5.
0 9.
5 b.
7
:20
25.9
38
.3
n.s
lem
.n I
B(15
.S)
36(1
9)
5(b.
BI 1
10.91
b(
3.2)
13
117.
8) 2
2(19
) 35
(18.
5) 9
112.
3)
1711
4.7)
261
13.8
) 14
(19.
2) 1
5112
.9)
2911
5.3)
bI
8.2)
14
112.
11 2
0110
.b)
8111
1 29
(25)
371
19,b
) : to
t
t t
t t
t t
t t
t t
t t
t t
t t
t t
:24
72
Bl.B
7b
.b 83
.3 33
.3
bb.7
59.1
75.9
bB
.b b4
.3
81
74.3
bb
.7 lB
. 9
72.5
bb
.7 bb
.7
bb.7
20
.5
35.B
3O
.B
:25
bi.S
78
.B
7~.4
11
2.9)
:to
:2
9
:30
B7.B
m
.. 12
2.2
:&nd
:iD
OI'E
4.0
1(1.
4)
112.9
1 1(
2.b)
2(2
.71
2(5.
7)
3(7.
7)
S(b.
B)
2(5.
71
3(7.
7i
5(b.
B)
7(20
) 2(
5.1)
91
12.2
) 2(
5.71
4(10
.3)
b(8.
1I
2O(5
7.1)
2blb
b.7)
4blb
2.2)
t
t t
t t
t t
t t
2.1
Ib.7
33
.3
22.2
9.
1 10
.3
9.B
14.3
14
.3
14.3
113.
b)
1 (2.
4)
2(14
03)
t t
3.4
2.0
1403
214.
8)
t 5.7
t t
t t
t t
t t
t
33.3
10
.5
22.5
22
.2
19
20
51.3
32
.1
38.3
1(7.
1)
m.b
) 2 (
4.8)
11
IlB
.b) 2
bm
. 9)3
7 188
.11
t t
t t
t t
11.1
4.B
b.
i 26
.2
32.1
30
.&
---------
:To-
41.3
9.
6 5:
:.125
118.
4, 2
2(11
.2)
47(1
4.2)
b(4
.4)
3(1.
5) 9
12.n
22
1111
.2)
29(1
4,8,
51(
15.4
) 14
110.
3; 2
1110
.71 3
5110
.5)
2111
5.4)
191
9.n
40(1
2)
91b.
b) 2
1110
.7)
30(9
) 39
(28.
71BI
(41.
3)12
0(3b
.li
:tal
t t
t t
t t
t t
t
100
100
lOO
lOO
100
100
100
100
100
100
Note
: t
deno
tes
perc
enta
qe f
r[)jl
col
lllll
tota
l i/\
d fil
Jl"e
s in
bra
cket
den
ote
perc
entiQ
' fr
ill
rOIl
tota
l.
t 100
t
100
t t
t t
100
100
100
100
t t
t t
t
100
100
100
100
100
I~
\0
-l
198
period is the shortest (15.4 months) for the unemployed in
the lowest age group (15-19) and longest (122.2 months) for
those in the highest age group (30 and above). With the
exception of the age group 15-19, in all the age groups,
the largest percentage have been unemployed for 60 and more
than 60 months (See Table 7.1).
It is noted that in almost all the categories of
duration of Job-search,the largest proportion of the
unemployed belong to the age group 20-24 (See Table 7.1).
The average job-search period is found to be longer for
females than males in all the age groups. In the age group
20-24, the largest percentage of females (25%) is found to
have searched for job for 60 and more than 60 months. In
contrast,the largest percentage of males (24.7%) in the
same age group searched for job for less than six months.
7.3. Job-search period and family income
Job-search period is found to be inversely related 2
to family income (See table 7.2). The job-seekers from the
lowest income bracket 'less than Rs.500' are seen to be
searching for significantly longer periods of time compared
to those from the hi ghest income tJr"acket 'Rs.5001 and
above'. Their corresponding average job-search periods are
2. For si mi 1 ar fi ndi ngs, see Cent re for Deve 1 opment Studi es, Tr; vandrum, (1975), ~()verty, l,1!1emp 1 0Yrnent and Development Policy: QQ ~j--"1., p. 234.
Tlb
l, 7.
2 D
htrib
utlC
II
of I
IIIIIp
IDyl
d IC
card
ine
to I
YlrI
V'
JIIb
Mll'
c:h
prill
ll an
d Ik
rIUC
II of
U
llllp
IDyW
t lIy
III
InI
I f.
ly in
cDlfI
... tI
I1y)
.
I :Fui
l y
AV'1"
I9'
jdl'"
lNl'c
h r.r
ltiC
II o
f ...,l~tlin a
tlll)
:IncD
If
ptril
lll (
IbIt
hl)
1n
l th
ill 6
6
-12
12
-24
2
4-3
6
36
-48
48
-60
AIIoV
I 60
:
IRs)
" F
T
:---
-:L
KI
: Thi
ll 33
.8 7
2.1
56.2
:5
00
::501
:to
:15
00
1150
1 :to
32
.9 6
5.b
53.0
:2500
:2:50
1 :to
35
58
.5
4~.b
::500
0
:Allo
ve
:500
0 50
.1 3
2.3
41.2
:TDT
M. 4
1.3
59.6
52
.1
" F
T
"
F
T
" F
"
F T
"
F
T
" F
T
" F
T
3114
.3)
216.
3)
519.
4;
114.
8)
111.
9) 4
119.
0) 4
(12.
5) 8
115.
1)
219.
5) 5
115.
6) 7
113.
2) 6
128.
6) 4
112.
5)
16I1
B.9)
219
.5)
319.
4)
519.
4)
3114
.3)
1414
3.8)
171
32.1
l t
t t
t t
t t
t t
t t
• •
t t
t t
t
12.0
9.
1 10
.6
Ib.9
11
.1
17.4
13
.8
15.4
15
.4
23.B
20
.6
28.b
21.1
2:5
.0 22
.2
14.3
Ib
.7
7.9
17.3
14
.3
5112
.8)
5IB.
B) 1
0110
.4)
111.B
) 1(
1.0)
5(1
2.B
) 71
12.3
) 12
112.5
1 bI
15.4
)bll0
.5)
1211
2.5)
bI1
5.4)
213
.5)
BIB.
3)
313.
7)
1212
1.1)
ISl
lS.b
) 13
133.
3) 2
4(42
.113
7138
.5)
t t
t t
t t
t t
t t
t t
t t
t t
t
20.0
22
.7
21.3
33
.3
11.1
21
.7
24.1
23
.1
40.2
28
.11
35.3
28
.b
10.5
20
.0
33.3
:57
.1 :5
0.0
34.2
29
.b
31.1
B(25
) 4(
8.5)
12
115.
2)2(
b.3)
2(4
.3)
4(5.
1) 8
(2:5
) 71
14.9
) 15
(9.0
1 21
4.3)
2(2
.5)
3(9.
4)
4(8.
5)
7(B.
9)
2(b.
3)
bI12
.B)
B110
.1I
9128
.11
22(4
11.8)
3I1
lY.2
) t
t t
t t
t t
t t
t t
t t
t t
t t
t t
t
32.0
lB
.2
25.5
33
.3
lib. 1
44
.4
34.B
24
.1
28.B
9.
5 5.
9 14
.3
21.1
25
.0
22.2
28
.11
2b.7
23
.7
27.2
21
1.1
b(2.
4)
7(17
.1)
13(1
9.1)
2(
B)
2(3.
0)
411b
) 91
22.0
) 13
119.
7) 3
U2)
31
7.3)
11
(9.1)
41
16)
bIl4
.1I)
1011
5.2)
11
(24)
111(
39.0)
22(
33.3
)
t t
t t
t t
t t
t t
t t
t t
t t
24.0
31
.8
21.7
3
3.3
-22
.2
17.4
31
.0
2:5.0
n.
! 14
.3
17.b
19
.0
31.b
2:5
.0 15
.8
19.8
1B
.5
3115
.8)
4(21
.1)
7I1B
.4)
115.
3)
112.
b)
2110
.5) 2UO.~4UO.S;
2(10
.5)
5(2b
.3)
7118
.4)2
110.
5) 3
115.
8) 5
113.
2) 2
110.
5)
-21
5.3)
71
3b.B
) 5(
26.3
) 12
(31.1
1)
t t
t t
t •
t •
• t
t t
t t
t t
t •
12.0
18
.2
14.9
1b
.9
11.1
B.
7 b.
9 7.
9 15
.4
23.B
2O
.b M
15
.B
12.5
22
.2
-b.
7 IB
.4
b.2
10.1
2:5(
B.4)
22(
U.2
) 47
114.
2) 6
(4.4
) 31
1.5)
9(2
.7>
2311
6.9)
291
14.B
)52I
15. 7
>13(
9.6)
21
110.
7)34
110.
2)21
115.
4) 1
919.
7>40
112.
0) 9
tb. 11
) 21 1
10. 7
) 30
(9.0
) 38
(27.
9) 8
"41.
3) U
91~.8)
t •
t t
t t
t t
t t
t t
t t
t t
t t
t t
t
100.
0 10
0.0
100.
0 10
0.0
100.
0 10
0.0
100.
0 10
0.0
100.
0 10
0.0
100.
0 10
0.0
100.
0 10
0.0
100.
0 10
0.0
100.
0 10
0.0
100.
0 10
0.0
100.
0
MIlt
, :
t dt
notl
l pe
rcen
tAge
frE
II co
l_ to
tal
IIId
lip
lI in
IIl"
Ickft.
den
ot,
perC
Blt
. frE
II rl
lt to
tal.
~
',0
\0
200
56.2 months and 41.2 months respectively. Chances of
securing salaried employment rise with family income due to
better contacts and connections of higher income groups
with the employers and hence the average job-search period
is seen to be longer for the relatively lower income
groups. It is observed that in all income brackets, the
largest percentage of the unemployed have been searching
for jobs for more than 60 months. Out of the 119
unemployed searching for job for 60 and more than 60
months, maximum clustering is seen in the relatively lower
income group I Rs. 501-1500 I while their proportion is the
minimum in the highest income bracket (see Table 7.2). As
compared to males,the average job-search period is seen to
be ~igher for females in almost all the income groups
except the highest income bracket (see Table 7.2). The
shortest job-search period for females in the highest
income group may be partly due to the lower proportion of
females in this income group as compared to other income
brackets and partly due to their connection with the higher
ups .
7.4. Job-search period and Caste
Average job-search period is found to be the longest
for scheduled castes (73.5 months) and the shortest for
Muslims (41.4 months) (See Table 7.3). The social,
educational and cultural background of the Muslim community
in Kerala is partly responsible for their shortest job-
search period. The Muslims by nature are business
201
oriented and hence are more inclined to engage in self 3
employment without waiting much for white collar jobs. Our
survey data also lend support to this fact. Of the 27
Muslims in the sample, 40.7 per cent belong to 'self
employed elsewhere' households, while 37 per cent belong
to salaried white collar households. As may be seen from
Table 6.8 the educational level of Muslims is also not very
high. Of the 27 muslims only 22.2 per cent are graduates
indicating lower proportion of Muslims going for higher
education leading to lower incidence of educated
unemployment among the Muslims. Instead of waiting for
white collar jobs, a large proportion of the Muslims find
it advantageous to be absorbed in family sector employment.
It is disappointing to note that the job-search period is
the longest for the scheduled castes inspite of the higher
proportion of reservation given by the State Government
and Central Government in Public Sector jobs. The longest
job search period for the scheduled castes can be partly
attributed to their poor academic performance, lower
socio-economic background and hence their lower personal
contact with the employers, lack of influence, low
political connections etc. The survey reveals that the
proportion of third divisioners is the highest among the
scheduled castes (81%) as compared to other castes. The
corresponding pro~ortions for Other Backward Castes,
3. Centre for Development Studies, Trivandrum, (1975), E~verty~JJn~l!}J?LQy~~nt and Deve 1 opment P())i cy, QQ. c;jJ:., p.234.
iall1
1 7.
3.
liis
trib
uti
on
Df
1I
IIftII
1oyl
!d
ilCco
rdin
g to
ave
rage
JO
Il-s
Hrc
h pe
riod
ind
dur
atio
n D
f W
l.-pl
oYlll
!llt
by s
ex
ind
cast
e/c
o.l
llit
y.
i C
ashl
M
Vln
gt
jOO
-sN
t'Ch
; U
:Mi-
peri
od
Itb
lth
sl
; n
l tv
It F
; H
lndl
i :
ttilR
~
30.9
74
.8
57. i
:~IN
:Chr
istii
ll 37
.1 5
4.B
47
:t\l
slil
42
.2 4
0.8
41.4
:0 B
C
SS.b
59
57.6
less
thi
ll 0
o -
12
11 F
It
F
4(25
) 3i
l2)
7(17
.11
l(b.3
) 11
2.41
t t
t t
• Ib
.O
13.b
14
.9
Ib.7
11
.;
_.U
II!
en 1N
Ip1o
yllll
t lin
ID
IIth
I)
12 -
24
24 -
3b
30-4
8
• It
F T
It
F T
4(2:
\; 1(
4)
~iI2.2)
2i12
.5)
2(B)
4(
9.B)
2i
12.5
) 3(
12)
5i12
.2)
t t
t t
t t
t t
17.4
3.
4 9.
b 15
.4
9.5
II.B
9.
5 15
.B
12.5
11
4B -
bO
F
T
3(12
) 3(
7.3)
t
t
14.3
10
.0
ilbov
. oV
H
3ilB
.B)
13(5
2)
Ib(3
9.0)
: i
t
7.7
Ib.O
13
.3
14(1
9.7)
B(B
.9) 2
2il3
.7)
4(~.b)
-41
2.~)
12
(1b.
9) 1
9(21
.1l3
1i19
.3)
4(~.b) 13
114.
4)17
i1o.
c)13
ilB.
3110
111.
1)23
U4.3
)~(7
.0)
B(B.
9) 1
3(B.
1> 1
9(2b
.B)
32(3
5.b)
5J(3
1.71
:
t t
t t
t t
t t
t t
t t
t t
t t
t t
~.O
36.4
46
.B
bb.7
44
.4
~.2
bM
(~
9.b)
(3
0.B)
(bl.9
) (5
0.0)
(b
l.9)
52.6
57
.5
55.b
38
.1
43.3
48
.7
39.5
42
.5
2ilB
.2)
3118
.8)
~il8.~)
-2(
12.m
(7.4
) 31
27.3
) 2i12.~)
~118.~)
1(9.
1)
l!b.3
) 2(
7.4)
l(
9.I
) 2(12.~)
3111
.1>1
(9.1
) l(b
.3)
W.4
) 3(
27.3
) 5(
31.3
) B(
23.b
) t
t t
t t
t t
t t
t t
t t
t t
t
B.O
13.6
10
.b
bb.7
22
.2
13.0
b.
9 9.
b 7.
7 4.
8 5.
9 4.
8 10
.5
7.5
11.1
4.B
b.
7 7.
7 0.
2 0.
7 --
--;
3(9.
4)
7114
) 10
(12.
2)
1(3.
1)
1(2.
0)
2(2.
4) 3
(9.4
) ~(10.0)
8(U
) ~(1~.b)
5(10
.0)
10(1
2.2)
4U2.~)
4(8.
0)
8(9.
8)
3(9.
4)
Bilb
eO) 1
1 !l3
.4) 1
3(40
.b)2
0(40
.213
3(40
.2)
: t
t •
t t
t t
• t
t t
t t
t t
t t
t
12.0
31
.8
21.3
Ib
.7
33.3
22
.2
13.0
17
.2
15.4
38
.5
23.8
29
.4
19.0
21
.1
20.0
33
.3
~1
3b.7
33
.3
24.7
27
.5
1(4.
8)
1 (1b
. 7>
---------------------~~-~--.-::~------:
2(33
.3)
J(6.7
> 31
14.3
) -
1 ilb
. 7>2
113.3
) 3(
14.3
) 1 l
ib. 7
) 1 (
4.8)
• (2.5
)
lIb.7
> 1(
4.8)
1t1
&.7>
11(
73.3
) 12
(57.
1>
:
:5.C
42
Bb.1
73.5
t
t t
8.0
4.5
6.4
• 4.3
bey
t
S.8
t 7.7
t 2.9
t
(4.8
) t
t t
4.8
3.3
2.b
t t
13.b
W
.O
2511
8.4)
2211
1.2)
4711
4. 2)
6(4
.4)
3(1.
5) 9
(2.7
) 23
(16.
9) 2
9114
.8)5
2(15
.7)1
3(9.
b) 2
1 (10
.7>3
4(10
.2) 2
J( 1
5.4)
19(
9.7>
40(1
2.0)
9(U
) 21
( 10.
7>30
(9. 0
)39(
29. 7
>8l(4
1. 3)
120
(3b.
1)
:Toh
l 41
.3
59.b
52
.1
• •
t
100.
0 10
0.0
100.
0 t
t t
100.
0 10
0.0
100.
0 10
0.0
• •
t
100.
0 10
0.0
100.
0
rcrtl
: t
dl
!llot
H p
erca
nhgl
fri
ll CO
IUM
tot
ll I
I1II
figt
r'H i
n br
ickl
t de
notl
ptrc
lIlh
lJl
frill
rOI
l to
til.
t
100.
0 t
t t
• t
t t
t t
100.
0 10
0.0
100.
0 10
0.0
100.
0 10
0.0
100.
0 10
0.0
100.
0 10
0.0 N o rv
203
Muslims, Forward Hindus and Christians are 70, 59.3, 53.7
and 50.3 per cent respectively (See Table 7.3). As has
been revealed from Table 6.2 the majority of the
scheduled castes unemployed belong to the lower income
group 'less than Rs. 1500' per month (67%). It is
surprising to note that there is not much difference
between the so called forward Hindus (Nairs and Brahmins)
and Other Backward Castes so far as Job-search periods are
concerned (57.7 months for forward Hindus and 56.6 months
for Other Backward Castes). It is observed that the larger
percentage of the unemployed have been searching for jobs
for 60 and more than 60 months among all the castes (See
Table 7.3). With the exception of Muslims, the average job-
search period is found to be longer for females than for
males in all the castes. It is observed that in all the
castes excepting Muslims, the largest percentage of females
have been searching for jobs for 60 and more than 60 months
as compared to males (See Table 7.3).
7.5. Job-search period and Occupation of the main earner in the family
Job-search period is found to be the shortest (47.4
months) for those belonging to the salaried white collar
households and the longest (61.4 months) for those coming 4
from households of salaried non white collar earners. In ------------ ---- -- -----
4. For similar finding, see Centre for Development Studies, Tr-j vandrum, (1975) ,UneJ1lQl oyrTl~nt J Poverty .and Q.~ve 1 QQ'!Ient e9_Ii_~...Y, Qp. ciJ:·, p. 234.
h1l1
17.4
Dilt
ribu
tilll
of l
))tlp
loye
d iC
CII'd
in9
to m
rilj
e jo
ll1lil
'ch
per
iod
iIId
dunt
illl
of l
))tIp
lDyl
lllt
by S
IX M
d IX
CUPi
tion
of I
lin
Nrn
tr i
n F
wly
.
:tkC
UPi
tilll
of
Aver
. JoI
I-sN
rch
:uin
Hrn
er i
n pe
riod
IlDIIt
h!u
: ha
ilv
11 F
T
Itn
thin
b
11 F
IlIn
tilll
of
IIIIII
Iloyl
lllt
IlDIIt
hll
11 -
12
12 -
24
T
11 F
T
" F
:Sel
f N
Ploy
ed
41.7
15
.5
57.9
H
Ili. 7
] -
1[14
.3]
Hlb
.71
1[14
.3]
lUb.
7]
-J[
)4.3
) :in
qic
ult
ure
4.
01
2.11
lb
. 71
1l.1
1 4.
31
1.9+
15tlf
NPl
oyed
50
.3
50.5
49
.9
lel _
_ 1
----~
-----
B[IB
.b]
3[B
.I]II
[13.
B]
1[2.
3] 2
[5.4
] 3(
3.8]
b£
14.0]
912
4.3]
15[IB
.B)
32.0
1 IU
t 23
.4.
111.7
. bb
.7.
33.3
1 2b
.I.
31.0
1 28
.81
24-3
0 30
-48
48-bO
ab
ove
60
~ F
T
11
F
T
11 F
T
11 F
T
3[ 5
0]
1£10
0] 4
£57.
11
7.71
1.
21
3.3f
31:7.
0] 3
1:8.11
bO
.5]
7£1b
.3]
4[10
.8]
11£1
3.8)
m.O
] 5£
13.5
]8[1
0.0]
15[3
4.9]
11[
29.7
1211
[32.
5)
23.1
1 14
.31
17.b
l 33
.31
21.1
. 27
.S.
33.3
1 23
.BI
lb.7
. lB
.S.
13.b
l 21
.71
IINgt
lib
our'
41.3
bl
.4
54.B
4[
14.3
] 4£
1.0]
B[
9.4]
m
.b]
1£1.
8]
2£2.
4]
5[17
.9]
b[10
.511
H12
.9]
5U7.
9]7[
12.3
112£
14.1
lb£2
1.4]
5[
8.8]
IH
12.9
] H
3.b]
811
4.0]
9£10
.b]
11£2
1.4]
2b[4
5.b]
32£3
7.b]
Ib
.Ot
18.2
1 17
.01
Ib.9
1 33
.3.
22.2
1 21
.81
20.7
1 21
.21
38.S
. 33
.31
~.31
28
.bl
lb. 3
1 27
.51
11.1
1 lB
.ll·
3O.O
t 15
.41
32.1
1 lb
.7t
r .... lSih
ried
i lI
hitl
col
i u
I
lb.3
57
.0
47.4
.--~
-------
----
lSiJ
uil
d l
I0II
-38
.8
71.9
bl
.4
illhi
te c
oili
(,
:lo
bi
41.3
59
.&
52.1
10[2
1.7]
13[1
7.8)
23[1
9.3]
3[
b.5]
4O
.Ot
59. I
t 48
.91
50.0
1
2[15
.4]
2£7.
11
m.8
] B.
Ot
9.11
8.
Si
25£1
8.4]
22[1
1.2]
47£
14.2
] 11
(4.4]
10
0 lO
O 10
0 10
0
3[2.
5]
8(17
.41
7[9.
&)
15[1
2.&
] 4[
8.7)
11[1
5.1]
15[1
2.b]
5[1
0.9]
b[8
.2]
11£9
.2]
4[8.
71 B
[J1.
0112
[10.
1 11
2[2b
. 112
8[lB
. 4]4
0[33
.b)
33.3
1 34
.81
24.lt
28
.8t
30. S
I 52
.41
44.1
t 23
.Bt
31.b
l 27
.S.
44.4
1 38
.11
4O.O
t 30
.81
34.&
1 33
.31
3(23
.11
7[25
.01l
0[24
.41
117.7
1 1[
2.4]
3(
23.1
] 4[
12.3
] 7[
17.1
] 1[
7.7]
-
H2.
4]
3[23
.1]
15£5
3.b]
18[4
3.9)
13.0
1 24
.lt
19.2
' U
t 2.
91
14.3
. 21
.11
17.5
1 11
.11
3.3t
7.
]1
18.5
1 IS
.Of
3(1.
5]
9[2.
7]
23(1
b.9]
29[
14.8
]52[
15.7
1 m
.b]
2Hb.
71 3
4£10
.2]2
H15
.4]
19[9
.714
OU
2.0]
9[U
)2H
10.7
] 30
[9.0
] 39
[28.
7181
£41.
3112
0[3O
.1J
100
lOO
100
100
100
100
100
lOO
100
100
lOO
lOO
100
100
100
100
lOO
til :
I d
lnot
lS P
lrClll
tiIJl
frO
ll co
lu.!
tohl
ind
fig
lnl
in b
mkt
t de
note
per
clll
t. f
r ..
rOIl
toh
l.
N o ~
205
all the occupation groups, the largest percentage of the
unemployed have been searching for job for 60 and above 60
months (See Tab 1 e 7.4). Average Job-search peri od is
found to be higher for females in all the occupation
categories of households. It is noted that the job-search
period is the shortest for females belonging to the 'self
employed elsewhere' households while it is the longest for
those coming from agricultural households. In all the
occupation categories of households the largest percentage
of females are seen to be searching for jobs for 60 and
above 60 months. Among the unemployed searching for jobs
for 60 and more than 60 months, the largest percentage of
females belong to the households of ~)alar'ied white collar
earners (34.6%) while it ;s the lowest in agricultural
househo 1 ds (1.2%).
7.6 Job-search period and Educational status of the father
Job-search period is inversely related to
father's educat i ona 1 1 eve 1. (See Tab 1 e 7.5) .Average
the
job-
search period is seen to be the longest for the unemployed
whose fathers are ill iterates (101.4 months) whi 1 e it is
the shortest for those whose fathers are graduates and pos~
graduates (22.4 months). Among the unemployed whose
fathers are illiterate, the largest percentage (71.4%) is
found to have been searching for jobs for 60 and
more than 60 months. On the other hand, among the
unemployed whose fathers are holding university degrees the
T.l
.7.'
Dtl
trtl
lllt
i. D
f ~"ImrA .. tD
..... 1
IIrQ
,.,t
1ll ..
. _
Itilll o
f lM
Ipl.
-t ~ _
..... tt
.u ..
. Ufi
cIU
. of
fat
lllr
.
:Edu
cltiC
II Im
l Av
er. Jo
b'1H
l'l:h
D
lrilti
CII
of I
IIII
play
llllt
IIIIII
thII
:of
fath
er
perio
d la
thl;
11
11 t
hin
b b
-12
12
-24
24
-liI
30-4
8 48
-6U
abov
e bO
" F
T
" F
T
" F
" F
T
" F
T
" F
T
"
F 11
F
T
----
----
---
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
--:
: III
iter
ite
2b
114
101.
4 -
Hlb
.7]
Hl4
.3]
1[10
0]
-H
14.3
] 5(~.3l
~0I.
41
t t
I t
t
[3.4
]
[1.9
]
[7.n
[M J
[o.~ J
[4.2
J
;- :Pri
wv
51.2
bE
l bl
.3
10[1
5.4]
b[b
.11
Ib[9
.81
1[1.~]
m.l
ll
m.4
] 5[
i.7]
B[B
.I]
13[7
.91
5C7.
il b[
b.11
I1[
b.71
14
[4.5
111[
11.1
125[
15.2
] 5[
;.71
li[17
.2]2
2C13
.4]2
5[38
.5]4
8[48
.5J
i3[4
-4.5
]
• •
t t
t t
t t
t t
t t
t t
t t
t t
t •
[40
1 m
.3]
[34.C
1] [l
b. 7
] [l0
01
(4-4
.4]
[21.
71
m.b
] [
25]
[38.
5] [
28.11
] m
.4]
[bb.
71
[57.
9]
[b2.
5]
[55.
b]
[BI.O
] m
.3J
[11'1.1
J
[59.
31
[6U.
B]
: Slco
ndll'Y
29
.~
113.9
49
.3
4[23
.S]
2[B.
7] b
[ IS
]
4[23
.5]
5[21
.7]
9[22
.5]
2U1.
8]4[
17.4
] bU
5.0]
1[
5.9]
I[
2.5
]3U
7.b]
2[
B.il
5m
.5]
3m.b
llO
m.5
1 13
[32.
S]
:but
bllo
w S
SlC
t t
t •
t t
t t
t t
t t
t t
• *
t
[ lb
1 [9
.11
m.B
] m
.4]
m.2
] [1
7.31
[I
S.4]
[19
.0]
[17.
b]
[4.B
l [2
.S]
[33.
31
[9.5
] U
b.7l
[7
.71
[12.
3]
[ 10.
B]
I I
~----~ --
----
----
-_ .. -
.-
•• _
__
__
__
__
__
__
--------
__
_ -
."0
-----..
:S
.S.L
.C
38
49.7
44
.3
5[ 13
.S]7
[ 15.
9112
[ 14.
Bl
3[B
.IJ
3(3.
71 1
0[27
.011
0[22
.71
2O[2
4.7l
4[J
O.B
15[1
1.4]
9[1
1.11
bU
6.21
7US.
9] 1
3[16
.0]
H2.
7l
H2.
3]
m.S
] 8(
21.b
lI4[3
1.B
] 22
[27.
31
I •
• •
• t
t I
t t
t t
t •
t t
t t
t •
t
[ 20
1 [3
1.81
[2
5.S1
[ ~]
[33.
3]
[43.
51
[34.
Sl
[38.
5]
[30.
Bl
[23.
B]
[26.
5]
[28.
61 [
3b.B
] [3
2.5]
[11
.11
[4.B
l [b
.7l
[20.
5]
m.3
1 U
B.3
] ------
._
------------
-------------_
._-------------
:P.D
.C
37.3
26
29
.2
-1[
14.3
1 m
o.O
] 1[
33.3
1 m
8.6]
3[
30.0
] 1[
33.3
)3£4
2.91
4[
40 ]
-
1[33
.3]
H14
.3]
2[20
.0]
t t
t t
t t
t t
t t
I
[4.S
] [2
.11
[4.3
1 [6
.9]
[5.B
] [7
.71
[14.
3]
[11.
8]
[2.b
] [1
.2]
U.7
l :--
----
-_.
----_
.. ---------------
------
----
----
----
---_
. ---------------
---------
-~
:Sn
du
itl.
18
.8
25.7
22
.4
6l46
.2]6
[3S.
3)12
1 40
) 2£
1S.4
] 21
6. 7l
3(
23.1
] 3(
17.
6]
6[20
.0)
-3[
17.6
] 3(
10.0
] -
1£5.
9 1
1£3.
3]
J[~. 9
] 1£
3.31
2[15
.4]
3W.6
J 5[
16.7
1 :P
Dltg
ridui
ltl
t t
• t
I t
t t
t t
t t
t t
• t
t
[24
1 [2
7.3]
[2
5.51
[3
3.3]
[2
2.2]
m
.O]
[10.
3]
[11.
5]
[14.
3]
[8.B
] -
[S.3
1
[2.5
]
[4.B
] [3
.3]
[5.U
[3
.71
[4.2
]
: Tob
1 41
.3
52.6
52
.1 2
5[18
.4]2
2[11
.2]4
7[14
.2)
iIl4.
41
3[1.
5]
9[2.
71 2
3[16
.9]2
9[14
.8]
52U
5.il1
3[9.
b]2H
14.B
]34[
10.2
]2H
lS.4
] 19
[9.7
1 40
[12.
0] 9
[6.b
] 21
[14.
8] 3
0[9.
0]39
[29.
7181
[41.
3112
0[36
.11
Not
l :
t dl
llotll
PIr
Clll
tigl
fr ..
1:0
1II1
II to
till
w· f
igur
ll in
bra
cket
dlll
ott
perc
lllt1
91 f
r ..
row
tob
l.
1'-' o 0\
207
largest percentage has been searching for jobs for less
than six months (40 %). These findings imply that the
long period of unemployment is widely prevalent among the
job-se~kers whose fathers have lower educational level. A
sex-wise break-up exhibits an inverse relationship between
job-search period and fathers' educational level for
femal es while no such pattern of inverse relationship is
visible for males. However, average job-search period is
found. to be significantly shorter for males whose fathers
are graduates and post-graduates (see Table 7.5).
7.7 Job-search period and level of education
Table 7.6 shows the distribution of unemployed by
levels of education and duration of job-search. The job
search period of the sample population of 332 unemployed
since the completion of their highest educational
qualification to the date of survey is 52.1 months .As
expected, the average job-search period varies considerably
with the levels of education. Of the 209 unemployed in the
general education group the matriculates have spent 78.1
months on average since completing their education. The
average job-search periods corresponding to higher levels
of educat i on are seen to be cons i derab 1 y lower. The
average job-search. period for PDC holders is 41.1 months,
while the graduates have to search on an average for 38.5
months for a job; it reduces to 14.4 months for pos~
graduates These find i ngs imp I y l hd t ) uo- search periods
are inversely related to levels of education and fits in
209
5 with the job-accessibi lity paradigm. It is observed that
among the professionally and technically qualified persons
unemployed, average job-search period IS the shortest for
professional and technical degree holders (23.6 months)
while it is the longest for the professional and technical
certificate holders (68.7 months). The longer average
job-search period of the professional and technical
certificate holders (68.7 months) as compared to that of
those with only general education (54.8 months) may be due
to low proportion of graduates and post-graduates with
first division in this category. As may be observed from
table 7.6, of the 99 professional and technical certificate
holders, around 60 per cent are matriculates, as against 23
per cent of graduates and post-graduates. It is noted that
of the 98 graduates and post-graduates in the general
education group without additional qualification 24.5 per
cent have obtained first class while among the professional
and technical certificate holders, out of 23 graduates only
13 per cent have secured first class (see table 7.7). The
average job-search period is as expected, found to be
longer for the general education group (54.8 months) than
for the professional and technical education group (50.6
months) .
5. For similar trends, se~ Joseph Thomas, (1988), Some Aspects higher 'educat i on iD. re 1 at ion to emp 1 oyment and income, Ph.D thesis (unpublished) Kerala University, Trivandrum, p. 181.
Table T.6 Di.tribution of Un.-ployed by .ex according to level of education.average Job
•• arch period and duration of una.ploy.ent . •. ____________________________________________________ __________________________ ':r ________ -
Level • Average of : job-search 0-6 6-12
education period
12-24 24-36 36-48 48-80 60 & above
(Montha)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------Gen.ral without .pectal educatton
.. 64.3 5(23.8) 2(2.5) 1(4.8) 2(9.5) 11(52.4)
33.3· 33.3· 9.1· 40.0· 50.0·
S.S.L.e f 83.9 2(4.0)
66.7·
2(2.8)
50.0·
3(6.0) 3(6.0) 4(8.0) 7(14.0) 31(62.0)
T 78.1
.. 41. 7 4(18.2)
25.0·
15.0. 21.4. 33.3·
8(11.3) 5(7.0) 5(1.0)
22.9· 25.0· 21.7·
4(18.2) 1(4.5) 6(21.3)
16.7· 54.5·
50.0·
9(12.7)
47.4·
2(9.1)
40.0*
58.5·
42(59.2)
b6.0·
b(22.1)
22.1*
p.D.e f 40.2 3(16.7) 1(5.6)
26.1·
1(5.6)
5.0·
3(16.7) 2(11.1) 4(22.2) 4(22.2)
17.6· 33.3· 16.1· 28.6· T.5·
41.1 7(17.5) 1(2.b)
21.2. 25.0*
b(12.5) 4(10.0) 8(20.0) 6(15.0) 9(22.5)
14.3)
5(17.2)
33.3·
20.0* 34.8* 31.6·
3(10.3) 4(13.8) 1(3.4)
50.0* 36.4· 20.0*
12.0*
6(20. I)
2 1.3.
.. 26.8 10(34.5)
62.5*
Graduate F 44.8 10(18.9)
58.8·
38.5 20(24.4)
60.0·
13(24.5) 4(1.5) 5(9.4) J(b.l) 18(34.0)
65.0· 28.6* 41.1* 21. 4* 34.0·
18(22.0) 1(8.5) 9(11.0) 4(4.9) 24(22.3)
bl .4. 35.0 39. 1. 21. 1.
.. 7.3 2(50.0) 1(25.0) 1(25.0)
12.b* 100* 6.1*
post- F 16.8 4(33.3) 3(25.0) 4(33.3) 1(8.3)
23.5) 15.0* 8.3*
14.4 8(37.5) 1(8.3) 4(25.0) 4(2b.0) 1(8.3)
4.3* __ ~~~~~7'8~.2-*~-2~5~.-0~*~---'~'~.4~*----~2~0.0* sub- .. 40.418(21.1) 1(1.3) lb(19.1) 8(1.9) 11(14.b) b(6.8)
Total f 58.8 11(12.8) 3(2.3)
T 5 •.• 33(24.4) 4(4.9)
20(15.5) 14(10.b) 12(9.0)14(10.5)
35(18.1) 20(9.8) 23(11.0) 19(9.1)
Prof •• aionel I Technical Diploaa
.. 27.5 3(31.5)
F 8.0 1(50.0)
2(25.0) 1(12.b) 1(12.b)
1( 50.0)
(A) T 25.8 4(40.0) 3(30.0) 1(10.0) 1(10.0)
Prof •• aional I Technical Degr .. B.Tech." 14.1 2(28.8) 3(42.9) 1(14.3)
F 2.0 2(100)
T 11.4 4(44.4) 3(33.3) 1(11.1)
0e9re.~ ...
B.Ed.
P.G .•
B.Ed.
f 50.0 1(50.0)
T 50 . 0 1 ( 50 . 0 )
.. 50.0
F 49.0
T 49.3
1(14.3)
1(11.1)
l(bO.O)
I (33.3)
1(100)
1(50.0)
2(ft8.1)
1 (12.b)
32.0*
22 (is:9) 53(39.8)
Ib(3b.9)
1( 12. b)
I (10.0)
1 (bO. 0)
l(bO.O)
SubTotal
(B)
.. 18.8 2(25.0) 3(37.5) 1(12.5)
f 33.7 3(50.0)
T 2.3.6 5(35.1) 3(21.4) 1(/.1)
1 (12.5)
1 (16. I)
2(14.3)
1(16.7) 1(16.1)
2(14.3) 1(/.1)
(ccntd .. )
209
210
Prof ... tonal , Techatcal Certutcate
S.S.L.C •• M -1
lIur •• ry F 511. 0 1 (16.7) 1 (16.7) 4(66. f)
tr.in;ng T 58.0 1 (18.7) 1 (16.7) 4 (66.7)
S.S.L.C •• M 41.8 1(5.t) 1(5.t) 3(11.6) 5(2t.4) 2(11.8) 5(2t.4)
I. T.l F 34.0 1(33.3) 2( 66. I)
T 45.7 1(&.0) 1(&.0) 4(20.0) 7(35.0) 2( 10 .0) 5(25.0)
P.D.C •• M 18.7 2(33.3) 1 (16. f) 1(16.7) 1 (16. /) 1 (16. f)
I. I. I , 41.0 1(100.11) 1(1011.11)
I 210.3 2(210.0) 1(12.b) 2(210.0) 1 ( 12. b) 1 (12. b) 1 (1;;>. h)
Degree' M 88.0 7( 100)
I. 1.1 F
T 88.0 2(100)
5.S.L.C.- M 74.0 1(33.3) 2(66.7)
Type F 117.8 3(H>.0) 2(10.0) 2(10.0) 13(8b.0)
T 114.7 4(17.4) 2(8.7) 2(8.T) lb(8b.2)
P.D.C_ M 38.0 1(100)
Type F 82.0 2(86.7) 1(33.3)
T &8.0 1(2b.0) 2(50.0) 1(2&.0)
Degree' M 78.3 1(33.3) 2(66.7)
Type F 82.2 2(33.3) 1 (16. f) 3(50.0)
T 87.8 1(11.1) 2(22.2) 1(11.1) 6(66.6)
P.G. _ M 20.0 1(&0.0) 1(50.0)
Type F
T 20.0 1(50.0) 1(50.0)
SiiD- M 48.1 4(11.8) 1(2.11) 3(8.8) 5(14.7) 1(20.6) 3(8.8) 11(32.4)
ToUl F 1&.1 5(12.5) 3{7. 5) 5(12.5) 5(12.5) 22(55.0)
(C) T 83.1 4(5.4) 1(1 .4) 8(10.8) 8(10.8) 12( 16. 2) 8(10.8) 33(44.6)
Other Profe •• t_a' , Techntcal certU\cate
S.S.L.C. M 84.11 2(28.8) 1(14.3) 1 ( 14.3) 3(42.9)
• Other F 88.0 1(33.3) 2(68. f)
T 71.2 2(20.0) 1 (10.0) 2(20.0) 5(50.0)
P.D.C. • M 71.7 1 (100)
othllr Fl06.3 1(25.0) 1(25.0) 2(bO.0)
T Sl8.8 1 (20.0) 1(20.0) 3(60.0)
Del/ree. M 35.5 1(50.0) 1 (SO. 0)
other F 34.6 1(14.3) 4(51.1) 1(14.3) 1(14.3)
T 34.8 1(11.1) 1(11.1) 4(44.4) 1 (11.1) 2(22.2)
P.G .• M
Other F 14.0 1 (100)
T 14.0 1 (100)
Sub- M 511.9 1(10.0) 2(20.0) 1 (10.0) --lnO--:-O)----~--5(bO.0)
TotAl F 62.6 1 (6.1) 3(20.0) 4(26.1) 1 (6. f) 1 (6. f) 10(33.3)
(0) T 81.6 1(4.0) 1(4.0) 5(20.0) 5(20.0) 2(8.0) 1 (4.0) 10(40.0)
rof ... iona' , Technical Educatton (A_IoCtD) M 42.4 9(15.0) 5(8.3) 8(13.3) 7(11.1) 10( 16.1) 4(6.1) 17(28.3)
F 60.8 5(7.11) 11(14.3) 1(11.1) I( 11.1) 7( 11.1)28( 44.4)
T &0.5 14(11.4) 5(4.1 ) 11(13.8) 14( 11.4) ll( 13.8) 11 (8.9) 45(36.6)
-----------------_ .. _-------------------------------_.--- - - ---------------Grand III 41.3 25(18.4) 6(4.4) 23( 16.g) 13(g.6) 21 (110.4) 9(6.6) 39(:>8. f)
lotal ~ 5g.11 22 ( 11. 2) 3( 1. 5) 29(14.8) 21 (10. f) 19(Y.1) 21(10./)81(41.3)
r 52.1 41(14.2) 9( 2.7)' 52 (15. f) 34(10.2) 40 (12.0) 30 (9.0) 120( 38.1
---------------------------------------------------------------------------Note;edenotes percentage fra. colou.n total and t; gurcs 1n bracket denote percentage row total
211
It 1S noted that the larye~t percentage of the
unemployed matriculates, undergraduates and graduates from
their own total in the general education category have to
search for jobs for more than 60 months. However, their
proportion varies with levels of education. Under the
job-search period group of '60 and above 60 months'. the
percentage of matriculates is the highest (59.2%) followed
by graduates (29.3%) and undergraduates (22.5%).The
proportion of post graduates is found to be zero in the
same job-search period group. In contrast. under the
category of job-search period of less than six months, the
percentage of post-graduates is the highest (37.5%),
followed by graduates (24.4%) and undergraduates (17.5%).
The proportion of matriculates is zero under the same job
search period group. These findings indicate higher degree
of absorption in the labour market for those with higher
levels of education and vice versa.
It 1S seen that out of the 120 unemployed persons
searching for job for 60 and more than 60 months, the
largest percentage belong to the general education group
without any additional qualification (62.5%) and the lowest
percentage belong to the professional and technical
education group (37.5%) indicating lower degree of
absorption in the labour market for the general education
group as compared to the professional and technical
education group. It is observed that out of the 45
unemployed persons under the longest job-search period
2~2
group in the professional and technical education category,
the percentage of the professional and technical
certificate holders is the highest (95.6%) and the lowest
for professional and technical diploma holders (2.2%) and
the professional and technical degree holders (2.2%)
indicating lower degree of absorption for the professional
and technical certificate holders as compared to the
professional and technical degree and diploma holders. The
average job-search period is found to be relatively lower
for graduates with other professional and technical
certificate (34.8 months) as compared to the graduates in
general education group (38.5 months). The lower average
job-search period for the graduates with other professional
and technical certificate as compared to the graduates in
the general education category without any additional
qualification indicate higher employment opportunities for
graduates with additional qualifications in professional
and technical courses.
Among the professional and technical certificate
holders with typewriting, average job-search period is seen
to be the longest for matriculates (94.7 months) and the
shortest for post-graduates (20 months) indicating low
scope of employment opportunities for the matriculates with
typewriting. The -average job-search period for the post
graudates both among the general education group and
professional and technical certificate holders are seen to
be comparatively lower (see table 7.6). It is significant
213'
to note that no post graduate is seen to be unemployed for
more than 60 months, indicating comparatively higher degree
of absorption for them in the labour market. Average job-
search period is found to be longer for females in almost
all levels of education. The shorter Job-search period for
female PDC holders than that for their' male counterparts in
the general education group and for the females with degree
and diploma in engineering and for the matriculate females
with ITI certificate may be due to lower proportion of
females in the corresponding categories (Table 7.6).
On the whole the survey findings throw light on the
fact that chances of finding jobs are significantly higher
for degree holders, and still higher for graduates and post
graduates with additional qualification in professional and
technical courses, and the job-search period for females is
higher than that for males in almost all levels of
education.
7.S. Job-search period and academic performance
Generally employment market seems to discriminate
not only the graduates against the non graduates and post
graduates but also differentiates the completers of
particular level 6
of educat i on accor-d i 119 to performance
levels. It has been found that job-sear'ch period is lower
6. P.R. Panchamukhi, (1984), Op. eit .. p.43
214
in the case of persons with first divisions in comparison
with others who could secure only second and 7
third
divisions. AS shown in Table 7.7 the average job-search
period is the shortest for the first divisioners (28.6
months) while it is the longest for the third divisioners
(39.5 months) indicating inverse relationship between job-
search period and academic performance. Among the first
divisioners, the largest percentage have searched for job
for less than six months (34.8%), while among the second
and the third divisioners the largest percentage have
searched for 60 and more than 60 months, their
corresponding proportions being 23.3 per cent and 46.5 per
cent respectively. Under the category of the longest job-
search period of 60 and more thah 60 months the percentage
of the third divisioners is found to be the highest (46.5%)
followed by the second divisioners (23.3%) and the first
divisioners (15.2%) indicating lower degree of absorption
for the third divisioners in the labour market. For all
the divisioners average job-search period is seen to be
higher for females as compared to males. It is
significant to note that among the first, second and third
divisioners who have searched for job for more than 60
months, the proportion of females is higher than that of
7. For similar findings, See, N.N. Education and labour market A Evidence,QQ. cit., p.66.
Varghese, Survey of
(1986), Indian
215
males indicating lower degree of absorption for females
among all the divisioners in the labour market as compared
to males (Table 7.7).
7.9 Job-search Period and Acade.ic Performance by levels of Education
An inverse relationship is observed between job-
search period and academic performance at all levels of
education (See Table 7.7). It is observed that among the
matriculates with first, second and third divisions. the
largest percentage have remained unemployed for more than
60 months (Table 7.7). However, under the longest job-
search period group of '60 and above 60 months' the
percentage of the third divisioners is the highest (64.3%)
while it is the lowest for the first divisioners (50%).
Among the graduates average job-search period is found to
be the longest for the third divisioners (50.6 months)
while it is the shortest (30.7 months) for the first
divi§ioners. Among the graduates with first division the
largest percentage is unemployed for 12-24 months (38.9%)
while among those with third division, the largest
percentage has remained unemployed for more than 60 months
(36.1%) indicating comparatively lower degree of absorption
for the graduates with third division in the labour
market. Among the . post-graduates the job-search period is
found to be the shortest for those with first division
(8 months) and longest for those with third division (23.2
months).It is significant to note that among the post-
Tabl. 1.1 Di.trtbut;on of Un8llPloyed IICCOf"ding to ayerage .Job-._rch period
and duration of Un...,l~t by .ex,l_el of education end
~icperf~
:Educat- Average Job- Durat;on of Un...,l~t (_th.)
:ion/ 5 search period ---------------------------------------------------------:Class E
x less
than6
6-12 12-24 24-36 36-48 48-60 Above
60 1 ______ ----------------------------------------------- ____________________________ , I I
a-eral without special educaUon
S.S.L.C. 11 55.0 1 (50.0) 1(50.0):
F 50.0 1(50.0) 1(50.0) :
T 52.5 1(25.0) 1(25.0) 2(50.0):
11 41.0 2(50.0) 2(50.0):.
II F 70.0 2(28.6) 3(42.9) 2(28.0) :
T 59.5 2(18.2) 2(18.2) 3(27.3) 4(38.4):
11 71. 7 2(13.3) 2(13.3) 1 (6. 7) 2(13.3) 8(53.3):
III F 87.9 2(4.7) 3( 7.3) 1( 2.4) 3(1.3) 4( 9.8) 28(68.3):
T 83.6 2(3.6) 5( 8.9) 3( 5.4) 4(7.1) 6(10.7) 36(64.3):
P.D.C.
11 37.6 1(20.0) 1 (20.0) 2(40.0) 1(20.6):
11 F 38.0 1(33.3) 1(33.3) 1(33.3):
T 31.8 2(25.0) 1 (12.5) 3(37.5) 2(25.0):
11 42.9 3(17.6) 3(17.6) 1( 5.9) 4(23.5) 2(11.8) 4(23.5):
III F 40.7 2(13.3) 1(6.7) 1(6.7) 3(20.0) 1(6.7) 4(26.7) 3(20.0):
T 41.9 5(15.6) 1(3.7) 4(12.5) 4(12.5) 5(15.6) 6(18.8) 7(21.9) :
~gree
11 8.0 4(66.7) 1(16.7) 1(16.7)
F 47.7 1 ( 8.3) 6( 5.0) 1(8.3) 4(33.3):
T 30.7 5(27.8) 7(38.9) 2(11.1) 4(22.2):
11 30.4 4(36.4) 2(18.2) 1(9.1) 1 (9.1) 3(27.3):
Jl F 30.9 4(23.5) 4(23.5) 3(17.6) 2(11.8) 4(23.5):
T 30.7 8(28.6) 6(21.4) 4(14.3) 3(10.7) 7(25.0):
11 36.9 2(16.7) 2(16.7) 1(8.3) 3(25.0) 1(8.3) 3( 2.5):
111 F 58.1 5(20.8) 3(12.5) 3(12.5) 3(12.5)10(41.7):
T 50.6 7(19.4) 5(13.9) 1(2.8) 6(18.7) 4 (11 . 1 ) 1 3 ( 36. 1) :
:---_ .. _--------------------------------------------------------------------------: Post graduate
11 2.0 2(100)
F 11.0 2(50.0) 1(25.0) 1(25.0)
T 8.0 4(66.7) 1(16.7) 1(16.7)
11 12.5 1(50.0) 1(50.0)
1I F 14.0 1(33.3) 1(33.3) 1(33.3)
T 13.4 1(20.0) 1(20.0) 2(40.0) 1(20.0)
11
III F 23.2 1(20.0) 1 (20.0) 2(40.0) 1(20.0)
T 23.2 1(20.0) 1(20.0) 2(40.0) 1(20.0)
(cont ..... )
216
(Table 7.7 contd .... )
:Prof_.ional and Technical Dipl_
P.D.C. + DiplOtlla
III 2.0 1(100)
F 2.0 1(100)
T 2.0 2(100)
III 26.0 2(50.0) 1 (25.0) 1(25.0)
II F
T 26.0 2(50.0) 1(25.0) 1(25.0)
III 74.0 1(100)
III F
T 74.0 1( 100)
:--------------------------------------------------------------------------------: Degree + Dipla.a
III 20.0
11 F 14.0
T 18.0
s.b-total
III 2.0
F 2.0
1 2.0
III 24.0
11 F 14.0
T 22.6
III 74.0
III F
T 74.0
1(100)
1(100)
2(100)
2(33.3)
2(28.6)
1(50.0) 1(50.0)
1(100)
2 (66. l) 1 (33 . 3)
2(33.3) 1 (16. 7)
1(100)
3(42.9) 1(14.3)
1{16.7)
1{14.3)
1{ 1 00)
1{ 1 00)
:---_ .. _--------------------------------------------------------------------------: Prof ... tonal and Technical Deer-
6. Tech
M 12.5 2(33.3) 3(50.0) 1(16.7)
F 2.0 2 (100)
T 9.0 4(50.0) 3(37.5) 1(12.5)
III 24.0 1(100)
11 F , . T 24.0 1(100) ,
:---_._---------------------------------------------------------------------------: Degree + H.Ed.
III
F 2.0 1(100)
T 2.0 1 ( 100)
III
11 F 98.0 1( 100)
T 98.0 1(100)
:---_ .. _--------------------------------------------------------------------------(Contd ...... )
217
(Table 1.1 contd ..• )
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------P.G. t B.Ed.
III
F 49.0 1(50.0) 1(50.0)
T 49.0 1(50.0) 1(50.0)
III 50.0 1( 100)
IJ F
T 50.0 1(100)
:--------------------------------------------------------------------------------: Sub total
III 12.5 2(33.3) 3(50.0) 1(16.7)
I F 20.8 3(60.0) 1(20.0) 1(20.0)
T 16.3 5(45.5) 3(21.3) 2(18.2) 1( 9.1)
III 31.0 1(50.0) 1(50.0)
1I F 98.0 1( 100)
T 57.3 1 (33.3) 1(33.3) 1(33.3) :
:--------------------------------------------------------------------------------: Prof ... i_l • Teclulical Certificate (A)
S.~.L.C. t Nursery
III
F 56.0
T 56.0
1(16.1)
1(16.7)
1(16.7)
1(16.7)
4(66.7):
4(66.7):
:--------------------------------------------------------------------------------: S.S.L.C. t Type
III
U' F 46.3 2(50.0) 1(25.0)1(25.0) :
T 46.3 2(50.0) 1(25.0)1 (25.0):
III 14.0 1(33.3) 2(66.7):
III F 110.6 1 ( 6.3) 2(12.5) 1(6.3)12(75.0):
T 104.8 2(10.5) 2(10.5) 1(5.3)14(33.3):
:--------------------------------------------------------------------------------: P.D.C. t Type
III 36.0 1(100)
III f 62.0 2(66.7)1(33.3):
T 56.0 1(25.0) 2(50.0)1(25.0):
:--------------------------------------------------------------------------------: :De9ree t Type
III
F 38.0 1(100)
T 38.0 1( 1 00)
III 134.0 1( 100)
11 F 56.0 1(50.0) 1(50.0) :
T 82.0 1(33.3) 2(68.7):
III 50.5 1(50.0) 1(50.0) :
III F 74.3 1(33.3) 2(66.7):
T 64.8 1(20.0) 1(20.0) 3(60.0):
:--------------------------------------------------------------------------------(contd ....... )
218
219
(Table" 7.7 contd ........ )
P.G. • Type .. 38.0 1(100)
Il F
1 38.0 1(100) .. 2.0 1(100)
III F
T 2.0 1(100)
:--------------------------------------------------------------------------------: S.S.l.C. t l.T.l. .. 26.0 1(50.0) 1(50.0)
F
T 26.0 1(50.0) 1(50.0)
.. 22.0 1(33.3) 1(33.3)1(33.3)
Il F 38.0 1( 100)
T 26.0 1(25.0) 1(25.0)2(25.0) .. 57.8 2(16.7)3(25.0) 2(16.7)5(41.7):
111 F 32.0 1(50.0)1(50.0)
T 54.1 3(21.4)4(28.8) 2( 14. 3)5(35. 7) :
:--------------------------------------------------------------------------------: P.O.C. • l.T.1. .. 25.0 1(25.0) 1(25.0) 1(25.0) 1(25.0)
Il F 62.0 1( 100) :
T 32.4 1(20.0) 2(20.0) 1(20.0) 1(20.0)1(20.0): .. 9.0 1(50.0) 1(00.0)
III F 22.0 1(100)
T 13.3 1(33.3) 2(66.7)
Oegree • I. T. I
.. 74.0 1 (100) :
f
T 74.0 .. 98.0 1(100):
III F
T 98.0 1(100):
$lib total .. 42.0 1(33.3) 1(33.3) 1(33.3):
F 38.0 1(100)
T 41.0 1(25.0) 2(50.0) 1(25.0): .. 37.6 2(22.2) 1(11.1) 2(22.2)2(22.2) 1(11.1)1 (11.1):
Il F 49.6 2(25.0) 2(25.0) 1(12.5)3(37.5):
T 43.2 2(11.8) 1(5.9) 2(11.8) 2(11.8)4(33.5) 2(11.8)4(23.5):
.. 55.8 2( 9.1) 2( 9.1) 3(13.6)4(18.2) 2(9.1) 9(40.9):
III F 83.9 3( 9.7) 3(9.7) 2(6.5) 4(12.9)19(61.3):
T 72.5 2(3.8) 5(9.4) 6(11.3)6(11.3)6(11.3)28(52.8):
:--------------------------------------------------------------------------------(contd ... )
(Table 7.7 contd ...... )
Other Prof __ i_l Technical Certificate (B)
S.S.L.C. + Other
.. 38.0
Il F
III
T 38.0
.. 69.3
F 86.0
T 74.9
1(100}
1(100}
2 (33. 3) 1 ( 16. 7)
1(33.3}
2(22.2}1(11.1} 1(11.1}
3(50. O} :
2(66.7} :
5(55.6):
:--------------------------------------------------------------------------------: P.D.C . + Other ..
II F 90.0 1 (33.3) 1 (33.3) 1(33.3):
T 90.0 1(33.3) 1(33.3} 1(33.3): .. 74.0 1(100)
III F 155.0 1(100}
T 151.5 2(100}
:--------------------------------------------------------------------------------: Degree + Other .. 9.0 1(100)
F
T 9.0 1(100} .. 34.0
II F 2(66.7} 1(33.3)
T 34.0 2(66.7} 1(33.3} .. 62.0 1(100)
III F 35.0 1(25.5}2(50.0) 1(25.0):
40.0 1(20.0}2(40.0) 2(40.0):
:--------------------------------------------------------------------------------: P.G. + Other ..
III F 14.40
T 14.40
1(100)
1(100)
:--------------------------------------------------------------------------------: Sub total
.. 9.0
F
T 9.0 .. 38.0
II f 62.0
T 58.6 .. 69.0
III F 63.0
T 65.8
1(100}
1(100}
1(16.7}
1(14.3)
1(100)
1(16.7}2(33.3) 1(10.7)1(16.7):
1(14.3}2(28.6} 1(14.3)1(14.3)1(14.3):
2(25.0)1(12.5) 5(62.5):
2(?2.2)2(22.2) 1(11.7)
4(23.5)3(17.6) 1( 5.9)
4(44.4):
9(52.9):
(contd ... )
220
221
(Table 7.7 contd ...... )
Professional Technical Certificates (A+B)
.. 33.8 1 (6.0) 1(25.0) 1(25.0)2(40.0)
~ 38.0 1(25.0):
T 34.6 1(20.0) 1(20.0) 1 (100) 1(20.0):
M 37.6 2(20.0) 1(10.0) 2(20.0)3(30.0)1(10.0)1(10.0):
II F 54.9 1(7.1) 3(21.4) 3(21.4)2(14.3)1(7.1) 4(28.6):
T 47.7 3(12.5) 1(42.0) 3(12.5) 5(20.8)5(20.8)2(8.3) 5(20.8):
M 67.5 2(6.3) 4(13.3) 4(13.3)4(13.3)2(6.7)14(46.7):
III F 79.2 5(12.5) 4(10.0)3(7.5)5(12.5)23{57.5):
T 69.9 2(2.9) 9(12.9) 8(11.4)7(10.0)7(10) 37(52.8):
:--------------------------------------------------------------------------------: Grend Jotal
.. 17 .8 9(42.9) 4(19.0) 3(14.3) 1(4.8) 2(9.5) 2(9.5)
F 34.4 7(28.0) 7(28.0) 2(8.0) 3(12.0) 1(4.0)6(20.0) :
28.6 16(34.8) 4(8.7) 10(21.7) 3(6.5) 5(10.9) 1(2.2)7(15.2):
.. 31.4 9(22.5) 2(5.0) 8(20.0) 4(10.0)7(17.5) 2(5.0)8(20.0):
II F 44.6 7(15.2) 9(19.0)8(17.4)5(10.9)5(10.9)12(26.1):
T 38.5 16(18.6) 2(2.3) 17(19.8)2(14.0)12(14.6)7(8.1)20(23.3):
.. 53.2 7(9.3) 12(16.0)8(10.7)12(16.0)7(9.3)29(38.7):
111 F 70.2 8(6.4) 3(2.4) 13(10.4)11(8.8)11(8.8)15(12.0)64(51.2):
T 39.5 15(7.5) 3( 1.5) 25(12.5)19(9.5)23(11.5)22(11) 93(46.5):
Note: F;gures ;n bracket denote percentage to total.
222
graduates, no one is seen to be unemployed for more than 48
months, indicating comparatively higher degree of
absorption for them in the labour market.
An inverse relationship between job-search period
and academic performance is also observed among the
unemployed professional and technical diploma, degree and
certificate holders (See Table 7.7). A male female
break-up of the unemployed according to job-search period
and academic performance reveals that average job-search
period is higher for females than males at all levels of
academic performance in almost all the levels of education
(see Table 7.7).
7.10. Job-search period by faculty
Table 7.8 shows the distribution of unemployed
graduates and post-graduates by faculty of education and
durat i on 0 f j ob- search. The ave rage J 00- search per i od of
the total unemployed graduates and post-graduates from the
date of completion of their education to the date of survey
is 40.7 months. In the general education category the
average job-search period is the longest for Arts graduates
(52.8 months) while it is the shortest for Commerce
graduates (30.7 months). The average job-search period for
science graduates i~ 36.9 months. In the professional and
technical education category, job-search period is the
shortest for graduates in engineering (11.4 months) and the
longest for graduates in education (49.6 months).
223
It is observed that of the 33 unemployed graduates
in the general education category, under the job-search
period group of '60 and above 60 months' the percentage of
Arts graduates is the highest (39.4%) followed by science
graduates (33.3%); the percentage of the commerce
graduates is the lowest (27.3%). On the other hand, out of
the 27 unemployed graduates in the general education
category under the job-search period group of less than six
months, the percentage of the commerce graduates is the
highest (40.7% ) followed by Arts graduates and science
graduates (29.6% each) indicating hIgher degree of
absorption for the commerce graduates in the labour
market. Among the unemployed graduates in engineering,
the largest percentage (44.4%) have remained jobless for
less than six months, while the lowest percentage remained
without job for 12 to 24 months and 36 to 48 months (11.1%
each) indicating higher degree of absorption for
engineering graduates in the labour market. On the other
hand, Of the five unemployed graduates in education, the
largest percentage (40%) have remained jobless for 48 to 60
months and the lowest percentage have remained without job
for less than six months and 36 to 48 months (20% each)
indicating lower degree of absorption for graduates in
education in the labour market.
224
Table 7.8 Di.tribution of Un-.ployed greduate. according to average
job-... rch period, and duration of un-.pluy.ent by ... and faculty
of education.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Facul
ty SEX
Average
job sear
ch period
(Months)
0-6 6-12
Dur~tion of Una.ployaent (In .anth.)
12-24 24-36 36-48 48-60 60 &
above
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------III 36.6 4(23.5) 4(23.5) 1(5.9) 2(".6} 6(33.3)
ARTS F 62.2 4(13.8} 3(10.3) 6(20.7} 5(17.2) 4(13.8) 1(24.1)
T 52.8 8(17.4) 1(15.2} 7(15.2) 7(15.2) 4(8.7) 13(28.3)
III 29.1 4(28.6) 1(1.1 } 3( 21.4) 2( 14. 3) 1(7.1} 1(7.1} 2(14.3)
SCIENCE r 41.3 4(16.0) 7(28.0) 5(20.0) 9(36.0)
T 36.9 8(20.5) 1(2.6) 10(25.6) 7( 11. 9) 1 (2.6) 1 (2.8) 11(28.2)
---------------------------------------------------------------------._----.-----III 25.7 5(38.5) 1(1.7) 2(1:'.4) 2(15.4) 3( 23.1)
COMMERCE f 33.2 6(23.1) 9(34.6) 1 (3.8) 3( 11. 5) 1 (3.8) 6(23.1 )
30.7 11 (28.2) 1(2.6) 9(23.1) 3(7.7) 5(12.8) 1(2.6) 9(23.1)
--------------------------------.---------------.-------------------------------III 50.0
EDUCATJON
III
ENGINEl- f
RING
T
49.5 1(25.0)
49.6 1(20.0)
14.1 2(28.6) 3(42.9) 1(14.3)
2.0 2(100)
11.4 4(44.4) 3(33.3) 1(11.1)
1(100)
1(25.0) 1(25.0) 1(25.0)
1(20.0) 2(40.0) 1(20.0)
1 (14.3)
1 (".1)
III 29.115(26.6) 5(9.6) 8(H;.4) 5(15.4) 6(11.5) 2(3.6) 11(21.2)
TOTAL F 41.717(19.8) 19(22.1) 12(14.0) 9(10.5) 6(1.0} 23(26.7)
T 40.' 32(23.2) 5(3.6) 21(19.6) 11(12.3) 15(10.9) 8(:,.11) 34(24.6)
Note: Figures in bracket denot" p"rc .. nt"gt! to totdl.
225
From the foregoing analysis it is clear that for a
sizeable percentage of the unemployed graduates job-search 8
period is more than 36 months (41%) and among them the
percentage of Arts graduate is the highest (52.2%) followed
by science graduates (33.4%) and commerce graduates
(27.3%). For the lower percentage of unemployed graduates
job-search period is less than six months (23.2%) and
among them commerce graduates constitute the largest
proportion (2S.7%) followed by Arts and Science graduates
indicating comparatively higher degree of absorption for
the commerce graduates in the labour market.
7.11 Job-search period and academic performance by faculty
An analysis of job-search period of the unemployed
graduates by faculty and educational performance reveals
that average job-search period is inversely related to
academic performance in all the faculties (See Table 7.9).
It is observed that among the unemployed graduates in the
faculty of Arts, the largest percentage of the first and
second divisioners have been searching for job for less
than six months. Their corresponding proportions are 66.7
per cent and 26.7 per cent respectively. However, among
the third divisioners, the maximum clustering is
found in the job-search period group of '60 and
more than 60 months' (39.3%), wh i 1 e thei r proportion
i s the lowest under the shortest job-search
8. For a similar finding, see J.L. A?ad, Op. ciJ., p.74
period group of less than six months (7.1%).
unemployed Arts graduates under the longest
period group of '60 and more than 60 months'
226
Of the 13
job-search
the third
divisioners constitute the largest proportion (84.6%)
followed by the second divisioners (15.4%); the proportion
of the first divisioners is zero. These findings imply
that graduates with third division in the faculty of Arts
are having comparatively lower degree ·of absorption in the
labour market than those with first and second division.
Of the 19 unemployed graduates with first division
in the faculty of science, the largest percentage has
searched for jobs for 12 to 24 months (31.6%), while among
the second divisioners, in the same faculty, the maximum
clu~tering is seen in the job-search period group of 24 to
36 months (35.7%). The percentage of the third divisioners
is the highest in the longest job-search period group of
'60 and more than 60 months' (50%). It is noted that the
percentage of the third divisioners under the job-search
period group of less than 6 months, is lower (16.7%) than
that of the first divisioners (26.3%). In contrast, in the
longest job-search period group of '60 and more than 60
months', the percentage of the third divisioners is seen to
be higher (50%) than that of the first divisioners (26.3%)
and second divisioners (21.4%). Among the unemployed
commerce graduates searching for job for more than 60
months, the third divisioners constitute the largest
proportion (55.6%) followed by the second divisioners
227 Tabl. 7.. Di.tribution of Una.ployed graduat •• according to .v.rag. jOb-•• arch
period and duration of un-.pl~nt by •••• faculty of education and acad .. tc
perforaance.
-_ .. _---------------------------------------------------------------------------_# '...,erage
Faculty/Cla ••
jot •• ear- ------ -- - - ------ - --- - - - - - - --- - -- - - -- - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - -- ---ch per- 0-6 6-12 12-24 24-36 36-48 48-60 60 &
s •• iod(lIonth.) ..bove
ARTS
11 10.0 2(15.4) 1(1.7)
F
T 10.0 2(88.7) 1(33.3)
11 23.0 1(25.0) 2(50.0) 1(2b.0)
11 F 28.2 3(27.3) 1( •. I ) 3(~7.3) 2(18.2) 1(11.1) 1(9.1)
T 26.8 4(26.7) 3(20.0) 3(20.0) 2(13.3) 1 (6. 7) 2(13.3)
11 50.1 1(10.0) 2(20.0) 2(20.0) 5(50.0)
IlJ F 56.4 1(5.8) 2(11.1) 3(16.7) 3(16.7) 3(16.7) 6(33.3)
T 54.2 2(7.1) 4(14.3) 3(10.7) 5(17.9) 3(10.7) 11(39.3)
SCJEIICE
11 17.2 3(50.0) 1(16.7) 1 (16.7) 1 (16.7)
r 44.3 2(15.4) 5(38.5) 2(15.4) 4(30.8)
T 3f.6 5(28.3) 1 (5.3) 6(31.6) 2(10.5) 5(26.3)
11 36.3 1(14.3) 2(28.6) 2(28.6) I (14.3) 1 (14.3)
JI r 32.9 1(14.3) 1(14.3) 3(42.9) 2(28.6) T 35.7 2( 14.3) 3(21.4) 5(35.7) 1(7.1) 3(21.4) .. 50.0 1(100)
JJJ r 45.2 1(20.0) 1(20.0) 3(60.0)
T 46.0 1(16.7) 1(18.7) 1(16.7) 3(50.0)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------_. c:c:.ERCE .. 2.0 1(100)
19.5 1(25.0) 2(50.0) 1 (25.0)
18.0 2(40.0) 2(40.0) 1(20.0)
11 211. 5 2(33.3) 1 (16.1) 1(18.7) 2(33.3) JJ F 34.8 1(12.5) 3(37.5) I (12.5) 1 (12.1;) 2(25.0)
T 3~.5 3(21.4) 1(1.1) 3(21.4) 1 (7.1) 2(14.3) 4(28.6) 11 25.8 2(33.3) 2(33.3) 1 (16.7) 1 (16.7)
JJJ 37.0 4(28.6) 4(28.6) 1 ( 7. 1 ) 1 (7.1) 4(28.6) T 33.7 6(30.0) 4(20.0) 2(10.0) 2(10.0) 1(5.0) 5(25.0)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------EDUCATJOII
11
F 33.3 1(33.3) 1 (33.3) 1(33.3) 33.3 1(33.3) 1(33.3) 1(33.3)
11 50.0 1 (100) Jl F 98.0 1(100)
T 74.0 1 (50.0) 1 (50.0)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------- ._---
---------------_._--------------------------------------------------------------Note: Figures in brackets indicate percentage.
228
(44.4%). The proportion of the first divisioners is zero
in the same category of job search period. Maximum
clustering is also observed for the first divisioners under
the job-search period group of 'less than six months' in
the case of the unemployed graduates in Education and
Engineering; their proportion is zero under the job-search
period group '60 and more than 60 months' (see Table 7.9).
These findings imply that graduates with first division in
all the faculties have better scope of employment
opportunities as compared to the second and third
divisioners.
A sex-wise break-up reveals that average job-search
period is longer for female graduates than their male
counterparts in almost all the faculties at almost all
levels of academic performance. It is observed that among
the unemployed searching for job for more than 60 months
females constitute larger proportion than males in the
faculties of Science with first and second division,
Commerce with third division and Education with second
division (see Table 7.9).
7.12 Job-search period by caste/community and academic performance
Average job-search period is inversely related to
academic performance for the Forward Hindus, Christians and
Scheduled Castes. No such inverse relationship is visible
among Other Backward Castes and Muslinls (See table 7.10).
It is observed that among the 'Othpr" Aackward Castes' and
229
Muslims average job-search period is the shortest for the
unemployed with second division and the longest for those
with third division (See Table 7.10).The relatively longer
job-search period for first divisioners as compared to
second divisioners in these castes is partly due to the
higher proportion of females than males in this category
and partly due to their strong preference for particular
job. As shown in Table 7.10 among the first divisioners in
the Muslim caste females constitute 66.7 per cent while
males account for only 33.3 per cent. Among first
divisioners in the 'Other Backward Caste', females
constitute 77.8 per cent while males form only 22.2 per
cent.
Sex-wise break-up shows that average job-search
period is significantly longer for females than males at
all the levels of academic performance in almost all the
castes except Muslims and 'Other Backward Castes' (See
Table 7.10). An inverse relationship between job-search
period and academic performance is found both for males and
females in almost all the castes except Muslims and Other
Backward Castes (See table 7. 10).It is observed that job
search period is inversely related to academic performance
for males among the Muslims. However no such inverse
relationship is found for females in the same caste. While
an inverse relationship is found between job-search period
and academic performance for females among 'Other Backward
Castes' no such inverse relationship is visible for males
in the same caste (see Table 7.10).
230
Table 1.10 Diatribution of un-.ployed according to ayera ... job-.. arch period. and,
duration of Un-.plov-nt by caate. ac~tc perfor.ance and aex.
CASTE/ Average
CLASS Se. job-a.arch 0-6
perjod (..,ntha)
~HllmU (IIAIR .. IIRNWI.) .. 1.0 1(60.0)
F 61.7 2(33.3)
T 43.1 3(37.6)
11 21.1 3(42.g)
lJ F 71.0 1(26.0)
T 46.0 4(36.4)
11 41.4
lIJ F 82.1
T 69.6
CHtISTlAII
11 13.3 6(60.0)
F 21.8 2(22.2)
T 16.3 10(40.0)
11 36.3 3(13.0)
J1 F 52.4 1(3.8)
T 44.6 4(8.2)
.. 49.6 3(9.4)
III F 61.0 6(8.1)
T 56.8 8(9.2)
6-12 12-24
1(60.0)
1(16.1)
1(12.6) 1 (12.6)
1 (14.3)
1 (9.1)
3(42.9)
3(13.8)
3(18.8) 2(12.6)
4(44.4)
3(12.0) 6(24.0)
1(4.3) 6(26.1)
6(19.2)
1(2.0) 11(22.4)
4(12.5)
11(20.0)
16(17.2)
24-36 36-48
1(16.1)
1 (12.6)
1(14.3) 1 (14.3)
1(26.0)
1 (9.1 ) 2(18.2)
1 (14.3) 1(14.3)
2( 13.3) 1(6.7)
3(13.6) 2(9.1 )
1 (6.3) 1(6.3)
2(22.2) 1 (11. 1)
3( 12.0) 2(8.0)
1(4.3) 4(17.4)
4(16.4) 3(11.6)
6(10.2) 7(14.3)
2(6.3) 8(26.0)
r( 12.7) 6(10.9)
9(10.3) 14(16.1)
48-80
3(20.0)
3(13.6)
2(6.1)
2(1.1)
4(8.3)
3(9.4)
6(9.1 )
8(9.2)
60& aboye
2(33.3)
2(26.0)
1(14.3)
2(60.0)
3(21.3)
2(28.6)
9(60.0)
11(60.0)
1(6.3)
1 (4.0)
6(26.1)
11(42.1)
11(34.1)
12(37.5)
21(38.2)
33(31.9)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------IaJSLUI .. 14.0 1(100)
F 55.0 1(50.0) 1(50.0) T 41.3 2(66.1) 1 (33.3)
11 22.6 1(21;'0) 1(26.0) 1(20.0) 1(2b.0) 1I F 33.0 1(26.0) 1(25.0) 1(25.0) 1(2b.0)
T 27.3 2(26.0) 1 (12.6) 2(26.0) 2(26.0) 1(12.6)
11 60.0 1(16.7) 1(16.7) 1 (16.l) 3(60.0) JJJ F 43.4 2(20.0) 2(20.0) 1(10.0) 1 (10.0) 1(10.0) 3(30.0)
T 411. 2 3(18.8) 2(12.6) 2(12.5) 1 (6.5) 2( 12. 5) 6(31.5)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
231
(Table T .,0 contd ... )
----------------------------------------------------------.-- .. - --.---------O.I.C.
M 6/.0 1 (:'0.0) 1(:'0.0)
I- 27. I J("2.9) 1 (1". J) 1{ 14. J) 2(28.6)
36." 3(33.J) I( 11.1 ) 2(2:>.2) 3(33.3)
M 28.0 1(20.0) 1 (20.0) 2(40.0) 1 (20.0) I
11 F 30.0 3(27.3) 2( 18. 2) 3(21.3) 2( 18.2) 1(9.1) I
29." "(2~.0) 1(6.3) 2(12.~) :'(31.3) 2(12.~) 2(12.~~
III 60.2 2(8.0) 3(12.0) .. ( 16.0) 2(8.0) 3(12.0) 11( ..... 0)
111 f 15.8 1(3. I) 1 (J.l) 2(6.3) 2(6.3) 3(9.") 6(18.8) 1/(53.1)
T 68.9 3(~.3) 1 (1.8) 5(8.8) 6( 10.~) ~(8.8) 9(1~.8) 28("9.1)
------------------.-------------------------------._--.----------------.-----S.C.
III 2.0 1(100)
11 F 3".0 1(33.3) 1(33.3) 1(33.3)
26.0 2(:'0.0) 1(2:'.0) 1(25.0)
III 50.0 1(20.0) 1(20.0) 1(20.0) 1(20.0) 1(20.0)
111 F 99.1 1 (8.3) 1(8.3) 10(83.3)
T 8".6 1 (~.9) 2( 11 .8) 1 (~.9) 1(5.9) 1(5.9) 11 (64. 7)
----------------------------------------------.-----------------.-----------.-TOTAL
M 17.8 9(36.0) "(16.0) 3(12.0) 2(8.0) 2(8.0) 4(18.0)
F 3 ..... 7(29.2) 7 (29.2) 2(8.3) 3(12.~) ~(20.8)
T 26.8 16(32.7) "(8.2) 10(20.4) 4(8.2) :'(10.2) 9(18 ... )
.. 31. .. 10(2:'.0) 2(:'.0) 8(20.U) 4( 10.0) 6(1:'.0) 2(:'.0) 8(20.0)
11 F 44.6 7(13.2) 9(17.0) 10(18.9) 6(11.3) ~(9.4) 16(30.2)
T 38.~ 17(18.3) 2(2.2) I 7( 18. 3) 14( 1~.1) 12(12.9) 7(7. ~) 24(25.8)
.. ~3.2 6(8.:') 12(16.9) 8( 11 .3) 12(16.9) 1(9.9) 21(38.0)
111 10.2 8(6. f) 3(2.:') 13( 10.9) 9(1.6) 10(8.") 16(13.4) 60(50.4:
39.5 '''(1 ... ) 3( 1.6) 2:'(13.2) 11(8.9) 22(11.6) 2J( 12.1) 8/(45.8)
------------------------------------------------------.---------------------. Note : Figures in bracket indicate percentage.
SECTION 11 - Waiting period of the employed
7.13 Duration of unemployment
232
Among the employed, a little more than half of the
sample population (51.8%) have waited for more than 12
months to secure their first job. Out of the 245 employed
persons, the largest percentage (28.2%) have remained
unemployed for less than six months and the lowest
percentage (2.4 %) have remained jobless for 48 to 60
months. Only 7.3 per cent of the employed have remained
unemployed for 60 and above 60 months(Table 7.11). In
contrast, among the unemployed, the largest percentage
(36.1%) have remained jobless above 60 months, and the
lowest percentage (2.7%) have remained jobless for 6 to 12
months.
Among the employed who have waited for job for more
than 12 months, females dominates males; the corresponding
proportion of females and males being 53.8 and 50.9 per
cent respectively. It is observed that among the females
employed, 10 per cent have remained jobless for more than
60 months, while among males, only 6.1 per cent have
remained unemployed for more than 60 months. On the other
hand 30 per cent of females have remained unemployed for
less than six months while only 27.3 per cent of the males
h~eto remain jobless for less than six months. Thus from
the point of view of incidence of unemployment and duration
of unemployment, the problem of unemployment is seen to be
widespread among the females than males.
Tib
ll 7
.11
Dil
trib
utio
n of
Elp
loye
d iC
card
illlJ
tD
IV
W.
IfIi
tilllJ
ptr
iad
iIId
durl
tion
of ~lav-nt b
V •
II1II
....
. ,-
----
-: A
ge
Aver
age
lliit-
1n9
peru
ld
less
tha
n b
b-12
D
untiD
II of
1N
Ip1a
r-t
(IDIIt
III)
12-2
4 24
-36
36-4
8 48
-110
ibov
ebO
ilDllt
hll
;--
PI F
T
PI F
PI F
T
PI
F
T
PI F
T
PI
F
T
PI :-
----
----
----
---
:20-
24
3[27
.3]
3123
. U
2(1B
.2]
2[15
.4]
3[27
.3]
3[23
.1]
2[10
0] 2
[15.
4]
1[9.
ll m
.7l
2[IB
.21
t t
t t
t t
t t
t t
t
23.4
32
.5
24.B
b.
l 4.
3 5.
b 4.1
B
.1
5.5
20
7.1
7.1
5 40
:25-
29
9[29
.0]
4[36
.411
3[31
.01
7[22
.111
4[36
.4]1
1[26
.2]
7[22
.111
I[ 9
.ll
8[19
.0]
m.2
] 1[
9.U
2(
4.B]
4[
12.9
] m
.ll
5[11
.9]
t t
t t
t t
t t
t t
t t
t
23.2
12
.9
20.5
2.
0 16
.7
IB.B
19
.4
3O.B
22
.4
IB.9
5.
b 14
.5
5.b
10
7.1
28.11
16
.7
25
130-
39
11[1
9.6]
6[2
2.2]
17[2
0.5]
11[
19.11
] 5[
IB.5
]111
[19.
3] 1
3[23
.2]
11[2
2.211
9[22
.9] 1
0[17
.9]
2[7.
4]12
(14.
5]
11[1
0.71
1[3.
7] 7
[B.4
] 1[
I.Bl
t t
t t
t t
t t
t t
t t
t t
t t
25.0
37
.3
29.0
24
.4
25
24.11
30
.11
38.5
32
.7
35.1
33.3
34
.5
55.11
20
42
.9
42.9
11
1.7
35
20
:40-
49
19.1
19.9
19
.5
17[3
6.2l
14[3
6.8]
31[3
6.5]
12[
25.5
] 4[
l0.5
l1b[
1B.B
] bU
2.B
l1l[2
8.91
17[
20]
4[ B.
5] 3
[7.9
1 7[
B.21
3[
11.4
] 4[
10.5
J7[
B.21
2[
4.3]
t
t t
t t
• •
t t
t t
t t
t t
37.B
58
.3 44
.9
33.3
3O.B
32
.7
16.2
bl
.1
30.9
22.2
30
25
21
.4
bO.7
35
40
I~
111.1
34
.5
17.7
5[
25
] 5[
22.7
1 4
[ 20
] -
4[1B
.2]
B[ 4
0 ]
-B[
36.4
] 3[
15
] 2U
OOJ
5[22
.71
t t
t t
t t
t t
t
11.1
7.2
11.1
B.2
21.B
14
.5
111.7
20
17
.9
lTot
al 24
.8
25.5
23
45
[27.
31 2
4[ 3
0]11
9[28
.2] 3
6l21
.B]1
3[11
1.314
9[ 2
0 ]
37[2
2.41
18[2
2.5]
55[2
2.4]
1B[
10.9
]10[
12.5
]28(
11.4
] 14
[B.5
] III
7.5
J2O
[B.2
] 5[
3.01
m
.3]
11[2
.4] 1
0[11.1
1 B[
10
] 18
[ 7.
3]
Note
: f
deno
tes p
erce
cenb
lJe f
rill
CD11
IE to
tal
iIId fi
p" in
bra
cket
den
ote
perc
entiI
JI f
rill
rOIl
tDtll
. !I
.)
UJ
UJ
234
7.14. Waiting Period by Age and Sex
The average waiting period for the employed is found
to be lower for the higher age groups and higher for the 9
lower age groups indicating i~verse relationship between
age and waiting period (See Table 7.11). With the exception
of the age groups 30-39 and 50-59, in all the age groups
the largest percentage of the employed ha~ remained without
job for less than six months (see table 7.11). In this
context, it is significant to note that, among the
unemployed, the largest percentage ~ unemployed for more
than 60 months in all the age groups except the age group
15-19 indicating the lengthening of job-search period over
time. A male female break-up of the average job-search
period of the employed reveals that job-search period is
rel at i ve 1 y longer for females than males; their
corresponding figures being 25.5 months and 21.8 months
respect i ve 1 y. It is observed that average waiting period
is significantly longer for employed females than males in
almost all the age groups except in the age groups 25-29
and 40-49. The longer waiting period for females as
compared to males may be possibly due to their lower
mobi 1 i ty in the labour market and hence their
limited job-search possibilities and also due to
1 esse r employment opportunities available for them.
9. For a similar finding, see Joseph A. Thomas, (1989), ~om~ aspecs~ of higher educatio!,"! i!! relation to emp 1 oyment an!;! income, Ph. D. thes is (Unpub 1 i shed) , Kerala University, Trivandrum, p. 180
235
It is significant to note that among the employed in
the age group 30 and above, only 7.9 per cent have remained
jobless for more than 60 months, females constituting the
highest proportion (12.0%). On the contrary among the
unemployed in the same age group 88.1 per cent haVI remained
without job for more than 60 months, females forming the
highest proportion (92.9%). It is found that the average
job-search period of the employed is shorter than that of
the unemployed among all the age groups.
7.15. Waiting period and family income
Waiting period among the employed is also found to 10
be inversely related to family income (see table 7.12).
The average waiting period is the longest for those from
the lowest income bracket 'less than Rs.500/-' per month
(60.2 month) while it is the shortest for those from the
highest income bracket (17. 1 months).Chances of securing
salaried employment rise with family income and hence the
average waiting period is seen to be longer for the
relatively lower income group. It is noted that in the
comparatively lower income groups 'Rs. 501-1500'and '1501-
2500' largest percentage of the employed have waited for
jobs for 12-24 months, their corresponding proportions
being 29.2 per cent and 24.2 per cent respectively.
10. For similar trends, see, Centre for Development Studies,Trivandrum (1975), QQ. cit. p. 233.
236
Of the 87 employed in the relatively higher income group
'Rs. 2501-5000' the largest percentage have searched for
jobs for 6 to 12 months (25.3%) while in the highest income
bracket, the largest percentage have remained unemployed
for less than six months (38.5%) indicating higher degree
of absorption in the labour market for higher income
groups. The OppOSlte trend is seen in the case of the
unemployed~ In all the income brackets, the largest
percentage of the unemployed is found to be searching for
Jobs for 60 and more than 60 months.
As compared to males the waiting period is seen to
be longer for females in all the income groups. The longer
waiting period for females in higher income groups as
compared to males can be partly attributed to their
preference for particular jobs in particular localities.
Among the employed who have waited for job for 60 and more
than 60 months, females are seen in higher proportion in
the higher income groups 'Rs. 1501-2500' and 'Rs. 2500-
5000,' while their proportion is lower in the highest 11
income bracket Rs.5001 and above . The proportion of the
females waiting for job for 60 and more than 60 months is
also seen to be lower for the unemployed females in the
highest income bracket.
11. For similar finding, See.)N.V. Var·ghese, (1986), C:dl,l~_aj:j9n ilDQ el!!p.1.oyment in In_diet: A R_evL~w, oQ. p.31.
I-iLgber c_Lt· ,
laD
I!!
;.1
2
ihst
nD
utl
on
01
' "'
!J1D
yl!l
l ac
coro
lng
to
av
erag
!! I
Oal
tlng
p
eri
oD
an
a d
ura
tio
n
01'
un"'
!JiO
YM
llt
Dy
sex
and
'aali
v
Ince
.!!
,.."
,tn
i.J
T--
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
;
; F
a:l
y
IncO
lf :
(Rs.
)
Ave
nge
!lal
tm 9
pe
r!cd
trtln
ths,
r1 F
1n
l th
lll
11
r1 F
Cl -
12
12 -
24
r1 F
r1
F
Du
nti
lll
of Lbapl~t
!in
III
Ithl
) 24
-36
3c
-48
48
-cO
~O
"'2
cO
r1 F
r1
F
/1 F
r1
F
: ----
----
---
----------1
:
Ltu
30
.3
19.)
60.2
I(
?j)
11
21))
than
50
0 :--
----
----
t 2.2
t
1.4
: 50
l -24
.9
37.5
28
• .5
5 5
3 :
1500
12
2.7)
(2
0. B
) 11
3.6)
1501
-24
.4
31.4
25
00
: 25
01-
23.5
27
.5
5000
25;2
24. 7
t
11.1
t
7.2
t
B.3
52
7
5 (2
0.8)
(2
2.2)
(2
1.2)
(2
0.B)
t
t t
t
11.1
B.
3 10
.1
13.9
12
7 19
19
11
9.4)
(2
8)
(21.
B)
(30.
6)
t t
t
1 (25
) 1(
20) t
2.7
I.B
1(25
) t 5.6
3 b
1 i
3 11
2.5)
12
7.3)
(5
0)
(29.
2)
113.
b)
t
b.l b
(11.
1)
(1B.
2)
t t
t t
t t
Ib.2
5.
6 12
.7
16.7
7 1
B
4 (2
9.2)
11
1.11
(24.
2)
116.
7)
t t
t t
1(21))
1(
25)
t 3.b
20.0
32
1
3 2
112.
5)
(9.1
11
(50)
11
2.5)
19
.1)
t t
t t
t
10.7
14
.3
Ib.7
15
.0
40.0
2 6
1 (2
2.2)
(lB
.2)
14.2
) t
t t
1 (3
.0) t
7.7
12.2
IB
.9
5.b
14.5
22
.2
20.0
21
.4
7.1
5.0
3 (1
2) t
22
125.
3i
11
B
Ui.7
) (3
2)
t t
19
6 (2
1.B)
(9.])
t
t
2 (B
.O) t
8 (9.2
) t
8 1l
2.9i
2 (B
)
t
10
2 (1
1.5)
(3
.2)
(4)
t
1 (20
)
Ib.7
2 (8
.3)
t
33.3
3 13
.4)
t
1 (4
.~)
t 10.0
111(
0)
1 (20
) t
12.5
5.
b (4.2
) :
t :
Seb
:
2 3
~ I
19.11
13
3.3)
11
5.2)
: t
t t
20.0
37
.5
27.B
:
4 (b.5
) t
2 (B) t
6 (b
.9)
:
t
26.7
29
.2
27.5
52
.B
23.1
44
.9
29.7
44
.4
34.5
33
.3
20.0
28
.6
57.1
33
.3
50.0
4V
.0 10
0.0
50.0
4V
.0 25
.0
33.3
:
: Abo
ve
16.6
17
. B
:5000
17
.1
: To
tal
21.B
25
.5
23
22
15
!l
9 9
IB
12
141.
5)
(34.
9)
(38.
5)
(1].0
) 12
0.9)
IlB
.B)
(22.
b)
t t
t t
t t
t
8 20
4
6 lu
1l
B.b)
(2
0.B)
(7.5
) (1
4.0)
11
0.4)
t
t t
t t
3 (5
.7) t
148.
9)
1112
.5)
(53.
6)
(25)
(6
9.2)
(3
6.7)
(3
2.4)
(4
4.41
(31
1.4)
(22.
2)
(60)
(3
5.7l
(2
1.4)
45
(27.
3)
24
b9
3D
13
49
!l
(30.
0)
(28.
2)
(21.
B)
Ilb.
3i
(20.
0)
(22.
4i
18
55
IB
10
28
14
(22.5
> (2
2.4)
11
0.9)
11
2.5)
11
1.4)
(B
.5)
Not
e: t
de
notes
per
cent
age
frO
l co
lu.
tota
l an
d fig
ures
in
brac
kft
deno
te pe
rcen
tl9f
frO
l rll
ll to
tal.
3 b
t7.0
) 16
.3)
t t
(50)
(3
0)
b 20
5
I 6
(7.5
) (8
.2)
(3.0
) (1
.3)
12.4
)
3 2
(5.7
l (4
.71
t t
5 :
(5.2
) : .:
(30)
(2
5)
(27.
B) :
10
B
IB:
(6.1
) (1
0)
17.3
): N
W ~
238.
7.16 Waiting period and caste
The average waiting period among the employed is
also found to be the longest for scheduled castes (49.2 12
months) and the shortest for Mus 1 i ms (9 months). As
already mentioned, the social, educational and cultural
background of the Muslim community in Kerala may be partly
responsible for their lowest waiting period. Among the
employed, the average waiting period is found to be higher
for Christians than that for forward Hindus; their
corresponding figures being 22.3 months and 18.4 months
respect i ve 1 y . The longer waiting period for the employed
Christians as compared to that for Forward Hindus may be
due to the higher proportion of females in this caste.
Among the employed, the waiting period for Other Backward
Castes is seen to be considerably higher than that for
Forward Hindus, their corresponding figures being 30.6
months and 18.4 months respectively.
The average waiting period of the employed is
shorter than that of the unemployed among all the castes.
A male-female break up of the waiting period of the
employed shows that, the average job-search period is
higher for females than that for males in all the castes
(See Table 7.13).
12. Average job-search period is found to be the lowest for Muslims who had previous job experience. See, Centre for Development Studies, Tri vandrum ,(1975), 9~· ~_Lt.., p.234.
Tllll,
7.13
Dll
tril
luti
lll
Df
... l~
1It
CIr
fi .. t
D _
•
.uU
",
,.,.1
l1li
II1II
"'a
UII
II D
f ....,1~ II
y _
...
c..
t.lllc
-.n
lty.
: C
Ht,1
Avt
rilg
& l
liitn
ig
: Co
Mu-
perio
dlD
lths)
LK
I th
ill b
b
-12
D
lrlt
llll
of lNIpl~t
Un
1bItM
) 12
-24
24
-3b
3b
-48
4
8-b
iJ
libov
e biJ
:
nlty
----------------------_
._--------------------------_
.---------
11 F
T
11 F
T
11 F
T
11
F
T
11 F
T
11
F T
11
F
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
---
Hind
u li.
b
19.5
18.
4 11
5
lb
b 4
lu
Niir
~ i3
3.3)
\2
3.8)
12
C1.bl
11
8.2)
(19.
0)
(18.
5)
[fah
lln
t
t t
t t
9 5
14
2 m
.3)
(23.
8)
(25.
9)
(b.ll
t
t t
t
4 b
(19.0
1 (1
1.1>
t
t
4 m
.1I
t
24.4
20
.8
23.2
1b
.7
30.8
20
.4
24.3
27
.8
25.5
11
.1
40.0
21
.4
2B.b
Chr
is-
21.9
22.4
22.3
2b
!tt
iill
(26.
3)
t
17
m.O
) 43
21
8
29
(2C1.7
) (2
1.2)
11
7.4)
(2
0)
t t
21
11
32
12
3 12
1.2)
123.
9)
122.
1)
112.
1)
Ib.5
) t
t t
t t
15
10
110.
3)
110.
1)
t t
3 i
il4.3
) 03
.0)
t t
so. v
~.U
3 13
ib
.5i
19.0
) t
t
57.8
70
.8
b2.l
58.3
bl
.5
59.2
51
1.8
bl.1
5
8.2
bb
.7
30.0
53
.b
71.4
50
.0
115.0
!\is
h.
B.7
9.5
9 11
33.3
) 11
50)
2(40
) 11
33.5
) 11
20)
1133
.3)
1150
) 2(
40)
• t
t t
• t
• •
2.2
4.2
2.9
2.8
2.0
2.7
5.11
3.11
o 8 C
22
. B 57
.1 3
0.11
7 1
8 B
I
9 5
5 3
2 5
125.
9)
112.
5)
(22.
9)
129.
6)
112.
5)
125.
7)
118.
5)
114.
3)
111.1
> (2
5)
114.
3)
• •
t t
• t
• t
t t
t
15.11
4.
2 11
.11
22.2
7.
7 IB
.4
13.5
9.
1 Ib
.7
20.0
17
.9
se
49
49.3
49.
2 1
1 2
I 1
2 13
3.3)
133.
3)
(33.
3)
133.
3)
(33.
3)
133.
3)
• •
• t
• t
12.7
) (5
.11)
(3.11
) 15
.b)
(10)
(7
.1)
3 (3
.0)
12.2)
t
t
110.0
10
0
2 (7
.4) t
40.0
: TO
TI\.
21.8
25
.5
23
45
24
b9
3b
13
49
37
18
55
18
10
28
14
b 20
5
1 I
(27.
3)
(30.
0)
(28.
2)
121.B
) 11
11.3)
(2
0.0)
(2
2.5)
12
2.5)
12
2.4)
11
0.9)
11
2.5)
(1
1.4)
(B
.5)
17.5
) liB
. 2)
(3.0
) 11
.3)
lilt.
I
• dI
notll
p.m
nhg.
fri
ll col
UlWl
tot
al ~
figur
es
in b
nck.
t dt
not.
ptrC
tilta
gt f
rill
row t
ohl.
T
1'1
-----
------
1 (3
.0)
10.0
11.11
5.0
4 (2.8
) t
b (b.l)
t
3 9
(b.5
) (b
.2)
t t
lib. 7
11
0.0
37.5
50
.0
2 2
4 b
15.7
) 17
.4)
(50)
(1
7.1>
t t
t t
33.3
20
.0
50.0
33
.3
1 2
(33.
3)
(33.
3)
(33.
3)
I t
t t
10.0
12.5
11
.1
b 10
12
.4)
(b. 1
) B
18
(1
0)
(7.3
):
f\.)
w
1.0
240
7.17 Waiting period and Occupation of the Main earner
Average waiting period is found to be the shortest
(22 months) for the employed belonging to the salaried
white collar households and the longest (77 months) for
those coming from
occupation groups
households of wage
of 'self employed
labour. In
elsewhere'
'salaried white collar' the largest
employed have waited for job only
percentage of
for less than
the
and
the
six
months. The largest percentage of the employed coming from
salaried non white collar families,a~e found to have waited
for job for 12 to 24 months (57.1%). However, the
of the employed coming from wage percentage
households have to wait for 48 to 60 months and
largest
labour
above
months, their corresponding proportion being the same
per cent each).
60
(50
These findings imply that persons belonging to
salaried white collar households have better prospects of
employment compared to those coming from other occupational
categories of household and significantly higher than those
belonging to wage labour households. Sex-wise, averge
waiting period is found to be higher for females in
almost all the occupation categories of households except
in the households of the 'self employed elsewhere', where
waiting period is surprisingly found to be lower for
females than that for males, their corresponding figures
being 15 months and 26.5 months respectively. It is
IDle
7.
14 O
iatr
ibu
tto
n
of
..,l
oy
M
Kco
rdt"
, tD
IV
WA
ge t
llit
i",
p.r
iod
and
du
rlU
on
of
IIII
Rp
loy
.nt
by _
an
d D
CC
\If&
UIII
o
f .u
n N
rn.r
in
fM
ily
•
i O
ccup
atio
n Av
er 19
' lII
itn i I
J D
lrlt
illl
of
lMip
lDyl
lllt
1 in
IbI
thl)
i
of l
ain
peri
odlll
lllth
l)
LK
I th
in b
b
-12
12
-24
24
-lb
lb
-48
4
8-6
0
Abm
biJ
;
farn
er
in
: fU
lly
11 F
T
11 F
T
11 F
T
11 F
T
11 F
T
" F
T
11 F
T
11 F
: Se
lf et
plo-
25.0
38
.0
29.3
1(
50)
-1 (
33.3
) 1(
50)
1(33
.3
1(10
0) 1
(33.
3)
: ye
d in
Agr
i-t
t t
t t
t
cui t
ure.
(2
.7)
11.8
) (5
.b)
(3.6
) I1
b.7)
(5
.0)
:Sel
f et
plo-
:ytd
els
e-2b
.5
15.0
2b
.0
7130
.4)
7(29
.2)
4117
.4)
4Ub.
7)
5(21
.7)
1(10
0)
b(25
) 11
4.3)
1(
4.2)
2(
8.7>
2(
8.3)
1 (
4.3)
11
4.2)
31
13.0
) 31
12.0
)
: llh
erl!
t t
t t
t t
t t
t t
t t
• t
t
15.b
10
.1 11
.1
8.2
13.5
5.
6 10
.9
5.6
3.b
14.3
10
.0
20.0
Ib
.7
30.0
Ib
.7
:~
n.o
-77
.0
1(50
) 1(
50)
1(50
) 1(
50)
:tibo
ur
t t
t t
20.0
16
.7
10.0
5.
b
: Sila
ried
20
.3
25.1
22
.0
38
24
b2
30
13
43
29
15
44
16
10
2b
12
5 17
3
1 4
6 7
13
:Itl
ih
(28.
4)
(32)
(2
9.7)
(2
2.4)
11
7.3)
(2
0.6)
(2
1.6)
(2
0)
(21.
1)
(11.
9)
(13.
3)
112.
4)
(9.0
) (6
.7)
(8.1
) (2
.2)
11.3
) (1
.9)
(4.5
) (9
.3)
(b.2
)
;Ccl
lar
t t
t I
t t
t t
t t
t t
• t
t t
t t
. : 84
.4 10
0 89
.9
83.3
10
0 87
.8
78.4
83
.3
80.0
88
.0
100
92.9
85
.7
83.3
85
.0
60.0
10
0 66
.7
60.0
87
.5
72.2
: Sil
arie
d 16
.0
33.7
23
.6
2(50
) 21
28.6
) 2(
50)
2(66
.7>
4(57
.1)
1 (33
.3)
1 (19
.3)
:nU
l lIf
lite
I I
• I
t t
t
: col
l if'
5.
6 4.
1 b.
4 11
.1
7.3
12.5
5.
6
:Toh
l 21
.8
25.5
23
.0
45
24
69
3b
13
49
"SI
18
SS
19
10
29
14
6 20
5
6 10
8
18
(27.
3)
(30)
(2
9.2)
(2
1.9)
11
b.3)
120
.0)
(22.
4)
(2M
) 12
2.4)
11
0.9)
11
2.5)
11
1.4)
IB.S
) (7
.5)
(B.2)
(3
.0)
11.3
) 12
.4)
(6.1>
(1
0)
(7.3
) l
~f :
• d
enot
K pe
rcfI
ltI9f
fri
ll co
llllll
tot
u iII
d fig
urH
in
brac
ket
deno
te p
trC
lllt.
frill
rlll
l tu
tu.
N • ....
242
observed that the largest percentage of females in the
salaried white collar households have waited for jobs for
less than six months (32%). while in the salaried non white
collar households the largest percentage of females have
waited for 12 to 24 months (66.7 %) (see Table 7.14).
The average waiting period of the employed is shorter than
that of the unemployed both for males and females in all
the occupation categories of households.
7.18 Waiting period and educational status of father
Waiting period among the employed is also found to
be inversely related to father's educational level (see
Table 7.15)· The average waiting period is seen to be the
longest for the employed whose fathers are illiterate (46.5
months) while it is the shortest for those whose fathers
are graduates and post graduates (15 months). It is noted
that among the employed whose fathers are illiterate. 25
per cent have to wait for more than 60 months. On the
contrary. among the employed. whose fathers are
Matriculates and under graduates only lower proportion has
remained without job for more than 60 months; their
corresponding proportions are five per cent and 11.1 per
cent respectively. No one among the employed whose fathers
are grduates and post graduates. is found to have
for more than 60 months. These findings imply that a
period of unemployment is widely prevalent
waited
long
the among
hil
l.
7.1
5 D
iatr
UIU
Uan
o
f ..
.. lo
,Rd
K~
anIt
.. t
o .v
w ...
IM.I.
UII
I)
,.,-1
011
Md
.... U
an o
f ....,l~t
by .
.. M
d R
dw:.
Uan
&l
....
if1
caU
an o
f f.
t ...
..
----
----
: Ed
uCitl
onil
Ave
rag!
Wiit
nig
: QUilificit~
perlc
GllO
nths
l io
n uf
tit
her
11 F
T
:---
----
----
----
----
----
. :
illi
tera
te %
.5
-%
.5
LK
S th
an b
11 F
11 --
----
----
_._-
-_.
Prili
/"y
'll.7
29
.b
16.1
Ib
B
24
12
12
8.11
(28.
b)
128.
2)
(21.
11
I I
I t
35.b
33
.3
34.8
33
.3
: Sec
ondM
Y 24
.6
29.1
25
.0
6 5
11
6 : b
el 0I
f (1
6.1)
(4
1.7)
(3
1.4)
(2
6.1)
:SS
LC
t t
t t
13.3
20
.8
15.9
16
.7
:SSl
C 18
.8
28.3
21
.B
15
5 20
Dur
ltio
n of
lN
Iplo
ylll
lt t
in I
DII
thl)
b
-12
12
-24
2~ -
30
F
T
11 F
T
11
T
1(25
) 11
25;
21~i
21~i
t t
t
2.7
1.6
11.1
i .
1
3 15
11
b
17
8 ~
12
110.7
1 11
7. b)
11
9.3)
12
1.4)
(2
0)
114.
0)
l14.
li 11
4.11
I t
I I
t t
t t
23.1
3O
.b 29
.7
33.3
30
.9
~.4
40.0
42
.9
3 (25)
t
9 4
1 (2
5.71
11
7.4)
(8
.3)
t t
t
5 2
lit 3
) IB
.71
IB.3)
f
t t
3 (B
.b)
f
23.1
18
.4
10.8
5.
b 9.
1 11
.1
10.0
10
.7
30
-48
4&
-oiJ
11 F
T
11
3 3
b 3
(5.3
) 11
0.7)
(7
.11
(5.3
) t
t t
t
21.4
50
.0
30.0
60
.0
2 18
.71
t
14.3
2 (5
.7)
(4.3
) I
t
10.0
20
.0
F
23
3 3
b 6
3 9
1 1
m.3
) (2
0)
(25)
15
127.
3)
16
13
10
(20)
123.
6)
(40)
(28.
B)
15.5
) IJ2
) 17
.5)
110.
9)
112)
(1
1.3)
11
.8)
(4)
t t
t f
t t
t t
t t
I t
3 (3
.5) f
----
----
----
----
--j
AIIO
V!
b(,I
11 1125
i t
lu.v
4 (7
.0)
t
T
----
-_._
---:
l.b
4 8
lit
3)
(9.4
) :
t t
I 50
.0
40.0
50
.0
44.4
:
1 2
2 4
(2.9
) IB
.7I
116.
7)
(11.
4):
t t
t t
Ib.7
20
.0
25.0
'l
l.2:
2 2
2 4
(2.5
) (3
.6)
(B)
(5)
t t
t t
33.3
2O
.B
29.0
41
.7
1 (4)
t 7.7
t t
32.7
35
.1
55.b
41
.B
t
lb. i
3I
j.V
t
21.4
42
.9
50.0
45
.0
20.0
10
0 33
.3
20.0
25
.0
22.2
:
:POC
:oc
:~
:P6
:Tot
Al
24.7
7.
5 20
.9
2 1
3 2
2 2
128.
6)
(SO)
13
3.3)
IS
O)
(11.
1)
128.
6)
122.
2)
128.
6)
2 ('l
l.2)
t I
t t
4.4
4.2
4.3
t 7.7
I 2.0
17.9
10
.6
15.0
6
5 11
3
5 B
13
1.6)
13
8.5)
13
4.4)
11
5.8)
13
8.5)
(2
5)
t t
t I
I I
t 5.4
t t
3.b
11.1
7.
1
6 1
7 1
2 3
131.
6)
(7.7
1 12
1.9)
IS
.3)
I1S.
4)
19.4
) t
t t
t t
t
13.3
20.8
15.9
9.
3 38
.5 16
.3
16.2
5.
6 12
.7
5.6
20.0
10
.7
3 (I5
.B)
t
21.4
3 (9.4
) t
15.0
114.
3)
t 10.0
111.
1) :
t 5.6
21.B
25
.5
23.0
45
24
69
36
13
49
rI
IB
55
IB
10
2B
14
6
20
5 1
6 10
B
18
12
7.3)
(3
0)
128.
2)
(21.
B)
116.
3)
(20)
I'l
l. 4)
12
2.5)
12
2.4)
(1
0.9
) 11
2.5)
(11.
4)
18.5
) 17
.5)
(8.2
) (3
.0)
11.3
) (2
.4)
".1) 1
10.0
) (7
.3)
I
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
---1
.--~
~I I
t
DIn
otIl
plm
ntl9
l fr
ill c
oll11
11 t
otal
IIId
Hgu
rll i
n bn
cktt
dIno
tll ,.,.~ f
rill
r ..
t«al
.
I\)
~
w
24~
persons whose fathers have lower educational level. The
same observation has also been made in the case of the
unemployed persons.
Waiting period among the employed is found to be
longer for females in almost all the categories of
educational level of father except in the category of
fathers having undergraduate, graduate and post graduate
levels of education.It is obsrved that among the employed
who have waited for the first job for more than 60
months,females account for the largest proportion in all
the categories of educational level of father(see Table
7.15)
7.19. Waiting period and levels of education
Composition of the employed with respect to educational
qualification at the time of getting the first job and the
average waiting period (in months) to the job after
completion of the qualification are given in table 7.16.
The waiting period of the employed is also found to be
inversely related to the levels of education and fits in
with the job accessibility paradigm (see table 7.16). The
average waiting period of the sample population of 245
employed persons is found to be 23 months, which is
significantly lower than that of the unemployed (52.1
months). Out of the 245 employed, 129 persons (52.7%) have
only general education without any special qualification.
Among them the Matriculates have searched for 40.2 months
on an average for their first job. The average waiting
245
periods corresponding to higher levels of education are
seen to be considerably lower. The average waiting period
for undergraduates is 32.2 months, while that of graduates,
22.9 months and post graduates, 11.1 months. These findings
imply that waiting period is inversely related to levels of 13
education in the general education category
It is observed that the waiting period is relatively
shorter for the employed in the professional and
technical education category (20.6 months) as compared to 14
those in the general education group (25.2 months).
It is observed that among the professionally and
technically qualified persons the average waiting period is
the shortest for professional and technical degree holders
(1~.9 months) while it is the longest for the certificate
holders (23 months). The waiting period is 22 months for
the professional and technical diploma holders. Among the
employed with professional and technical degree) the
average waiting period is the shortest for lawyers
(11.5 months) while it is the longest for those with
13. For a similar findings, see) Joseph Thomas,(1989), Som~
?~_~_ct~ Q"t hj_9Jl~f ~-'tLJ<::aJ:i QQin re l_at L~o 19 ~!!!Q..LQ~m~nt and income, Ph.D. thesis (unpublished) QQ. cit., p. 181. see also, Chandan Mukherjee and T.M.Thomas lsaac, (1991) ,Qg.cihp.138
14. For a si mi 1 a r fi nd i ng, see J Joseph Thomas, (1989), QQ-----9_it_'p.181
246
degree in education (30.4 months). The average waiting
period is found to be longer for engineers (16.7 months) as
compared to doctors(12.6 months). It is significant to
note that among doctors and lawyers, no one is found to
have waited for job for~6months indicating comparatively a
high degree of absorption for them in the labour market.
Among the professional and technical certificate holders,
the waiting period is found to be the longest for the
matriculates and graduates with typewriting (42 months),
their waiting period being the same, while it is the
shortest for the graduates with ITI certificates (3
months) . Among the professional and technical certificate
holders the average waiting period is found to be the
shortest for the graduate with ITI certificate (3 months)
as compared to the graduates with typewriting (42 months),
indicating comparatively a high degree of absorption for
the ITI certificate holders in the labour market when
compared to those with typewriting. It is interesting to
not~ that graduates with out any additional qualification
in prfessional and technical courses do not have much
prospects than those with ITI certificates in addtion to 15
the SSLC education (See Table 7.16).
It is significant to note that out of the 129
employed in the general education category 15 persons
15. For a similar finding, see, Chandan Mukherjee and T.M. Thomas Isaac, (1991),QP,cii., p.137.
247
(11.7%) have not waited at all to get their job, while of
the 116 employed in the professional and technical
education category, 22 persons (18.8%) have not waited at
all to get their job indicating better employment prospects
for the professionally and technically qualified persons in
the labour market as compared to those in the general
education category.Among the employed in the general
education group, for whom waiting period is zero,graduates
and post-graduates constitute the largest proportion (40%
each) followed by matriculates (20%). Among the 22
professionally and technically qualified persons who have
not waited at all to get their job, professional and
technical degree holders account for the largest proportion
(68.2%) followed by professional and technical certificate
holde~rs (31.8%).
A male-female break-up of the waiting period of
employed by level of education reveals that the average
waiting period is relatively longer for females than males
at alomost all levels of education both in the general
education group and professional and technical education
category. However, among the post-graduates the average
waiting period i s found to be higher for' females than 16
males (Table 7.16) . As shown in the table the average
waiting period i s relatively longer for female graduates
16. For a similar trend, see, Chandan Mukherjee T . M . T h 0 m a s I s a a c, ( 1 9 9 1 ) , Qfl_~i .:L_ JP, 1 38 .
and
248.
17 (25.1 months) than male graduates (22.2 months) It is
observed that of the total 44 employed male graduates in
the sample about 55 per cent waited for more than 12 months
for their first job while of the 15 employed female
graduates nearly 67 per cent have waited for more than 12
months for their first job which implies that duration of
unemployment is relatively more in the case of female 18
graduates. The longer duration of unemployment for female
graduates is partly due to their preference for particular
jobs in particular localities and their limited job-search
possibilities.
The foregoing analysis throws light on the fact
that professionally and technically qualified persons have
relatively higher degree of absorption in the labour market
as compared to those with general education without any
special education. The analysis also reveals that in the
genera I educd t Ion <":d teuor 'I. yr' ddud 1 t:!., dlld post-graduates
have better employment prospects in the labour market as
compared to matriculates and undergraduates, and the job-
search period for females is highr than that for males in
almost all levels of education.
17.
-------------------
For a similiar finding, See~ N.V. ~~er Education and Employment in 9..0. cit., p.31.
Varghese, India: ~
(1986 ). Review,
18. See N.V. Varghese,(1986), Education and Labour Market: ~ Surv~ of Jndian Evidence, QQ. cit., p.66.
249.
Table 7.16 Distribution of &!ployed by average waiting period, duration of una.ploy.ent and sex according to educational qualification
Educa- DURATION OF UNEltPLOY1IEJIT(in .,nths)
tional Average
Quali- SEX waiting 0-6 6-12 12-24 24-36 36-48
fication period
&fIERAL EDUCATION WITHOUT SPECIAL QUALIFICATION
SSlC
POC
DEG-
REL
M 33.5 6(25.0) 2(8.3) 4(16.7) 4(16.7) 2(8.3)
F 72.4
T 40.2
M 30.7
F 40.0
T 32.2
M 22.2
F 25.1
T 22.9
2(40.0)
6(20.7) 2(6.9) 6(20.7) 4(13.8) 2(6.9)
2(18.2) 1(9.1) 5(45.5) 1(9.1)
1(50.0) 1(50.0)
2(15.4) 1(7.7) 5(38.5) 1(7.7) 2(15.4)
9(20.5) 11 (25.0) 8(18.2) 7(15.9) 6(13.6)
1(6.7) 4(26.7) 6(40.0) 3(20.0)
10(16.9) 15(25.4) 14(23.7) 10(16.9) 6(10.2)
48-60
2(8.3)
2(6.9)
2(4.5)
2(3.4)
60 & TOTAL
above
4(16.7) 24(82.8)
3 ( 60 . 0 ) 5 ( 17 . 2 )
7(24.1) 29( 100)
2(18.2) 11(84.6)
2(15.4)
2(15.4) 13(100)
1(2.3) 44(74.6)
1(6.7) 15(25.4)
2(3.4) 59( 1 00) ._- ----_ ..
.. -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------POST- M 11. 3 8(53.3) 3(20.0) 2(13.3)
GRAO- F 10.8 7(53.8) 2(15.4) 2(15.4)
UATE T 11 . 1 15(33.6) 5(17.9) 4(14.3)
~ofessional & Technical Dipla.a
M 22.0
f'
22.0
1(25.0) 2(50.0)
1(25.0) 2(50.0)
Profess i ona I • Technical Degree
M 17.6 6(35.3) 3(17.6) 3(17.6)
Engi neer·· F 11.0 1 (33.3) 1 (33.3) 1(33.3)
lng T 16.7 7(35.0) 4(20.0) 4(20.0)
".B.B.5/ M 9.0 2(50.0) 1 (25.0) 1 (25.0)
1(6.7)
1 (7.7)
2(7.1)
2(11.8)
2(10.0)
B.O. S F 27.0 1(100)
T 12.6 2(40.0) 1(20.0) 1(20.0) 1(20.0)
M 11.5 3(50.0) 1(16.7) 1(16.7) 1(16.7)
l.l. B F
T 11.5 3(50.0) 1(16.7) 1(16.7) 1(16.7)
Nursing f 4.0 3(75.0) 1(25.0)
T 4.0 3(75.0) 1(25.0)
1 (6.7)
1(7.7)
2 (7.1 )
1(25.0)
1(25.0)
3(17.6)
3(15.0)
15(53.6)
13(46.4)
28(100)
4(100)
4 (100)
17(85.0)
3(15.0)
20(100)
4(80.0)
1(20.0)
5(100)
6(100)
6(100)
4(100)
4(100)
(Contd ....•..... )
(Table 7.16 contd •.•. )
EDUCATION
M 1(100)
DEGREE t F 34.7 3(42.9)
B. EO T 30. 4 4 (50. 0)
P.G. tB. Ed.
SIIIt-T ot a7
M
F 19.0
T 19.0
2(28.6)
2(25.0)
1(100)
1(100)
M 14.5 12(42.9) 5(17.9) 5(17.9) 3(10.7) 3(10.7)
F 21.1 7(43.8) 1(6.3) 5(31.3) 1 (6.3)
18.11 19(43.2) 6(13.6) 10(22.1) 4(9.1) 3(6.11)
Prof ••• ional a Technical Certificat.
S.S.L.C t T.T.C.
M
F 14.3 4(44.4) 1(11.1) 2(22.2) 1(11.1) 1(11.1)
T 14.3 4(44.4) 1(11.1) 2(22.2) 1(11.1) 1(11.1)
P.O.C t T. T.C
M
F 1.5 2(100)
T 1.5 2 (100)
S.S.l.C. t Type
M 15.8 1(25.0)
F 68.3
T 42.0 1 (12.5)
P.D.C. t .. Hi.7
Type F
1~.O
D.C. +
Type
W 46.5 1(50.0)
F 37.5
T 42.0 1(2b 0)
P.G. + ,. 36.0
Type F
T 36.0
S.S.l.C. t 1. T.1
1(25.0) 1(25.0)
1(25.0)
2(25.0) 1 (12.5)
1 ( 100)
1 (100)
M 18.4 3(13.6) 11(50.0) 6(27.3)
F
T lB.4 3{13.6) 11(50.0) 6(27.3}
1(25.0)
2(50.0)
1 (12.5) 2(21).0)
1(50.0) 1(50.0)
1(25.0) 1(2b.0)
1(100)
1(100)
250
1(12.5)
2(28.6) 7(87.5)
2(25.0) 8(100)
1(100)
1(100)
28(63.6)
2(12.5) 16(36.4)
2(4.b)
1(25.0)
1(12.5)
1(50.0)
1(25.0)
2(9.1)
2(9.1}
44(100)
9(100)
9(100)
2(100)
2 (100)
4(50.0)
4(50.0)
8(100)
1(100)
1(100)
2(50.0)
2(50.0)
4(100)
1(100)
1(100)
22(100)
22(100)
(contd ••••••• )
(Table 7.16 contd ....... )
P.D.C t 1. T. 1.
M 26.0 1(33.3)
F
2(66.7)
T 26.0 1(33.3)
D.C. t 1. T. 1.
Sub- Tota I
.. 3.0 1(100)
F
T 3.0 1 (100)
(A)
M 20.4 7(20.6)
F 28.4 6(35.3)
T 23.0 13(25.5)
2(35.3) 8(23.5)
2(11.8) 2(11.8)
14(27.5) 10(19.6)
~her Professional & Technical certificate
1. S.S.L.C. • Other
M
F
T
P.D.C • Other
M
6.0
29.6
22.9
F 29.0
T 29.0
D.C •• Other
M 18.0
1 (50.0) 1(50.0)
1(20.0) 1(20.0)
2(28.6) 2(28.6)
F 18.0 2(50.0) 1(25.0)
1 (20.0)
1(14.3)
2(100)
T 18.0 2(33.3) 1(18.7) 2(33.3)
P.G. t Other
M 74.0
F 6.5 1(50.0) 1(50.0)
T 35.7 1(33.3) 1(33.3)
Sub-Total (B)
Sub-Total
M 24.4 1(20.0) 1(20.0) 2(40.0)
F 21.8 4(33.3) 3(25.0) 1(8.3)
22.6 5(29.4) 4(23.5) 3(17.6)
(A+S) M 20.9 8(20.5) 13(33.3) 10(25.6)
F 25.7 10(34.5) 5(17.2) 3(10.3)
T 22.9 18(26.5) 18(26.5) 13(19.1)
2(66.7)
4(11.8)
3(17.6)
7(13.7)
1 ( 1 00)
1(100)
1(8.3)
1 (5.9)
4(10.3)
4(13.8)
8(11.8)
3(17.6}
3(5.9)
1(20.0)
1(14.3)
1(8.3)
1(5.9)
4(13.8)
4(5.9)
1(25.0)
1 (16. 7)
3(8.8)
1(5.9)
4(7.8)
1(20.0)
1 (14.3)
251
3(100)
3(100)
1(100)
1(100)
34(66.7)
17(33.3)
51 (lOO)
2(28.6)
5(71.4)
7(100)
1(100)
1(100)
2(33.3)
4(66."1)
6(100)
1( 100) 1(33.3)
2(66.7)
1(33.3) 3(100)
1(20.0) 5(29.4)
1(28.3) 1(6.3) 12(70.6)
1 (5.9) 2 (11 .8) 17 ( 100)
4(10.3) 39(57.4)
1(3.4) 2(6.9) 29(42.6)
1(1.5) 6(8.8) 68(100)
------~~----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Grand Total
M 21.8 45(27.3) 36(21.8) 36(21.8) 19(11.5) 14(8.5) 4(2.4) 11(6.7) 165(67.3) F 25.5 25(31.3) 12(15:0) 18(22.5) 10(12.5) 6(7.5) 1(1.3) 8(10.0) 80(32.7) T 23.0 70(28.6) 48 ( 19.6) 54(22.0) 29(11.8) 20(8.2) 5(2.0) 19(7.8) 245(100)
Note: Figures in bracket ,ndicate percentage to total.
252
7.20. Waiting period and Academic performance
Waiting period among the employed is also found to 19
be i~versely related to academic performance. It has been
found that the average waiting period is the shortest (15.6
months) in the case of persons with first division while
it is the longest (31.3 months) for those with third
division; It is found that whereas 33.8 per cent of the
employed with first division ha~waited for less than six
months, 31.3 per cent of those with second division and 20
per cent of those with third division ha~ waited for their
first job for less than six months.In contrast when the
waiting period moves up, the percentage of the third
divisioners becomes larger than that of the first and
second divisioners (see Table 7.17).
A sex-wise break-up reveals that for all the
divisioners the average waiting period is higher for
females as compared to males.(See table 7.17). Of the 25
females employed, under the shortest waiting period group
'less than six months', tlrst and second divisioners
constitute the largest proportion (40%) their proportion
being the same, while the third divisioners account for the
lowest proportion (20%). On the other hand, of the eight
females under the category of the longest waiting period
group the percentage of the third divisioners is found to
19. For similar findings, see N.V. Varghese, (1986), Education and Labour Market: 8 ~urvey of Indian Evidence, National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration, New Delhi, p. 66.
253
be the highest (50%) followed by the second divisioners
(37.5%) and the first divisioners (12.5%) indicating lower
degree of absorption for females with third division in the
labour market.
7.21. Waiting period and Academic performance by levels of education
Among the graduates the average waiting period is
found to be the longest for the thrid divisioners (27.4
months) while it is the shortest for the first divisioners 20
(19 months) Among the graduates in the general education
group, 89 per cent of the first divisioners could secure
their first job within 36 months after graduation while the
corresponding percentages for the second and third
divisioners are 88 and 76 per cent respectively. These
findings imply that graduates with first division are having
greater opportunities for job without waiting for a long 21
period as compared to the second and third divisioners.
Average waiting period for the professional and technical
degree holders with the first division is shorter (15.7
months) than that for those with the second division (19.5
months) indicating a negative relationship between the 22
waiting period and the academic performance. It is observed
that among the professional and technical certificate
holders the average waiting period is the
20. For a similar trend, See N.V. Varghese, (1986), Education and. Labour Market, QQ. cit., p.66.
21. For a similar finding, See J.L. Azad,(1991), QQ. cit., p. 100
22. Prasad,Eswara,K.V. ,(1979),"Education and Unemployment of Profesional manpower in India", Economic and Political Weekly, 14(20):
254
Table 1.17 Distribution of ~loyed by sex according to levels of education, average
waiting period, duration of un.-ploy.ent and acad .. tc perfor .. nce.
S Average
Class e waiting
x period
s.s.L.e
1
IJ
III
P.D.C
Il
III
11 24.0
f
T 24.0
If 15.4
f 24.0
16.8
11 JII I
84.fI
T 47.3
If 4B.l
f 36.0
T 45.5
11 24.0
f 44.0
T 26.2
,- - ... - .... - - ... - .- Jj .•
Degree
If 16.2
F 22.5
T 19.0
11 20.3
11 f lB.3
T 19.8
.. 25.5
III T' 35.4
T 27.4
0-6 6-12 12-24
1(100)
1(100)
3(60.0)
1 (100)
3(~O.O) 1( 16.1)
1(16 I) 7(11 1} HIli 11
1 (l! •. u)
3(13.6) 2(9.1) 4(18.2}
1(33.3}
1(25.0)
2(25.0) 1(12.5) 4(50.0)
2(22.2} 1(11.1) 4(44.4}
24-36
1(20.0)
l( It, , ,
If If'
3( 13.6)
1 ( 100)
1(25.0)
. .. - - - ... - .. - - - --- - - - - .. - . - - -
1 (20.0) 2(40.0) 1(20.0)
1(25.0) 2(50.0)
1 ( 11 . 1 ) 3(33.3) 3(33.3)
5(26.3) 3(15.8) 5(26.3)
1 (16.7) 1(16.7) 3(50.0)
6(24.0) 4(16.0) 8(32.0)
3(15.0) 6(30.0) 2(10.0)
2(40.0) 1(20.0)
3(12.0) B(32.0} 3(12.0)
1 (25.0)
1(11.1)
3(15.8)
1 (16.l)
4( 16. 0)
4(20.0)
1(20.0)
5(20.0)
36-46
1(20.0)
1 ( 16.7)
46-60 60 ..
above
TOTAL
1( 100)
1 (100)
5(B3.3)
1(16.7)
6( lOO}
1 (11. 8) 7(".1} 4(22.2} lB(Bl.B}
J(75.0) 4(lB.2)
1 (4.5) 2(9.1 } 1(31.B) 22( 100)
1(33.3) 1(33.3) 3(75.0)
1(25.0)
1 (25.0) 1(25.0) 4(100)
1(12.5) B(BB". 9)
1(100) 1(11.1)
1(11.1) 1(11.1) 9(100)
- - -- ---- - ..... - -- - - -_ .. _ .. --- - .... -.. -_. __ .
1(20.0)
1(11.1)
2(10.5)
2(B.0)
3(15.0) 2(10.0)
3(12.0) 2(B.0)
5(55.6)
4(44.4)
9(100)
1 (5.3) 19(76.0)
6(24.0)
1(4.0) 25(100)
20(BO.0)
1(20.0) 5(20.0)
1(4.0) 25(100)
(contd ... )
(Table 7.17 contd ... )
P.G.
11
III
11 3.0
F 8.7
T 10.4
11 11.0
F 10.8
T 8.5
11 48.0
F 24.0
T 36.0
1(33.3) 1(33.3)
4 ( 66. 7) 1 ( 1 6. 7)
5(55.6) 1(11.1) 1(11.1)
7(63.6) 2(18.2) 2(18.2)
3(50.0) 2(33.3)
10(58.8) 4(23.5) 2(11.8)
1(100)
1(50)
1(33.3)
1(16.7)
2(22.2)
Professional & Technical DiplOlla
11 9. 0 1 ( 1 00)
F
:; 9.0
11 26.3
1(100)
2(66.7)
11 F
T 26.3 2(66.7)
Professional & Technical Degree
11 12.0 8(47.1) 3(17.6) 4(23.5)
f 20.5
T 15.7
11 18.3
5 ( 38 . b) 1 ( 7 . I) 5 ( 38 . 5) 1 ( , . / )
11 24.0
13(43.3) 4(13.3) 9(30.0) 1(3.3)
4(36.4) 2(18.2) 1(9.1) 3(27.3)
2(66.7)
19.5 6(42.9) 2(14.3) 1(1.1) 3(21.4)
Professional & Technical carti ficate
11
III
M 14.8 4(23.5) 8(47.1) 3(17.6)
F
T , M 24.0
F 36.9
T 2'.(1 M 29.8
F 12.5
T 15.4
1(25.0)
5(28.8)
2(12.5)
4(28.6)
6(20.0)
2(33.3)
5(45.5)
7(41.2)
1(25.0)
9(42.9)
5(31.3)
1(7.1)
6(20.0)
3(27.3)
3(17.6)
3(14.3)
5(31.3)
2(14.3)
7(23.3)
2(33.3)
1 (9.n
3(17.6)
1(5.9)
1(25.0)
2(9.5)
2(12.5)
2(14.3)
4(13.3)
1(16.7)
1 (9.1)
2(11.8)
Grand Total
11 13.9 14(31.8) 15(34.1) 9(20.5) 2(4.5)
F 18.4 10 (37. 1) 3 (11 . 1 ) 8 (29.6) 4 ( 1 4 .8)
T 15.6 24(33.8) 18(25.4) 17(23.9) 6(8.5)
11 19.9 21(30.9) 13(19.1) 16(23.5) 9(13.7)
I I 2b.1i
T 22.0
.. 'H, U
III 32. I
T 31.3
10(32.3) 4(1".9) 6( 19.4) 4(!2.9)
31 (3' . 3) 1 7 ( 1 f . 2) 22 ( 22 ,2) 13 ( 1:1. 1 )
1 U! 1 t~ I. ~ M ( , ~I " I ~ ~ ~. (1 l~ ~ t1 ( T \ 1
bI22.1)' ~(2l,') 4(IH./) 2(9.1)
15(20.0) 13(li.3) lb(20.0) 10(1:1.3)
Note: Figures in bracket indicate percentage.
1 (16. 7)
1(5.9)
1(100)
1(50.0)
1(33.3)
1(33.3)
2(11.8)
2(6.7)
1 (9.1)
1(7.1)
1(25.0)
1 (4.8)
2(14.3)
2(6.7)
1 (9.1)
1(5.9)
3(6.8)
1 (3.7)
4(5.6)
6(1l.8)
1(7.1)
1(3.3)
J(II.I) 1 (3.2)
9(9.1) 1(1.0)
.,(" 4) 4(f,b)
1(7.7)
255
3(33.3)
6(66.7)
9(100)
11 (64.7)
6(35.3)
17 ( 1 00)
1(50.0)
1 (50.0)
2 (100)
1(100)
1(100)
3(100)
3(100)
17(56.7)
13(43.3)
1(3.3) 30(100)
11(78.6)
1(33.3) 3(21.4)
1 (7. 1 ) 14 ( 100)
1(5.9)
1(4.8)
2(12.5)
2(14.3)
4(13.3)
1 (16. 7)
1(5.9)
17(81.0)
4(19.0)
21(100)
16(53.3)
14(46.7)
30(100)
6(35.3)
11 (64.7)
17(100)
1(2.3) 44(62.0)
1 (3.7) 27 (38.0)
2(2.8) 71(100)
3 (4.4) 68 (68. l)
3(9.7) 31 (31.3)
6(6.1) 99(100)
/(13.2) bJ(fO.1j
l(Il.1) 4(18.2) 22(29.3)
1(9.3) 4(5.3) 11 (14.7) 15(100)
256
shortest for the first divisioners (16.2 months) while it
is the longest for the second divisioners (30 months). A
male-female break-up reveals that, the average waiting
period is longer for females than males at almost all
levels of academic performance in almost all the levels of
education (see table 7.17).
On the whole, our survey findings throw light on the
fact that the waiting period for the employed is found to
be significantly lower for those with first division than
for those with third division in almost all the levels of
education indicating higher degree of absorption for the
first divisioners in the labour market.
7.22. Waiting period of graduates by faculty
Table 7.19 shows the distribution of employed
graduates by the faculty of education, the average waiting
period and duration of unemployment by sex. In the general
education category the average waiting period is found to
be the shortest for Commerce graduates (18.8 months) and 23
the longest for Arts graduates (23.8 months). The
average waiting period is 20.5 months for the Science
graduates. Among the graduates in the professional and
technical education category the average waiting period is
23. For similar findings, see)Martin Carnoy, (1987), IIEP Research Report No. 64, H~i~g~h~e~r~E~d~u~c~a~t~l~'o~n~a~n~d~_G~r~a~d~u~a~t~e employment in India. A summary of three case studies, International·· institute of educational Planning, Paris, p.31
257
24 the longest for graduates in Education (29.1 months)
followed by graduates in Engineering (16.7 months) J
graduates in Medicine (12.6 months) and graduates in Law
(11.5 months). Table 7.18 shows that around 81 per cent of
Commerce graduates secured their first regular job within
24 months and the corresponding percentages for the Science
and Arts graduates are 71 and 70 per cent respectively.
These findings imply that the Commerce graduates have got
higer degree of absorption in the labour market as
compared to Arts and Science graduates. In the
professional and technical education category, 83 per cent
of graduates in Law secured their first job within 24
months and the corresponding percentages for graduates in
Medicine, Education and Engineering are 80, 78 and 75 per
cent respectively indicating highest degree of absorption
for graduates in Law 1n the labour market. It is
significnat to note that no one from the faculties of
Medicine and Law have waited for more than 36 months, while
no one from the faculty of Engineering has waited for more
than 48 months. On the contrary, among the graduates in
Education 22.2 per cent are found to have waited
for more than 60 months indicating lower degree of
absorption for graduates in Education in the labour market.
24. West Bengal Study shows that job-search period is the longest for graduates in education, Ibid, p. 31.
T~l. 7.18 Distribution of .-ployed graduates according to average .aiting period and duration of Una.plo~nt by faculty of education and Sex.
Facu 1- lIVe,' age
ty Sex lIaiting
period (Months)
Duration of Uneaplo~nt (in Month.)
Artl .. f
5cilllCe
.. F
T
c-rce .. F
T
Medici ne .. T
.. F
T
Education
.. T
Engine.dng
.. F
Grand Total 11
F
0-6 6-'2 12-24 24-36 36-48 48-60
16.3 13( 48.1 ) 5(18.5) 1 (3.7) 6(2:">.2) 1 (3.7)
23.9 4(30.8) 3(23.1) 2(15.4) 2(15.4) 1(1.1)
18.8 1/("2.5) 8(20.0) 3(7.5) 8(20.0) 1(2.5) 1(2.5)
23.3 3(12.5) 5(20.8) 8(33.3) 2(8.3) 5(20.8)
16.8 5(27.8) 3(16.7) 6(33.3) 2(11.1) 2(11.1)
20.5 8(19.0) 8(19.0) 14(33.3) 4(9.5) 7(16.7)
27.1 3(18.8)
13.0 1(20.0)
23.8 4(19.0)
4(25.0)
3(60.0)
7(33.3)
4(25.0) 2(12.5) 2(12.5)
4(19.0)
1(20.0)
1(4.8) 2(9.5) 2(9.5)
9.0 2(50.0) 1(25.0) 1(25.0)
27.0 1 ( 100)
12.6 2(40.0) 1(20.0) 1(20.0) 1(20.0)
11 . 5 3 ( 50 . 0 ) 1 ( 16. 1) 1 ( 1 6 . 7) 1 ( 1 6. 1)
11. 5 3( 50.0) 1( 16. I) 1 ( 16. I) 1( 16. I)
1(100)
32.6 3(37.5)
29.1 4(44.4)
17.6 6(35.3) 3(17.6)
11.0 1(33.3) 1(33.3)
3(37. 5)
3(33.3)
3(1/.6)
1(33.3)
2( 11.8) 3( 1/.11)
16.7 7(35.0) 4(20.0) 4(20.0) 2(10.0) 3(15.0)
19.4 31(32.6) 19(20.0) 18(18.9) 11(11.6) 11(11.6)
20.8 14(29.2) 10(20.6) 12(25.0) 6(12.5) 2(4.2)
19.9 45(31.5) 29(20.3) 30(21.0) 11(11.9) 13(9.1)
2(2.1)
1 (2.1)
3(2.1)
Note: Figures in bracket indicate percentage to total.
60 &
above
1 (3. 7)
1(7.7)
2(5.0)
1 (4.2)
1(2.4)
1(6.3)
1(4.8)
2(2b.0)
2(22.2)
TO"IAL
27(67.5)
13(32.~)
40( 100)
24(57.1)
18(42.9)
42(100)
16(76.2)
5(23.8)
21(100)
4(80.0)
1 (20.0)
5(100)
6(100)
6(100)
1(11.1)
8(88.9)
9(100)
17(85.0)
3(15.0)
20(100)
3(3.2) 95(66.4)
3(6.3) 48(33.6)
6(4.2) 143(100)
258
259
The average waiting period is found to be longer for
female graduates than their male counterparts in the
faculties of Ar·ts. Medicine and Education. In contrast.
the average waiting period is surprisingly seen to be
shorter
parts
for female graduates than for their
in the disciplines of Science.
Engineering (See Table 7.19).
male counter
Commerce and
The foregoing analysis throws light on the fact that
among the employed graduates in the general education
category the Commerce graduates have. got the highest
degree of absorption in the labour market followed by
Science graduates and Arts graduates. Among the employed
in the professional and technical education group. the
degree of absorption in the labour market is the highest
for graduates in Law followed by Medicine. Engineering and
Education. In other words the disciplines of Law and
Medicine are relatively more responsive to the labour
market than disciplines of Engineering and education in the
professional and technical education group.
7.23. Waiting period by faculty and Academic performance
An analysis of the waiting period for the employed
graduates by faculty and academic performance reveals that
waiting period is inversely related to academic performance
in all the faculties (See Table 7.19). It is noted that
among the Science graduates who have waited for less than
six months maximum clustering IS seen for the first
260
Table 1.19 Distribution of ellPloyed gradmltes by average waiting period,duration of
Una.ploYllent and sex acco"ding to f&culty.
ARTS
11
111
Average
S waiting 0-6
e period
" (Months)
.. 3.0 1(100)
f
3.0 1(100)
III 10.! 9(60.0)
F 19.8 2(40.0)
T 13.0 11(55.0)
11 25.2 3(27.3)
F 23.9 2(25.0)
T 25.7 5(26.3)
SCIEJIICE
11 17.4 1(12.5)
F 14.2 4(40.0)
T 15.6 5(27.8)
.. 26.3 2(14.3)
11 F 1'1.3 1(14.3)
T 21.6 3(14.3)
11 26.5
III F il.0
T 24.3
COMMERCE
.. 1.0 1(100)
r
1.0 1 (100)
.. 33.3 1(16.1)
11 F 9.0
24.2 1 (11. 1 )
III 25.9 1 ( 11. 1 )
liI f 19.0 lC50.0}
2~.6 2(18.2)
6-12
2(13.3)
1(20.0)
3(15.0)
3(27.3)
2(25.0)
5(26.3)
3(37.5)
Hl0.0)
4(22.2)
2(14.3}
1(14.3)
3(14.3)
1( 100)
1(33.3)
1 (16. 7)
3(100)
4CH.")
3(33.3)
3(21.3)
12-24 24-36 36-48 48-60 60 & 10lAL
above
1(100)
1(100)
1 (6. I) 3(20.0) 15(75.0)
1 (20.0) 1 (20.0) 5(25.0)
1 (5.0) 4(20.0) 1 (!>. 0) 20(100)
3(27.3) 1 (9.1) 1(9.1) 11(57.9)
2(25.0) 1(12.5) 1(12.5) 8(41.1)
2(10.5) "(21.2) 1(5.3) 2(10.5) 19(100)
2(25.0) 1 (12.5) 1(12.t.} 8(44.4)
3(30.0) 2(20.0) 10(55.6)
5(27.8) 3(16.7) 1(5.6) 18(100}
5 (35.1) 1(7.1) 3(21.4) 1(7.1) 14(66.7)
3(42.9) 2(28.6) 7(33.3)
8(38.1) 1(4.8) 5(23.8} 1(4.8) 21(100)
1(50.0) 1(50.0) 2(66.7)
1(33.3)
1(33.3) 1 (33.3) 3(100)
1( 100)
1(100)
2(33.3} , (16.7) 1(16.7) 6(66.7)
3(33.3)
2(22.2) 1(11.1) 1(11.1) 9 ( 1 00)
2(22.;,} 2(22.2) 1(11.1) 9(81.8)
1(5U.0) 2(18.2)
2t la.?} 1 (9.1) 2( liL n 1(9.1 } 11 ( 100)
(Table 7.19 contd ... )
MEDICINE
11 2(100)
r 27.0
T 9.0 2(66.7)
M 18.0 1(50.0)
11 F
T 18.0 1 (50.0)
LAW 11 12.0 1 (~O. 0)
r 12.0 1(50.0)
III lZo.3 2(50.0) 1(2&.0)
11 F
T 12..3 2(50.0) 1 (2~.0)
E~TION
M
F 31. 7 2(33.3)
T 31.7 2(33.3)
III 1 (100)
11 F 36.0 1 (50. 0)
T l"S 2 (66.7)
ENGINEERING M, 13.8 5(38.5) 3(23.1)
F 24.0
14.6 5(35.1) 3(21. 4)
III 30.0 1(25.0)
11 f 4.5 1(50.0) 1(50.0)
T 21.5 2(33.3) 1(16.7)
GNAHD lOTAl .. 12.9 11 (40.7) 6(22.2)
21.3 6(33.3) 1(5.6)
16.2 17(31.8) 7(15.6)
M 20.2 16(34.8) ! ( 1::'.2)
II F 18.7 5(26.3) 6(31.6)
19.8 21 (32.3) 13(20.0)
M 25.6 4(16.8) 6(21.3)
III 23.7 3(27.3) 3(21.3)
T 25.0 1(21.2) 9(2f.3)
1(50.0)
1 (50.0)
1(::'0.0)
1 ([,0.0)
3(50.0)
3(50.0)
3(23.1)
1 ( 100)
4(28.6)
6(22.2)
7(38.9)
13(26.9)
9( 19.6)
3(15.8)
12(18.5)
3(13.6)
2(18.2)
5(15.2)
1(100)
1(33.3)
1(2::'.0)
1(2::'.0)
2(50.0)
2(33.3)
1 (3. I)
3(16.1)
4(8.9)
{(lb.2)
1(5.3)
8( 12.3)
3(13.6)
2( 18.2)
b(lb.2)
2(15.4)
2(14.3)
1(2b.0)
1(16.1)
3(11.1)
3(6.1)
4 (8. {)
2(10.5)
6(9.2)
4(18.0)
4( 12.1 )
1 (16. 7)
1 (16. 7)
1(50.0)
1(33.3)
1 (5.6)
1(2.2)
1(2.2) 2(4.3)
1(5.3) 1(5.3)
2 (3.1 ) 3(4.6)
1(4.b) 1(4.5)
1 (9.1)
1(3.0) 2(8.1)
261
2(66.7)
1(33.3)
3(100)
2( 100)
2 (100)
2 (100)
2(100)
4 (100)
4(100)
6(100)
6( 100)
1(33.3)
2(66.7)
3(100)
13(92.9)
1(7.1)
14(100)
4(66.7)
2(33.3)
6(100)
27(60.0)
18(40.0)
45(100)
46(70.8)
19(29.2)
6b( 100)
22(66.7)
11(33.3)
33(100)
262
divisioners (27.8%) followed by second divisioners (14.3%).
indicating better prospects of employment for the Science
graduates with the first division in the labour market. Among
the Commerce graduates with first division no one has
waited for more than six months for their first job
indicating greater employment opportunities for the first
divisioners in the faculty of Commerce. Among the graduates
with the first and second division in the faculties of
Medicine and Law. no one has waited for their first job for
more than 36 months .On the whole the analysis of the waiting
period for the employed by faculty and academic performance
throws light on the fact that the labour market is more
responsive to the first divisioners in all the faculties of
education as compared to the second and third divisioners.
unemployed
The
and
analysis of the job-search
the waiting period of the
period of
employed
the
by
different educational and socio-economic categories reveals
that average waiting period is shorter for the employed than
that for the unemployed. This may be an indication of higher
degree of imbalance in the labour market prevailing at
present in Kerala.
CHAPTERVIll ================================
REGIONAL VARIATION IN INCIDENCE OF UNEMPLOYMENT -A COMPARATNEANALYSISOFTHRISSUR
========= ANDERNAKULAM DISTRICTS
CHAPTER VIII
REGIONAL VARIATION IN INCIDENCE OF UNEMPLOYMENT - A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THRISSUR AND ERNAKULAM
DISTRICTS
An attempt is made in this chapter to compare the
nature, pattern and magnitude of educated unemploymen\ in
the two districts, Thrissur and Erriakulam. It is also
proposed to examine the job-search period and waiting
period of both the unemployed and employed within the
socio-economic frame.
8.1. Unemploymen~ by family income and occupation
The wage labour households belong mostly to the
low income groups while the salaried white-collar
households belong mostly to the high income groups in
Thrissur and Ernakulam Districts. However, Ernakulam
District exhibits a significantly higher proportion of the
umemployed in wage labour households in the lowest income
bracket than Thrissur District; their corresponding
proportions being 54.3 percent and 38.0 percent
respectively. It is observed that the levels of income
of households vary widely in both the districts. The
proportion of the unemployed is the highest in the income
group Rs 1501-2500 in Thrissur District (31.1%) while their
proportion is th~ highest in the income group Rs 501-1500
in Ernakulam District (32.7%). In both the districts the
proportion of the unemployed is the lowest in agricultural
264
households and the highest in salaried white-collar
households. A sex-wise break-up reveals that females
dominate males in all the income groups in Thrissur
District, while males dominate females in Ernakulam
District in the highest income bracket 'above Rs 5000' (See
Table 8.1).
8.2. UnemploYMent by caste and income
Scheduled Castes and Other Backward Castes belong
mostly to low income group and Forward Castes belong mostly
to high income groups in both districts. However, the
proportion of the unemployed among 'Other Backward Castes'
in the lowest income group is found to be lower in
Ernakulam District (17.2%) than in Thrissur District
(24.5%). It is significant to note that the proportion of
unemployed scheduled castes is zero in the highest income
group in both districts (Table 8.2).
8.3. Unemployment by occupation and caste
Forward Castes belong mostly to the salaried
white-collar households while backward castes belong mostly
to the wage labour households in both the districts (See
Table 8.3). However, the highest proportion of the
unemployed among Other Backward Castes in Thrissur
District belong to wage labour households (60.4%) while
the largest proportion of the unemployed in the same caste
belong to salaried white collar households in Ernakulam
265
8.1 Distribution of Un_ployed by sex according to Level of F_i ly IncOlR [Monthly] and Occupation
of Main Earner in FaMily
... ------ - --- - - --- - - .. - ------- ---- ------- - ------ ------- -- - ---------------------------------------THRISSUR DISTRICT
Self self wage salaried salaried
Sex employed employed labour white non-white
collar
M
in agri- elsewhere collar
culture
2(13.3)
13.3*
2(8.3)
5.9*
1(7.7) 5(38.5)
100* 26.3*
4(13.3)
26.1*
1(2.3) 9(20.9)
50.0* 26.5*
8(34.8)
42.1 *
1(3.4) 6(20.7)
100* 40.0*
1(1.9) 14(26.9)
50.0* 41.2*
2(18.2)
10.!>*
2 (11 .8)
13.3*
4(14.3)
11.8*
4(50)
21.1 *
1(8.3)
6.7*
5(25.0)
14.7*
8(88.9)
47.1*
11(73.3)
33.3*
19(79.2)
38.0*
5(38.5) 2(15.4)
9.1*
1(11.1)
20*
2(13.3)
13.3*
3(12.5)
15*
29.4*
12(40) 5(16.7) 9(30.0)
36.4* 12.8*
1 7 (39.5) 7 ( 16.3)
34.0* 11.5*
60*
9(20.9)
45*
2(8.7)
11.8*
9(31.0)
11(47.8) 2(8.7)
50.0*
9(31.0)
40*
4(13.8)
27.3* 23.1* 26.7*
11(21.2) 20(38.5) 6(11.5)
22.0*
2(18.2)
11.8*
1(!>.9)
32.8* 30*
5(45.5) 2(18.2)
22.7* 40*
14(82.4)
3.0* 3!>.9*
3(10.7) 19(67.9) 2(7.1)
6.0* 31.1 *
4(50.0)
18.2*
11(91.7)
28.2*
15(75.0)
24.6*
100*
1(1.6) 19(29.7) 17(26.6) 22(34.4) 5(7.8)
100* 100*
1(1.0) 15(14.6)
100 100*
2(1.2) 34(20.4)
100* 100*
100* 100* 100*
33(32.0) 39(37.9) 15(14.6)
100* 100* 100*
50(29.9) 61(36.5) 20(120)
100* 100* 100*
ERNAKULAM DISTRICT
Self Self Wage Salaried Salaried
employed employed labour white non-white
collar in agri- elsewhere
culture
collar
1(8.3)
20*
1 (3.4)
20*
3(21.4)
'60*
3(8.1 )
60*
1 (9.1)
20*
1(5.3)
20*
5(41.7) 5(41.7) 1(8.3)
20.8* 45.5* 4.2*
3(17.6) 14(82.4)
13.6) 58.3*
8(27.6) 19(65.5) 1(3.4)
17.4* 54.3* 1.7*
8(30.8) 6(23.1) 5(19.2) 7(26.9)
33.3* 54.5* 20.8* 87.5*
8(28.6) 9(32.1) 4(14.3) 7(25)
36.4* 37.5* 11.8* 53.8*
16(29.6)15(27.8)9(16.7) 14(25.9)
34.8*
4(55.6)
16.7*
42.9*
5(29.4) 1(5.9)
22.7* 4.2*
9(38.5) 1(3.8)
19.6*
5(35.7)
20.8*
5(21.7)
22.1*
10(27.0)
21.7*
2(9.1)
8.3*
1(12.5)
4.5*
3(15.8)
6.5*
2.9*
15.5*
5(55.6)
20.8*
7(41.2)
66.7*
4(23.5)
20.6* 30.8*
12(46.2) 4(15.4)
20.7*
6(42.9)
25*
19.0*
16(69.6) 2(8.7)
41.1* 15."*
22(59.5) 2(5.4)
37.9* 9.5*
7(63.6) 1(9.1)
29.2* 12.5*
7(87.5)
20.6*
14(73.7) 1(5.3)
24.1* 4.8*
!>(6.9) 24(33.3) 11(15.3) 24(33.3) 8(11.1)
100* 100* 100* 100* 100*
22(23.7) 24(25.8) 34(36.6) 13{14.0)
100* 100* 100* 100*
5{3.0) 46(27.9) 35(21.2) 58(35.2) 21(12.7)
100* 100* 100* 100* 140*
'denotes percentage from column total and figures in bracket denote percentage from row total.
266
Table ,,2. Distribution of un~loyed by sex according to level of f_i ly incOlle (.onthly) and caste
THRISSUR DISTRICT ERNAKULAM DISTRICT
~ily Sex ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------
[is. )
:\00
Hindu Christ- Muslim OBC S.C
Hair & tian
Brahmin
M 1(10)
20*
F 1(6.7)
14.3*
T 2(8)
16.7*
M
3(20)
0.3*
3(12)
3.8*
7(53.8)
1(10) 5(50)
50*
1(4)
25*
25*
8(53.3)
24.2*
13(52)
24.5*
3(30)
60*
3(20)
23.1*
6(24)
33.3*
5 ( 38 . !l) 1 (7 . 7)
Hindu Chris-
Nair & tian
Brahmin
3(25)
27.3*
2(11.8)
7(58.3)
17.9*
8(47.1)
Muslim OBC
3(17.6)
2(16.7)
16.7*
3(17.6)
S.C
1 (5.9)
11.1* 19.0* 21.4* 17.6* 50*
5(17.2) 15(51.7) 3(10.3) 5(17.2) 1(3.4)
17.2* 18.5* 13.0* 17.2* 33.3*
11(42.3) 3(11.5) 9(34.6) 1(3.8)
iOl-1500 21.9* 25* 20*
2(7.7)
18.2*
2(7.1)
11. 1 *
4(7.4)
13.8*
28.2* 33.3* 75*
5(17.9)
100*
1(3.6) F 2(6.7) 14(46.7)
28_6*
T 2(4.7)
16.7*
29.2*
21(48.8)
26.3*
M 1(4.5) 18(81.8)
10(33.3) 4(13.3)
30.3* 30.8*
15(34.9) 5(11.6)
28.3* 2.7.8*
17(60.7) 3(10.7)
40.5* 21.4* 29.4* 50*
28(51.9) 6(11.1) 14(25.9) 2(3.7)
34.6* 26.1* 48.3* 66.7*
4(44.4) 3(33.3) 2(22.2)
1501-2500 20 * 56.3*
14(48.3)
29.2*
32(62.7)
40*
2(9.1)
10*
9(31.0)
1 (4.5)
20*
5(17.2)
36.4*
7(41.2)
7.7*
2(11.8)
22.2*
4(23.5)
28.6*
6(23.1)
26.1*
2501-5000
ibove
5000
F 1(3.4)
14.3*
T 2(3.9)
16.7*
27.3* 38.5*
11(21.6) 6(11.8)
20.6* 33.3*
M 2(16.2) 2(18.2) 1(9.1) 6(54.5)
40* 6.3*
F 3(17.6) 6(35.3)
42.9* 12.5*
T 5(17.9) 8(28.6)
41.7* 10*
M 1(12.5) 5(62.5)
20* 15.6*
F
1 (5)
8.3*
M 5(1.8)
11(91.7)
22.9*
16(80)
20*
32(50)
50* 30*
2(11.8)5(29.4) 1 (5.9)
100* 15.2* 7.7*
3(10.7)11(39.3) 1(3.6)
75* 20.8*
2(25)
10*
1(8.3)
3.0*
3(15)
!l.7*
5.6*
2(3.1) 20(31.3) 5(7.0)
38.9* 4.6*
11(42.3) 5(19.2)
37.9*
1 ( 7 . 1 )
9.1*
5(21.7)
27.8*
6(16.2)
20.7*
1(9.1)
9.1*
2(25)
6.2*
11(78.6) 1(7.1)
28.2* 11.1*
13(56.5) 2(8.7)
31.0* 14.3*
24(64.9) 3(6.1)
29.6* 13.0*
7(63.6) 3(27.3)
17.9*
2(25)
11.1* 4.6*
33.3*
2(25)
14.3*
5(26.3)
21.7*
3(15.8) 9(41.4)
10.3* 11.1*
4(23.5)
23.5*
4(15.4)
13.8*
1 ( 7 . 1 )
8.3*
3(13.0)
17.6*
4(10.8)
13.8*
2(25)
11.8*
2(10.5)
6.9*
11(15.3) 39(54.2) 9(12.5) 12(16.7) 1(1.4)
100* 100* 100* 100* 100* 100.0* 100.0* 100.0* 100.0* 100.0.
TOfAL F f(6.8) 48(46.6) 2(1.9) 33(32.0) 13(12.6) 18(19.4) 42(45.2) 14(15.1) 17(18.3) 2(2.2)
100* 100* 100* 100* 100* 100.0* 100.0* 100.0* 100.0* 100.0.
T 12(7.2) 80(47.9) 4(2.4) 53(31.7) 18(10.8) 22(17.6) 81(49.1) 23(13.9) 29(17.6) 3(1.8)
100* 100* 100* 100* 100* 100.0* 100.0* 100.0* 100.0* 100.0*
Iote * Denotes percentage from col umn tota I and fi ggures in bracket i ndi cate percentages from
row total.
267,
T~le 8.3 Distribution of Un~ployed by Caste and Occupation of Main Earner in Fa.ily
THRISSUR DISTRICT ERNAKULAM DISTRICT
Occupa
tion
lilndu
Sex Nair & llrahmin
Christian Muslim OBC SC Hindu
Nair & Christian Muslim
Brahmin
OBC SC
SELF
EMPLOYED
M
IN AGRI- F
CULTURE
r
M
SELF
EMPLOYED F
ELSEWHERE
WAGE
LABOUR
SALARIED
T
M
F
T
M
WHITE F
COLLAR
T
M
SALARIED
NON WHITE F
COLLAR
T
1(100)
3.1*
1(50)
1.3*
1 (100)
7.7*
1(50)
5.6*
1 (20)
9.1*
1 (20)
3.4*
4(80)
10.3*
4(80)
4.9*
13(68.4) 1(5.3) 5(26.3) 15(62.5) 5(20.8) 4(16.7)
40.6*
1 ( 6 . 7) 9 (60)
50* 25*
1(6.7) 4(26.7)
14.3* 18.8* 50* 12.1*
1(2.9) 22(64.7) 2(5.9) 9(26.5)
8 .3* 27.5* 50* 17.0*
2(9.1)
11.1 *
2(4.3)
6.9*
38.5*
13 (59.1 )
31.0*
28(60.9)
34.6*
1(5.9) 2(11.8) 1(5.9) 10(58.8) 3(17.6) 2(18.2) 4(36.4)
20*
2 (6.1)
28.6*
3(6.0)
25*
6.3*
8(24.2)
16.7*
10(20)
12.5*
50* 50* 60*
22(66.7) 1 (3.0)
66.7* 7.7*
1(2.0) 32(64.0) 4(8)
25* 60.4* 22.2*
18.2*
2(8.3)
11 .1*
4(11.4)
13.8*
10.3*
15(62.5)
35.7*
19(54.3)
23.5*
55.6* 33.3*
4(18.2) 3(13.6)
28.6* 17.6*
9(19.6) 1(15.2)
39.1* 24.1*
4(36.4) 1(9.1)
33.3* 100*
3(12.5) 3(12.5) 1(4.2)
21.4*
3(8.6)
13.0*
17.6* 50*
7(20.6) 2(5.7)
24.1* 66.7*
4(18.2) 14(63.6) 3(13.6) 1(4.5) 8(33.3) 11(45.8) 3(12.5) 2(8.3)
80* 43.8* 15* 20* 72.7* 28.2*
4(10.3) 22(56.4) 1(2.6) 7(17.9) 5(12.8) 12(3~.3) 9(26.5)
57.1* 45.8* 50* 21.2* 38.5* 66.7* 21.4*
8 ( 13. 1) 36 (59.0) 1 ( 1 .6) 10 ( 16.4) 6 (9.8) 20(34.5) 20(34.5)
66.1* 45*
2(40)
6.3*
9(60)
18.8*
11(55.0)
13.8*
25* 18.9*
2(40)
10*
2(10.0)
3.8*
33.3*
1(20)
20*
6(40)
69.0*
2(15.4)
46.2* 11.1*
7(35.0) 2(9.5~
38.9* 6.9*
24.7*
5(62.5)
12.8*
5(38.5)
11.9*
10(47.6)
12.3*
33.3* 16.7*
5(14.7) 8(23.5)
35.7* 47.1*
8(13.8) 10(17.2)
34.8* 34.5*
1(12.5) 2(25)
11.1* 16.7*
2(15.4) 3(23.1) 1(7.7)
14.3* 17.6* 50.
3(14.3) 5(23.8) 1(4.8)
13.0* 17.2* 33.3*
M 5(7.8) 32(50) 2 (3. 1) 20 (31. 3) 5 ( 7 .8) 11 ( 1 5.3) 39 (54.2) 9 ( 1 2 . 5) 12 ( 16.7) 1 ( 1 .4)
TOTAL F
T
100.0* 100.0* 100.0* 100.0* 100.0* 100.0* 100.0*
7(6.8) 48(46.6) 2(1.9) 33(32.0) 13(12.6)18(19.4) 42(45.2)
100.0* 100.0* 100.0* 100.0* 100.0* 100.0* 100.0*
12(7.2) 80(47.9) 4(2.4) 53(31.7) 18(10.8)29(17.6) 81(49.1)
100.0* 100.0* 100.0* 100.0* 100.0* 100.0* 100.0*
100.0* 100.0* 100.0*
14(15.1)17(18.3)2(2.2)
100.0* 100.0* 100.0*
23(13.9)29(17.6)3(1.8)
100.0* 100.0* 100.0*
Note: '" denotes percentage from column total and figures in bracket denote percentages from
row total.
268
District (34.5%). Among the scheduled castes the largest
percentage belong to salaried non-white collar households
in Thrissur District (38.9%) while in Ernakulam
District,the largest percentage belong to wage labour
households (66.7%). Females constitute higher proportion
than males in the salaried white- collar households among
christians in Thrissur District as against
Ernakulam District. This is partly due to the
larger mobility among females in Ernakulam
compared to Thrissur District.
males in
relatively
District as
8.4. Unemploy_ent by educational status of father
Maximum proportion of unemployment is
observed among the wards of the fathers having
educational qualification at the primary level in both
districts. A male-female break-up further reveals that
the magnitude of unemployment is more severe among the
females compared to males in both the districts when the
unemployment problem is discussed in the background of the
educational status of fathers (Table 8.4).
8.5. Une_ployment by age and Sex
It is observed that most of the unemployed
fall within the age group of 20-24 years in both the
districts. (Table ~.5) A male-female break-up reveals that
incidence of unemployment is higher among females than
males in almost all the age groups in both the districts.
269
Table 8.4. Distribution of unemployed by sex according to educational level of father
Number of Unemployed
Educational TRICHUR DI5T. ERNAKULAM DI5T· Level of ------------------------Father Male Female Total Male Female Total
1(14.3) 6(85.7) 7(100) Illiterate 1.6* 5.8* 4.2*
34(43.8) 45(56.2) 79(100) 31(38.4) 54(61.6) 85(100) Primary 54.7* 43.7* 47.3* 45.8* 57.0* 51.5*
Secondary 10(38.5) 16(61.5) 26(100) 7(46.7) 7(53.3) 14(100) but below 15.6* 15.5* 15.6* 9.7* 8.6* 9.1* S.S.L.C
S.S.L.C
P.D.C/ P.U.C
D.e/p.e
TOTAL
13(35.3) 22(64.7) 35(100) 24(47.7) 22(52.3) 46(100) 18.8* 21.4* 20.4* 29.2* 24.7* 26.7*
1(20.0) 4(80.0) 5(100) 3(60.0) 2(40.0) 5(100) 1.6* 3.9* 3.0* 4.2* 2.2* 3.0*
5(33.3) 10(66.7) 15(100) 8(53.3) 7(46.7) 15(100) 7.8* 9.7* 9.0* 11.1* 7.5* 9.1*
64(38.3) 103(61.7) 167(100) 72(43.6) 93(56.4) 165(100) 100* 100* 100* 100* 100* 100*
Note * denotes percentage from column total and figures in bracket denote percentage from row total.
However, Thrissur District is found to
proportion of females than Ernakulam District.
proportion of unemployed females in Thrissur
compared to Ernakulam District is partly
peculiar social and cultural background of
Thrissur District.
8.6. Unemployment by education and sex
279
have larger
The higher
District as
due to the
females in
Unemployment is seen to be lower for the
professionally and technically qualified persons than for
those without any additional qualification in both the
districts. Among the unemployed in the general education
group in Thrissur District, matriculates constitute the
highest proportion (38.2%) followed by graduates (37.3%).
On the contrary in Ernakulam District, graduates account
for the largest proportion (44.4%) followed by matriculates
(29.3%)[Table8.5] .
8.7. Unemployment by education and family income
The proportion of unemployed matriculates and
undergraduates in the general education group is seen to be
the largest in the lower income group Rs 501-1500 in both
the districts (See Table 8.6). However, the proportion of
matriculates in the same income group is found to be higher
in Ernakulam District, while the proportion of PDC holders
is seen to be higher in Thrissur District. A sex-wise
break-up reveals that among the unemployed graduates
221 t-lI1. I.S DhuU",tl_ et __ lor" "" "\10 oDd I" occol"dl"9 to e4ucoU_l o-UUcotl .. --... ----.. ----:-;; __ ;i;;.-~ .... -------- ..... --r' ........... - ......... ---;;.~;i;;;i.;;- ... -............ -.--~-- ... "\10 ,,~
-=-==.---~--------.. --...... ------ -........... __ .-... -...... _-_ .. _----_ . .-::t!!l-.... U:.U •• )4 !S'B JD._ -.u I~'U .·14 ZS·B ».- -..l
..-
• Jla"l ... r
'I J(U.II .... " ,
.... M
Q-r
~ ,,'(U·'I Ill." r ,,5.11 W ...
'I 1I(t.l1 Ill ..
JlD.ll •. r ut"l )t ...
1J(U.31 It.l·
•• ·'1 U."
"M.ll il.r
IUOI . U.1'
1(0·'1 t6.7-
11(11·11 n ...
)41.·11 .. " 1(11111 a.to
'In.SI U.2'
10(10·'1 lI.c'
• e ,.~.....-. . -r 'I
" •• CI 50 ...
CIU.SI n.'· I(U.OI 13."
11~·ll IJ.I·
1(13.ll 11." C(BI 11."
lIn·'1 n,t'
I(JDI u."
UIB.ll .,.0'
1(U.II t."
1('.1) ....
"'.11 U.l'
1ID·'1 0." I(U.OI 11.1'
1(U.'1 U.l'
l1C.ll 1.1'
IIU.II U.l'
41U.1) •. 4'
IIU.II lI. ,.
UI.·II M.C'
llln.11 41."
al1llO·01 31.3'
110.11 D."
'III.ll 11." UI1IIO·01 It.S'
UI.·II w .• -
JDI1l.31 ».5'
<1(100.01 n." lln.'1 ... , IIn.71 10.l'
U(IIIO.01 lO.O'
1(101 2S.0'
l(1S.11 43."
tlU.'1 ".1'
1I.1 n.o'
lIU.lI 41."
'(211 W.S'
1(4.11 14.l'
1(3.41 '.1'
mOl :W.l'
13(0.21 U.>-
11(01 Bl"
IIU.Jj 31." '(" 'I 11.7-II(SI.ll D.S'
U(n.21 ...... U(U.21 41.7-
28(11·'1 U.l'
1(1111 J.4'
1(711 1.1'
4(101 '.1"
1(1001 lUOOI 4(1001
lUll a.t-
1(U.SI D •• '
lIU.71 u .• ' .
lIU.OI 4.2.,. 1(14.'1
u."
1(lOl 2S."
l(S.ll .... 3('-'1 U.l"
11'·11 21."
114.31 U.l'
3IU.1) to.O·
CU7.41 10.0'
'(14·'1 11.7-
4(1.l1 1110."
,,'.11 1l1li."
'(1.11 1110."
lO(M.SI n.7-
lI(O.S) 14.S'
ZIIUOO.OI ZII.>-
U1Gl.SI 14.1'
,(n.sl U.4'
)4(1110.01 3'.1"
U(U.'I .0." U(II.1) '1 .• '
41(100.0) M.4'
1( •• 01 3.>
C(IO.01 7.2'
S(1I111.01 S.l'
2(n.ol 1(B.OI 4(1110.01
......... _-----------................ ---.. ----.. _--_ ... --_ ...... _---................... -.......... _----------_ .... -.. _--------
.. -c .......
Ia:. "-DC' 1noo
r.. 1noo
.u: • ~ ~
r..c·m
lID:' .l":"l
, '~";r.Oi • - 501 r • 'I -" r 'I
• r 'I
14 r 'I
a r , • , T
" , T
~ 1(:10·'1 , T 1(11.)1
Il»l
ti~1
1(1001
I Cl '0)
1(1l1li1
1(BI
1(101 1(501
'(U.l) 211111 I(U"I
'[64.0) 2(100.0) 11 71.CI
:r:.m J. r
IlMI
IlMI
l(II 11 1(ll.ll 1(501 1(2S1
1(1001 . 1(11101
1(101 1(501
1111.11
1(U.l1
1130.01
1(II.ll
1110) 1(101
CIlIIO.OI 31M.71
4,11101 3111101 4 101
1111101 1 1001
3(31.01 '(71.01 '(U·'I 1(1l1li.01 1(.0)
1(1l1li.01
1111101 3(".71 1(11.11
112S.01 lIn.ol l(ll111) c(III.OI l(l°l
1(1001 1(1001
1(1110.)1 1(1001
3(1l1li.01 4(1001 2(1l1li.01 1(1301
71n.11 1(10) l(lCI 2(U.2) 1(1001 '(100.01 1(t.l1 1(l'.11
~(JI.II 1(1001 2(31·'1 1(100.01 1(1001
2(100.01
I(U.lI
1(.1
I(U.lI I(U.J)
I( UoOI 1(100
,!a,'1 , 401
3111101
1(401 .
2(."1.
t1~
H1IIII1 1l1li"1
1(6.11 14[U.JI U(IIIO.01
2(11101 2(1l1li.11
r·11 40.0 1IIII.J1
1(1l1li.11
1(1110.01
C(1IIII"j 4(1110.0
~i~j'l 11(1110.01
1(100.01
1(100.01
_ .. ~ 1(101 1(101 3(100.01 - MW "l(lo.iJ·~n-:;i··m;:;I·-4--.. ·--·-.. · .. -- ... ---......... -..:.-.--.--__ . __
r· 7(M.71. '(tOl J~.~I lIU'.'1 l(U.lI 4(36·'1 7(11.11 2(U.)1 1S(n.11
.-.!.~:!!.~~~-.~~~~! .. ~~~~:!L._~!;;o~~! .. ~!~!. ~f~l ~fJI m:l :U;~~I -, I • ~ _ .... --=-.......... ---... --.-,--.....::.....;.~
-" r T
111: ...... It , 1(501 T 1(101
:x: '00.. .. r ..
2,M.71 1 loJOl J(75J
1(141) 1(~1 2(tOl
1(U.21 2(71.01 1(2S.1
l(UJ 4(100.01
1(501 3(100.01 1(101 2(1l1li.01
l(lD.OI 1"1 4(40.0)
101 sI1DII.0)
1(501 I(U.)1
1(101 I(U.71
Illl·'1 I(2SI
l(nl
)(501
1(1l1li1
1(U.21
1(1001 3(11.11 1(711
11BI ru::n 1101 3(U.ll 6(Ul.11
1!501 1 U.21
IlU.21 ~M.71
lDII.II
I(B.OI :1(15"1 4[1110"1 111--.. •
r 'f 111001
--.-..... '" ..... _-.......... __ ._ ..... _ .. ___ !~.O) tl=~:l ~ :IIU.JJ JP!J 11311 41~," - •. -.--- •• ---
~'II"'I '1<2"1 l1U.11 7IU.'! 1113.11 IIIl.1I IIU.71 '!Il"1 __ . __ .~~ ••• _ ~~. ~_. ~!~~!_._)!'.Il U(100.01 IP.II JIJ7.11 2(lS) JI~I ,n.l
._ •.• _ .. __ .... _____ ~. 7(501 J(U.41 ~(1IIO"1
:=-- -.. ~ IIU.SI ~:~.ll U( U.'I 7110 , 1(4·'1 ~IW.lI I'IIS.II ·'1 I4CJf.J1 III JI ~I:U I1 U(III I ...., .. 'I . _ .. ___ .'_Ui .. ' .. ,_I ...... 'lI .. t.I._.I.I... 1,,11.11 lDll'l. 'IJ 11':'1 ~IU '41 u·1 1('.71 .... -0011011 IIIU.11 111(1l1li.01 1118.11 H(SI'll ~((1I1 HIU.II 1)(14.11. "'te , .. __ .. '.-.......... _ .... __ ... _ ... __ ._. __ .: ...... _.30.') II(U.1I l'1(1IIO.1}
• ~t •• p.e.rc .... u9lt 'rc. col\all tou1 It'lLI fSQ\lr •• la br.~lr:u t!.-. ....... _ .. ___ .-.-_ --_._-_.---
272 hlll. I.' Dht.clbu.tlon of UQ~loyed by 5ex .ccordlnv to educatlonel qualUlcatJon and f •• 11y lftCo •• (.oDthly)
·-·····---------·----;,:;i;;;;-jji;;.-~------------------------------·--------·-----;;~~-Dj;;;j~;---------------------
, •• l1r J",,_ U- _.1 , •• l1y 1""- U. -,I 0 .. 1111-
._---------_ .... _-_ .. _-_ .. _--------- ------ ---- ._------su .4:_ 501 - uoa 1501 • Z500 2501 • !IOOO _1. OIDIW -.J <SIlO lo01'uoa l50l - Z500 2501 • _ 5001. _ -.J
"'lOD - ._----.-------------------- ---.------- --_. --_ ........ -- --------- .. _--- .. -----.. -- ------------------------------------..... .....u-~~~-Jt'I ..... ,. III • 1(9.11 1( •. 1) 1(77.1( l(U.l) 11'·1) 1I(U.2( 1(10.0) '(60.0) 2(:10.0) 1(10.0) IO(:M.~)
J).J' loO.0' 2'.1' loO.0' 15.0' 14.4' U.~, U.)· le.'- 11.7' U.7' , IQ[1:.1) 10(U.l) !D(U.') l(l.l) '117)·') 7( •• ') '(0.11 l(10.51 115.'1 1(5.1) 11(15.5)
".,' 41.5' loO.0· 7.7' It.7' 77." loO.0' ZO.'" '.1' U.S' :M.S' T 11("'.2) U(ll.l) U(lD.') )(7.1) 112.1) U(I00.0) 1(77.11 U(U.l) t(U.') I(l.tl 2(6.') zt( 100.0) " .. , U.2' H.t' ·:7.1' 7.7' lI.2' ".1' 41.]' U.S' t.5' U.I' zt.I'
oa: • I(U.)) 2(21.1) 2(21.6) I(U.31 I(H.11 7(6.1) t(H.71 t(H.71 1(6.71 I(ZO.O) 1(:111.01 U(61.51 ll.l' 15.0' 15.1' Z5.0· 25.0' 21." loO.0' lG." U.l' )0.0' loO.'" :M.l'
6(61.7) 2(n.21 1[11.11 '(51.11 1[11.1) )(ll.l) 21U.21 1(11.11 21U.21 '(H.51 H.I' 10.0' ,. " U.~· U.l' U." ZO.'" '.1' 15.0' 16.1'
T 1(1.1) 'lloO·GI 1(15.0) 2(U.51 1[1.1) 16(100.01 5(ZO··1 7(21.21 I(U.51 4{1I.71 5(:111.11 2t(100.0) I.l' 25." U.l' U.I· 7.7' H.5' ~.4· Z4.1' 17.6' 1I.ZO 35.7' lI.ZO - • 1('.11 Z(1I.21 1154.51 Z(lI.ZI l1(H.II 1(16.71 1(16.71 tIU.ZI 6(ll.l) Z(l1.l) 1'(0.'1 1l.1· 25.0' M.Z' SO.O' :M.I' n.5' 23.1' 57.1' 60.'" ll.I' 60."
r 1(10.01 7(U.II 7(21.11 '(30.01 t(ll.11 3O(73.ZI 1(4.31 5(21.7) 6(H.ll 7(JO.tl t(17.t) U[J6.11 U.l' JO.I' 15.0' 69.2' .... 4· lI.5' 11.1' ll.l' 60.0' 51.1' loO.0' U.I'
T 1('·'1 '[U.OI U[ll.71 'In.O) 6(H.6) U[I00.01 t(t.l) I[U.5) 10(11.t) ll[ll.7) I[U·'I UIIOO) 25.0' 21.0' D.t· !1.1." ".2' )7.1' U.5' 27.'- sa.'· ".1' n." 41 •• • .... 1(66.7) 1(ll.l) l(n.l) 1[100.0) l(lO.OI - U.I· 2:1.0' 1 .• 10 10.0· 1.1'
1(U.5) 1(25.0) 5[62.5) 8(n.7) 1[75.01 1[25.0) t[IO.0J 5.'" 15.1' SS.,· 10.:;- 25.0' 11.S· 7."
1(77 .1) 1[77 .11 5(U.51 11[100.0) tllO.O) l[lO.O) 5(100) '.1' 17.1' lI.5' 10.0' 11.1' 7.1· 5.1'
-.""-'1 11 l(' C) 8(25.0) ll(tlI.I) t(U.5) t(U.~) U[ZU) 8(11.21 lJ(n.~) 7(15.') 10[U.7) I(U.61 "( ... ·1 100.0' 100.0' 100.0' 100.0· 100.0' 100.0' 100.0' 100.0' 100.0' 100.0' 100.0- 100.0'
r U(16.71 Ula.') lOlJ5·I1 U(U.7j '(11.5) TI(70.') '(U.CI U(zt.l) 10(1'.2) UI21.'1 'IU.51 U,U.'I 100.0- 100.0-· 100.0- 100.0' 100.0' 100.0' 100.0' 100.0· 100.0' 100.'" 100.0' lOO.O'
r 11(H.SI ll(JI.21 13IJO·O) 17(15.51 U(l1.') 110(100.0) 17(17.21 ztlzt.l) 17117 .Z) UIU.2) U(H.l) "(100) 100.0- l.GO.O· 100.0' 100.0' 100.0' lOO.'" 100.0' 100.0' 100.0' 100.'" 100.0' 100.0' ---aa.a-" 1(:111.0) 1160.0) lllO.0) 5111.1) 1113.1) 1113.1) 1(13.1) 3(75.0)
, 1(100.01 1(16.7) 1[100.0) 1[J5.0) T' 1(16.7) l[loO.0) 1[16.7) 1[16.7) '(100.0) 1125.0) • 1(25.0) 2[loO.0)· C(I00.0) -----.. _---...... -_ ........ _-------------_._-_ ... __ ........ _----------------.... ----- .... _------. __ ... __ .. _--_ .. _------_ .. _---------,------_ • ..-t .....
.. - . r T
~ ... r T
'.Got .• • r T
2(loO.0)
2[loO.0)
1[100.0) 1[100.0)
1125.0)
1[25.0)
1[25.01
1(25.01
1[100 .0) 1(100.01
t(100.0)
t(IOO.0)
1(100.0) 1(100.0)
1(100.0) 1(100.0)
1(100.0)
l(loO.0)
1(100.0) 1[100.0)
11100.0) l(loO.0)
l(loO.0) 1(:111.0)
2(61.7) l[loO.0) 3[60.0)
1(ll.l)
l[lO.O)
1(60.0) 2[60.0) 5[100.0)
1(100:0) 1(100.01 1(50.0) l(loO.01 2(100.01
..-1 • 2[50.0) 1(15.0) 1(25.0) t[M.7) 1(15.0) Z(loO.01 1(25.0) t(50.01 , 1[50.0) l[loO.01 Z[ll.l) 1[loO.0) 1(25.0) 1[25.0) t(loO.01 r 1[50.0) 1[16.71 l[ll.l) 6(100.01 I[U.51 Z[25.0) 1[U.5) 1[n.5) 1[U.5) 1[100.0j -----_ .... _-------------------------------------- .. --------------------- ... --------_ .. _-------.---------------------_ ..........
.... L.t M l[loO.0) 1(!IO.O) 1(15.0) 1[100.0) 1[6.7) '!\'PO r 1[16.7) 1(16.7) 2(ll.l) 1(11.7) 1116.7) 1[75.01 5[35.7) t(3I.6) Z(H.I) l[ll.l) H(n.J)
T 2125.01 l(U·U Z(25.01 2[25.0) 1(U.5) '[100.0) 5(ll.l) t(3I.71 1(:111.01 1(30.0) 15[100.0) '.D.e· M' 1[100.0) l(l.OO.O) ~ r 1[100.0) 1(100.0)
T 1[100.0) 1(100.0) 1[100.0) 1[100.0) D.e· • 1[100.0) l(25.0) 2(100.0) Z[tII.0) !)po r l(ll.l) 11ll.11 lIll.l) 1(75.0) 1[13.1) 2161.7) 3(60.0)
T 11:5·0) 1[25.01 1(25.0) 1(25.01 WIG.O) l[lO.O) 2(40.0) 2(60.0) 5(100) ,.c , " 1(100.0) 1(..JO.0) 1(100.0) 1(100.01 !)po r
T 1(100 .01 I(W.O) lllOO.O) 1(100.01 1.'.L.e, M ~ r l[loO.0) l(loO.0) mar .01 1(25.01 2(loO.0) 1(25.01 t(IOO.0) ~ T l[loO.0) 2[100.0) 2[1.Ol·.0) 1(15.01 2(50.0) 1[15.0) C[100.0)
• 1(0.') 2[H.') I[H.II 1(H.l) 7[77.1) 1[10.01 '(10.0) 1[10.0) 10(to.') _,m , 1[50.0) l[loO.0) J[n 2) 1[100.0) l(t.l) T Illl.l) l[ll.11 1[n.2) 1(11.1) 1(100.01 1('.11 '(n.7) J[U.l) 11[100.0)
1Ir' m • I 30.01 1(30.0) 1160.0) 5,n.') 1(100.0) 1[100.0) r l(loO.01 l(loO.01 2[31.11 T I(U.I) 1(11.1) 11 31 •6) Il.a·,) 7[100.0) 1(WI.O) 1[l.OO.O)
DC'm • 1 loO.0) 1 loO.0) 2!1OO.01 r T 1(50.0) 1(loO 0) 1(100.0) ..... _-_ .... _-------- .. -......... _-.. _ ... _-----_._. __ ._-.. __ .. _--------_ .. _----_._---_ ... -----------_._--
M-1o&Il N 5(H.II 3(1.$.1) I(U.') '[1l.6) Z(10.S) U[55.'j 1[6.7) '[60.0) 116.7) 116.7) 1[10 •• ) u(n.51 r Z(ll.l) 4[26.71 I(H.7) 1(:111.0) Zlll.)) 1.$[".1) 6[lI.0) '[ •• 0) t[U.O) 6[lI.0) 25[62.5) T 7(:ID.I) 7(20.') 7[:ID.II 't2'.5) t(l1.11 :M(l00.0, 7[17.5) lI(U.OI 5(U.51 7[17.51 l(7.5) 60(100.0)
!lOos "",-.,.,u • _ ~
IIIC_ M l(Jlll 1[13.1) l[ll.11 1[75.01 1(25.0) 2(loO.0) I(Z!>.O) t[M.7) r 1(100.0) 1[25.0) l[loO.0) 1(loO.0) Z(ll.l) T 112!U) Z[loO.0) 1[25 01 1[100.0) Z(ll.ll Z[ll.l) 1(16.7) 1(16.7) 6[100.0)
IU: ' ou.r M 1(100.0) l[ll.l) r 1[100.01 2[100.0) 1(50.01 1[loO.0) Z[M.7) T 2[100.0) 2[l.OO.01 l(ll.l) l[ll.11 l[ll.l) 3[_.0)
o:.w. K 1(100.0) 1(30.0) 1[100.0) 1[25.0) r Z[loO.0) Z[50.01 1(10 0) 1[ll.11 l[ll.)) 1[ll.l) 3(75.0) T 2[60.0) 1[60.01 5[~.0) Z[loO.0) 1(25.0) 1[25.0) t[IOO.0)
... OI!W " , . 1[100.0) 1[100.0) T 1[100.0) 1(100.0) -_.--_._._-_._._------------------------:------------------------------------_ ... _-----... _---------_._----------
--.1 M 1(25.0) 1(25.0) 2(loO.0) tIll. C) 1[16.71 4[61.71 1[16.7) 6[.a.') , '(0.') c(n.1) . 7(Q.I) Z(25.0) I[U.5) 1[25.0) l(n.5) '(51.1) T !l'.I) I( •. t) 1(54.5) 11[100.0) I(ll.t) 5[J5.7) ZIH.I) I(ll.tl 1[7.1) H(IOO.0)
----------- -------------------------------------_._------------------------------------. .. _------------,.a\ IIUl M '(H.1l 11(30.1) U(15·'1 11117 ZI I[U.5) lI(lI.l) U(16.71 lI( •• I) '(U.5) II(U.I) l1(U.II n[o.61 , 15114.1) 30121.11 ZI(2I.21 17IU.5) U(I1. 71 1111(61.7) 17(11.1) JlIlO.l) 17[11.1) U(11.7) '('.11 tJ(K.4)
T 24114.t) U(U.71 !I.1(~.l) 21(16.6) 20(12.0) "7[100.0) ZI(17.I) 54[U.7) 26(U.') 3IIU.OI !t[11.5) US(100.0)
273
in the general education category in the lowest income
bracket females dominate males in Thrissur District, while
males dominate females in Ernakulam District. The lower
proportion of unemployed females in the lowest income
bracket in Ernakulam District as compared to Thrissur
District is partly due to the higher proportion of female
absorbing industrial units in Ernakulam District and partly
due to the larger mobility of females in Ernakulam District
as compared to Thri ssur Di st ri ct. I n the highest income
group in the same level of education males dominate females
in Thrissur District while females dominate males in
Ernakulam District. The lower proportion of unemployed
females in the highest income group in Thrissur District as
compared to Ernakulam District is partly attributed to the
peculiar social and cultural background of females in
Thrissur District.
8.8. Unemployment by level of education and caste
It is observed that among the unemployed in the
general education group graduates constitute higher
proportion among the forward Hindus and Christians while
matriculates account for higher proportion among Other
Backward Castes and Scheduled Castes in both the districts
(See Table 8.7). Lower levels of education are thus
associated with ·"lower castes" and higher levels of
education are associated with "higher castes" in both
districts. A male-female break-up reveals that among the
274
-----,.."...,."'------.~tUl. ..... """lIt-
_11_ rw: -.: 'I'Jt&I Il'* Qoda- -u. CB: -= ~
... _- sa aut u.on au • u.. ..-.. -.-u. -----.... - ___ 0 _________________________
~ ___ ................. 'It!=t1 ..u: . :t "7[&l.11 )(21.)1 l(t.ll U( •. 31 '[40.01 1(10.01 4(411.01 1110.01 101''''1
31." 5O.er :u, )- JI, ,. U.'" 11.7- 61.7' 100.0- D.7-r Jt~, 71 7[D fl UIU.~I 7(ll.f) )1(7).11 1(5.)} 10153.fl 7llli.11 1(5.11 UIG.51
42,,. :10.1' !>t." &l.I' It.7' ·U.5' 4l. .... 50.0' U.5' :M.5' T )IHI 1I1lS )} 17140,51 eIU.OI 4:.1llf..o.OI 1().'1 11[11.)1 I[n.fl 5(17.31 11).C1 ztI1OO·0}
21." 21 .• • 51.7- 57.1' JI.)' 7.1' lI.'· 40.0' •• 7- 50.0' 21." I'Ir H lU··'1 )112·'1 1114.'} ~llI. I 714l.11 11115.)1 7111.71 41l1.71 :IIU.'I 15IU.51
zt 0' 15." 11.7- .g,,' '1 ,. 0 13•3' •. 0- 16.7- U." )C.l'
r llU.ll I[It.'1 1112,11 21D.31 '1501·]1 \tU.l1 )ID.31 IIM.II 1(U.ll 11U.11 '1n.51 11_" U .• , .. ,. 1 •• )' 11.5" ,U.S· I." JI.f' U.5' 100.'" 11.1' T )IU.Sj 7141.'1 '111.'1 .(zt,OI l'L \00.01 )IU.51 'In.51 IIU.)I )lU.51 114·)1 311100.01
10:- U,2' 10.0- .,f' 14.5' U .• , 1I.t· to.'" 21." 50.0' U." ....- .. )121·)1 f15l·51 3110.31 U(H.II \ID.31 UI71.21 1,5.fl 11141·'1 ]!I.'" n.l· lS.)' )01 , •• 16.7- 53.'" 11.7' ~.,.
r )1' 7} 17151,71 2[6.71 7[U.)1 llf.11 lO(1).31 ,IH.ll 10141.51 )IU.OI 4(17 .'1 lSl5I.ll 1I." SO,O' 100.0' ~.2· 11," 18.5' ~ . .,. U.7' n .• ' 50.0' 41."
T 51U.31 U(:I6.11 3(4.tl 'lll.OI lll. 'I 11(100.01 124.41 U[~.ll .,'.81 4('.81 411100.01 U.5' 0.4'" 100,0' lO.O· 14.)' l7.)'
I 1." M.' 20.0' •• f· u .• • "- H '1100.01 )[17 ·)1 1(100.01 llzt.OI -- 15.1' 9." '.0' 3.l'
r l1U.51 '11$.01 l1U.51 8(11.71 31SO.01 3(50.01 4(1$.0) 11." . 17." I." la.)' I.)' zt.O· 7.l'
T 1(9.11 '(11,11 11'·11 11(100.01 )160.01 2(40.01 5(100.01 1.1' 17.0' ).l' 10.0' 6.1' • 14." 5.1' __ .. _________ • ____ • __________ ... _ ... ___ • _00 _ ... __ • ______ • ____________ ~---- ___ .. _____ .. _._ ...
~lb~ y. .!U.51 1t1 .. ·.1 '[10.11 It' 4) )~(zt,11 '115.61 35(51.11 '115.61 '115,61 '12.)1 "(".41
r 1('.0! )oI['~ 61 )[2 6: ~4!lO.11 U(14,ll l8(1U.'1 I(U.~I :W(41.'1 1I(zt.51 1(11.51 1[1.11 SS(SS.fl
T ~(1O.01 Sll"',ll 2(1..81 lO(n.); 14(2.71 UO,100.0114(1I.11 U[tt.51 30(:10.31 11(11.11 2[2.01 "(100.01
r 7 f __ '.~~ M ~[100.01 SIB), I1 3(".71 1[1].]1 3(1$.01 , 111",.01 1116,71 - 1(100.01 - 1(zt.OI
_______ T __ ~ __ ~~~!... ___ : _____ -_____ ..:... __ ~~~~:~!..._.t~~--1(15.01 _1[35.~!..._:._ .•. _..:. __ ·~!~
r e '-,._-,... .. - M 1125.01 ](15.01 11100 .01 1<lS')1 21".71 3160.01 , 1(50.0 1(SO.OI 3(40.01 T l[Z.UI ][1$.01' 4(1011.0) J(4Il.01 2(40.01 1(30.01 51100.01
IX • a.a!. • r 11100.01 1(100.01 1(100.01 1(100.01 T 1(100.01 1[100.0 tllOO •01 1(100.01
IIQ ...... • lOO.') I(SO.OI , 1(100.01 11100.01 1(100.01 1(SO.OI T 1(100.0) 1[100.' .100.01 3(100.01 _._------
~ • 1(:15.0) HlS"i 4!N"l UlS'OI S5:il ilE:1 I' e 100. I 2 U.l ~o .tm::J t' 1(11.71 .,.31 11100.') e 0 .01 ----------------. -.----------------.----------.--\-----~~-------------lA) ~I • ~aoJ o.n.I.Lbtn
cmc • " IlIno<y r 21100.01 31100.0) )(1$.11 lUS.OI 41100.01 T 2(100 01 3[100.0) 1175.01 llzt.O) 41100.01
INC • M 115O.0l 1(50.01 2115,0) 11100.01 11'.7) ":'~,. r 3(50 0; ](50.01 '[71.0) ,JIU.4) 7ISO.'1 '121.tl 1(7.11 14(".')
T 11l1,51 I( 1;, Sj 4(50.01 1(100.01 "'1~.7) 7t",7) lIlO.01 11'.71 15(100.01 ,..: . " 1(100 0) l!IOO.OI ~ _ll.JI 1(ll.,) llll·)1 )1100.01
1l1OO,01 11100.01 ll.)1 1(D.'1 1Ill.]1 )1100.01 QC • " 1(100,01 1[75.11
iboo.11 1(100.01 3(411.11
~r ... • )(i.<',7; l(ll·JI l(n.,! )160.01 'r 2L:.I/, 01 3[50.01 '1100. 1 llto.OI 3140.01 5(100.01 .... " 1(100 ~I 10'0.1) 1(100.01 1(100.0)
T!'PI 7 T 11100,01 1(100·'1 . 11100.01 1(100.0)
~J: of m " '(15.71 l(lI.JI 7(77"1 1(10 III 4140.01 3[30.01 '130.01 10110.'1 r 2[10~ Cl 3(n.3
li!.~ 11100.01 1It.1)
~ 21::3,2: '[16.71 1IU.ll .(100.0) 5(0.51 3(11.21 1(21.)1 11(100.01 ;II(Y:+m " 1(211 01 1130.01 JI60·0) S(n.4) 1(100.01 1(100.01'
r 1(50.01 1[50.0) 1[28.'1 T 3(lt"1 1(14·JI )IU·'I l(U·JI 711DO_OI 1(100.0) 1(100.01
Er'm a 1150 ,01 1!50.0) 2,1'10.01 ,. T 1(50 .01 1(50.01 3(100.01 .. ___ .. _ .... -_-0 .. ___ .... __ . __ ._ .. _ ...... _ .. --_ ... , _ .. -._-------------
~t<It&l 11 )115.1) )(1O.~1 ula.41 liS.)) 19[H.,! 2(U.J1 71U.11 3(l,l.)1 tlll.71 15(n,SI ~ '[~) ]1 '(111.0, 111.71 1S1"·l \ It>>''1 12(11.01 SI:IO·OI l(t.OI BtU.51 T 11()2 Cl 3[~.SI ltlD.tl 215,') >4(100.0), t(~ u(n.51 1(~.0) 'IU.S; lU.5) 40(100.01
- .. -.. ---. _._._ .. _ ... -.... -... -.. ----_ ... __ ..... ----- ._ .. __ . --- -.. ---_ .... ------1JI1 __ rl==w!. ~~
ftStCtC'IthIK l[ll )1 l[ll.)1 l[ll·]1 )115.01 2150.01 3[!IO, 0) t(M.71 r 1(100.01 1(35.0) il!iO.OI I,~ 01 2(ll.l)
2t~·;J 1(75,Oj 1,15.01 ~IIOO.O) 150.01 l[50.01 '1100.01 PD:+~H ~1OO.01 l(ll.)1
r 1[50.01 1(50.01 21100.01 ,1150.01 ~OJ 2(66·71 ~ 1(SO.CI 1(50 ,01 2(100.0) lID.,) :I( .71 )(100.01
Er' ca.- " 1(1~.01 1123,QI 1(100.01 1(35.01 /. l[SO.OI :(~.o; '[~·'I lID.~ 3116.71 lln.OI T )[60.01 3(10.01 5(100.01 1(zt.O 1135.01 2[50.01 4(100.01
",.nu- " r 1(100.01 11100.01 -: 1[100.01 1(100.01 --------_. _. . ----_ ..... _------- ----- .. _-_ .. __ ... _---------- ._-._--------_ .. _-------
"'1b-1ntLI /, 21!.) 01 l(l~.OJ 1(r...0] I(l'! I1 1[".71 l[lJ_11 '113.'1 r )[U.'I )(0.'1 I(U.]1 71""1 2(zt.01 ]1J7.51 l[17.S) '[S7.1] T 5('~.~] 1()oS.tl 2118.1) 11(100.01 2[14.)1 '(50.01 '115.71 111100.0)
--_.--_._ .... -._-------------- --------------_._--- ._-----_ .. _- ----- .. ---- -------- .. _----,,--.. ~(U.71 211.7J 14(60·'1 1(1.71 23151.11 3['.51 UIS3.411('.SI '(1I.'1 124",9) r U(50.01 '(40"1 1('.11 12(".'1 '(21.)1 15IU.51 1(24.31 lL)·OI lllll.l) T 1I()5.11 2(t.11 U(51.11 '[8"1 45ilOO.01 U(lO.tl 36(48-11 3(3.71 U(75.'1 1(1·'1 511100 01
_ .. __ . __ ._ ... __ .. _._._._-----------------......--.-_ .. _-----_._-------------Cftod ~ M 5(7.11 31(50.01 3(J.II :IOIU.ll '(7.'1 64131.1) 11(15.31 It[5I.J1 "U.SI UIU.71 lI1.II 7:1141·'1
, '11.') tit ".'1 3(1.'1 ll(XI.OI UIU.II 14)(11.7) 1.1119.cl U(U.JI U(15.1) 17111·)1 213.21 tl[M.41 T U(7.31 1O(C7.'1 412.41 SlID.71 11(10.'1 Li7llOO.o1 8117.', 11( •• 1) DlU.'1 8117·'1 )11.1) 18(100"1
.. aot ••• 4.oot •• peroc';'t.q6 fro .. col ..... totel and t1qur •• 1" br.cket-4_;t.P.cC.D~-rrO.--;-;m.r.-
ns
unemployed matriculates females constitute a strikingly
higher proportion than males among the scheduled castes and
other backward castes in Thrissur District while the
proportion of females is found to be higher in Ernakulam
District among Muslims and Christians in the same level of
education.
8.9. Job-search period by age and sex
Considerable differences are not observed between
the two districts with respect to the job-search period of
the unemployed in different age groups. (See Table 8.8). It
is significant to note that the average job search period
is longer for females than males in all the age groups in
both the districts indicating lower employment
opportunities for females in both districts.
8.10. Job-search period and family income
The average job search period is found to be
inversely related to the family income in both the
districts (Table 8.9). However. Thrissur District exhibits
a strikingly longer job search period of the unemployed in
the income bracket Rs. 2501-5000 when compared to Ernakulam
District. The relatively shorter job-search period of the
unemployed in Ernakulam District as compared to Thrissur
District is partly due to the large number of industrial
units in Ernakulam District as compared to Thrissur
TiIIII! B.B Distributilll of lDeIployed ac~ordillCJ to iVlriql! Job-tNrch period iIIII duratilll of unetlplDy8lllt by • Md 1ft
i -----------------------------------
TRI~ DISTRICT Average -----------------------,-------------jcil- Duratilll of lkIl!1plDy8lllt IlbIths)
:'Age Sex search less 6-12 12-24 24-36 36-48 48-bO Period than 11
t1 11.0 3[37.5] 4(50] J(12.5] 30.01 28.6. 14.3t
:tB19 F 32.4 2[40] H2O] 1(21)] J(20] 13.3t B.3t 14.3t 7.7t
19.2 3[23.11 0(%.2] 2Cl5.4] m.7l 1(7.71 !i.bt 2iI.7t 10.51 b.3t 5.11*
Above bO
Average-Jcil-
Total search Period
S[1I1.5] B.O 12.St 5(38.5] 14. B 4.9t 13£100] 11.9 7.Bt
--------; ERNInlAII DISTRICT
--------: Duratilll of lMIpl~t laths) Above
less 6-12 12-24 24-311 311-48 48-60 DU iotal than 0
3(SO] 3[SO] 0(42.9] 2O.7t 33.3t B.3t mOl 1[12.5] H12.5] J(12.S] j(j2.S] 6[57.11 26.7t so. 01 7.1t B.3t 12.51 B.bt 7[50] H7.l1 mB.bl m.ll H7.JJ 14C1oo] 23.3* 2V.Ot 17.41 4.2t B.3t 1B.5
;---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------j 11 27.4 6m.l] 3[B.6] 7[20.0] 6W.11 5£14.3] 4[11.4] 4[11.4] 35[37.6] 24.6 12[31.6]2[5.3] 6US.B] 3[7.9] 9[23.7] 2[5.3] 4(10.5] 38[39.01
bO.Ot 100.01 50.01 85.7t 55.bl eo. 01 25.01 54.71 eo. 01 bt..7t bt..7t so. 01 75.01 so. 01 17.4t 52.Bt :20-24 F 38.1 7[12.1] HI.71 IH19) 10[17.2]6[10.3] 9[15.5] 14[24.11 58[62.4] 38.4 lHm mm 7U2.11 9[15.3] 5[B.6] 15[25. 9]58[bO. 4]
100.01 100.01 73.3t 83.3t 85. it 69.2t 29.21 56.3t 73.3t 78.6t n.St 75.01 62.St 45.51 b2.4t T 34.1 13[14.0] 4[4.3] IBl19.4116U7.211Hll.Bl13C14.9l1Bl19.4] 93[100] 32.9 23[24] m.l] 17U7.7l10[10.4l18[1B.B]m .3j 19[19.B]96[100]
76.St 100.01 62.lt 84.2t 68.Bt 72.2t 28.1t 55.7t 76.7t 40.01 13.91 bt..7t 75.01 58.3t 33.9t 58.2t
11 62.0 m.ll 2[14.3] 4[2S.6] 7[50] 14[35] il.l 1[4.B] 2[9.5] 3[14.3] 2[9.5] 13[61.91 21[61.8] 10.01 14.3t ".4t 43.8t 21.9* 33.31 33.31 25.01 so. 01 56.51 29.2t
:25-29 F 79.1 2[7.7] m.B] 3[11.5] 20[76.9] 26[65] 7B.l 1[7.7] m.7] 2[15.4] 2[15.4] m.7] 6[46.2] 13[38.2] 13.3t B.3t 23. It 41.7t 25.21 50.01 7.1t 22.2t 16.7t 12.51 IB.2* 14.01 -
T 73.1 1[25.0] 4[10] 1[2.5] 4[10] 3[7.5] 27[67.5] 40[100] 13.8 2[5.9] 1(2.9] 4[11.8] 5[14.71 3[8.B] 19[55.9]34[100] 5.9t 13.Bt 5.31 25.01 16.7t 42.2t 24.9t 40.01 4l.Ot 2O.7t 2O.8t 25.01 33.91 20.61
-------11 B1.1 Hl4.3] 1[14.3] 5[71.4] 7[33.3] 94.4 Hl4.3] &[85.71 7[33.3]
7.11 20.01 31.3t 10.9t Ib.71 26.1t 2.7t 30 ~ F 140.7 14[100] 14[16.71 138 m.ll m.ll 12£85.7] 14[66.71
:tGOVI 29.2t 13.6t 7.1t 12.51 36.4t 15.JI T 120.9 m.Bl 1[4.8] 19[90.5] 2HlOO] 123.5 1[4.B] 1[4.B1 1[4.B] JB[85.7] 21[100]
3.4t 5.6t 29.7t 12.bl 4.3t b.71 B.3t 32.11 12.7t
riltl I t lienotK ptrtlntagl frill col LJa'I total and figures in bncket denotl! percentage frill rOlf totll.
r-.> ....J Q\
277
District. Sex-wise, the average job search period is longer
for females than males in almost all the income groups in
both the districts except in the highest income bracket,
viz. 'above Rs 5000' (Table 8.9).
8.11. Job-search period and caste
The average job search period is the longest for
the scheduled castes and the shortest for the Muslims in
both the districts. However, the average job-search period
is found to be markedly higher for scheduled castes in
Thrissur District (75.4 months) than in Ernakulam District
(62 months). A male-female break-up shows that the average
job-search period is longer for females than males in all
the castes in Thrissur District while it is shorter for
females among Other Backward Castes and Scheduled Castes
in Ernakulam District (See table 8.10).
8.12. Job-search period and occupation of the Main earner in the famil y
Average job search period is the shortest for
those coming from business households in Thrissur District
while it is the shortest for those belonging to salaried
white collar households in Ernakulam District.(Table 8.11).
The shortest job-search period of the unemployed belonging
to business households in Thrissur District is partly due
to the fact that they get absorbed in family busines£
without waiting for a long time .The shortest average job-
--~I-.ua
D'.
YR
ILI
......... 1
' ... -
&
Jab
-01
....
-a
-a
_U
...... L
.'
IF..m
lV
E
Ielr
Ch
Du
ratl
...
of u..,l~ 1
1tD
ntII
a.
liH
rc:h
D
ura
tl ..
. o
f am
-plo
r-tl
....
. th
a)
I : I
nca.
X
p .. i
Dd
1 ...
cd
2
12-2
4 2
4-l
b
3b-4
8 48
-60
Abov
e P
..,.l
ad
1 ...
6-
12
12-2
4 24
-311
3i
I-48
48
-60
AII
cIft
T
ota
l th
an6
60
Total
th
an6
60
" 29
.8 1
111.1
> 11
11.1)
1I1
1.l!
2122
.2) 2
122.2
) 1 m
.1)
1I11
.11
9137
.5)
36.8
21
16.7>
3(
25)
4133
.3)
118.3
) 21
16.7)
12
141.4
) 10
.01
33.31
7.
11
28.61
22
.21
20.01
6.
31
14.11
13
.31
33.31
33
.31
25.01
B.
71
16.71
:
(500
F
61.6
-
2113
.3)
2113
.3) 1
16.7)
21
13.3)
81
53.3)
15
162.S
) 69
.1 21
11.8)
-
2111
.8)
3117
.6)
3117
.6)
115.9
) 61
35.3)
17
158.6
) 13
.31
16.71
14
.31
IS.4
t 16
.71
14.61
13
.31
14.31
33
.31
25.01
12
.51
18.21
12
.91
T
49.7
114.2
) 11
4.2)
3112
.5)
4116
.7) 3
112.S
) 31
12.S
) 91
37.5)
24
11(0
) 55
.7
4113
.8)
5117
.2)
3110
.3)
7124
.1)
216.9
) 81
27.6)
29
11(0
) 5.
91
2S.0I
10
.31
21.11
18
.81
16.71
14
.11
14.41
13
.31
21.71
20
.01
29.21
16
.71
14.31
17
.61
I "
SS.5
2115
.4)
2115
.4)
2115
.4) 1
17.7)
11
7.7)
5138
.5)
1313
0.2)
:50.3
3111
.5)
3111
.5)
4115
.4)
5119
.2)
217.7
) 91
34.6)
26
142.1
) I
SOl-
2O.00
t 14
.31
28.61
11
.11
20.01
31
.31
20.31
20
.01
33.31
66
.71
41.71
SO
. 01
39.11
36
.11
1:500
F
56.7
216.7
> 11
3.3)
3110
) 31
10)
216.7
) 6(
20)
1314
3.3)
30 16
9. B)
55
.3
3111
.1)
4114
.8)
3(11
.1)
6122
.2) 1
1140
.7) 2
7 ISO
. 9)
28.61
10
0.01
20.01
25
.01
28.61
46
.21
27.1*
29
.1*
20.01
28
.61
33.3
1 75
.01
33.31
29
.01
T
56.4
419
.3)
112.3
) 51
11.6)
51
11.6)
3(7
.0)
7116
.3)
1114
1.9)
4311
00)
52.9
61
11.31
-
7113
.2)
7113
.2)
519.4
) BI
15.1)
201
37.7)
531
100)
23
.51
2:5.01
17
.21
26.31
11
.81
38.9
1 28
.11
25.71
20
.01
30.41
46
.7'
20.81
66
.7'
35.7
' 32
.1'
" 31
.4 4
117.4
) 2(
1.7)
61
26.1)
31
13.0)
21
1.7)
6126
.1)
23(4
4.2)
36.7
41
44.4)
-
2(22
.2)
3(33
.3)
9133
.3)
lS01
-40
.01
66.7
. 42
.91
-33
.31
40.01
37
.51
3S.91
26
.71
22.21
13
.01
12.S
t 25
00
F 67
.7 2
(6.9
) 51
17.2)
21
6.9)
216.9
) 51
17.2)
13
(44.
1) 2
9(55
.1)
79.2
21
11.1)
2(
11.1
) 21
11.1)
21
11.1)
11
5.6)
9ISO)
11
166.7
) 28
.61
33.3
1 16
.71
28.61
38
.St
27.11
28
.21
13.31
10
0.01
14.31
16
.71
12.51
27
.31
12.41
T
51
.6 6
111.5
) 2(
3.1)
11
(21.2
) 21
3.1)
519.6
) 71
13.5)
19
136.5
) 52
11(0
) 65
.0
6122
.2)
217.4
) 41
14.1)
21
7.4)
113.7
) 12
144.4
) 27
(100
) !S
.3I
SO. 0
1 37
.91
10.51
31
.31
38.91
29
.71
31.11
20
.0
40.01
17
.41
8.31
1.
3'
21.41
16
.41
" 42
.021
18.2
) 4(
36.4
) 11
9.11
119.1
) 3(
27.3
) 11
139.3
) 29
.6
4128
.6)
2114
.3)
2114
.3)
3(21
.4)
-31
21.4)
14
(36.
1) i
2501
-20
.01
28.6
1 14
.31
11.11
18
.81
17.21
26
.7t
66.7*
33
.31
25.01
13
.01
14.41
:50
00
F 11
.1 2
111.1
) 31
17.6)
11
5.9)
11 16
4.7)
7160
.7)
41.9
51
20.1)
61
2:1)
211.3
) 61
2:1)
-~"20.I)
24 (D
l.2)
28.61
20
.01
1.31
22
.91
16.51
33
.31
42.91
22
.21
:50.01
15
.21
25.81
T
66
.2 41
14.3)
71
25)
2(7.1
1 11
3.6)
14IS
O.0)
281
100)
37.4
9(
23.7
) 21
5.3)
6115
.1)
4110
.5)
9(23
.7)
-11
21.11
38
11(0
) 23
.St
24.11
10
.5
6.31
21.91
16
.81
30.0
1 40
.01
26. I
t 26
.7t
37.S
t 14
.31
23.01
" 38
.5 1
112.5
) 11
12.5)
21
2:1)
212:1
) 11
12.5)
11
12.5)
1(
40.0
) 58
.S
2118
.2)
119.1
) 11
9.1)
119.1
) 6I
54.S
) 11
161.1
i IbO
VJ
lOOt
7.
11
28.6
t 22
.21
20.01
6.
3t
12.51
13
.31
33.3
t 11
.11
lS.O
I 26
.1t
15.31
:50
00
F 34
.9 1
18.3)
21
16. 7
) 41
33.3)
211
6.7)
3(25
) 12
160.0
) 27
.7
3142
.9)
1114
.3)
1114
.3)
2128
.6)
7(38
.9)
I N
14
.31
13.31
33
.31
28.6
t 6.
3t
11.7
t 20
.01
11.11
1.
3t
6.11
7.
St
...:I
CD
T
36.4
2(1
0)
3115
) 6(
30)
4120
) 1 (
5.0)
41
20.0)
20
11(0
) 46
.5
5127
.8)
115.6
) 11
5.6)
115.6
) 11
5.6)
115.6
) 81
44.4)
11
1100
) 11
.1t
10.31
31
.61
2:1.01
5.
61
6.31
12
.01
16.71
20
.01
4.31
6.71
4.
21
8.3t
14
.31
10.91
ItIt,
I •
dlllo
tN p
trClll
tl9l
frDl
colll
lll t
otll
IIId
Heu
rN i
n br
acke
t de
note
pll"l
:llltl
Ql f
rDl
rllM t
Dtil
.
CA
ST
EI
Av
era
ge
~ISSUR
DIS
TR
ICT
,....
..... e
r.q
e
t.~ULAt1
OJ
bJ
RIt.
:f
C~ 5
ex
lo
b
---------------
Job
--
----
----
,----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
NITy
se
arc
h
o-b
pen
od
b-12
12
-24
24-3
6 3
6-4
8
48-b
O
bO
fa se
arc
h
0-6
6
-12
1
2-2
,+
24
-30
3
0-4
8
48
-60
bO
!.
ab
cve
Tot
al
per
iod
ab
ove
rota
l --
----
----
----
----
----
_ .
11 .3
2.8
1(20
) 1(
20)
5(41
.7)
30.0
~(3b.~)
1(9.
1)
1(9.
1)
2<18
.2)
1<9.
11
2(18
.2)
11(3
7.9)
HI
NOU
11.1
1 6.
31
7.B
I 2b
.71
33.3
t 11
.11
33.3
+ 8.
3+
8.7*
15
.3*
NAIR
F
bO.9
1(
14.3
1 14
.3*
50.7
1
(8.3
)
5.9*
3(/
)1))
21.4
1 1
( 14.
3)
1(14
.3)
4(57
.1)
7(58
.3)
77.0
2<
11.1
1 21
11.1
1 31
16.7
) 21
11.1
1 9(
50)
18(6
2.11
BR
AHI'1
IN
C~I
~TIA
N
11 F
b.7*
<;
133.
3)
13.8
*
7.71
B.
31
6.B
I 1<
8.3)
1<
8.3)
5(
41.7
) 12
(100
) 6.
31
5.61
~.~
6118
.8)
2Ib.
3)
8125
) 2(
6.3)
~(12.5)
2(6.
3)
~
bO.7
1 57
.11
28.6
* 4'+
.4*
40t
.9.2
.1
8.31
91
18.8
) 9(
18.S
) 5(
10.4
1 5(
10.4
) 57
.11
bOf
751
71.4
* 38
.51
43.3
10
112.
5) 2
12.5
) 17
(21.
3)
11(1
3.8)
9(1
1.3)
7(8
.8)
58.8
* 50
+ 58
.6
57.9
+ 56
.3+
38.9
+
7.8.
7.
21
8(25
) 32
(40.
0)
50+
SOt
Ib13
3.3;
't8
(bO
.O,
33.3
* .6
.b*
24(3
0)
80(1
00)
37.5
1 47
.9*
13.3
+ 22
.21
cs.
25f
27.3
+ 19
.4t
59.7
6(
20.7
) 1(
3.41
1(
3.4)
4(
13.8
) 4(
13.8
) 2(
6.9)
11
(37.
9) 2
9(10
0)
20*
20t
•. 3*
26
.7t
lb.7
t 16
.7*
19.b
t 17
.6+
39.3
8(
20.5
) 2(
5.1)
41
10.3
) 2(
5.1)
9(
23.1
) 31
7.7)
11
(28.
2) 3
9(48
.1)
53.3
* 66
.7*
~.~
33.3
1 7
5f
75
f .7
.8*
54.2
* 61
.1
4(9.
5)
10(2
3.8)
1t(9
.S)
5(11
.9)
3(7.
1)
16(3
8.1)
42(
SI.9
) 26
.7*
m .•
) 44
.4*
41.7
t 37
.5+
48.5
+ 45
.2*
50.6
12
(14.
8) 2
(2.5
) 14
(17.
3) 6
(7.4
) 14
<17.
3) 6
(7.4
) 27
(33.
31 8
1(11
)0)
,+0*
,+
0+
6O.9
t ,+0
+ 58
.3+
sOt
48.2
t .9
.1*
t1 25
.0
1150
1 i.
1f
lIS0)
6.
7t
2(50
)
1(50
) 1~
.3.
1(50
) 8.
3*
2(5(
1)
2150
.0)
~.O
2(22
.2)
2122
.2;
11l1
.11
1<11
.11
3133
.31
9139
.1)
11US
-LI
M
F 25
.0
OBe
T
25.0
M
F T
54.3
2(
10)
20t
68.0
2(
6.1)
28
.6*
62.8
4(
7.5)
23
.51
b.9
t
liS
) 1(
5)
33.3
* 7.
11
1(3.
013(
9.11
lO
Ot
2(H-
2(3.
8) .
(7.S
) ~
13.8
t
10.5
*
3(15
) .2
.9*
.2\6
.11
16.7
* S(
9.4)
26
.31
a.lt
2(50
.0)
1.9*
4(
1001
2.
4*
3(15
) 3(
1S)
7(35
) 20
(37.
7)
33.3
* 60
t 43
.8t
31.3
t 2(
6.1)
6(
lB.2
) 17
(51.
S) 3
3(62
.3)
28.6
* 46
.2*
35.4
t 32
.0t
5(9.
4)
9(17
.0)
24(4
5.3)
53(
100)
31
.3+
SOt
37 .5
+ 31
.7t
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
--
S.c.
M
16.4
2(
401
20t
F T
99.1
75.4
21
11.1
1 11
.8+
1(2
0)
7.1*
11
.7. '7
;
1(20
) 1(
20)
14.3
+ 11
.1+
::.7+
21
11.1
) 1(
5.6)
6.
9*
5.3*
1(7.
7)
7.7+
11
5.61
1(
5.6)
6.
3*
5.6*
5(27
.B)
7.8*
11
(84.
6)
1317
2.2)
22
.9*
12.b
t l1
(b1
.U
1811
(0)
17 .?
t 10
.8*
13.3
t 22
.2t
8.3*
25
+ 13
.0+
12.5
1 43
.1
3(21
.4)
2(14
.3)
1(7.
1)
2(14
.3)
1(7.
1)
5(35
.7)
14(~).9)
20+
100+
7.
11
16.7
+ 12
.51
15.2
+ 15
.1t
44.2
5(
21.7
) 2(
8.71
<1
3.01
3113
.0)
2(8.
7)
8(34
.8)
2311
(0)
16.7
* 40
t 13
.(H-
12.5
1 lb
.7+
14
.3t
13.9
+
57.7
11
8.3)
6.
7*
1t1.
5 S(
29.4
) (3
3.3)
48
.2
6(20
.7)
20*
170.
0
8.0
l(SO
) b.
7+
62.0
1(
33.3
) 3.
3*
2(16
.7)
2(16
.7)
1(8.
3)
b(50
) 12
11+1
.4)
22.2
* 33
.3+
8.3*
26
.1t
lb.7
* 2(
11.8
) 3(
17.6
) 2(
11.8
) 2(
11.8
) 3(
17.6
) 17
(S8.
61
IIt.3
* 33
.3+
16.7
+ 25
* 1.
1 18
.3*
4(13
.81
6(17
.2)
3110
.3)
2(6.
9)
9(31
.0)
29(1
00)
17.4
t 33
.3+
12.5
+ Ib
.7+
Ib
.lf
17.6
*
1 (50
) 7.
1*
1133
.3 !
1t.3
*
1(10
0)
1133
.3)
,+.3
+ 1.
4*
2(66
.7)
2.2*
1<
33.3
) 3(
lOO)
1.
8t
1.8*
--
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
--N
ote
* den
otes
per
cent
age
from
col~lmn to
tal
and
figu
res
in b
rack
et d
enot
e pe
rcen
tage
fro
m r
ow t
otal
.
t\l
-...J
\0
280
search period for the unemployed belonging to salaried
white collar families in Ernakulam District is partly
attributed to the comparatively larger opportunities for
life guidance in Ernakulam District which is a bigger city.
The average job search period is found to be markedly
higher for females in the salaried white collar households
in Thrissur District (65.8 months) as compared to Ernakulam
District (46.8 months). The longer job-search period for
females in the salaried white collar households in Thrissur
District is partly attributed to their preference for
specific jobs.
8.13. Job-search period and educational status of parents
An inverse relationship is observed for the
unemployed
educational
between the average job-search period and
level of father in both the districts
the
(See
table 8.12). However, no such pattern of inverse
relationship is observed for males and females in both the
districts.
8.14. Job-search period and education
Among the unemployed in the general education
category, an inverse relationship is noted between the
average job-searGh period and the levels of education in
both ,the districts. However, the average job search period
is markedly higher in Thrissur District at all levels of
education as compared to Ernakulam District (Table 8.13).
The shorter job-search period of the unemployed in
.......-- -aoj .. OtCUPll- 5 jcb- DUritlon of ~NploYM!llt Jell- Duration of UnNploYM!lltllOnth~' tilll E search 1111 11-12 12-24 24-311 311-48 48-00 Above Totil lI!irch IKs /1-12 12-24 24-311 3b-48 48-tIO Above Tohl
X P!riDd thillb /:J) P!riod thillll /:J)
11 2.0 111(0) 1150.0) 49.b 1120.0) 1120.0) 3160.0) SI100; ,
,Self 10.Ot l.bt 33.3t 11.1t 13.Ot b.9t IlIIIloyed F 155.0 111(0) 1150.0) :in Agri- 2.1t 1.Ot Itulturt T iB.S 1(50) 1(50) 211(0) 4U 1120.0) 1120.0) 3160.0) 511(0)
5.9t 1.bt 1.2i 11.1t 4.3t s.4t 3.Ot
11 35.3 4121.1l 115.3) 4(21.1l 2110.5) 3115.B) 115.3) 4121.1) 19155.9) 52.3 4I1b.7) 2IB.3) 114.2) 4I1b.7) 2IB.3) 11145.B) 24152.2) I Self 40.01 33.3t 28.6t 28.bt 33.3t 2O.Ot 25.01 29.7t 'lb.7t 22.2t 16.7t 33.31 50.01 47.Bt 33.4t I l1li 1 oyed F 44.9 lib. 7) 5(33.3) 2112.3) 2113.3) 2113.3) 3(20) 15144.1) 54.2 219.1) 219.1) 411B.2) 114.5) 219.1) 3113.6) 8136.4) 22147.8) , t15e11hert 14.3t 33.3 16.7t 28.bt 15.4' 6.3t lU' 13.31 100.0. 28.61 11.1t Ib.7' 37.51 24.3' 23.bt
~.6 5U4.}~ H2.9) 9126.$) 4111.8) 5114.7) 3IB.8) 7120.6) 3411(0) 53.2 bl13.0) 214.3) 11113.0) 214.3) 6113.0) SI10.9) 19141.3) 4611(0) 29.4t 25.01 31.0 21.1t 31.3t Ib.7' 10.9t 20.'" 20.01 4O.Ot 26. It 13.31 25.01 41.bt 33.91 27.Bt
11 41.4 2111.8) lIS.9) 2(11.8) 4123.5> 3117.6) lIS.t) 4123.51 17134.01 41.1 2118.2) 3127.3) lIt.1) 3127.3) 2I1B.2) 11 131.4) 20.01 33.31 14.31 57. It 33.31 20.01 25.01 26.6 13.31 33.31 16.7t 25.01 B.bt 15.31
~ F 59.B 113.0) 113.01 4112.1) 4U2.1) 113.0) bl18.2> 16148.SI 33166.2) 63.5 3112.51 218.ll 3112.5) 4116.7) 2t8.3) 10141.7) 24168.6) I 1 .... 14.31 100.01 26.7t 33.31 14.31 46.2t 33.31 32.01 20.31 14.31 33.31 33.31 25.01 30.'" 25.81
T 53.6 316.0) 214.0) 6112.0) 8116.0) 418.0) 7114.0) 20140.0) 5(1100) 56.5 SI14.3) SI14.l) 4111.4) 7120.0) 215.7> 12134.l) 351100) 17.61 SO.Ot 2O.7t 42. It 25.01 38.91 31.31 29.91 16.7' 21.7t 26.7t 29.2t 16.7t 21.51 21.31
" 42.7 2It.1> 114.5> 6127.3> 114.5> 2It.1) 3113.6) 7131.B) 22136.1> 35.2 8133.3) 218.3) 218.3) lI12.5) 3112.5) 114.2> 5120.B) 24141.4) : 'W.itd 20.01 33.31 42.91 14.31 22.21 60.0 43.81 34.'" 53.31 66.7t 22.21 50.01 25.01 25.01 21.7t 33.4t
lIhitl F 65.B 4110.3> - 317.7> 6115.4) 215.1> 5112.8) Itl48.7) 39163.t) 4b.B 9126.5) 4(11.8) 5114.7> 4111.8) 318.8) t(26.5) 34IS.6) : cou. 57.1 20.01 SO.Ot 28.6t 38.51 39.61 31.91 60.01 18.21 55.61 33.31 37.51 27.lt 36.51
T 57.5 6It.8) 111.6) tI14.8) 7111.5> 4(6.6) BI13.1) 26142.6) 611100) 42.0 17129.3> 2(3.4) 6110.3> BI3.4) 711.7) 416.9) 14124.1) 5611(0) 35.31 25.01 31.01 36.81 25.01 44.4t 40.61 36.51 56.71 40.01 26. It 53.31 29.2t 33.3t 25.01 35.21
W.illl " 33.2 1(20) 2140) 1120.0) 1120.0) 5125.0) 42.3 1112.S) 1I12.S) 1112.5) 2125.0) 1112.51 2125.0) BI38.1) : lICIt- 10.01 14.31 11.1t 6.31 7.81 6.7t 11'lt 16.7t 16.7t 25.01 8.61 11.21
bl46.2) 13161.9) : I'\J
: lIhit. F 68.5 116.7> 3120.0) 2113.3) 9160.0) 15175.0) 75.8 117.7) 4 (30. B) 2115.4) 00
~ toll. 14.31 20.01 2B.6t 18.81 14,bt 6.71 18.21 16.7t lB. 21 13.9t ~
I T ".7 2110.0) - 5125.0) 3115.0) 10150.0) 20(100) 62.0 2(9.5) 5123. B) 1I4.BI 411t.01 1I4.BI 8(38.11 2J!1(0)
11.8' 17.21 18.81 15.6t 12.01 6.7t 21.7t t..7t 16.7t 8.31 14.3' 12.7t
IIDtt I • MIOt .. ,.rClltlel fraI cat_ total .. H"," illlirlCkIt 1IMOtt,..,.. fr. r. totl1,
282
lhllnllutian of IIJIIIIIlayed ICcordilllJ to lyerAge jab IIlrch period 1nl dilution of 1I1111P11JY8III' by IIlIclhllllll qIIIHficltlon
"fllhlr .nd III
IlfUSSlII DISTRICT Durahon of ulI!IIPlay.nt IMlllthSl
,-------------EIMQUft DISTRICT
Duration of 1I1111P10v-nt I.,.,thll
... h Ir"Ii! 12-2~ 24-3/1 3b-/t8 /t8-60 60 &. Tohl Ayeu91 0-11 11-12 12-2/t aboYl :r.,-,....,. ..
Period ~
Tot.1
---------------------------------------------
.' -
i..1 -
Illb.7) b.7'
11100) 14.3'
I(lU) 1(14.3) 5.3t
. I (\It.SI 1.111
5(83.3) b(85.71 10.41 5.81
5(71.4) 7(100) 7.St ... 2t
' •• 1511 •• 7) 112.9) 318.S) 215.9) BI23.5) 3IS.B) 29. lit 'l1li.9' 110.01
12135.S) SIt(/t3.0) 54 5<111.1l 'r.!.Of 53.11 Ja.31
2Ib.5) i!2.21
319.7) 11119.11) i!lb.5) 13(~1.9) 31136.51 50.01 5O.Of 5O.Of 511.51 ~3.1'
1O.0I JUI 21.41
112.2) 21 ... '" 3111.71 ,.IB.9I 1112 ..... ) 2'1153.3) .. 5157.0) M.211111.\) 213.7) blll.1I 315.b) 711l.0) blll.1l ~(~." 5It(b3.~1) 100.1)1 13.31 25.Of 57.1' 84.11' ~.Of .. 3.7t '10.01 100.0f "2.91 33.3t 58.St 'r.!.0I 72.7' ~.1' '.
mll.3) 212.5) 5(0.3) 5(6.3) 12115.2) 1,,(17.7) 36("5.6) 79(100) 110.5 \1<12.'" 212.") SI9.'" lb.7' 1tO.0I 3 ... 7t
b17.11 13115.3) BI".~I 37(~3.5) 11511001 '10.01 54.21 bII.71 66.11 51.51
2'1.~1 :50.1)1 17.2t i!b.31 75.0' 77.81 56.3' '17.3'
------------------------------------------------------_._-- ------2129.6) 11IIt.31 7150.01
·'l.B 11101 10.01
2.i 2112.5) 211.111
. ~.13111.5) 17.bl
'11'+111 11101 11101 11101 2(20) 10138.5) 27.731"2.'11 .?B.b' 1".31 \1.11 20.01 12.51 15.ot 2O.Of
3118.BI 31\8.81 1111.31 ",,3.8) Iblbl.51 B'1.4
i!Il.Of 25.Of 7.71 14.6t 15.S1
712/1.'11 /tIlS.'" 113.8' 217.71 "SIt.6' 26(100) 21t.lt 21.1' b.3t 11.1' IIt.lt 15.11t
58.b 3121.'" 10.01
IIIIt.3) Ib.7' SO.OI ~.3' 9.7t
2129.11) 11IIt.31 1 WI.3) 31~.'11 7(50.01 IIt.3t 11.lt 12.51 9.lt 7.51
211U' 2m.S' S(21.~1 "28.61 1~1I001
S.7t IS.3I 25~0I 7.1' 8.51
--------~~~.----.... ,......-=---..~-.. ,.~-.--,----,-, ._---------_ ... --------, /6,72115.",
lO.OI t I !l.! 219.11
/I.bl
. -1.1 ,,11,'" 21.51
, lb
; 15.5 -
, 17.1
117.71 bllt'.21 2<1:M, 33.3t "2.9. 29.111
11127.3' 219.11 1tO.0I 11I.7t
'\(2.Q' 12134.3) 4111.,., i!5.Of 'I I. 'It 21.11
11251 11.7. \I~I
111001 14.31 3175' i!5.0f 11(80)
117.7) i!0.0I
3113.61 112. '11 318.bl II2,'J) 18.8' S.bl
117.71 13137.11 "It. I 3<12.:51 m.iI' Itll'.') b.St 20.31 2O.Of 66 .. " ~.". 911tO.91 221/12.91 411.1 5(22.71 .. <18.21 18.8t i!1 ... t 10129.111 35( 1001 15.bl 21.0t
1120.'" l.6' 4(80.01 3.9' 511(0)
33.31 i!8.1I1 115- 8117.", 211t.31 8(17.'11
2b.7t '10.01 3'1.8t
3B
26 1133.3) 6.7f
30.8 1120'
11 SO , 11.11 1133.3) 7.11 ~11t01
2('.31 'Ic:i: 33.3t SO.OI 3113.11) 4118.21 1I~.5)
33.3t 33.31 12.51 5110.91 10121.7) 1t2.2' 33.31 1t1.7' 8.31
-'
·lle",.'1 ~IS!.I!' 30.'" 33.31 5(22.71 221'7.') 1:5.21 23.7' 121211.11 41111001 21.lIt 27.9'
11501 ... 31 b(33.SI l.Of 21~'
2(~.OI
i!.8t SI60.01 3.1!' :511001
-------------------------------------------tl/!,2 2(~1 11201 11201
I!O.Ot 33.3t 7.11
I; 11.231:111 .e.9t
21201 11 101 13.31 B.31
. 1'1.55133.3) 1111.71 3(20) ~."I 25.01 IQ.31
116.71 S.3t
11201 5(33.31 16.B 4(SO.0' 11 12.512(25.01 b.lt 7.81 2b.71 33.31 22.21
11101 3(3\)) 10(116.71 15.7 3\112.91 1\Ift.31 2(29.61 11IIs.31 7.7t 6.3t 9.7' 20.01 7.1' i!2J!' 8.31
11671 5.bf
1t126.7I 1511001 b.3' 9.91
111.3 7146.71 1111.71 3(201 i!3.3. 20.01 13.01
2(13.31 Ilb.71 13.31 4.21
1112.51 B(53.31 ".31 11.1'
" .... 71 7.51
116.71 1511001 1.8f 9.lt
I JI.B 10115.6' 314.71 1"121.'1) 7110.91 9(14.115(7.8) 16(251 M(3B.3) 43.6 IS(2O.S' SIIt.21 9112.51 6(8.31 121\6.71 "'5.61 23131.91 72"S.6I 100.01 1()I).v, 100.01 100.1)1 100.01 100.0' 100.01 100.0f 100.01 100.01 100.01 100.01 100.0f 100.01 100.01 100.01
; 111.1716.8' 1Il.0) 15114.6) 1~(II.71 716.81 13112.61 "8146.61 1031111.7) 56.9 15116.11 2(2.2' 14115.11919.71 12112.91 BI8.6) 33135.5193(56.41 11~.Ot 100.1)1 100.01 101).01 100.01 11)0.01 100.0' 100.01 100.01 100.01 100.01 100.01 100.01 100.01 100:01 100.01
'\3.217110.21 It12.1I1 2'1117.41 19111.'" Ibl'1.bl 18110.81 bltl38.31 I b7ll00 I 51.130118.21513.0123113.91 15(9.11 21t1l4.5' 1i!17.31 56133.91 16511001 100.01 100.01 100.01 100.01 100.01 IOO.Of 100.01 100.01 100.01 100.0f 100.01 100.01 100.1)1 100.Of lOO.Of 100.0.
I jntes percl!Iltage frOll cohmn total and figures In brad et denote percentage frOll rOM total.
283
Ernakulam District is partly attributed to the larger
employment opportunities availble in Ernakulam District as
compared to Thrissur District. Among the pro-fessionally
and technically qualified persons, the average job- search
period is found to be the longest for the professional and
technical certificate holders in both the districts. The
average job-search
unemployed females
period is
than males in
category in Thrissur District as
District.
strikingly longer for
the general education
compared to Ernakulam
8.15. Job-search period and academic performance
An
peri od and
unemployed
inverse relationship between the
academic performance is observed
in both the districts (see table
job-search
among the
8.13) . An
analysis of the job-search period and academic performance
by levels of education reveals an inverse relationship
between the two at all levels of education in the general
education category in Thrissur District. However, no such
pattern of inverse relationship is visible in Ernakulam
District (table 8.13). In the professional and technical
education group an inverse relationship between job-search
period and academic performance is observed only among the
professional and technical degree holders in both the
districts. A sex-wise break-up shows that the average job
search period is longer for females than males at all
284.
'.iiIIIt!:J1It Dli'l'liIc¥ iJUWCVDJi Dlmud
w," A~¥ ~-fl c# J~-cn ..,1'"
DuratIon of un~loya.Dt 6-U J.;c-H 2<-36 )s-48
_ GaII:I.ca wit:n1t q>'X:!.U <p>J.i.f.iaJt:ia>
, UL.C. ·:l.O l(lCO:·
. ~ jt
~ 191 :j;.i :116.1
::: 19.1 r !I.D
'" ~ !llOOJ J 174
T j~ 1(51')
1(33.3) 2(6~.' J
2(;:8.6) 1<14.3.1
l(4) l(4~
1(3.1) 2(6.3)
H2~, 1114.)) 1\14.1)
1(50) l{3J.3)
1(4) 2(81 2(6.3) 2(6.3)
·:8-60
1\2;')
1Il'..l'
.:; Lv) 4{l2.5;
sur.HoD of vnaoployoa ... i AV"""...... O~ 6-12 12-24 24-36 36-·\8 48-60 Jab-8Mtd1 1'1.1"1cd
1(33.3) 96 1(50) .(66.7) 1(3~.3) 3(100) 96 1<33.31 3(42.9) 62 2\5t,); "(51.1; ,42 J(12.91 7(l00) 47 !,(71.41 7(21.9) S9 16(M) :.5(78.1) 8S •• 21(65.6) 32(100) 76.7
1(100) 1(50)
46.5
Il12.~) ll6.3) 2l12.5) 1:4.2) 3U2.3,
~\33.J, ll~5) 1~!2.5i
2(~.7) ~(SOI
111~.~) 2,::;), 1,6.3) 2;6.3) 2(e.)
2\:i~) l(SQ) ;l50)
::';.lCO~ l\l~~; 1,100) 1,lS.01
);·:~.Ol
l,2~) 4(100i j, ~7 .» Bil3.)} U17~, 15(.6.7) IS(~2.S) 24\1(0)
l~2SJ 'i\C~.'}
., ,.J 1(16.71 I(H.7) H16.7) 2d3.J) 1(16.7)
I(SO.O) l(SO.O) 2(100) G(12.9) 8(57.1) HlIOO)
20 IlSO) 37.7 lilo.7) 39.1 2(18.2) 20 ~(~~.O)
31. 7 4l2~.2}
1(15.7, 211e.2)
1,14.3)llH.3) ll5.6) 3(16.7)
1(9.1) 3(27.3) llU.l) 1,14.3) 2\11.1) 4(22.2)
2(33.3) h16. 7; hlloo, 3(27.3) Ul61.I)
1(::'4.3) 1, :;9. 9) 1(5.6) 3(16.7) 18(leO)
:I! 1 1;.3 ! Sj' 1(7.1)
~ 1).1 2(28.6, ~!'60.4
!SI.! 2(12.5)
? :4 J.!.14.lt. ·r;1.) l(12.~)' HI
" r U 11,.1.1) 1:7.7l I'.! -.1' ~ ~ ~ , .3 i
., 1',1 1l'j.1> :tt;47·.4dJJJ
°il·1 ~/ll.7.1
.'C>:.t-UC.A1\Ktb H 2 1(IOJ}
; F8 I(Sili ri 2(66.7) H 12.5 l(Sil)
:: ~ 14 115::; rl3.3 \(;51 1.25, M -
!lI f l8.>
2(25) 3(37.3) 3(37.31 1(7.1) 2(~j.3) 117.1) s:.JS.7) 1(28 •• )
1(14.)) 1(14.3) 2(28.6) 1(14.3) 7143.8) 41.12l13.3, 3(ZO) 1(6.7) 5l33.3) 4(26.7) 15(62.5) 2(:U.2) 3111.l) 4(44.4) 9(50.3) 20 3lJJ.3) liU.l)lill.l; 1,ll.11 .,U.2) lill.l/ 9\17.S)
1(6.)) 2lU.S) 116.3) 5(31.3) 5(31.) Ib(lOO) 32.25(20.8) 1(4.2) 4\16.7) 2(0.3) 7(29.2) 1(4.21 Ca6.7) 24l1OO)
4l57.1) 4l5~) 1(2S) 3l3).3) ·H3r).&, liI~.7) 1 ~ 7 .l}
H1OO) 1(14.))
2~:S)
1~!1.1) 1(25)
117.7) \\7.7) 2ll3.Jl 117.11 )l:.· .,'1 )(15! )~;5)
~Cl8.2' l/9.1l lln.]) ~{:'.1) 7fl .. " lU.]) JIJr)) ;~-','A f) '1.(1 ~J 4('1 ~ )1" l}
l\JOJ 1(33.31 IlS0)
1(501 1(25) 1(25)
1(25) 1(25)
;;:(SO) 1125; .(50, 1,25,
1(14.» I\!.:!. ::J 2~SO} ·\(4~.41 t5\4u.2} 2D.!.3) 'H~Q)
9~·Ed
l(l~.!i) 4.( (\.';: i 7(.~7 .5) 60.8 5(100) 42.6 ·1{~Gi «:;0.61 I~.6 4(57.1) 9(69.2) 18.S 3(J7.5, l3l1oo) 18.~ 7l~6. 71 6(30.0) 35.8 1(1";.7) H(70.0) 40.4 3(30) 20(100; 44.2 4l~5)
i(Jt.4) l! l2(;. 0) 19.3 1(5~1 Ilf40l ·');1.1~} '11.66121;.1/ 1 Eo!.n (lJ .~ I I I '". I 1],!1 j';! 'i6 oJ
1(3).3) 2 ~lC6.7, 1-1 3lIOO) 10 2(50.0) 2l50.0) 14 4l100) 14
4(100) 4(100)
I(lOO} I(~)
2(66.7;
1(100) lilOOI
1\';::\1)
2i") ::'\':;:l) 1(14.3) lO..2.Sj 2l13.3) lll(.i:I; 2(;:0) JUD.;}}
1{l4.3i 2\2~) 2~1:'. 3(20) 2(13.3) l\:~:n !.~16.7J
2(20) IJ).,j, 3\18.3)
3(60) 3,30) 1(14.31
1,6.7) 1\1,'1_ 7; .:',1;;,7,
1', ;" ~ 1~6_Ji 4i15)
j{~'J.O)
5i50.0) ).~,loo)
/(15.7; 3~:i3.3J l5l1eo; 0(37.SJ Hl\b2..~j 16,1"'i
3U6.7) 2(11.1) US." lIS",) li!l·ll 18(ij.)) 5121.7) ~18.7} 4117.'1' (;(~ 11 2)(SO]) 8"~·~l 41?·8~ ~(Ill) l(".!.o) 1)(I!l "J "l(10C')
1(100) 1(100)
l(SOI ll33.3)
113J.3l 2(66.7) 3(100)
ll1OO) 1(100)
1(100) 1l1OO)
::, 1(:3.3l 1(3.1.3) li33.3) 3(27.3) 2 1(1001 1(20.0/ 4l60.0) 5(100)
:;; ~ 1;.(. ;\;,~, 2(~J 3\1.7-5) It12.5) TlI.S "'~7.3; l(~.I) 3'.27.~) 3l27.3) 1(9.1)
f -
:~ ~ ~ f • T~ H •
!II: -
!,l')Q, 1C5~)
1': 22 ~(£O). 7) :or F •
T"" ~(n,7;
1:40 :! f 11
TU
T 2 1(10}, :of ,6 1~25J
!.l!n: ~ 23.6 !u!.;
~ :'1.2 ~l':C) :.::- F :.:
'r ?f) Z,3).3;
l{S';; L\SCJ 1 \10'); 2i&O.7) ll33.3)
l\i.5} 1·.25) 1,100/ 2l40) 1120:
.1. ~ ~~,.j )
;ll).l.:n HlS.7i
1.50)
1(50;
3l72.7) 11 2(50) 11(100) 9.l 3(GO)
1(10),
1(100. 2(10'))
2(lCOi
2 2 2G
20 14
llleo) 1,10,1) l'~CI
1\30;
1(33.:;; 3(100) 13 1(33.3, 1(100)
1.:33.3; JtlOQj 14 ~(5vJ
<c06.71 1(33.3i ::1100)
1(25) 1<20)
ll1OO)
1,100i
1(25)
1\25) 1(20)
.-1<50;
ll~O)
1(33.3i
ll:.5)
1(100) lil00) 2(100)
.,1001 1(100)
1,100)
3,75.0, l,=5 0, ·,,1110)
- -- ~ .- - .. --.- - - -~- . "--p ~ •. p- -----------; '1-----------------------
1(25;
1(20)
1(20)
lIJOO)
l\lOOj 4i80.0; 1,20.0) 5(100)
-'- .---~--, .. ------ ... --- ._----------... ----t ',33.3) .. 1 (::3,3) .3(7:'.0:'
1 (2~'
(Contd ....... )
1 (;:;~·.O, ~(ICO ;
'!le' " \j 2(66 7}
: , ...
1(100)
1(100)
I (B']) 3(,00)
1133.3, .J ,10O, 1(100}
1(100)
11 l 2(100) 7i l(-40)
3000)
3(60)
28S
.1(60.0) ~\.4.U.UJ
5(100)
-----------------------------------------4-.--- 3(60.0) _ :----_----_-"'"31:6o.oT 1J!~!6:~ 2(50} 1(25) 1(25) 4(100) 2 2'18°) _ _ _ _ _ _ 2(,40.0)
flU 2(!>'J} -- 1(25) 1(25) 4(100) 2() 3(100) - - - - - ~(100) -.---~----------- ---.------.---- - .---------------------------------- ..• - ---------_. ------------------- ._---_. ------ -_ ... _---l.C ID.!d
M -! r 2 111(0)
T 2 1(100) tI -
D r -T -
'.c.+B.a;. M -
: r 4i-; TlI
D F -T
l(lOOi 1(100)
1(100) 1(100)
98 98
1(100) 50 1(100) 50
se
50
1(100) 1(100) l(lDO)
l(lCC)
1(100) 1(100) 1(100) 1(100)
1(100) 1(100) 11100;
1(100) ._- -------------------------------_._-------------------------------
1! ; 00) I (100)
1 (100~ 1 \1 00,
SO 50 so
---------- .. ----- ----------------.--~----------------------------;M'otal
. It 14 2(66.7) ~ '25 1(50;-
T 16.4 3(60) ;.: 2~
n r T2!
'4 H.S 2~5Jj mr25 li5O) '. T 19.3 3(50)
; S,L.Cffll[R[)' ~ M -
ID'62 TG2
U.L.C+'i)'Pa M -
DrS7 TS7 H50
III r 118 T 105.2
"56 D'17.5
T 17.1
1(100)
1(100)
1(25)
1(16.7)
1(33.3) 1(33.3) 1(50)
1(20)
l(SO) 1(16.7) 2(25)
1(33.3) 1(50) 2(4Oj
1(25) 1(50) 2(33_3)
1(33.3) 1(33.3)
3(60.0) 11 2(40.0) 18 2(56.7) 5(100) 14.5 2(33.3) 1(100) so
98 1(100) 74
4(66.7) 20.~ 2(33.3) 38 2(SO) 6(100) 29A 2(25)
2(100) 2(100) 53 2(100) 2(100) 53
l()]_J) 3(100) 14 1(33.3) 3(100) 14 1(50) 2(40.0) 110 3(100) 3(60.0) 104.3 4(80) 5(100) 104.7
1(50) 2(25.0) 110 1(16.7) 4(66.7) 6(75.0) 97.9 1(12.5) 5(62.5) 8(100) 98.7
3(100)
3(SO)
3(75)
3t37.5j
1(25) 1(25)
1(100) 1(100)
1(7.7) 1(7.1)
2(14.3) 2(13.3)
•. D,c.+rr;;--·· -----------------, ---------------------------------H:!l! 1(100) 1(100)
lilT - 62 T 38 1(100) 1(100) 62
;.c.f!\'l'I
" I F T -" D r74 Tl< M16
III r 06.5 T 66.3
MD Ill! f &;:_3
T 6l.2
1~ .• :);le H38
D r -T38
-.-
1(100)
1133.J)
1(l00)
1(25)
1(100)
1(100)
38 38 78
1(100) 1(100) 38 1(100) 1(100) 56
1(33.3) 75 2(100) 2(66_7) so 2(66.7) 3(100) 62.5
1(25_0) 75.5 ~(lOO) 3(75.0) 42 3(75) 4(100) 55.8
1(100)
1(100)
11100)
1(100)
2(15.4) 2(14.3)
2(14.3) 2(13.3)
1(25) 1(25)
1(100) 1(100)
1(100) 1(SO)
2(66.7) 2(40)
1(100) 1(50.0) 1(100) 1(50.0) 2(100) 2(100) -_._-----
3(50_0) 1(Jl.3) 3(50.0) 1(16.7) 6(100) 1(100)
l(SO)
1(25) 1(25) 2(25)
1(50.0) 1(100) 1(50.0) 1(50) 2(100)
4(SO.0) 1(25) 4(50.0) 1(12.5) 8(100) ---------
2(SO) 2(50)
4(100) 4(100)
1(100) 1(100)
1(100) 1(7.1) 1(7.7) 9(69.2) 13(92.9) 1(7.1) 10(71.4) 14(100)
lUDO) 1(6.7) 1(7.1) 9(64.3) 14(93.3) 1(6.7) 111(66.7) 15(100) .
2(66_7) 1(33.J) 3(100) 2(66.71 1(33.3) 3(100)
lllDO) 1(100)
1(100) 1(SO.O) 1150.0)
1(SO) 2(100) 1(100} 1(SO.O)
1(100) 1ISO.0) 1(5<1) 1(50) 2(100)
2(100) 2(CO_0) 1(33.3) 3(60.0) 1(20) 2(40) 5(100)
11100)
1(100) ._---------------------------------------------------------------------------5~.L.C+ I.'r.I.
M38 1(100) I r
T38 1(100} M14 1(50) 1(50)
nr38 1000) T22 1133.3) 1(33.3) 1(:l3.3) "SO 1(25) 2(50) 1(25)
IIIP16 1(100) T 45_2 1(20) 1(20) 2(4Q) 1(20) _._---_ .. __ .. _-------_ ...... _----............ _--_ ... -..----------...... H33 1(14_3) 1(14.3) 2(2<1.6) 2(28.6) 1(14.3)
ItHJ2 1(50) 1(50) T ll.7 Itll !) 2(22_2) 3(33.3) 2(22.2) 1(11.1)
1(100) H
1(100) 14 2(66_7) 38 1(33.3) 3(100) 38 4(80.0) 61..8 1(20.0) 38 5(100) 59_1
7(17.8) 54_6 2(22.2) 38 9(100) 53.1
1(100)
1(100) 1(100)
1(100) 2(~5) 2(25)
1(100) 2(22 .2) 3(33_3)
1(100)
1(100) 1(100)
1(100) ~(50) 8(88.9)
1(11.1) 4\44.4) 9(100) --------------------------
2(22_2) 3(33.3) 1(100)
2(20' 4(40)
4(4-1.4) 9(90.0) 1(10.0)
4( 40) 10(100)
(ContCl ••••• )
286 , .::.C .• 1. t. 1.
11 25 l(~) 1(~) lU~' l(~) 418ll.0) :: p Q 1(100) 1120.0)
? )J.t 1I2i:l) 1.:10) 11:10) 1.20) 1(:10) ~1100) -. 1.> 1(100, l(~.0) 2 1(100)
!!J. • ::l lllO' • ..l) 1(50.0) r ,. 2(100, 2(100)
11100)
,::.I., ll~) Il:ll) 1(:10. Il:lO) Il20' 5ln.U 1'",. r <;! - - lt~' - - - It501 ZUII.I) 1(100)
._ ... ~~~~~::~~:~:...!~~~-,-:_~~~:~ __ ~~~_~~2-2_ ... ~-'_~~L_: ___ '::_.-.----.---=---.. :-. --. .::. -.------(1.1;"1.1.'
.7' : .
? 7. MM
mr .
1(100) I(50)
Il100)
1(1001 1(100)
, ,. - - - - - Ill001 lll(0) , .. --~-.-----.------.. ----------------------------------------------------------
itN mr .
2(100) 2(100)
~-i- :---.:..-------~.:.~-) -.-.---.. --... ------------------------~ ! Il!>O) It!>O) ZllOOI 14 1(1001 U~.O) I r • la UlllO) ll~. 0)
, 56 .ll5~1 Il501 2l1oo) 2E ll~1 1(50) 2(1110) 11 ::3.1 2lZll.6) Il1o.3) 2lZll.1) Il14.31 Il14.3) 7(5].9/ .. 11501· 115111 lUO.O)
11 , 57.5 Illl.71 Illl.1I Illl.7) 31501 "ta.2) Z' I(50) ",(50) 2l50.0) ,It.] ZI15.41 1(1.31 117.71 3123.11 2115.4) U7.7I ~l23.1) ll(13)) 5. I;~) 2(50) II~) 4110.:.1 H U 2l:lO) 1(10) 21:10) 2l20) 3llt) 10152.6) 56.' Zll6.1I 211&.7) 211&.7) C(50) Ul15.3)
m r &4.3 ltU.I) IIU.l' 7:n.8) "47.4) '!.' 2l'.I) 211.1) 2".1) 'l!.:.2' U:~.5) %:.64.71 T 65.7 3:b.8; ll5.3) 2tlO.5) 3ll5.91 10,52.6) Ulloo) 74.' 2l5.9) 2l5.9) 4lU.1) 41U.1) 4lU.I) 11152." 34llllOl _._----------------------------------------------_._------_._-----------------_ ... ------.. ''''.4 2110.5) U5.3) 2110.5) 3(15.8) 4l21.1) 3115.8) 4l21.1) 1.9l85.9) 57.' 2(ll.3) 1(5.71 2113.3) 3(20) "ta.7) 15137.5)
\Or r 7.).1 2Ill.3) 111.7) 1(5.7) 1(6.7) 101611.7) 15144.1) n.3 ]( 12) ;(11 411&) 4(16) U(48) 25lU.5) '51.1 2(5." IU." 41U.1) 4lU.') 5114.71 4lU." 14l41.2) 34(100) 70 2(5) 4(10) 4(10) 7117.51 41101 UI47.51 40(100)
;;.;;-~.1~;ct;;;1~~lC;im1<ii.lB1--------------·------·----·----- .. --------------.---------.-----
'.S.L.C.atno< ... - m 11100) 1(100)
14 r -T . ~ 1(100) 1(100) M ili 2t6ll.7) Illl.3) 3(75.~) 1.."").7
m r .. 1(100) 1l25.0)'1 T :It 2t~QI 1125, 1(25) 4(100) W.6 .-
lllllO) 1110.0) 1~5:I~ li~; 21~.0) 1(20) 41101" 1(11101 -m---:---:--. --: .... -.~----:---.:. -----:-. --"J(rr:cr~oo' - .. :.-. --:--- .--:--.---:-
u r IQ • - - - - - - 1(2~.0) n - _ - -11251 IllSl tI".71
'29 - - - .... 4(100.0)".3' - - -1(50) 1(50) 1133.1) IllJ.J) 41 ... '7) 1(11101
• .o.c:. et.-A -
11 r If tU . -
mrUS 1155 .-----M -
ur ... s f .. .5
D,c....,.
11' 1 F . ,S M' -
11 r J; :34 It .
m~ 74 T7C
1(100)
111001
1(100) 1(100)
ll~) 1(50)
2.66.7) ln3.3) 21611.7) 1Ill.3)
1(1110) 1211 II ~) 1(100) 1211 11~)
74 illIIO) 1(1110) 1(1110) 1(1110) ~ .. I -
l4 1\50) 2(1110) UI 1(50) 11501 2(1110) 110 Illl.3;
1(100)
1(100)
3(100) 3(1110)
62 I(100) 1(100) ZZ 1(100) 11100) 3Z
" '1llOO) 1120.0) 62 t'7. ~ a.~ 2l!.O) 1125;· 1(25) 4180.01 22
t .a.' 1(20) 2l4O) 1(20) 11;:0) 5(100) 32
11501 2(1001 11501 1(1001 JUII) 1(1110)
luio) 1~1IIO)
1(1001 l(lJ~11 1(50) 2111.1) 21 ... '7) 3(11101
1(100) 11~.0) Illl.3) 21".7) lllS.O) I(25) 2(50) 1125) 4UOO)
-:.....-------,T2~ 3(7~;O) 4(100.0)
--.. --. i-· --.--------------------.--.-------. --... -------... ------- -.------------.. --.---.-------- - ----'-'.tOUIE m ~ : 1-1' 1(100) 1(lOOJ
,. ~ 14 • l\!OOi 1(100) ---------------~--.----------.---------------------------------_ ... _--_ .. --------......... Ib)
'" I r .
" H -II F It
,It ~1J
mr !7 f 57.5
lllOll)
1(100)
1(25) 2(~OI Il~) I(25) 4\:;0) 1125; 21611.7) 1113.1)
2Ill.3) 1116.7)
1(100)
1(100) la
411(0) 128 1(50) 4(100) 98 1(33.3) 3150.01 n.8
J{lOO) JI!.O.O 46 3lSO) 6(100) 70.5 -----_._-_._--------_._--_. ----.-----
H 15 •• ur ~.1
'!G.7
MI-~I_)
IUS) 2(50) 11:.51 llle.l) 2121.6)
11'.1) 3t27.3) 3127.3)
41S6.41 8'.;; 1114.31 3\~2.~) 7163.G) 56.S 1(1.::.51 119.1) ;;127.3) UlltOl 7G.3117.1)
H 40.] ll33.3) lIll.l) 1Ill.3) 3(100) 14 I F. II
T 40.] 1133.1) 1Ill.3) llll.)) 3(100) 2G a 23.7 2l22." 1114.31 2(11.6) 1\14.3) 1114.3) 7141.2, 70
n r ".1 2120) ](30) 1(10) 1110) 31lO) 10151.8) n 1(~) T 36.' 2lU.11 1\5." 2lU.3' 51:19.4) 2IU.I) 2IU.II 3117.1) 17(100) 74 1(14.31
-<I U.. 41J11.IJ 2115." 2115.4) 2115.4) 3l23.11 13152.0) 19.5 2IU.8) IU , 5;.5 Ill.3' lIB.]) 10(8l.]) UI48.0) 7!1.'
~ >J.a 5t:lO) 2(8; 2(1) 3(UI ll(52) 251100; 73.] 2(4.4)
... M·li:i·2i1:71218.;;-47i;:;)-;m.;).UMi3!U-:0l 4117:4i 23151..1) 17 2(9.5) tor F 11.7 3Ill.I) 31ll.1) 114.51 2(9.1; lll59.1) aut8.9) 74.7 1(3.0)
~ '!Z l(~.4j 21'.4) 7\15.11 7(15.61 5IU.l) 5tU.1) 17(37.1) 45(100) n.7 315.61
1(100)
1Ill.3)
~(J3.J) 2133.3) 111I.71 2(18.2) 211&.2) 119.11
111&.7) ~;25) l(25) 1112.5) ~1l4.31 2114.2) 2114.3)
1(100)
I(50)
1(::5) lU4.11
4114.3' 4IS."
111001 11501 2111.7) 1(25) 3142.'1
2IU.I) 2IU.d) 4114.3) 3110.'7) 6tU.l) 5(U.ll
1(50) 11ll.31 5(1110) 1(11.7) 6154.5)
11Jj.31 21611.7) 3l100' 5145.5) &~sc..SJ U(lOO)
5183.3) 6(42" 2\~1 8.57.1! 71~1 14~lC'l)
1150.0) 1150.0) 21lOG)
1Ill.~) 31Q." 11~) 4157.11 2121.6) 7(100) UI".7) 17(37.1)
4IU.]) UI4,.4) ZlIU.21 410." 2tl!3.1) UUOOI,
114.8) 2".51 41U.0) 12157.1) nl».tJ 5115.2) 41U.1I 5115.21 4112.11 UIG.41 m(Q.l) 6(U.1) 'IU.I) tl1&.7) 4('7.41 .1 • .11 54(1001
~~~ 4'~j lUO) 1(10) 1(10). 1(:10) l(10) 1OIV.5) 15.25145.5) 3127.312(18.2) llt.1)' UI47 • ., UI52.2) UllllO)
1 r 25.7 3123.1) SllI.5) 1(7.7) 2115.4) 2,15.4) 13(56.51 V.I 4Ill.3) 2116.7' IlI.3) 118.31 111.3) 31251 ~ Zl.S 7:30." 1( 1.3) 6U6.1) 21~.7) ·un.4) ];1l.OI 23(100) 30.19\39.11 3111.0)4U'.4) 114.l) U4.3) 1(4.3) IU'7.4) ., 21.2 4118.21 2\1.11 .127.3; lln.s, :<'.11 H4." 4(l8.7) 22l44." 36.65121.9) 2{!1.1l 1(5.61 5127.11 115.6) 4;ZZ.2) ~:::::, II ~ .,).~ 217.~) 6(22.2) 5118.5: ll3.7I 3lU I, lCI37.0)·27(,S.1) 38.65126.3) 3l15.8) 3U5." 41n.1I 2(10.51 2110.51 7 )).1 1(12.2) 214.11 13124.5) 8.16.]1 J(I.1I 4(82) 14(2I.&) 4~,~t'O) 37.110127.0) Slll.5) 4110.1) 9\24.11 ]!8.11 1(16.ZI :7(1001 ;, 52.4 2:S.J) 7(21.91 3<'.4) 5115.6) 4l12.5) U{34." !."t-:J.7) 53.' SIU.6) SlU.i) 5IU •• I 711&.1) 317.01 1IIU.'71 43141.01
In r 7S.3 2 ••.• ) 111.1) 4(&.31 "9.5) 4(6.3) 10{15.<! ;;/i157.1) 63l6(;.31 61 611.71 21].219{14.5) 51!.1) 7lU.l) 51!.1) 23t45.2) i:!.S'.O; T 17.' 4(4.2) 1(1.1) U6Il.6) ,., 5) "'.5i 14114 71 17t".5) !lSIlOO) 60.4 UlIO.S) 2l1." 14{U.3) 10(9.5) 14lll.3) 117.1) 41143.') 1051100,
..... ;. ;; .-;-i;; ;~:;;-;;:7,1;; ~;;. m~ -;;'s; i;:i ;s:;-a j' . 'l;(;~ ---M i;W); i:6-i5;;'. 8;-;;-;:;' 9( ~i :;;.-~; ~:j'j--uii':714; ;6j-' ;''(n ~;-72~ ;,-:;; 711" F 02.1 7\£.il 111.01 15114.6) 1.::tll.7)7(6.0) 13.12.f: 48l46.6) 10116ll.7IS6.9 15(16 1) 212.2) 14(15.1) ,.9.7) 12l12." !I!." n!35.5) 93(56.4)
r ~:.2 17(10.2) 4(2.4) 2:9t17.4) )9Ill •• 1l6(9.6) 18tl0.C; 6oIiJ8.]1 l~llOO) 51.1 JOl10.2) 513.0) 2.1l1l.9) 15(9.11 24IU.5) U17.3) 5'lll.9I 145tlOO) ;;~-.- 'p:;:;;;;;" i;~-~~f'-;;~-;;t; ;;-t~-t~Ul-------------- -------------------------- --... - ---------- ----- --.. _-
287
levels of education in the general education group in
Thrissur District while it is longer for females than males
in almost all levels of education in both districts.
8.16. Job-search per;od by faculty
Among the unemployed graduates in the general
education category, the average job-search period is found
to be the shortest for Commerce graduates and the longest
for Arts graduates in both districts. Among the
unemployed graduates in the professional and technical
education category, the average job-search period is
strikingly lower for graduates in Education in Thrissur
District (25 months) than in Ernakulam District (66
months). On the other hand, the average job-search period
is relatively higher for graduates in Engineering in
Thrissur District (16.5 months) as compared to Ernakulam ,
District (7.4 months). These findings lead us to the
inference that graduates in Education have higher degree of
absorption in the labour market in Thrissur District than
in Ernakulam District while engineering graduates have got
higher degree of absorption in the labour market in
Ernakulam District. as compared to Thrissur District. A
sex-wise break-up shows that average job-search period is
longer for females than males in the faculties of Arts,
Science and Commerce in both the districts (Table 8.14).
288 "It Lit • .., ... ". If _,.,.. a, .. I... ,. _ .... ,.......,,, "'._, ..... U. III _, ...... , ' •• U, If ......... • ..... , ............ .. .. -.. _------_ ..... __ ...... -------_._--_ .. _- ...... --_ ...... -. __ ......................... _---_ .. _ ................................. _-_ .. -...... __ .... -.----_ ......................... --_ ........ :
a n_ .1I111C1 __ .1.1.1t1 I 1·--------------_····-----_ .. · .. ·_ .. ·_-_··_-·· .. -----_···· ..... ___ ._. __ .. _______ ................ ___ ... _ .... _ .. ______ .... ------.. --------.··---------····_·----1
III
1111
I .....
I I
:It_ 11
:11
:111 I
:loIiIl' f I
1&"
.... I ... 11.1 ... ILl ... ... "" .... 11.' 1&.1 ... ... 11 •• ... .... It..
ILl ... .. I
11 •• "
11 .... 21IL ..
1111.11 IIILII 1111.11
IdI •••
1I11t.'1
Ill .... 111'.1' 2111 •• ' 2IIL.. 21B.1I
lIa." 21".11 111.1' 211 ... " 211'.11 2111.11 2111.11 U2J.S1
2115.11 1111.11 21ILII 211'.SI 4111.11 .211'.51 IU'.'I IULII '11'.11
·11 ... 11 11 •• 11 IU ... II W2.5' IIILII SIII.51 IIIMI
IILII ilL" I\S.II
I'St... 1125... illS ••• 2d1.11
2.B." IISMI 1111.11
IIILII 1116.11 1116." IIZS.II IIILII '121.1. 11JL2. lIS."
Ill .....
1112.'. 26.1 1111.1. 111'.1' 1111.'1 26.' 1111.11 1112.51 111 .. 11 ».,
IISI.II 111'.11 212'.11
11 .. 11 112 ... 1 fT.1' 1111.'1 2111.1' ''''.11 11111.11 .... 1111.11 1111.11 "".11 III1......s.! 111'.21
IIILII 1111... ..I IIILII 1111.11 "Ill." .... 1111. n '111.11 2111 .. 11 11.1
1111.11 2111." Sl21.11
1111.11 illS •• I liSt."
1111.11 IIII.JI 1121.11
1111.11
1111.1.
I
1112." USI.II 111".11 I
1111.11 SI".II 114MI IU6.11 11 ... 11 1111.11 III~II 1111.11 "SI.SI 2111.21 114.11 111.11 IIt.1I 11..... 1111".11 I
---,---_·_--------1 2121.21 111'.11 IIILII
1114,t1 fllI.1I I 2111.11 IIS'.II 1111." Ill'." 111:12." 211'.11 ''''.11 "'.11 1126.11 "'1 •• 11 I .. _-------_._-_ .. __ ._ ... -...... --_ ... _-----_. __ .. _--_ ..
IISt.1I 21ILII , •• ·", ... 11 1115.11 .1. I 1111.11 .11 .... 1 11.1
IISt.II ,. •• 2ISt.II 11 •• 11 11.' 21ILII ....... : ...
,. .. 211..... 111 •• 11 26.' 211 ..... 2....... 11.'
illS." 1111.11 IISI."
1111.1. IIII.!. 2111.l'
1111. SI 112 ... 1
111'.11 2111.11 111'.11 "21.» HI."
IISS.I. 1111.11 IISS.I' III I. 11 mUI
1111.11 IIILII
IU".II
1121.11 ------------_._ .. _-_ .. _--_._--_._-----1111.11 .... 11 11.' '111.11 121 ... 11 11.' IISS.SI 111111.11 14.2
IISt.1I 1I1l.1I 1111. SI
1111.11 4111.11 'IILII
IIILII 211LII 1111.1'
• IIILII
"'.11
IISI." 1111." "".11 1111.11 111110.'1
IISS.I.
1111.11
1111.11 11lS.1I
1111.11 1111.11 1121.11
lISlI.O' SISt." 111".01
illS. 01 SIIS.II
"'''.11 ------1 lilt. 11 lUll." 2111 .....
.-._--------.-----------------------• I' III
.111
f , Il.l ILl
ILl ... ... 1 ... ... IU
IIILII IIJI.II
1111.11
J ... " 1 ... 11
2 .... 11 2 .... 11
IIILII I .... "
1111.11 IIILII
11I4.SI 111'.11
IIILII
1111.11
1121.11
IULII
2111t." 21".11 1144."
IIIJ.II IIII.SI IIILII Ill'." 41".11
2.1 Ill.... 11.' Ill"." 11.'
1144.11 2.1 11.... ILl ......... I ....
SlII.1I 7111.11
1111".11
21.1 26.' M.7
111".11
liSt."
211 ... " 1111. SI 11".11
1111.11 2111.11 111'.11
111l." 11 ....
111".11 11 •• 11
IISI.II IISS.SI 1111.'1 1111."
1111.11 1111.11 11I4.SI
Ill .... 1111." 11I4.SI Ill ....
liSt. 01 IISt.II 2.'1 ... 11
2110.11 11 ... " SII".II
11 .... "".11 .........
" •• 1 ILl 11 .. .11 1 .. 1.» 1IIt.1I SIlL" 1111.11 11.' ..... 11 1111.11 IIILII .... »
:11
f .. . , ... 4
IL. IS"
• III I
IISt.1I IdI.1I
.. ... 11 .... 11 IIIJ.II IlULIJ 11.' 1127.11 1127.11 IIt.1I 1127.» 11'.11 "164.11 Ill." 1121.11 114.11 111.11 111.11 ....... 211..... 11.' "".21 1117.11 1111.11 1121.11 • 115." 1111".11 •.. _---_._--_ ... __ ._----_._----. __ .. _- ..... ----_ .. __ .. ------
211".11 ••• 211 .... 1 •••
••• ... M.'
111".11 11111. ..
Ill •• ': .. ..... 11111. .. • ,''" Ill".'''. 1151.11 ..... IUlLII
:1 .... I '---.-----•• -:.--•• -.-. --:-----: •• --~-•• ---.....:---.---.----:.-.. ;.. ....... :-•• -.:. ••• -.:-•• -:.--••• :.-••• : .• --.--•• - •• ------. , • • • 11.1 • 111".11' liD. 11 I::: IdI... liSt." 2U..... ,... IISt.1I IISt.II 2161.11
"St.1I lilt... 111 ... 11. .... 1111.11 1111.'1 SU..... : :.1-I
I ,
III I f
:1111 I
14.1
11.' I ...
I ...
11".11
------_ ..... _---_ .. _-.. _--------------_.-?-... _-.-------_ .. ----.... _------_ ... _-------------------: IISS.I' 11I1t.1I
11 .. 11 Ill ... " IU .... , Ill .... .
. "Ill •• '; IU ... "
,:
11.' 2.' 1.1
211 .... ' 1111.11
IU .....
SI .....
11".11 2111.11 ,il ... 1I
" .... 1 ... , 21St... IIZS.II --IIB-.• ~-··--··--· ------·-·-··,-1·1 .. - •• -1·······--···-·---··---1 ... -.-.1-·--.-•• -: I . Ill"." 11.1
I ... , 21 •• " IID.II IIB.II 11 .. 2, " 211 .... , . 2111.11 1 _______ , ___ . _____ ._._._. __ .. _ .. __ .:_~_·tI .1 21".11 11..... 111".11
.... I... .----.-----------. 11 11.1
I 11.1 I 11.'
;111 I ,
." 11.1 SI.I
IIIL" 1127.11 "16.11
2112.11 211.11
1111.»
"11." IlLlIllII."
1111.11"".11 41ILII
111.1. '111.11
IIII.SI 1114.11 "'.11 114.11 211.11 21LII
IC 11.11 1'11." tilL'" Ill. SI ''''.21211.11 111.11
1111.11 IIII.J/ 6.1 11'.11 11161.11 11 •• 21S.11 I.n .... 11.1
1111.11 .. 111.. D.7 'ISI.II .... I .... I "!i."IAU •• 1I 11.2
1111.11 1127.11 . 1111.11 I
"".1., IIlI.I' Ill'." .
IIIJ.II IU.II •• 11.11 1II1.21111.lIl1t.1I 11t.1I 1127.11 " .. 11
1111.11 IIII. .. III..IIILII IIS.II 1 .. ,... ."".11
1111.111111.11- 1111.11 2122.21 fla.II IIt.1I 1127.111111.11 • 111.11 IIIIS.II 1II'.III1I1.IIII1L""5.11 1111." .11 .... :
;111 : ~: :::~~. ~::~i~ ~::~i~' ~:~:. I.II.SI 1::~:::2::~= ::: :::::: ~:~::~:~i:I;::t~::!~j:' ;:~::: I:::::: I •• 1111.11 SII'.I. 'US •• IUI.I. 1S1 ..... ltll ... II 15.1 6121." . 112"'1211.11 1112.11111.11 6121." 25" •• 11 .
'1hJ1 11.1 '''".,' 211." '12t.~-_;;;;:;.·;;;;,·-.. --·~;;,~;~--II~-:-;;---···;;;;:~··;;;;~~~~~~~~~~~~.-;;;~----.--.•••••• ---:
SI.. JU4 •• , lun.'1 7ut." '''.11 '11." •• ISI.J.tlI4 .... ' 'flla.S. IIZI.UIUJ.II.UI.IIJIS.J. JlII." 11151." ........ _. __ .~_ ""'.11 212.1116111." IIUS.I' 1'".11 IIS.'I 22111.111)"".11 14.1 IIIU.la I..... 1I1I1.tI"I"''''''.''"1.21 1211"'1 .s1l1O."
------------··-·.··----••• ___ .... ___ .oe ___ •••• ___________ .... ____ ._._. ___ ... _______________ •• _ .. ___ ••• __ ._. __ • _____ • ____ •••••• __ •• __ • _____ e.
Note I
289
8.17. Job-search period by faculty and academic performance
The average-job search period is inversely related
to the academic performance, for the unemployed graduates
in all the faculties in Thrissur District. However, such
inverse relationship is observed among the graduates only
in the faculty of Arts and Education in Ernakulam District.
A sex-wise break up reveals that the average job-search
period is inversely related to academic performance for the
unemployed females in all the faculties in the general
education group in Thrissur District. However such inverse
relationship is. found for the unemployed females only in
the faculty of Arts in Ernakulam District.(Table 8.14).
SECTION 11 Waiting period - Employed
8.18 Waiting period and family income
The average waiting period among the employed is
also found to be inversely related to family income in both
the districts. A sex-wise break-up shows longer waiting
period for females than males in almost all the income
groups in both districts (See Table 8.15).
8.19 Waiting period and caste
The average waiting period among the employed is
also found to be the longest for the scheduled castes and
the shortest for the Muslims in both the districts (Table
8.16) . Average waiting period is longer for females than
' __
_ 'h~
1) .... 1
.. ''-1
:Fu
ilv
AV
I!r~
1JI!
-_
•• ..-
u ..........
DU
rAti
on o
f ~loy-.tl_th.)
Av ..
. ~g ..
D
lra
U_
Df ..... lo
y-.t
( ..
.. ~~;;
---
---
; i n
tDlle
SEX
lla
i ti n
g le
ss
0-12
12
-24
24-3
b 3b
-48
48-6
0 A
bOV
!! TD
t~l
~i t
ing
le
ss
I i.-
12
1~2.
14
-3b
3
0-4
8
48-b
O
Abov
1t
T Dt~l
llOII
thl Y
i'l!
nDd
than
b ti
I P~iod
than
b 6U
--
----
----
----
---
. . 11
36.v
1(
100)
W
"Q)
28.3
1!
33.3
i H
33.3
i 1(
33.3
i 31
11>D
) I
i. it
1.
lt
S.bt
5t
lO
Ot
4.11
I
:(500
F
1110
. V
1 (lO
O)
1 (ro
D)
lb.7
t 2.
it
I
T
IOB.
v 1 (
SU)
l(SUi
U
l,,)
28.3
1I
33.3
i 11
33.3)
1(
33.3
) -
3 (r
OD
) :
b.7t
9.
1t
l.bt
3.bt
3.
6*
lOOt
2.
6t
I I
/I 32
.2
2(22
.2)
2(22
.2)
1(11
.1)
2(22
.2)
2(22
.2)
ge-)
19.
5 3(
23.1
) 3(
23.1
) 40
0.8)
21
15.4
) 11
7.7)
13
(/")
lS
U1-
7.4t
11
.St
7.7t
20
t 5.
Ot
9.9t
Ib
.7t
14.3
' ~
40t
20t
17.b
' II~
F -
31.5
H5
O)
I(~)
2 (m
) 12
.51
20t
4.7'
T
32
.2
2(22
.2)
2(22
.2)
1111
.1)
2122
.2)
2(22
.2)
9(1~
27.
4 3(
20)
3(20
) 5(
33.3
) 21
13.3
) 11
6.7)
-
1 (b.7
> 15
(ur
)
4.91
7.
4t
b.7t
18
.2t
40t
7.O
t 10
.7t
9.7'
17
.91
15.4
. 11
.1'
14.3
' 12
.81
,---
---
11 21
.0
5(33
.3)
2113
.3)
4(26
.7)
2113
.3)
IIb.7
> IIb
.7)
15~~
30.
0 3(
33.3
) 31
33.3)
2(
22.2
) 11
11.1
) 9(
100)
:1
501-
18.5
1 13
.3'
23.5
1 15
.4'
lOt
lOt
lb.S
t 14
.3'
1St
40t
lOt
12.2
t 12
500
F bl
.3
1 (25
) 3(
75)
4C!>
') 20
.2
1(20
) 1(
20)
1120
) 2(
40)
5 ('0
0)
7.1'
SO
t lo
.Bt
lOt
lOt
12.5
1 25
t 11
.0'
T
29.S
b(
31.b
) 21
10.5
) 4(
21.1
) 21
10.S
) 11
5.3)
41
21.1
l 19
(1")
26.5
11
7.1)
4(
28.b
) 4t
28.6
) 4(
28.b
) 1 (
7.1l
14
Uoo
) 14
.61
11.1
' 14
.8t
13.3
t 9.
1t
36.4
-14
.8t
3.b'
12
.9t
14.3
' 3O
.8t
14.3
. 12
.01
" 26
.2
7(20
) 9(
25
.7)4
111.
4)
5114
.3)
b117
.1l
2(5.
7)
2(5.
7)
35U"
) 20.
0 5I
1B.5
) 10
(37.
0) 7
1Z5.9
) 11
3.7)
21
7.4)
-
2(7.
4)
27 ~OO
) 1
:~1-
25.9
1 bO
t 23
.51
38.5
1 bO
t SO
t 40
t 38
.51
27.8
' 47
.61 ~
lOt
SOt
40t
3b.5
t :
1500
0 F
29.3
3(
30)
1(10
) 4(
40)
1(10
) 11
10)
10 (IH
) 26
.3
4(26
.7)
2113
.3)
4u..7
>
2113
.3)
2113
.3)
-11
6.7>
1511~O>:
21.4
t 33
.3t
40t
lOOt
1b
.7t
27.O
t 40
t lO
t so
. 25
t 40
t SO
t 34
.91
: 26
.9
1012
2.2)
10i
22.2
)811
7.8)
5U
l.1)
~113.3)
3(~.7>
3(6.7
> 45
u..)
22.2
91
21.4
) 12
128.
b) 1
l1.26
.21 3
11.1
) 4(
9.5)
-
3(7.
1)
42 U
OO):
24.4
t 55
.b'
29.b
' 33
.3t
54.5
1 bO
t 27
.31
35.2
-32
.1*
38.7
t 39
.lt
23. I
t 44
.4-
42.9
t 35
.91
I ---
11 18
.b
13(4
1.9)
4(1
2.9)
7(2
2.6)
41
12.9
) 1(
3.2)
2l
b.Si
31
U")
13.8
9 (
40.9
) 51
22.7
) 5(
22.])
2(
9.1)
1 (
4.5)
22
utQ
): lib
ovt
48.9
) 26
.7'
41.2
' 30
.9'
lOt
40t
34.1
1 SO
t 23
.81
1St
SOt
lOt
29.7
' :
N
\0
:5000
F
15
.5
10(4
5.5)
2(9
.1)
6(27
.3)
2(9.
1)
1(4.
5)
114.5
) 22
(".)2
0.1
5(23
.8)
7133
.3)
2(9.5
> 4i
19.0
) 2(
9.5)
11
4.8)
21
U1)
D):
0
71.4
' bb
.7'
bOt
lOOt
lO
Ot
lb.7
' 59
.51
SOt
70t
25t
SOt
40t
SOt
48.8
' :
~ T
17
.3
23(4
3.4)
blll
.3)
13(2
4.5)
611
1.3)
2(
3.8)
3(
5.7)
53
(I'~lb. 9
14
(32.
b) 1
2(27
.9)
7t16
.3)
419.
3)
4(9.
3)
2(4.
7)
43ltO
O ):
56.1
' 33
.3'
48. I
t 40
t 18
.2'
27.3
-41
.4'
SOt
38.7
t 1S
t 30
. lit
44.4
t 28
.bt
36.8
1 :
MIlt.
I t
IIIno
tH .
clll
hq
. fro
e CD
1UIII
tota
l w
"tro
tH i
n Dl
'lCklt
Hno
t •• cl
llt..,
fro
e rll
lf to
t.l.
---.--~
----... _
_ . ~ DI.'~.c,
: Cu
tll
5 A
varll
Jl
lIIr
aUan
of ~l~t '_
tIIa
) .w.
r. D
lln
tliln
of ~l~t(-u..)
Ito.
Jnit
y E
llii
ting
111'
6-
12
12-2
4 24
-36
36-4
8 48
-1iO
Abo
vl T
otll
N
litin
lJ
115.
:
b-1
2
12-2
4 24
-31.
36
-48
48-6
0 Ab
OVl
! T
Dta
l X
Per
iod
than
6 60
Pe
riod
than
b bV
" 13
.0
4(40
) 3(
30)
1110
) 11
10)
1110
) 10
19
.7
7130
.4)
3113
.0)
8134
.8)
114.
3)
3113
.0)
-11
24.3
) 23
HI
IIIU
lUI
20t
~.91
7.
71
lOt
11.O
t 38
.91
14.3
* 40
t 20
t ~
20t
31.1
t HA
IR F
13.6
2(
40)
3(60
) 5
21.3
31
18.8
) 4(
25)
2112
.5)
41~)
31
18.8
) -
16
I IIM
ttIN
14.3
1 lO
t 13
.~
lOt
40t
25t
SOt
60t
37.2
t T
13.
2 6(
40)
3(20
) 41
26.7>
11
6.7)
11
6.7)
15
20
.3
1012
5.6)
7 U
7. 9)
10
125.6
) ~1
12.8
) 61
15.4
) -
112.
bi
39
14.b
t 16
.7t
14.8
1 6.
7t
9.1t
11
.71
35.7
t 22
.4t
35.7
t 38
.~
66.9
1 14
.3t
33.3
t
11 24
.0
1812
8.11
9114
.1)
1312
0.3)
911
4.1)
91
14.1
) 31
4.7>
314.7
> 64
19
.6
8122
.9)
1213
4.3)
812
2.9)
31
8.6)
11
2.9)
31
8.6)
35
66
.71
60t
76.5
1 69
.21
90t
751
60t
70.3
1 44
.41
57.1
1 40
t 60
t ~
bOt
47.3
1 'l
lfUS
TI~
F 21
.0
121:(
0)
218.
3)
6(25
) 11
4.2)
11
4.2)
11
4.2)
11
4.2)
24
~.
1 ~122.7)
6127
.3)
5122
.7>
219.1
1 21
9.1)
21
9.1)
22
~.71
66.7
1 60
t SO
t lO
Ot
lOOt
16
.7t
64.9
1 :lO
t 60
t 62
.~
25t
40t
lOOt
51.2
1 T
22.
6 30
134.1
> 11
112.:
5) 1
9121
.6)
1011
1.4)
101
11.4
) 41
4.~)
414.~)
118
21.7
13
122.
8) 1
8131
.6)
1312
2.8)
~IB.B)
31~3
) 51
8.8)
57
73
.21
61.1
1 70
.41
66.7
1 90
.91
BOt
36.4
1 68
.81
46.4
1 58
.11
46.4
1 38
.~
33.3
1 71
.41
48.7
" 1(
100)
13
.0
11:(0
) 11
:(0)
2 3.
71
1.11
4.
81
~
2.71
IUilI
" F
110
1110
0)
1 1.
0 11
100)
1
lOt
2.71
lO
t 2.
31
T 9
.0
11~)
1(50
) 2
9.0
1133
.3)
1133
.3)
1133
.3)
3 2.
41
3.71
1.
21
3.61
3.
21
3.61
2.
6t
" 34
.~
4128
.6)
3121
.4)
3121
.4)
2114
.3)
117.
1)
117.
1)
14
20.9
31
23.1>
51
38.~
) 21
1~4)
11
7.7>
1I7.
7l 1
17.7>
13
14
.81
:lOt
17.6
1 15
.41
~
:lOt
15.4
1 16
.71
23.8
1 lO
t 20
t lO
Ot
20t
17.6
1 O
Bt
F 70
.3
1116
.71
1116
.7l
4166
.7l
6 17
.~
1(50
) 11
:(0)
2 33
.31
SOt
66.7
1 16
.21
lOt
12.~
4.
71
T 3
8.3
4(20
) 4(
20)
311~)
3U~)
11:5)
51
2:5)
20
20.5
41
26.71
51
33.3
) 21
13.3
) 21
13.3
) 11
6.7)
116
. 7)
15
9.81
22
.21
11.1
1 :lO
t :lO
t 4~~
15.6
1 14
.31
16.1
1 7.
11
1:5.41
lO
Ot
14.31
12
.81
" 63
.0
11~)
11
:(0)
2 3,
\ 11
100)
7.
71
20t
2.21
51
1.
41
N
se
F 96
.0
1110
0)
~5
11:(0
) 1(
50)
2 \0
.... 16
.71
2.71
12
.:51
12.~
4.
7'
T 7
4.0
1133
.3)
2166
.7> 3
24
.3
2166
.7)
1133
.3)
3 6.
71
18.2
' 2.
31
7.11
7.
71
2.61
Imtr
. •
deno
tll ,
.,tl
llhl
Jl fr.
tlll
_ t
otal
II1I
I filJ
ll'lI
in
brac
ket
deno
tl ,.
,ten
t. fr.
rOIl
tota
l.
292
males in all the caste in Thrissur District. Surprisingly,
waiting period is found to be shorter for females than
males among the Muslims and Other Backward Castes in
Ernakulam District.
8.20 Waiting period and Occupation of main earner in the family
The average waiting period among the employed is
also found to be the shortest for those coming from
business households in Thrissur District.However,it is the
shortest for those belonging to the salaried non-white
collar households in Ernakulam District. It is significant
to note that the average waiting period of the employed is
seen to be the longest for those coming from the wage
labour households in both the districts Average waiting
period is seen to be longer for females than males in the
salaried white collar families in both districts. (See
Tab 1 e 8. 17) .
8.21 waiting period and educational status of the parents
The average waiting period among the employed is
also found to be inversely related to the educational level
of the father in both districts; it is the shortest both
for males and females whose fathers are graduates in both
districts (See Table 8.18).
8.22 Waiting period and the level of education
An inverse relationship between the average
waiting period and the levels of education is observed
1""1~
OI.I
"IL
I
~""-"' •• I"'.
L.1
Dcc
up
a-lW
wr"
agR
D
uar
tim
a o
f tm..pl~tI_tlls)
'-v
llra
ge
... aU
ma
of tm..pl~t
tlo
n
SEX
lMit
ing
less
0-
12
12-2
4 2
4-l
b
36-4
8 48
-bC
I A
bove
Tot
al
lMi t
lng
le
ss
&-1
2 12
-24
24
-lb
36
-48
Pln
od
th
anb
bO
Par
i od
thll
lb
" 25
.0
li~)
1(~)
2 :
SELF
5.
9.
7.7t
2.
2*
: EIfI
.OYE
D F
-38
.0
1(10
0)
: IN A
6R1-
20t
:Ill.T
LIlE
T
25
.0
1 (SO
) 1 (
SO)
2 38
.0
1(10
0)
3.7t
b.
7t
1.bt
11
.1t
" 19
.711
(37.
5)
4(25
) 21
12.5
) 11
11.3)
11
11.3)
1(1
1.3)
1111
.3)
III
42.1
1114
.3)
3142
.9)
1114
.3;
SELF
22
.2t
211.7
t l1
.8t
7.7t
lO
t 25
t 20
t 17
. lit
5. li
t 15
1 25
t : E
Ifl.OV
ED
F 15
.0
-11
100)
-
1 :a
SEH
RE
lOt
2.71
T
19
.4 1
1135
.3)
4(23
.5)
3117
.11;
115.
9)
115.
9)
115.
9) 1
15.9
) 17
42
.1 11
14.3
) 31
42.9
) -
1114
.3;
14.il
t 22
.21
11.1
t 11
.71
9.1t
20
t 9.
1t
13.3
1 3.
lit
10.7
t 1
l.lt
11 91
1.0
1110
0)
58.0
20
t 1.
1t
-F -
l.AB
(U(
YII.U
1(
100)
1
9.1t
O.
Bt
58.v
" 23.3
211
29.2)
111
15.3)
141
19.4)
11 1
15.3)
911
2.5)
31
4.2)
314
.2)
72
Ib.B
171
27.4)
191
30.11
) 15
124.2
) 5I
B.l)
3(
4.8i
:SM
.ARI
ED
n.B
' 73
.3'
82 ••
' B
U'
90t
75t
60t
79.1
t 94
•• '
90.5
1 15
t lO
Ot
75t
: IIU
TE
F 28
.1 14
(40)
31
8.11)
9125
.7)
215.
7)
112.
9)
112.
9) 5
114.
3) 3
5 22
.11 1
0(25
) 10
125)
11
(15)
B12O
) 4(
10)
: I:O
.LM
lO
Ot
lOOt
90
t lO
Ot
lOOt
lO
Ot
83.3
' 9 •
• b'
lOOt
lO
Ot
75t
lOOt
BO
t T
24
.B 3
5132
.7) 1
4113
.1> 2
3121
.5> 1
3112
.1> 1
019.
3)
413.
7) B
I7.5
) 10
7 19
.1 2
7126
.5)
2912
8.4)
211
2O.b)
131
12.7>
7Ib
.9)
85 ••
' 17
.B'
85.2
' 86
.7'
90.9
' BO
t 72
.7'
83. li
t 9b
.4t
93.5
1 15
t lO
Ot
17.9
' ;-,
" -11
1.0
2(50
) 2(
50)
:StUt
RIED
9.
51
101
:0 II
UTE
F 11
2.0
-1(
100)
19
.5
2(10
0)
: IX
l.LM
Ib
.7'
2.7'
25
t
" T
11
2.0
-1(
100)
1
17.2
21
33.3
) 41
66.7
) ,
9.1'
0.
81
b.51
14
.31
lilt
. :
• dl
!llllt
ll pl
rcen
tip f
rill
colU
III t
DtIl
II1I
I fi
gurl
l in
briC
ket
dlllo
l. pe
mnt
age
frill
rill
tol
ll.
48-6
6 Ib
ove
bO
Tot
al
1 2.3t
1 0.
9t
-21
28.11
) 7
40t
9.51
-21
28.b
i i
2B.ll
t b.
Ot
1 ilU
O)
lOOt
1.
4t
1 i10
0J
lINt
Mt
314.
8)
iI2
60t
83.B
' :
215)
40
lO
Ot
93.0
1 :
514.
9)
102
, , 71
.4t
87.2
' :
• 5.4t
2 ••
7'
b 5.1*
I\)
\0
c"J
294.
1~11 i.1lDutnbutloo of tlQlovtd by mriQt llilting pel'lod, durltlOO of liIetIIIlovlfl\t lI1d III lcccrdinq to tdmtlooll Iml of 11th",.
&ut· TlfIISSl.R DISTRICT ~ ~ISTRICT
:I~
.1111101 IMrI9f WrltlOO of l..IleICI I OYlfllt IlOOth'l AverlJjt WrltlOO of l..IleICIlovlfllt IlOOth51
.ilUlI! Iliitlll9 In, b-12 12-24 24-311 311-48 48-110 ibM Told lliitinq In, b-12 12-24 24-311 3H8 48-60 fobovt Tohl 1ft Peri od thlllb bO Period thlllb bO
" ~.~ 1125) 21:10) 1(25) 4 :liI' ~9t 1~4t 201 4.4 ,:r f
It' 1 ~.~ 1125) 21:10) 1(25)
l7t Il3. ~. It 3. I t
" 714 13138.2) 4t1I.B) 318.B) 712o.b) 3IB.B) 21~~) 215.9) 34 '17.7 3t13.0) 8134.B) BI34.6) 114.3) 114.3) 218.7l 23 .~Iwy 48.1' 2h.7t IUt Sl.1II :lOt !lOt 40t 37.4t 111.7. :m. I' 40t 20t lOOt 40t 31.1 •
f 43.7 4133.3) 31251 118.3) 41ll3) 12 19.1 4(25) 1118.8) 3t18.8) 4(25) 2t12.5) - III 21l.bt :lOt lOOt 411. 7. IZ.4t 40t :lOt 37.51 !lOt 40t 37.2t
1 28.7 17137.0) 4t8.n lIt1l.n 1115.2> 418. 7l 214.3) 6t11.01 46 ~, 7117.91 11 1121 11 112> 5t12.BI 215.11 112.61 21~11 ;s, 41.51 22.21 22.21 411. 7t lb.4' 40t 54.51 l5.9t 25t 15.51 ;s,.lt J8.51 22.21 lOOt 21.6' ll.3.
:lKaId-" 2b. 5 1112.5) 21251 21251 1112.5> 1112.5) I t12.5) - B 23.5 51ll3) 41211. 7l 2113.3) IIb.7) 1I11.7l 2t13.3) 15
." wt l7. 11.3t 11." 7.7t lOt 25t 8.111 27.111 19.Ot lOt 20t 25t 40t 20.3'
.wli. f 27.3 4(57.1) IU4.3) I t14.3) I t14.3) 7. 31.6 1(20) 2(40) 1(20) 1120) 5 :IU 28. lit ll3t lOt Ib.7' 18.9 I ()I 201- 12.51 !lOt 11./)1
1 26.9 mU) 3(25) 3(25) 1111.7) IIb.7) 111I.7l Ilb.n 15 25.b b13O) b13O) 2110) 2t10) 115) 31151 20 12.2' Ill. 7. 11.1' 11. 7' 9.1' 201 9.1' 11.7' 21.4t IU. 7.1' 15.4t 11. It 4.29. 17.lt
" 22.7 BIZ7.b) bl20.7l 7124.1) 113.4) 4113.8) IIl.4) 2 lb. 9) 29 14.b 7 t2b. 9) 9134.b) 6123.1) 217.71 217.71 2b
:Ill 29.b' 40t 41.21 7.7' 40t 25t 40t 31.9t 38.9t 42.9t :lOt 40t :10 ~.It
f 29,4 1110) 51:10) 2(20) 1110) 1110) 10 27.b 4120.7) Ilb.7) 51ll3) I lb. 7l 3(20) IIb.7) 15 7.1' !\Ot 11»1 lOOt Ib.7t 27. ()I 40t I ()I b2.5t 12.51 bOt !lOt 34.9.
T 24.4 9123.1) bll5.4) 12130.8) 317.7) 4110.3) 215.1) 317.7) ;s, 19.3 11 120. B) 10124.4) '11I2U)1(7.3) 5112.2> - 112.4) 41
2l.()I ll3. 44.4' 20t 311.4' 40t 27.lt 30.51 ;s,.3' 32.3' ;s,.lt 2l.1' 55.6t l4.lt ~.()I
----_ ... -------- .. -... - .. -..... -- .... - .... _--._------_ ... _- ----- ._-----_ .. _-----------------. -------\
" IB.7 IIll.3) Illl3) IIll.31 1903 1(25) 1125) 1(25) 1125)
:1[( 3.7t 5. 9. 7.7' 3.3' 5.bt 51 201 201 5.41
111001 I 12 111(0) I
7.lt 2.7t I ()I 2.3t
14.8 21SU) 1125) 1125) 4 17.& 1120) 1110) 1120) 1(20) 1120) 5 4. 'it J. 7t ~7t 3.lt 3.0' 3.2t lb' 7.]. 14.3' Ut
:;Idu- " 17.B 4130.8) ~12l.1l 312l.1) W.7l 2t15. 4) Il 18.3 2 Ill. 3) 31:10) 11 Ill. 7l -:It,1 IU' 20t 17. lit 7.7' 20t 14.3' 11.1' 151 25t B.I' :lIIt- f 6.7 4~.1) 2(18) IU4.11 7 15.2 1116.7) 31:10) 2(ll.3) b
:,Idu- 28.111 /rII.7. I()I 18. 9t I ()I :lOt 25t 14. ()I
:Itt T 11.9 8140) 5(25) 4(20) 1(5) 2UO) 20 111.8 3(25) 3(25) 31251 2Ub. n 118.3) - 12 19.51 27. lit 1408. 11.7- 18.21 15. lit 10.7. ~. 71 10.7t 15. 4' 11.1' 10.31
11.('1 • iIInotn ptmnh9' frill collllll totd ind flgUl'n in briCkrt dfllot, ptrCflltlJjt frill rOIl tohl.
among the employed in the general education group in both
the districts. In the professional and technical education
group, the average waiting period is the longest for the
professional and technical certificate holders in Thrissur
District while it is the longest for the diploma holders in
Ernakulam District. Average waiting period is found to be
longer for females than males in almost all levels of
education (Table 8.19).
8.23 Waiting period and academic performance
The average waiting period among the employed is
also found to be inversely related to academic performance
in both the districts (Table 8.19). Among the employed in
the general education group, an inverse relationship is
observed between average waiting period and academic
performance for the matriculates, graduates and post
graduates in both the districts (Table 8.19). The average
waiting period is inversely related to the academic
performance among the employed professional and technical
degree and certificate holders in Thrissur District.
However, no such pattern of inverse relationship is
observed among them in Ernakulam District. A sex-wise break
up reveals that the average waiting period is the longest
for the third divisioners both for males and females in
almost all leve1s of education in the general education
group in both the districts indicating a lower
absorption for both males and females with
degree of
the third
296.
T"'~ ...... D'.U''''''_ ., .. 1., .. lco ••• 'n, '0 ." .... _'Un, poor'" ......... U ••• , ...... 1.,.-' to, •••• 1 .... 1 .1 _etl .......... _le ,.r_ne.
snci. or _ ... ~t iV_i' ... r s .. a;;a .. 11' ___ H .I-U u·;u a ... 11: ... 4.- ~-U 1.14 1'NI l!;o&S ,~
_ 'IUWl __ .H
ea ~t!t",!' ..... '1'-9 la ,.._
- ._--------------lie
~ 111001
111001
I •• r -T • 2210
• 11 • 11.0 all.71 111001 le.5 1150.01 24.0
lUl.11 1150.01 LI100;
11:
r -'11.1 11 •• 71 n.7 lUl.11 1l1.11 llll.1)
III • ".1 r 114.7 , 11.1
1114.11 1114.51 1(7.11 JlU"1 - 2114.11 l1U.41 14IU.4111.5 1110lI0) ·lln.11 21
2[14.1) 2IU.I) ll5.l1 X17.11 1[5.'1 2111.11 11 •• 11 17[10lI01 lO
-.J. ••• 1111.5) l[U.I) 115.'1 Jl17.I) llU.11 2[U.'1 1(17) 17(151 25.1 r 114.7 1110lI01 IUSI 21.0 , I' IIU.II 2uo.OI 115.01 X15.01 1110.01 2110.01 lllO.DI 2011001 15.2
D " •• 0 r • , •• 1
III "15.0 lU5.01 r -'15.1 lIB.'1
-.J. 11.1 1130.01 r • '15.0 1130.' I
lt15D)
Jl7S.01
1110.01
1110.01
111001
111001
111001
1120.'1
lIZ1'.OI
1,1001 54.0 34<.0
1,100) 41.0
1(1001 n.o 44.0
1(1001 lS.2
5(1001 40.0 40.0
5(1001 40.0
11lS.01
1120.01
2t2l.1)
21U.21
,,50.0) .1[1001 1110.0)
I[IM) 1111.11 2[1001 5155.11 llU.lI
1;50.01 1(1001
l1ll.11 1(ll.11
1IlS.0) 11lS.01 11lS.01 - - -1(20.01 lUO.'1 l1ZO.01
1[16.71 1111.71 llll.l)
111001 1110.01
1150.01 1150.01 lIU.SI 1(U.SI 11lS.01 l1U.51 l1U.51 -I • D.D
r 11.0 T 13.1
llll.11 llll.11 lIll.11 2(1001 1UD.DI XIO.OI
111·)1 .
11: 1.01
1110.0) 1.0 1140.01 21.0 SI 10lI01 15.0
U • 1O.I 1(20.01 2(20.01 1130.01 21 0.01 1(30.01 10176.91 '.0 r N.l 2161.71 1(ll.11 llU'1I U.: 'B.O 111S.41 41 •• '1 4[lO.11 2 .s.41 1(7.71 U(1001 '.1
III .N B'7 1110.01'1IlO.OI 2[30.01 1110.01 1 10.01 1120.01 10[76.'IU.2 r ZI.O lID.II l[U.II lID.II - - J[U.ll 52.5 ' •• 1 1:7.71 4IlO.l) lID.1) 1115.1) .• 7.71 2115.11 UllOOl )6.1
1(50.01 1150.01 1(50.0)
11lS.01 2,50.'1
l[ll.ll lUl.l] llll.ll 1(ll.ll lUl.ll l(ll.ll IU1.1I 41ll.11 IU1.1I
1120.01 lllO"1 1150.0)
1111.71 I(ll.ll
1150.01 1125.01
lllO.OI 2120.01
lllS.OI 2111.71
-.!Il B.I ItU.O) 4U7.U 5(11.71 4(17.tl In.II2l'.71 111.11 UP4.2111.!--I-IH---.I-)--7-[JJ-.l-~-JI 1.11 J[1I.112(1.SI - , /J.. - IrU.'II(U;S) 2US.0) 'llS.l) n.1 lllt-3l 1(42.91 (( 4_3) 1[14.31 -T rI.' '''-'l SOl-I) 1O(U.J)111'-41 1111_'1 It'.5) ICUI 31(100) I'_~ 1(11_1) lOC1S.l)4('I.ll 4(lf_Jl 2t'1-11
,.""-.. I • 14.0 lIRa) 1[20.0) •• 0
r 5.1 1(15.0) 1(lS.o] 4[10.0) u.~ 7 U_. )(10.1) 1(28.0) 1[28.C ~100] J.l
1150 .0) 115O.0} 1[" .0) l[SD.O) 2r~ .D] 1(25.0) 1(25.0)
D .. '-0 ,,".01 1[ll.5) lCU-S) 'cn.71 n.) r S.' 2166.7) 1(Jl.l) 1(U.ll lUl.)) 18 ,,.. 1(71." 2111_1] In.1I Jl(lOO] 11_2
11:'1_2) l[U.I) lDJ.)) 11.1.1) l[ll.l) l[U.J) JCll_J! 2Cll.1IlllI.7] 1(11.7]
01 • ".0 1[1001 l(SO_O) r IM lUOO) 15SO.01
111001
- 111001
- 2161.71 - l[ll.ll - 1[1001
- 11lS.01 4110.01 - 1(20)
- 11:lO.01 511001
- 1111.1) 7[77.11 2[U.2)
- l[U.lI 9(100)
1[50.01 21".71 - 11ll.,1
llll.)1 111001
- 11lS.01 1110.01 - 1[20.01
1120.01 5(100)
21ll,'1 6(75.01 21lS.01
21lS.01 111001
- 2150.01 - 2[50.0]
'11001
- "".01 J[lS.OI UUOO]
10[11.1] 1(50.0] 2[11.71 11'.1) Ull00]
11(75.0) 1Cl4_1] 'I[ U.O) It)-'J unDO)
2CSO.0) lt5O.o)
.. IClGO)
- 115O·0) - l('O.O)
6 lOO]
_____ ' __ lI_.0 ____________ 115O;01 __ 1~1_5O_.0~] ___________ ~1~[1~00~]~ __________________________________________ __
-.!. U.I 1[10.01 1110.01 1110.01 111 01 lUO.OI 10(5,.1] 1.0 2110.0] 2110.01 1(10.0] 5150.0) r I.' 5(62.5) llU.5) IllS.OI ICI"'] 15.' 2[40.0) lUo.O) 1(30.0]1[20.0) 5[50.0) 'U.. 11%''') 2(U.l) 3(11.71 It! I) 1[5.1) 18(100) ll.2 .[10.0) lClO.OI lUO.O) 1(10.0]1110.0) - 10(100)
----~----~~~--~~~~~~~~~------~~ ~ lid ~ IIIpl.
I .-Po -, -
D .. • , . , --.1" -
r -, . _.-..... ...,..
I .. U.I r , •• , U.I
D ~ 41.0
1[41"1 2[ •• ') l1U.I) - 1(100) -
Jll1;}) lIl1.S) 1112.5)
; •• 0 H~~)
1[11.1)
1[ll.5]
1150.0) lISO.0)
llll.l) llll.))
... " 11.1 llll.l] 2(22.1) l[U.l) 11U.ll 2122.2] r CoS 1[50.0) 1(50.0) - - -, 11.0 I[lI •• ] Iln.l) l[t.l] 11'.1] 2[18.2]
"'I-I$.~.s I ~
r , D .. 12.0
r -• '·,'U.O
1(100)
1(100)
11100]
1[100]
'.0 9.0
26.1
26.1
IZ.O
U.O
7[17.5) 14.1 l[ll.') 11.0 1(100) 15.7
11100]
111001
2161.7)
2[61.7]
11lS.0) 2(SO.0]
l[lS.O) 2150.0)
2[ll.l) 1[16.7) 21)).1) - 1[10lI0)
11 •• 6] 1114.)) )[0.']
lUl.l]
l[ll'))
1(25.0)
1(25.0)
1[11.7)
1[14.3]
1[61.7) 18.0 1[50.0) 1150.0)
1[50.0) l[ll.l) 11100] 11.0 1(50.0)
'[11 • ., n.] 1111.2) 2. U[l00) 16.2
1[31.5] 1[U.5] 2[25.0] 1[ll.5] 1Ill.s] - 1(l00]
l[ll.l] l[U.ll 11l1.1] 11U.ll 11U.ll
- 1(100)
- 1(100]
- I(1DO)
- 1(100)
1110lI0)
4UDO)
- ,[u.U 1[11.1) 7[10lI0)
- 2UOO]
21100]
- IIU.,] l[U.l) 9(100)
1[100) 1(l00) 1150.0] To _0 1(100) 1[50.0]
1(100) 13_' 1[50.0) 1150.0] 2(100)
1(100] 2~.' 1[100) 1(100)
1(l00] 24.1 1[100] 1[l00)
... 11 I.D 1[50.0) 1(!rO.O] 2(100) U_O 1(50.0] 1(50.01 2[66.7) r - 21.0 1(l001 l[ll.l)
_____ '~._I~ •. 0 ___ 1_I_5O_.0_1_1~1_5O_._0)~ ____ ~-------------------2~I-l00~]~17_.0 __ l_I]_J_.l_) ______ l_[]_J_.]~] __ l_[U __ -l_I _________________ J_[l_00~) __
lolAI I • !J.O 1[!rO.OI ,
T 1l.0 1[50-01
1(50_0)
lUO.O]
1(100)
2POO)
11 M ILl U~-.l 1(2!>_OJ \[:5-0) 1(100) , 1 11.3 zrso.Oj lrZS_OI l(lS-O) 4(1001 ---_._--------=---=---~~--------.:.....;---------------------
ftUllI U_' )[50.0) 1(11.71 IU&.7) 1111.11 6(100) r -'U.5 1[50.0) l1U.7) 1111.7) 1(ll.7) 61100]
CODt ••••••
297
-'I I ,
/M 1[5O.0J 1[~.OJ 2[lOOJ 0.5 2[I00J 2{100] tl.l 1[5O.0J 1[~.OJ 2[looJ 0.5 2[100J 2[100]
:1&11 I " ·
/ 7.0 1[50.01 I[Yl.O' 2(100) ,,2..3 1[33.3J l[ll.,) l~lJ.:n ~~l~J ~ 1.0 I(!C.OJ 1[50.,'1 1(100) ">l.j 1[13.1) Illl.)J 1(]).)J 1(100) , 1(1001 1(5O.0J -/ n .• o 1(100) 1'~'0) .... 1(100) 1[100) T li.O 1(50.0) I[ ~.O) 2[100 J 1[100) 1[100)
1111' · 1[100) 1[25.0J -/ 11.7 1[1l.3) l[ll.3) 1[ll.') 3[~.OJ 39.3 2[SO.01 1[25.0) - 1[25.01 4[100) T ll.S 2[SO.01 1[25.01 1[25.0) 4[100) 39.1 2[SO.01 1[25.0] - 1[25.0] 4[100]
IIU! I ,
/ · 19.0 1[100] - 1[100]
T · 19.0 1[100] - 1[100]
.-l 10[66.7]12.] 3[U.9) 1[14.') 2[21.6) 1[14.3) 7[46.7) I M U.8 5[50.0) 2[20.0) 2[20.0) 1[10.0J / 7.6 U40.0) 1[20.0J 2[40.0] 5[ll.3) 21.5 ]['7.5) - l[37.5) 1[12.5) 1[12.5) 1[5l~]) T 10.4 71".7] '[20.0) 4[26.7) 1[6.7) 15[100) 2O~9 6[40.0) 1[6.7] 5[ll.') 1[6.7) 1[6.7) - 1[6:7) 15[100)
a , 17.6 3[37.5) 2[25.0) 2[25.0) 1112.5) - l[SO.O) 8[80.0) 20-0 ·1[ll.]) 1[ll.3) 1[ll.3) ][~.O)
/ lII.O 1[50.0] I[SO.O) 2[20.0) - 1[100) 1[25.0) T ll.) 4[40.0) 2[20.0) 2[20.0) 1[10.0) I[SO.0110[IOO) 15.0 2[SO.0) 1125.0) l[25.t) 4[100)
"'IM 1{44.0) 4[22.2] 2[U.l) 2[U.l) 2[U.1) 11[72.0)14.6 4[40.0) 1[10.0) '[30.0) 1[10.0) 1[10.0) - 10152.61 / 1.5.7 3[U.9) 1(14.3) 2[21.6) 1[14.)1 7[2I.~j 1.20 4[".41 '[ll.'1 I[U.1) I[U.1) 9[47.41 T 11.1 UI"I 5[20.0) 4( 11] 2[1.0) 2[1.01 114.0). 25LlOOI 1'.7 I[U.l) 1[5.') 6[11.6) 2[10.~) 1[5.') 1[5.') 1.t[1OO)
~.-..bI. 0IrtUu.... -I M -/ 3.0 1[100) 1[100) 12.0 - 1[100] 1[1001 T ).0 1[100) 1[100J 12.0 1(100] 1[100)
a M · , 11.3 21SO.0J 1125.0) 1125.0) 4(100) 24.5 I[SO.O) lISO.0) 2[1001 T 1'.3 2[SO.0) 1125.0) 1[25.0) 41100J 24.5 lISO.0) 1150.0) 2[1001
III M -, · 11100) 1[100) T · 1[100) 1[100)
ID! M · r 11.' 4[615.71 1[16.7) 1116.7] 6[100) 20.3 - 1[33.'] 1[33.') 1Ill.J) '[1001 T U.3 4[615.7] 1[16.7] 1116.7) 6[lOOJ zo., - 1[33.'] llll.'] l[ll.]) - '[lOO] '. -D " · r - 1[100) lllOOJ '.0 1[I00J 1[100)
T · 1[100) 1[I00J '.0 1(100) 1[100]
IIOfIII 12.0 1(100) I[SO.O] I M · r · 45.0 1[100) 1[50.0) T 21.5 I(SO.OI I[SO.OJ 2[100)
U " 18.0 1[50.0) I[SO.OJ 2[ 56. 7] 15.0' 1[100) I[SO.O) , 11.0 1[100] l[ll.,) 36.0. 1[100) I[SO.OI T n.o 1[1l.'1 l[ll.,) 3[100) 25.5 I[SO.O) 1[SO.O) 2(100)
m M · r · 12.0 1[100] 1[100) T · 12.0 1[100) 1[100)
M&lM 11.0 I[SO.O) I[SO.O) 2[615.7) U.5 - I[SO.O) I[SO.O) 2[40.0) r 18.0 1[100) l[ll.') 31.1 l[ll.') - 2[46.7) 3(60.0) T n.o l[ll.') l[ll.'] 3(100] 24.0 2[40.0] 1[20.0] 2[40.0) 5(100]
IIM)IIo \I M 15.0 1[1001 1(1001 , ·
T 15.0 1(100) 1(100)
t"IPt a " 87.0 1[100) I[SO.O)
F · 39.0 l[lCO) - 1(SO.O) T - 63.0 I(SO.O) 1[50.0) 2(100]
m M · 6.0 1(100] 1[50.01 r · 36.0 1[100) lt5O·0) T · 21.0 I[SO.O) 1(50.0) 2[100)
MIlM · 46.5 I(SO.OI 1[50.0) 2(50.0) r · 37.5 I(SO.OI I[SO.O) 2(SO.O) T · U.O 1[25.01' 1[25.0) 1[25.0) - 1(25.0] 4(100)
I11\III a H lII.O 111001 111001
r · T lII.O 1(100) 1[100)
I14'tm I " 10.2 2[1l.3) '[SO.O) 1[16.7) 6[100) 19.' 4[66.7) 1[16.7) 1[16.7) 6(lOO] , ·
T 10.2 2(33.') ',SO.O) 1[16.7) 6(1001 19.' 4(66.7) 1(66.7) 1[16.7) 6(1001
D " 11.3 1[33.') 2[66.7) 1(100) U.7 )[1001 '[lOO) , · T 11.l 1[".31 2[66.7J 3[lOOJ U.7 )[1001 '[lOO)
m M K.O 1(100) 1[1001 U.7 1(33.') 2[66.7] 3(1001 r · -('K.O 11100] 11100] 33.7 1[33.'J 2(66.7J 3(100]
1btIl '4 21.2 2[20.01 4( 4O.0J 3[3O.0J l(lO.OJ 10(100J 1$.0 1(8.'] 7(53.3] '[25.01 - 1[1.'] 12[100] r · ----~ -T 21.i· 2[20.0J 4[40.0) 3[3O.0J 1[10.0) 10[1001 16.0 1[8.3) 7[58.3) 3125.0) 1('.'] 12[100)
ou:.m I H 21.0 1[5O.0J 1(50.0) 21100J , -
T 21.0 I(SO.O] I(SO.01 2(1001
w " l6.0 I [lOO) 1[1010) r · T · 36.0 1(100) - lUOO)
COftt4 ....
Mal" a.' LlM.'1 IIM.'I
LlM.DI r • T n.. Iuo.OI -r " U., . lln.si lln.SI LlU.SI LlU.SI
,.I 1I1.D01 I T U.. 4( .... 1 I(D,'I 1(U.!1 llU.ll
11 " 311.1. l(lt.'1 Lllt,'1 1(12,'1 ••• tl •
I • .1 I(M"I • I(U.'1 - lUI.11 T 8.. c(n"1 Ll'.'1 'IlII.11 3(1.S.'1 111.11
III " N.' I I.. I(IGOI or e.. I(M.'1
1Ita1,. 11.' '(B.'I '(B.'I .(B.OI HU.'I • I n.l 5(U.S! - 1(U.SI - I(U.SI or U.t I(n.SI .(~.71 5(311.11 I(U." 1( •• 11
.-11 ,. · lUDO I
r 1'-0 or a.D lIM.DI
III ~ -I · or · .'
IIta1 11 · Lll.DOj I .... or a .• IIM.OI -D 11 · I · or --I .... , · T ·
11 " U.' lUDO) I M.' ., M.S lISO.O)
III " · I · ., ·
11 IGOI 24.'
lllGOl 24.'
11.· .. LlU.lI t(1G01
• 11",·11 I1 U.7: 'I M.21 11,.11 U(I.DOI
U.' •• 1. U •• 17 •• 25 ••• •••
III.DOI LlM"1 U.t - 1(M.D U.'·
IIM.ol 3(1.D01 U.,
- IIt.ll U(M.11 U.S - lIU." "D.'I B.I
-
llIDOI IlSO.0)
211"1 U(I.DOI D.t
I(M.OI U.O 1[1001 lIM.OI IIM.OI 2I1.D01 U.O
11.0 It.O
1(SO.OI U.O IUDOI LlSO.OI 1'.0 lISO.OI 2(1G01 1.S.2
8.' H.O
n.o
n.o
IlSO.01 1(SO.OI JIlDOI
1.' ,.,
IIB.OI SIU.SI 1(311.01 l1M.DI
1110.01 tllO.OI lUo.OI • lIlO.OI 11 •• 01
11:111.01 - 11:111·01 1[10.01 'llII.DI 11:111,'1
llte.OI • 21".DI • lISO.OI
1(11.'1 1114.11 21.,'1
l1U.11 .1 .... 1 'ID..JI llU.lI 2ID.II lIU.l) 'IU.1I1'ln.0) SIU.S)
111001
lUOOI
1115.01 l1B.01 IIB.OI 1125.01 lla.OJ llB.OJ
IIa.OI I(B.OI l:B.OI IIH.ol 1120.01 21te,'1 1120.01
111001
1110111
21 ... 11 11""1 11".'1 I(D.'1
lUDO I
lIIDO)
lISO.OI 1110.01
2(".01 11:111.01 2120.01 IUO.OI
11311.01 l1so.01 11 •• '1
IIS.'I 'ID,'I 2(21.21 'UI.II 211.11
1111111 1(11111
1125.01 1125.01
IIB.OI 11:111.01
---_ ... __ . ~-.--------
..... 1 .. I'.' r M.O , M.S -11 " · I · , ·
III " · r J.' T I.'
~II · r 2.' ., 2.'
...-alI11 I " · , · , · 11 " • ..1 , n .•
T lI., III " . r J.o
T J.'
1Ita1,. t.1
'i e.l lI.' ~)
11 u:. r , .. r u ..
11 11 17., , 47.1 T Il.'
III 11 ••• , I.' , Dol
~II 311" I lI.l T B.l --I 11 11.1 , t.1 r Il.' a 11 11.' , D .. , D.I
m .~.t
p: 0.'
H!IO·Oj
IUDOI 111001
IIIGOI l(lOrl
IISO.01
IIB.ftl
lllOOl 111.DO)
Lt LOO)
1(SO.OI
Iln.ol
IISI.O)
1125.01
lIn.51 lIn.SI IIU.SI IIU.SI 1(1OO1 "",'1 lID.11 l1U.11 IIU.11
It'ool 1150.01
LlSO.ol IIse.ol JllOOI
111"'1 11 lOO I
1'.0 1.1 , ..
74.0 11.0 41.S
74.0 lllGOl U •• 1l1OO1 a.s
n.o 8.0 21.0
Z(M.O) 12.0 lISO.O) "ISI.OI IIM.O) U.o 1125.01 1125.01 111001 D.'
IUOOI U.l 1(11111 U.l
2( ... D) U.l IU'.'I l1D,'1 1I1O.01 U.D IIH.O) IIH.O) "1OO1 U.I
'1."1 U.I l1U.11 1a.7· 'I~I !J.S
2(D.21 IIU.!I '1 ... 11 2112.21 'IU,'I 11.' 1(17.5) l1U.51 IIU.51 llU.5) 2(25.01 .(n.lI 21.0' 5UII.CI 111·'1 Sla"1 IIU.II 115.'1 115"1 2IU.II 17UOOI 27.1
leD.1) 11 iool 'llll.1l 1(15.01. 21~.01 lISO.OI 1125.01
lllOOl IISO.OI
111001 ltSl.OI
• 1[1'1')1 1(100)
lUOOI 11S1.01
11S1·01 l11DOI JI".71
Jla.III II •• tl IIU.lI '112"1 Ila.II IU"')
llD.'1 1(JJ.l1 'ID,'I JlD.l)UU.11 llB.OI IID,'I 21U.'1
I(U.lI 5155 ... 21D.21 IID.1I
11S.11 '150.01 I(U.71
1157.11 1(11.11 1115.71 1111.11 l1U.71 lil.71 5lD.JJ 2,1.S.1)
&(11.;1 1(14.')
llU.11 llU.I) 1(1.11 111.lI
I(D.l) 1(ll.l) 11'.1) 1[1.11
ZID.lI 111'.71 211.S.11 117.11
2(11111 .11.71
l(1DOh .. 1(D"1 It.' 21te.OI 2'te.01 11:111.01 • 21".71 11.' .. 'IJJ.1I llD.lI 1(U.l1 IIU.1I l(U.lI
I[D.ll ll1lll1 15.5 '1".11 1(21.11 '121 •• ) 2111.1) 117.11
'127"1 I(D.2l 5127.&1 '(U.71 1(5.11 11(12.11 D.I '(U.'I 11112.111 5121"1 1("'1 I(M.SI 1(11.11 • IU.II lU.1I Z(II.21 llln.II U.t 4121.21 IU1.II JIU.ll '[U.ZI JlU.71 lllJ7,·14(1l.fl 1(20.1) 'IlO.ll 1,l.11 lll.11 l(10"1.Jt11lll1 :111.1 l(l7"IU(".III 1(17.11 SIU.II 11'.71
11.,'1 1117.'1 1111.21 2lt.ll 211.11 UI ... 11 u.o 'ISI.OI 111.'1 1141.71·· U ",'1 21.1 lIUI.2171:111.'1 'Ia.sl 2[5.'1 1(5"1 "11001 11.' 15111.SI'(IO.'1 ,(U.t) 71U.II1 5IU.II lIZ.tl 11170.111 D.l 1(17.51 1('.11 )(11.1) U'.ll UI.11 l(l.ll 3111.11 Ula.ll 11.' 2UII.ZlSlt.l) IOIU.211111.51 '(10"1 IU"I 111.51 .111111 :III.S IIU.ll "1'.11 1(:111.01 'Ill.11 )(10.01 Illl.ll .(U.'I lII['J1.t) 24.0 21D.21 llU.11 2121.11 llU.lI llll.'1 1(21.11 U.I
I,n.ll 'Ite.III SIU.11 '121.71 2111,'1 l[20.01
10Ia.0IUla.ll IlD.71 1,21.11 t(ll.OI 'Ill.OI 41:111.11 11:111.0] JI:III.OI 101~.7IUI21.lIUI21"1 '121.11 111l.0) SlD.lI llU.ll 4:lO.11 1115.11
• 111.SI '121.11 1 1.11 '110.11 215"1 2[t." 11l.11 '(:111.01 2[U.'1 5111.11 '11.11 ,U7"1 21'.11 11'.'l J(lS.11
ilL ~ ...•• ~.·.~·.I .511 •. 1l1 •• 110(111' 4(1.cl 51S.51 .1(n.11 U.7 II(ZI.llulli.m:l:25.1· 11'·1' 4[5.C! t ...... ,<{n·IIl(' 11 1D1l'1 m.cl l(Z.ll IU.ll 1111.21 J7tJl •• ) n.' U12S.'1 9(10·'1 ',11 'J ~[I' 'I S(II.') ,,2S'4 .,[31 ~IICCI4·11171ll.lI.lS(Il.1JII""1 I(l,'1 U[I.'I1l8£lOO] 20.1 25[20.IIJO(""II'llJ 1 11(11 019(','1
IoU. Pl9llr., la ".ek., denot. percM1te o. to total.
' ..
298
IIIDOI
IIIGOI
IIU.51 1( ... 01 • 2(:111.11
IIU.CI) 1O(1.D01 1(:111.01 SlM,'1
- 5(M.DO. lllO.OI IOII.DOI
• s(n"1 -. 2(a.11 • '(lOOlI
21U.!1 utM.11 - flJJ.11
.7,'1 IO(I.DOI
lUOOI
- lllOOl
'UIII) - ,(1111)
- 1(20.0) " .. .01 SI1III)
1(11111 lUIII
II lOO)
1(1111)
- '(1111) 1(100)
1111111 UM.oI - U50.DI
llM.OI 211001
U1III1 1150.01 - 1(M.OI
UMoII 1(11111
llM.OI - 1(50.01
2(1001
1(M"1 2(11.71 - UD.11
- ll:u.'1 J(WOI
- 7111111 - 7(1001
I(D.11 )(25.'1 - ,,".01
- 1(1')1 U(lOOl
I(U.!1 1(".01 - lIBoII
- 11'.11 1211001
- 2(lI.f) 7("','1 '1".21
- J(15.'1 1)(1001
"B.l) t(".ll 11(1001
'11"'1 DI"'." 11111.21
l(1.7) ltC1DOI
- 1(1.51 1(1.7 I(S.41 211.'1
D(U.51 I.SICO.51 J7(1001 al".'1 151".11
~(t.51 I.UOO) l(U.OI 2)(U.,. 111.11. ll(16.1I
1(4"1 4JCI~"1 e[·" I"(loo
division in the labour market in both the districts. Among
the professional and technical degree holders the average
job search period is inversely related to academic
performance both for males and females in Thrissur District
while such pattern of inverse relationship is observed only
for males in Ernakulam District. (Table 8.19)
8.24 Waiting period by faculty
Among the employed graduates in the general
education category, the average waiting period is also
found to be the longest for Arts graduates and the shortest
for Commerce graduates in both the districts indicating a
lower degree of absorption for the Arts graduates in the
labour market in both the districts. Among the employed
graduates in the professional and technical education group
the average waiting period is seen to be the longest
for graduates in Education in both the districts
indicating
Education
a lower degree of absorption for graduates
in the labour market in both the districts.
in
A
male-female break-up shows that the average waiting period
among the employed is longer for females than males in the
faculti·es of Arts, Science, Medicine and Engineering in
Ernakulam District while it is longer for females than
males in the faculty of Arts and Commerce in Thrissur
District. (See table 8.20)
300 ,....J.I 1.10 Dlltrlt.utlon or Employed .ccordlnq to • ..,ii'it}t' -w.I(lnq p.rlo~d-ouiitTon- of unelflj':lcYlnnt by f.cuUy of
llUCIUI D15TRl<;T
.I~uc~tlon, ,u.d."lC pvrfortlanc. and ~&a:. -----_._-- -EiHAilL.iI.& UlS T_Rl<;T -. 1"' ,. = ...... U12-24 2 ... ]6 ___ ~=H
PK.w.~~ ____________________________________ ~pwUd ____________________________________ ___
-1 11-r T
D 11 LI-I 1110-0) lllO.a) JllO.a) r aI.J 1(&0) 1(25.0) 1(&01 T u.t 7150.0) 11 7.11 1( 7.1) 41:11.1)
DJ II)U 1125.0) 1125.01 1125.0) r ».. 1Ill.JI 2111.71 Y:II.J 1(14.JI 21:11.1) 21:11.11 1114.J)
MAl· •• 'l 7(50.01 1( 7.11 117.11 41:11·11 r a 1(14.ll 2121.11 21:11.11 1I14.JI r.. 1(:II.l) 3(14.JI 3(14.JI 5(2l.11 -1 . If. 25.1 1125.01 1(25.0) 1(25.0) 1(25.0) • lO.I 3(50.01 3150.01 'lO.I lIJO.OI 1(LO.OI 4(<<1.01 1(LO.O) lllO.O)
D "lII.I 1(20.C) r U-l 1(D.ll '26.5 Z(25.0]
DJ 1126.5 r -'JI.5
lIJO.O; 1[20.01 2(40.01 1111.71 lIJ7.51 l(U.SI %(:15.0)
1(50.01
1(50.01
1(50.01
1(50.01
Mal· 1I:II.l II '.11 II '.11 3(27.ll 2111.21 41l1.41 , ll-O 4144.41 S[!IS.'I
. T)D.t 5(25.01 I1 5.01 1(40.01 2(10.01 4120.01
aJMXS
1 ". , . T •
D "22.' 1[21.0) 1[lO.OI 2[40.0) r • ., 22.1 1(21.GI 1120.0) 214O.G)
1125.0) 11 7.11
;
11:15.01 4151.11 - l(4z.9)
1(14.JI 71.,1
II 7.1) 141"-'1 1(14.l) 7IDoJ) 11 4.1) II 4.11 DI 110)
1[20.0)
1120.01
41".01 1(10.01
lO( 1001
5112:51 l(n.sl II l!Ol
21 1001
2NDDI
IlISS;OI )[45.01
20[ 1001
51 1001
51 1001
l.O 1( 1001
J.O l( 1.001
5.0 JllO.OI 2140.01 2.0 1( 1001 4.5 4(11.71 2lll.ll
11.' 2121.11 21:11.11 lO.4 2140.01 1120.01 24.l 4(ll.l) JI25.01
If-I 1(11.21 41lO.11 25.7 3(50.01 1111.71 ll.', 1(47.41 S[lI.JI
'.0 1(25.01 2150.01 1125.0)
21:11.1) 1(14.ll 1( •• 01 3(25.'1 1( •• JI
2(15.41 11 7.7) 1(11.71 lIU.11 11 S.JI
It.3 1125.01 1(25.0) - 2(50.01 14.3 2125.01 )[n.51 llU-S1 2(25-01
2l.' 1(ll.lI 2122.21 4(44.41 2I.S 1(25.01 1125.01 14.7 1( 7.71 l(23.11 5(lI.5)
11.0 ~! ~l 11.0
1(ll.ll 2150.0) 3(2l.1)
It.l 2115.41 4IlO.') 5(lI.51 11 7.7) D.' 1(ll.11 JIll.ll l[ll.ll 2122.21 J[2l.2) ».2 )[1l.'1 71ll.11 '127.J) 21 '.11 3Ill.')
1.0 11 1001
1.0 11 lOO)
'7.0 '.0 21.5
3[ 1001 3(75.0)
1 (2~.0) •
II 1001
I( 1001
511l.ll 11110. 7) 1I 1001
1120.01 ~!~:~~ 1( •• ll ut 1001
- UI63.41 1111.7) 'Ill •• ) 1( S.ll 1I( 100 I
4150.01 4150.01 II 1001
1(ll.l) '1".21 4IlO.8}
11 7.7) III lOO,
11 1001 11 lOoll
11 7.71 1l[51.01 )[40.'1
I1 4.51 UI 1001
II lOO)
I[ lOO)
1[ 1001 ll~.C) l(7~.OI
1(25.0) 4( 1001 04( 10v)
DJ 11 JO.a 2140.01 1(20.01 1(20.01 1120.01 5(71.41 11.' ~(2~.0)1 \2~.0)1(2~.0) -
~~:: m::~l 212"'1 1111.JI m::~I1(u.JI 1(14.JI ;!~Oa~) 11.1 1(2-;.O)1(2;.0)1(2~.O) - 1(2M) - 4( 100)
:;~.:ai~ l;:S lo0.0j llJO 0) 1[10 .0) IIID.~ 2(11).01 1?(1I.1) • -,I.. 2(33.3) f( 16~;;-;('6-. ?""':-. ---:::'(r",--'-='----:,:";(--'";.--. 7~):-;':-;(-;"7'";;.,) r 2'-t! l['iG 0 - . IL50 01' - 2UP) ,1-7 - )( ,eo) • • Jell l) ., u.S ZUi·1) l(D.G) J(D.O~j_ll1;:;..6._J~l.;,.I _1_.J.;,.I_2.;,.11_,_.1~1 ___ U....;,.I_100.....:..)_'~!f!~..:21:.2;;;2='~i 'fl44.4) 1(11.1 .... ll~I_.l) • 1(11.1) 9(100.0)
~ 1 ".. 11 1001 , .
T .• I( 1001
D HU.O , . TU.O
I[ 100)
1[ 1001
Mal M '.0 1(50.01 1150.0) F • T '.0 1150-01 1150.0)
.... 1 H 12.0 1150.01 , -
I[ lOO) 1( 1001 21.0
I[ lOO) 1l.5 1[50.9)
1( 1 ... ,. l4.0
1[ lOO) 24.0
:1 1001 U.O 1150.0) .... n.o 2[ lOO I n.o 1Ill.J)
1150.0) 21 1001
T U.O 1(50.0) 1150.01 21 lOO) 11 ll.3 2(50.01 1125.0) 1[25.0) 41 1001 II , .
I[ 1001
1( 1001
1(50.01
11 1001 1150.01
11 lOO) l(ll.JI 11ll.31
l[~D.OJ 1,SO.Ol 21 !CO)
11 lOO)
U lOO)
2[".7) Illl.1) J( 1001
___ T_ll_.3_2_(_50_.0_1. __ I_[D ___ 0~1 ______ l[25.0 . .;,.I ____________ .;,.4[~100_I~ ___________________________________________ __
bal" Il.S J(50.01 1[11.71 Illt.71 1[16.7) 61 lOO) , . ,. ll.5 JI50.0j I[U.7) 1111.71 1[16.71 '[ 100'11
----------------.~. ------------~~--------------------------------IDI:IIr1DI
I "'. ., 7.0 1150.0) T 1.0 1150.0)
U H • II lOO) , n.O T lI.O 1(50.01
1IICa1 M • 11 1001 , 21.7 1(33.JI T D.5 1150.01
~
1150.01 1[50.01
Illl.3) 1125.01
1 11 13.1 ll42.t) 2[21.41 1[14.31 , . T ll •• 3[42.11 2[21.6) 1[U.3)
II 11 42_0 , 4.5 1150.0) 1(50.01 ,. 23.) 11D.01 1125.01
1[14.ll
l[14.ll
1150.01 1[50.01
1(25.0) 1125.0)
'MAl "19.1 J(D.JI 2(22.2) l[ll.l) Illl.11 2:22.21 r '.1 1[50.01 1150.01 T 17.l 4(ll.4) 3127.1) Il t.!1 1{ 9.11 2[11.21
..... 1l'll:llN,
1 ,,15.1 51~.7! ll21.41 ll21.41 l! 7.1) 2[14.1) r t.1 4150.01 1150.0) T ll.t '140.91 31.11.II 7111.8! I[ 4.51 21 1.11
'-21 1001 44.0 . 1125.01 21 1001 44.0 1[:15.01
1(50.0') I( lOO) 1150.0, 1[50.01 21 11/01
1(D.OI
11 1111) 11 100;
Illl.ll 3(75.01 25.2 Z(4O.01 1125.01 41 1001 35.Z 2(40.0)
2150.01 2(50.01
2140.0) 2(10.01
71 lOO) U.l 21ll.JI 1,1&.71 21ll.31 24.0 11 1001
7[ lOO) 15.7 2[21.61 1114.31 3[42.'1
2[~.01 11.0 l[!IO.OI 2150.01 41 lOO) 11.0 1(50.0J
1[50.01
11!1O·01
1(11.7)
1,U.ll
'[11.81 2[11.2)
III 100)
15.3 J(37.51 l[U.SI 2125.01 1[U.51 I[U.51
14['1.61 8[!6. 4 )
22( lOO,
24.0 1[ lOO) 16.2 lll3.l) HU.ll 3U3.ll l(ll.ll Illl.l)
9.7 '[<6.21 l(23.1) ll2l.11 1[ 1.71 30.4 212'3.0) l'l~.O) 3(31).01 l[lO.0) lB.7 aI34.a) 4t\1.41 '126.1) ][ll.?) l[ 4.3)
D " 11.1 lll".JI 1(LO.7) 4[14.3) 6[21.4) l(10.71 11 3.61 UP).7) 21.S S[27.e) Cl~2.2) 51!l.11 1[ 5.61 l( 5.61 t~.,1 2[;;.;1 '(~" , l~ll.ll 2[22.2, 19.3 '['2!>.9j 'I'li.Gl 6(71-1) I( ).') X'I.I) ~ ~:~ I~=':l ~~:~l m~::l ~~:~::~ Jj i"1 W~'~J W~':l i~[\G~l
"11.·, 1[ '.1) J(27.)1 1(1'.2) l( 1.11 1(11.'1 L( 9.11 l[ 1.1) 11(".0] r 19 •• IllCI.olj 1(21).01 2[4;).0) 1(21).0) . cll ... , ,. 27.7 2(l2.S) 4125.0) 4125.01 2112.51 2112.51 1[ I.ll I[ ,.31 U[ lOO)
"-tAl ~ ~:~ l~!~:~l m~::l m!::l ~l~:~l7[1~21 ~~ !:~l U !:' ~~~:3~ T 1'.11 25,32.') UIlS.'117[22.4I1G[1l.2) 7[ 9.21 11 1.9) 2[ M 761 :OV)
1'.8 '!(TI.1) XV.8) I( ,.1] 2(1'.2)1(16.') ;1.:t =L::;.JJ ;'l;.!.':; ll1t.i.7J 22.4 5[lt.4) 5(2'1.41 11 5.') 3(11.61 Zlll.'1
17.4 UIll.JI 10(2).a) 9[21.4) l[ 7.1) 4[ ~.51 24.1 '('24.0) 712a.DI .U'.OI 4116.~) II '.0) q •
13.9 2I)1~.91 !7"' •• 0)1J,U.41 7[10.4) " '.0)
1125.01 4( 1001 1125.0) '( 1:101
U lOO) U lOO)
1(20.01 SI 1001 1120.01 51 lOO,
,,15.7) 1114.3) 7111.11
<! 10"l)
2( ItIll
lUll. 9) Illl.ll 'l 1::10)
1[10.01 ~!~:5J) l! 4.ll 211 1001
l(ll.l) 1£1611:7) 'lll.ll
2( '.0. n( IC~)
2( 4.a) 4<161. 7) 21 G.O) 25137.J) 4( .G.o; Il[ lOO)
301
8.25 Waiting period by faculty and academic performance
The waiting period among the employed is also
found to be inversely related to academic performance in
all the faculties except for Law in Thrissur District while
such inverse relationship is noted only in the faculties of
Arts, Medicine
indicating a
divisioners in
and Engineering in Ernakulam
lower degree of absorption for
almost all the faculties in
District
the third
Thrissur
District and for the third divisioners in the faculties of
Arts, Medicine ~nd Engineering in Ernakulam District. A
sexwise break up shows that the average waiting period is
inversely related to the academic performance for the male
graduates in almost all the faculties in both the
districts. However such inverse relationship is observed
for females in the faculties of Science and Education in
Thrissur District and only in the faculty of Arts in
Ernakulam District (Table 8.20).
In the above paragraphs we have made an attempt to
examine the nature of relationship between job-search
period/waiting period and the major factors influencing it
such as level of education,age,sex,caste Family income etc.
To discuss further, an attempt is made below to explain the
relationship between job search period/waiting period and
its determinants numerically.
302
Factors influencing Unemployment
For the purpose of numerical analysis, job search
period is taken as the dependent variable (V) and the
following as the independent variable.
Xl X2 X3 X4 X5 X6 Xl X8 X9 Xl0
Monthly family income Caste Sex Age Educational level of Father Highest Educational level of the respondent Class for Highest Educational Level Attitude towards manual labour Locational preference Minimum expected Salary
For analytical convenience dummy values were
attributed for variables X2,X3,X8 and X9. Because of the
nature of the problem under study and due to the nature of
variables, the chosen variables are interactive in
the social frame and this interaction cannot be
avoided or eliminated. The Qualitative problems of the
variable and its resultant multicollinearity is somewhat
mitigated since dummy variable technique has been used for
most of the variables for estimating the parameters of the
regression model .. The correlation coefficient between job
search period and the chosen variables were computed and
are presented in table 8.21.
303
Table 8.21 Correlation coefficient between job-search period and the chosen variables
,.
Variable
X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6 X7 X8 X9 X10
Trichur
-0.1029 -0.2380 -0.2161
0.6630 -0.2843 -0.3822 -0.1955 -0.0115
0.0477 -0.2290
Ernakulam
0.0280 0.0601
-0.1394 0.7194
-0.3104 -0.3420 -0.1953
0.1170 -0.1886 -0.0201
Pooled
-0.0188 -0.0894 -0.1772
0.6936 -0.2980 -0.3599 -0.1912
0.0480 -0.0798 -0.0879
Analysis shows that in Thrissur District all the
variables except X4 and X9 have negative influence on job-
search period. Among the 10 variables listed ,strong
positive correlation was observed in the case of variable
X4 in Thrissur District. The same trend was noted in
Ernakulam District and in the case of pooled analysis also.
Hence we may infer that the nature of relationship between
job-search period and age is positive and strong. The
other prominant variables in Thrissur District are
X2,X3,X4,X5,X6 and X10. All these variables suggest that
the job- search period is negatively related to these
variables. It is a wide belief that the chances of getting
employment improve whenever there is higher education for
the Father. This claim is reassured in the present
analysis also. A negative correlation between job-search
period and the educptional level of Father suggest that the
unemployed has chances of getting employed earlier if
his/her father is well educated. The same trend is
304
observed in the case of Ernakulam District also
(Correlation -0.3104). The other prominant variable in
Ernakulam District is X6. A negative correlation for X6 in
both the districts suggests that the educational level of
the respondent is negatively related to job-search period
ie, when a person attains more and more education his
prospects of getting employment improve. In the job
search period analysis we have three major variables namely
X4,XS & X6. A wholistic view suggests that among the 10
listed variables, job-search period is more related to age,
educational level of father and the educational level
achieved by the respondent. However, a mere correlation
analysis will never meet the entire purpose particularly
when majority of the variables are of qualitative in nature
and when there is multicollinearity among certain
variables. Hence "cause and effect" relations were also
explored with the help of stepwise regression analysis
after using dummy variable to some of the explanatory
variables and the results of such anaysis are presented in
tables 8.22, 8.23 & 8.24.
Multiple regression analysis almost validated our
earlier findings. Compared with the standard error
and 't" values, the variables which are significant in the
case of pooled analysis are X3,X4<XS and X6 viz. Sex, age,
educational level .of father and educational level of the
respondent. Among these, except X4,
variables are negatively related in
all the
relation
other 3
to the
30S
aspect. All the variables together
explain 63.69 percent variations in the dependent
variable. In the case of Thrissur District alone, the
significant variables are X3, X4 and X6. Barring X5,
all the other three variables are the same
which are found to be significant in the pooled analysis.
All the variables together in Thrissur District are
capable
job-search
of explaining 62.10 percent variations on
period. Variables X4 and X6 are seen to be 2
relevant in Ernakulam District, R being 0.6672. In
short, the major determinants of job-search period are
sex,age,educational level of father and the level of
education of the respondent. From the analysis the
following major inferences are deduced:
(a) The duration of job search period can be reduced by
acquiring higher qualification. (b) The aspirant can
Table 8.22 Regression Coefficients of the model Y=f(Xi = 1,2 ... 10)
(Pooled) N = 331.
Variable Regression coefficient
SE t
Xl X2 X3 X4 X5 X6 X7 X8 X9 Xl0
0.0009 dropped
-11.671 7.2387
-1.1780 -6.4911 -5.8677
3.4674 1 .4417 0.0019
2
0.0007
3.8497 0.3731 0.5461 0.7896 4.6455 3.6239 3.9889 0.0019
R 0.6369
1 .461
-3.032 19.403 -2.157 -8.220 -1.263 0.957 0.361 0.893
306
expect a job immediately if his/her father has better
education. This is apriori true also in the case of
people belonging to the upper strata of the society. This
is mainly because of their "contacts".
Table 8.23 Regression Coefficients of the model Y = f(Xi) i= 1 .... 10)
(Thrissur)N = 168 -----------------------------------------------------------
Variable Regression Coefficient
SE t
-----------------------------------------------------------X1 0.00081 0.0013 0.609 X2 -4.7985 5.0038 -0.959 X3 -13.6461 5.0038 -2.714 X4 7.0208 0.5565 12.614 X5 -0.8274 0.7437 -1.113 X6 -5.6401 1 . 1209 -5.032 X7 -8.7327 6.1070 -1.430 X8 dropped X9 6.6183 5.6894 1 .163 X10 -0.0019 0.0044 -0.431
2 R 0.6210
Table 8.24 Regression Coefficients of the model Y = f(Xi) i = 1.2 ..... 10)
Variables
X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6 X7 X8 X9 X10
Regression Coefficient
0.0011 5.4188
-8.0791 7.2937
-1.4398 -6.8719 dropped 6.9614
-2.8082 0.0022
(Ernakulam)N = 163
2
SE
0.0077 5.2795 5.8734 0.5733 0.8314 1.2527
5.6221 6.2064 0.0029
R 0.6672
t
1.422 1.026
-1.376 14.208 -1.732 -5.486
1.238 -0.452
0.986
301
Facto~~ influencing Waiting period
The discussion will be complete only if we also
examine the factors that influenced waiting period in the
case of currently employed persons. For this purpose,
information gathered from 241 employed persons were
analysed with the help of correlation and regression
analysis (stepwise). The independent variables used in the
analysis are,
X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6 X7
Monthly family income Caste Sex Age Educational level of father Highest educational level of the respondent Class obtained for highest level of education.
The results of the correlation analysis are given
in the following table.
Table 8.25 Correlation coefficient between waiting period and the chosen variables.
Variable Trichur Ernakulam Pooled
X1 -0.2516 -0.1196 -0.1893 X2 -0.2619 -0.0529 -0.1339 X3 -0.0729 -0.0459 -0.0517 X4 -0.0609 -0.0553 -0.0638 X5 -0.1478 -0.0454 -0.1073 X6 -0.2934 -0.0497 -0.1908 X7 -0.0060 0.0280 0.0068
An interesting phenomenon observed is the negative
relation with waiting period in all the regions except one
variable in Ernakulam District. In one sense, these
308
results mutually coincide with the earlier inferences that
higher education level of father, higher educational level
of the respondent and the class obtained by the respondent
will negatively influence the duration of waiting period.
In Thrissur District the relatively more important
vari~bles are X1,X2 and X6 while in Ernakulam District the
important variables are X1,X2 and X6 in relation to the
relative correlation coefficients. Hence it is inferred
that these three variables are relatively the major
determinants of waiting period even though the calculated
values are less compared to the results obtained for
the of unemployed. To probe further, regression analysis
(stepwise) was also attempted as in the case of unemployed
and the inferences of such analysis are presented in
tables 8.26, 8.27 & 8.28.
Table 8.26
Variable
X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6 X7
Regression Coefficients of the model Y = f(Xi) i = 1,2, ..... 7.
Regression Coefficient
-0.0012 -7.4777 -4.8844 -0.1251 dropped -1.5935 dropped
(Pooled N = 241).
SE t
0.0007 -1.813 4.2582 -1.756 3.5883 -1. 361 0.2025 -0.617
0.7576 -2.103
Judged from the t - values, the major determinants
of duration of unemployment in Thrissur District and
Ernakul am District are, family income, Caste and
educat i ona 1 level of respondent. Pooled analysis also
Table:8. 27 Regression Coefficients of the model Y = f(Xi) i = 1,2, ..... 7
(Thrissur)
Variable
X1 X2 X3 X4 XS X6 X7
Regresssion Coefficient
-0.0016 -16.6138 -5.7950 dropped dropped -2.5625 dropped
SE t
0.0010 -1.624 6.4004 -2.596 5.5396 -1.046
1.0739 -2.386
Table: 8. 28 Regression Coefficients of the model
Variable
X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6 X7
Y = f(Xi) i = 1,2, ......... 7
Regression Coefficient
-0.0010 4.6033
-2.3954 -0.0832 -0.2082 dropped
0.1038
(Ernakulam)
SE t
0.0007 -1.324 5.6013 0.822 4.5066 -0.532 0.2551 -0.326 0.6488 -0.321
0.1519 0.683
309
identified the same variables as the major determinants.
Analysis also revealed that caste is playing a major role
in deciding the duration of waiting period. Another
striking feature is the negative correlation between
educational level of the respondent and waiting period. In
both the analysis, viz,analysis of the unemployed and the
employed, this variable is identified as a crucial one.
Hence it is inferred that majority are unemployed largely
due' to their low marks and low skills. Our educational
policies should give stress in providing more skil1-
oriented and vocation-oriented education after a careful
assessment of demand and supply factors.
CHAPTER IX
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
CHAPTER lX
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The analysis of the problem of educated
unemployment is made against the backdrop of the trends in
educational and economic development of the State since
1957. The tremedous expansion in secondary and
enrolement in the state during the 1960's,
University
1970's
1980's
opening
due to the open door policy in admission and
of new institutions has resulted in large
and
the
and
ever-rising supply of educated manpower. At the same time,
employment opportunities in the State did not increase
commensurate with the increase in the supply of educated
manpower. Thus the imbalance between the supply of and the
demand for educated in the labour market led to the
growing problem of unemployment of the educated.
The analysis of the census figures relating to
employment by industry, occupation and education brought to
light not only the fact that employment opportunities for
the educated in various industries and occupations in the
State have not increased commensurate with the increase in
the supply
picture of
examination
of educated manpower, but also
slackening industrial development.
of the recent trends in the
the dismal
A closer
growth of
employment opportunities in the organised public and
311
Private sectors which absorb majority of the educated
manpower, also revealed that growth in employment
opportunities for the educated has not kept pace with the
rapid growth in the supply of educated manpower.
Among the educated persons unemployed in the
State, matriculates constituted the highest proportion in
1961,1971 and 1981, while graduates and post graduates
accounted for only a small part indicating lesser
employment opportunities for the matriculates in the State.
The number of educated unemployed in urban areas increased
from 18 thousand in 1961 to 221 thousand in 1981; the
corresponding figures for rural areas were 56 thousands and
719.19 thousand respectively.
The incidence of unemployment was higher amohg the
younger age groups and lower among the higher age groups in
1961, 1971 and 1981. About two-thirds of the unemployed in
1971 were seen to be in the age group 15-24; the
corresponding proportion in 1981 formed about three-fourth
indicating the lengthening of the waiting period for the
entrants to the employment market.
Incidence of unemployment is found to be higher in
urban areas than in rural areas in 1981 both for males and
females, while in 1971, it was higher in rural areas than
in urban areas. Analysis of unemployment by levels of
education reveals that incidence of unemployment was lower
in urban areas fo~ matriculates, 'graduates and above'
category and technical diploma holders while it was higher
312
for other levels of education. Among the educated (SSLC
and above) unemployed, incidence of unemployment is found
to be the highest for the matriculates both for males and
females in 1981 followed by 'graduates and above', non
technical diploma holders, technical diploma holders and
technical degree holders.
Incidence of unemployment is found to be
significantly higher for females than males in almost all
levels of education except among the technical diploma
holders irrespective of rural-urban difference.
The NSS 43rd round (1988-89) estimated that there
are 15.16 lakhs open unemployed persons in the state
constituting 9.42 percent of the total labour force. Among
them, the educated unemployed constituted 6335 thousand
representing 41.8 percent of the total unemployed. The Live
Register figures of the Employment Exchanges, despite their
various limitations indicate that the problem of educated
unemployment has been worsening progressively during the
last decade, especially after 1977.
To make a detailed study of the nature, magnitude,
causes and characteristics of educated unemployment primary
data were collected through personal investigation with the
help of detailed pre-tested structured schedules from a
random sample of 400 households chosen from four towns
namely, Thrissur, Chalakudy,Aluva and Ernakulam spread over
Thrissur and Ernakulam Districts. The
high)ighted some important characteristics
unemployed in the State which are listed below.
31a
study has
of educated
1. Proportion of unemployed is the highest both for males
and females in the salaried white collar households while
it is the lowest in households with agriculture as the main
occupation. Whereas wage labour households belong mostly
to low income groups white collar families belong mostly to
the high income groups.
2. With increase in the income of households, proportion of
unemployed decreases.
3. Among the unemployed, females dominate males in almost
all the income groups and in almost all the occupational
categories of households.
4. Households belonging to lower castes are characterised
by lower levels of income and education while the forward
caste households have higher levels of income and
education.
5. Majority of forward caste households have a regular
source of income while majority of the backward castes do
not have any regular source of income. Females constitute
lower proportion than males in salaried white collar
households among the forward Hindu castes and Christians
while their proportion is higher in the same occupational
category of household among the Other Backward Castes and
314
Scheduled Castes and Muslims. In the wage labour
households females account for higher proportion than males
in almost all the castes except forward Hindu castes and
scheduled castes.
6. Unemployment
educational level
is inversely related to father's
both for males and females with the
exception of illiterate fathers.
7. Incidence of unemployment is more chronic among the
youth in the age group 15-29; it is more acute among
females than males.
8. Among the unemployed in the general education group,
graduates constitute the highest proportion followed by
matriculates, undergraduates and post-graduates. The larger
proportion of graduates than matriculates among the
unemployed indicate increasing demand for higher education.
9. Among
unemployment
the graduates in the general education group
is more severe among Arts graduates followed
by science and commerce graduates. Among the professional
highest for and technical graduates unemployment is the
graduates in engineering and the lowest for graduates in
Education.
10. Lower levels of education are associated with lower
levels of family income and higher levels of education are
associated with higher levels of family income. Among the
315
unemployed, matriculates constitute higher proportion in
the lowest income group followed by graduates.
11. Higher levels of education are associated with Forward
castes and Lower levels of education, with Backward Castes.
Among the unemployed, graduates account for the highest
proportion among the Forward Castes while matriculates
constitute the highest proportion among Other Backward
Castes and Scheduled Castes.
12. Lower levels of education are associated with lower
levels of family occupation and vice versa.
unemployed in the general education category,
constitute the highest proportion in the
households. In contrast, graduates and
Among the
matriculates
wage labour
postgraduates
account for the highest proportion in the salaried white
Collar families.
13. The rate of unemployment is found to be the highest
among the wage labour households and the lowest among the
salaried white collar households both for males and
females. The rate of unemployment is significantly higher
for females than males in almost all the occupational
categories of households except agricultural households.
14.
the
Unemployment rate is higher among the low castes
high castes. The rate of un~mployment is found to
than
be
the highest for Muslims followed by Scheduled Castes and
Other Backward Castes; it is lowest for forward Hindhus and
316
Brahmins. The rate of unemployment is significantly higher
for females than males in all the castes.
15. Rate of unemployment is inversely related with age
qn? family income; it is strikingly higher for females than
males in all the age groups and all the income groups.
16. The rates of unemployment are lower for the
professionally and technically qualified persons and higher
for those without any additional qualifications. In the
professional and technical education group. the rate of
unemployment is the lowest for professional and technical
degree holders while it is the highest for professional
and technical diploma holders. The survey reveals that in
the general education group the rate of unemployment is
inversely related to the level of education with the
exception of undergraduates. A sex-wise break-up shows
significantly higher rates of unemployment for fdemales
than males in almost all levels of education.
17. All the unemployed have a marked preference for white
collar jobs irrespective of the educational backgrond.
Clerical grade is the most preferred job for the
matriculates while the officers job is the most preferred
job for graduates and post graduates in the general
education group. In the professional and technical
education category, the professional and technical diploma
holders and engineering graduates prefer to be employed as
engineers while most of the graduates and post graduates in
317
education want to be teachers and largest proportion of the
ITI certificate holders prefer to be technicians indicating
the tendency of the unemployed to prefer occupations which
are suited to the training they have received.
18. Job preference is broadly related to economic
background of the unemployed. It is observed that the
largest percentage of the unemployed in the highest income
group prefer officer's job while the largest proportion of
the unemployed in the lower income group prefer clerical
jobs. Significant difference is not observed between males
and females in respect of job preference. However females
show greater preference for white collar work and aversion
to manual work than males.
19. When the minimum acceptable job pattern is examined,
a significant downward shift is seen in the job preference
of all income groups. The proportion of the unemployed
willing to under-take lower grade jobs declines with rise
in family income.
20. The
influenced
minimum acceptable salary
by household income
is
and
found to be
educational
qualification. A ~irect relationship is observed between
household income and minimum acceptable salary both for
males and females. A positive relation is also found
between the minimum acceptable salary and the levels of the
education.
318
21. The average job-search period is found to be
inversely related to the minimum acceptable salary both
for males and females.
22. More than three-fourth of the total unemployed prefer
.public sector job. Wide gender difference is not observed
in sectoral preference. The proportion of unemployed
prefering public sector jobs is higher in the general
education group. It is observed that among the unemployed
prefering public sector jobs, females constitute higher
proportion than males in the general education group and
among the professional and technical certificate holders.
23. As for locational preference only 17 percent are
willing to go abroad for employment. The largest proportion
of the unemployed insist on employment in the home
district indicating lower mobility of the unemployed,
worsening the problem of educated unemployment in the
state. The willingness to move to distant locations in
search for job is also influenced by the educational
background of the unemployed.A positive relationship is
discernible between locational preference and educational
qualification. significant gender difference is found in
the locational preference when educational background is
considered. Mobility is relatively higher for male
graduates in the general education group. In the
professional and technical education category, professional
319
and technical certificate holders show greater mobility.
Marital status also influences the locational preference of
the unemployed.
24. Majority of the unemployed are seen to be depending on
parents, for their livelihood during the job-search
period.Among them females account for the largest
proportion.
25. Majority of the unemployed have a job-search period of
more than one year. In the case of about one-third among
them the job-search period has been over five years;
another one-third has searched unsuccessfully for job for
two to
person
market.
three
seeks
years. In general an educated
for job for about four years in
unemployed
the labour
26. Average job-search period is inversely related to
famlly income. The largest percentage of the job-seekers
have been searching for job for above 60 months in all the
income brackets. Average job-search period is longer for
females in almost all the income brackets, except in the
highest income bracket.
27. The average job-search period is longer for the
unemployed Scheduled Castes and Other Backward Castes than
those from forward castes/communities. It is the longest
for scheduled castes and shortest for Muslims. Average
job-search period is longer for females in almost all the
castes except Muslims.
320
28. Inverse relationship is found between average job
search period and father's educational level; it is the
longest for the unemployed whose father are illiterate and
the shortest for those whose fathers are graduates and
post-graduates.
29. Job-search period of the unemployed is seen to decline
with educational qualification. An inverse relationship is
found between average job-search period and levels of
education. It is the longest for matriculates
(78.1months)and shortest for post- graduates (14.4months).
Average job-search period is significantly higher for the
unemployed with third class than those with first class at
all levels of education both in general education and
professional and technical education group. Average job
search period is relatively longer for females than males
at all levels of academic performance in almost all
of education.
levels
30. Among the unemployed graduates in the
education group,average job-search period is the
for the Arts graduates and the shortest for the
graduates; in the professional and technical
general
longest
Commerce
education
category, it is the shortest for engineering graduates and
the longest for graduates in Education. An inverse
relationship is noted between the average job-search period
and academic performance in almost all the faculties except
321
the faculty of science. Average job-search period ;s
relatively longer for female graduates than their male
counter parts in all the categories of academic performance
in the faculty of Commerce.
31. The waiting period for the first salaried job for the
employed is also found to decline with the educational
qualification.
32. The average waiting period among the employed is
found to be inversely related to family income, levels
education, performance in education and father's level
education.
also
of
of
33. Average
found to be
waiting period among the employed
the longest for scheduled castes
is also
and the
shortest for Muslims. Waiting period is longer for females
than males in almost all the castes except Christians and
scheduled castes.
34. Average waiting period for the employed is also found
to be si"gnificantly lower for the salaried white collar
families. It is the longest for wage labour households
while it is the shortest for 'self-employed elsewhere'
households. Waiting period is longer for females than males
in almost all occupation categories of households except
business households.
35. Among the employed graduates, waiting period is
322
relntively longer for those with out any additional
qualification in professional and technical courses, than
those with additional qualification in professional and
technical courses. Among the professionally and
technically qualified persons, average waiting period is
the shortest for professional and technical degree holders
and the longest for professional and technical certificate
holders.
36. Average waiting period is longer for females in almost
all levels of education except the post graduates in the
general education group.
37. Among the employed graduates in the general
education group, the average waiting period is found to be
the longest for Arts graduates and the shortest for
Commerce graduates. Among the graduates in professional and
technical education category the average waiting period
is the longest for graduates in education and the shortest
for graduates in Law. The waiting period is longer for
female graduates than their male counterparts in the
faculty of Arts, Medicine and Education. Average waiting
period is inversely related to academic performance in the
faculty of Arts, Science, Commerce, Medicine and
Engineering indicating higher degree of absorption for the
first divisioners in the labour market.
323 Regional Variations
1. The le~els of income of households vary widely in
Thrissur and Ernakulam Districts. The proportion of the
unemployed is the highest in the income group Rs 1501-2500
in Thrissur district while their proportion is the highest
in the income group Rs 501-1500 in Ernakulam district. In
both the districts the proportion of the unemployed is the
lowest in agricultural households and the highest in
salaried white-collar households.
2. The wage labour households belong mostly to the low
incoMe groups while the salaried white collar families
belong mostly to the high income groups in both districts.
However Ernakulam District exhibits a significantly higher
proportion of the unemployed in wage labour households in
the lowest income bracket than Thrissur District.
3. The backward castes are associated with low income
groups and forward castes are associated with high income
groups in both districts. The proportion of the unemployed
among 'Other Backward ,Castes' in the lowest income group is
found to be lower in Ernakulam District compared to
Thrissur District Among the unemployed Muslims, larger
proportion belongs to higher income groups in both the
districts. However their proportion in the highest income
324
group is strikingly higher in Ernakulam District as
compared to Thrissur District.
4. Forward Castes belong mostly to the salaried white
collar households while backward castes belong mostly to
the wage labour households in both districts. However. the
highest proportion of the unemployed among Other Backward
Castes in Thrissur District belongs to wage labour
households while the largest proportion of the unemployed
in the same caste belong to salaried white collar
households in Ernakulam District.
5. Maximum proportion of unemployment is observed among
the wards of the parents having educational qualification
at the primary level in both districts.
6., Most of the unemployed fall within the age group of
20-24 years in both the districts. A male-female break-up
reveals that incidence of unemployment is higher among
females than males in almost all the age groups in both the
districts.
7. Unemployment is seen to be lower for the
professionally and technically qualified persons than for
those without any additional qualification in both the
districts.
8. Lower levels of education are associateo with lower
325
levels of family income in both the districts. The
proportion of unemployed matriculates and undergraduates in
the general education group is seen to be the largest in
the lower income group 'Rs 501-1500' in both the districts.
9. Higher levels of education are associated with forward
castes and lower levels of education are associated with
backward castes in both districts.
10. Considerable differences are not observed between the
two districts with respect to the job-search period of the
unemployed in different age groups.
11. The average job search period is found to be inversely
related to the family income, level of education, academic
performance, and father's level of education in both the
districts.
1.2. The average job-search period is the longest for
scheduled castes and the shortest for the Muslims in
the di stri cts. However, the average job-search peri,od
found to be markedly higher for Scheduled Castes
Thrissur District than in Ernakulam District
the
both
is
in
13.Among the professionally and technically qualified
persons, the average job search period is found to be the
longest for the professional and technical certificate
326
holders in both the districts. However, the average job-
search period is markedly higher in Thrissur District at
all levels of education as compared to Ernakulam
indicating lower employment opportunities for the
in Thrissur District than Ernakulam District.
District
educated
14. Among the unemployed graduates in the general education
category, the average job-search period is found to be the
shortest for Commerce graduates and the longest for Arts
graduates in both districts. Average job-search period is
longer for females than males in the faculties of Arts,
Science and Commerce in both the districts.
15. The average waiting period among the employed is also
found to be the shortest for those coming from business
households in Thrissur District; it is the longest for
those coming from the wage labour households in both the
districts.
16. The
associated
education,
waiting period is seen to have significantly
with levels of education, performance in
father's level of education and family income.
This is true with reference to persons with professional as
well as non-professional qualifications. Other things
being the same the waiting period for females is longer
than their counter parts in both the districts.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Books
/I,gan'/a 1 ) J.C., (1982)~ DeveloQ~eD~ ~nd Plannirrg of Edu_Gi!~i~ wi th Speci al Reference I~qL~, Vi kas, New Del hi .
Agarwal, S.P. ,(1970)J Manpower Demand:Concepts MethodQ~g-.9.Y, Meenakshi Pr'akashan, Meerut.
Agarwa 1 ,S. P. , (1970) ..IM~!lP.9wer ~LJpQl~_ Concep!~ QI]Q
~~~h09~lQgy, Meenakshi Prakashan, Meerut.
Alan, L. Sorkin, (1974),Edu<:;:_~ti_Qn.L Unemploymeni a-,:td ~9_QnQmj<;: 9Iowth,Lexington Books, D.C.Health and Company, Lexington.
Amr i le. Si ngh & G. D. Sharrna, Ed . , ( 1989) ,t!ighe~ ~!tLl~_qttQ}l in _L~i1! , The Ins tit uti 0 n a 1 con t ex t , K a n a r a k Publishers Pvt.Ltd.
Anderson, C. A. and Bowman, M. J. (eds.), (1966). EdJ::!ca~tQ..1J. and ~~_QnQ-,!!j c Rev~LQ-.PrnE:!l!:L Fran k Cass, London.
Bangladesh Planning Commission,(1974),~~1Q.Y.ment Market fo..!:. !h~ ~~~cated iD Ban91ade~Q, Government of Bangladesh Planning Commission.
8hat tacharya, A. K. , (1982) ,Ih~er9bJ_~!TI Q..f ~c:!.l,!9i!t~Q !otneJ!!plQY= m_~J1t:in JfI_dj_~, Meenakshi Prakashan, Meerut
8erg,Ivar,(1973),Educatt9fl allQ .~;tQRs:~he Grg~t Jrainin_9 Ro~b?rry, Centre for Urban Education, New York.
Blaug, M. (~d.), (1969), Economics of Edu~ati9'!1..L \I~U?-,- I & ll. Penguin Books, London.
Blaug, M .• Layard,R. and Woodhall, M., (1969), Jj18 .C.~.!:!§~§ 9J Gr'aciu~_te ~,rn~rf!J:>.lgY!ll~l]t i n Incii~ , All en Lane The Penguin Press, London.
Bose, P. K .• (1977) ,tUgt'ler. Edu_g_~tiQn at ~r::.Q_~_~.=BoQ..d_~, Wor 1 d Press, Calcutta.
805e, P.K.) Sanyal, 'B.C & Mukherjee, S.P.) (1983), GL~ci!H!te~ ~mp1Qvrn_~llt(lflQ l:iigb_~C EQ~s.~_tiQJ} in ~~f~~l Bengal, P_ari. 5, , 1 EP.
Br 0 S.J n G (~O r 9 (~, eta 1 ., (i~)7'), Pat t er fl s a ncj Higher Education, The Penguin Books,
po·!. ici _es London.
in
339
Burgress,T.S. ,Layard,R. and Pant, P.(1968), Manpower and Educational Development iD India,1961-68.0liver & Boyd.Edinburgh and London.
Carnoy.M .• (1986).High~C Education and unemployment iD India 8 summary Qf ~ree case studies. Paris.
IIEP(Mimeo) .
Carter. (1965), ~conQll1j~? Qf titgh~C Educat ion. Manchester School, London.
Centre tor Development Studies.(1975).Poverty, Unemployment ~nd Development Policy _ 8 Case ,Study of Selected Issu~~ with reference to Kerala. Orient Longman. Madras.
Chandan Mukherjee. (1979). The Market for the Educated iD Kerala,WorkL!l9 Paper No. 32. Centre for Development Studies. Trivandrum.
Coombs Philip Hall. (1985). World Crisis iD Education: The Yiew from th~ Eighties. OUP. PB. New York.
Das, A.K .• (1981), Un_~Qyment of Educated Yoth iD Asia~ A Comparatiye Analysis of the Situation iQ L~dia, Bangladesh and the Philippines. UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning, Paris.
David Turnham. (1971). The Employment Problem iD Developed Countries. Development Centre of Organisation for Economic Co-operation Development, Paris.
Less the and
Deraniyagala, C.R., Dore, and Little, A.W.,(1978). Qualifications and Employment iD Sri Lanka, University of Sussex.
Desai, D.M., (1970), Some Critica'! Issues ,in Education iD India, A.R. Sathi, Bombay.
Higher
Dhar, T.N. and Others,(1976), Education and Employment in LOd~ ~ Th~ poli~ Nexus. Minerva, Calcutta.
Dhar, T.N. ,(1979), The Politics of Manpowec Planning: ~_caduate Unemp 1 oyment and the Pl ann i I1g of Hi gh~.r Education jB Indi~, Minerva, Calcutta.
Geor-ge
Ginzberg
Psacharopoulos & Bikas.C.Sanyal,(1981),~igheI Educatj_Q.r} an<;:l, emp].QY....I!lent: The I I EP Expe£i enc~ in five _les~ geveloped countri_es, Unesco, IIEP.
El i , Work,
(1975) , Ma l}Q.ower Connect ion: Educat i on and Harward Uni versitYPre~HB~ambridge~---
Godfrey Martin, (1986),Global Challenye to Economic Harvester Press.
340
Unemployment:The New Theory, Great Britain,
Gopi nathan, P. R., (1978), Educat i on and Economi c Change .i!l Kerala,Centre for Development Studies Publication, Trivandrum.
Gopinathan Nair, P.R., (1981),Primary Education, Population Growth and Socio-Economic Change, Allied Publishers Private Limited,New Delhi.
Gordon,M.S. (ed. ),Higher Education and Labour Market,Mcgraw H ill, New Y 0 r k .
Gracy,C.C., (1974), Unemployment of Kerala, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Kerala (Unpublished).
Harb·ison, P.H.and Myers, C.A.,(1964), Education, MCiIlQOwer and Economic Growth _ Strategies of Human Resource Development, McGraw-Hill,London.
Harbison, P.H. and Myess,C.A. (ed.), (1965), Manpower ang
Harriet
Heyneman
Educati~ Country Studies in Economic Development, McGraw-Hill, London.
Greenaway and Gareth Williams Patterns of Change in Graduate Society for Research into Higher Northampton Square EC IV,OHL.
(ed.),(1973), Employment,
Education,25
Stephen,P.and White Dapehne Siev. (ed. ) , ( 1986) ,Qua l.i.:t.y of Educat i on and Development, World Bank, Washington.
Economic
Huq,M. ,Shamsul,(1975),Education, Manpower and Development iD South-East Asi~, Praegar, New York.
Huq,M.Shamsul,Bikas,C.Sanyal and Others, (1983), Higher ~.Qucatj o_n aD<:l ~r!1j~J.QY!!!?nt in ~ar:!.9l.adesh , University Press, Dhaka.
International Institute of Educational Planning, (1984), Postgadu_~te employment experience of weaker casteJ? ~ Marath_wada Regi Qrh l!J.di a, Pari s, I I EP (Mimeo)
Jaganatha Reddy, D., (1974), Issues in Higher Education, Seshachalam, Madras.
John Oxenham, ( 1 984) ,E;.!;t~~atiQD Ver:su~ George Allen and Unwin, London.
Qualification,
341
Joseph, K.V., (1986), Migration and Economic Development iD Kera 1 a, Ph. D. Thes is, Department of Economi cs, University of Kerala.
Joshi, K.L., (1976), Problems of Higher Education in India, Popular Prakashan, Bombay.
Kapur, J.N., (1975), Current Issues in Higher Education in India, S. Chand, New Delhi.
Karwanski, Ryszard, A., (1979), Education and Supply of Manpower iD Pakistan, National Commission on Manpower and Education Research Study No.2, Manager of Publication, Karachi.
Kaul, J.M., (1974), Indian Higher Education: Two Decades of Planned Drift, Indian Institute of Advanced Studies, Simla.
Kaul, J.N., (ed.), (1975), Higher Education, Social Change and National Development, Indian Institute of Advanced Study, Simla.
Kidder, E., (1973), Education and Manpower Planning in ~~~, Progressive, Bombay.
Kochar", S.K., (1981), Pivotal Issues in Indian Education, Sterling, New Delhi.
Lyn Squire, (1981), Employment Policy i.!:!. Developing ~ou!1tries: A S~rvey of Issues and Evidences, Oxford University Press.
Mahendrakumar Premi, (1972), Educational Planning in India, Sterling Publishers, New Delhi.
Mark Blaug, (1973), Education and the Employment Problem in Developin~ Countries, International Labour Office, Geneva.
Mar k B 1 aug, ( 1 H89), The Economi cs of Educat i on and the Educ~tion of an Economist. Edward Elgar.
Martin Carnoy, (1977), Education and Employment: A Cr it i ca 1 8.QQ..ca i sa 1, UNESCO: I nternat i ona 1 I nst i tute for Educat i ona 1 Pl ann i ng, Pari s.
Mi chae 1 Hopk ins, (1985), A 1 ternat i ves to Unemp 1 oyment and Underemployment: The Case of Colombia, Westview Press, London.
Michael, H. Banks and Philip Ullah, Unemployment iD th~ 1980s: ~~ ~ffec_:t~, Croom He 1 m, London.
(1988), Youth .E~~h.QJ og.t~~l
342
Modi, Buddish. M., (1984), Income Patterns and Education, Sonal, Ahmedabad.
Mohan, Madan, (1972), Prob 1 ems of Un i vers i ty Educat ion in I nd tQ, Meenaksh i Prakashan, Meerut.
Mohan, T.C. and Narasimham, C.L., (1977), The Status of Unemployed ITI Craftsmen in Tamil Nadu, Sangam Publishers, Madras.
Mohandas,Mand Rajan Nair.N., (1989), Concurrent Evaluation of the ~~lf-Employment Programme for the educated unemployed youth iD Trichur District. Directorate of Extension,Kerala Agricultural University,Mannuthy.
Muhamad Shamsul HUQ, (1975), Education, Manpower and Development in South and South-East Asia, Sterling, New Delhi.
Murgo John, D. (ed.), (1972), Readings iD. the Economics of Education, MSS Information Corporation, New York.
Myrdal, G., (1968), Asian Drama: An Inquiry into the POveTTI of Nations, Allen Lane The Penguin Press, London.
N a i k , J . P., (1 96 5 ), E d u cat i..Q!'l alP 1 ann i n gin I n d i a , All i e d Publishers, Bombay.
Naik, J.P., (1975), Policy and Performance iD. Indian Education (1947-74) (Orient Longman, Bombay).
Naik, J.P., (1975), Equality Quali.iY Elusive Tri~~ in Indian Publishers, Bombay.
and QuantiJ.Y~ Th~ Education, Allied
Naik, J.P., (1982), Education Commission and after, Allied Publishers Pvt. Limited, New Delhi.
Nair, P.A., (1968), Employment Market in An Industrial M~trapo 1 is: 8 Su rvey of 'Educated Unemployment in Bombay, Lalvani Publishing House, Bombay.
Narayana, D.L., Deshpande, L.K.and Sinha, R.K. (ed.), (1980), Pl ann i r}Jl for Employment, Sterl i ng Pub 1 i shers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
Obera i , A. S. , (1978) , ~han~ iD. the ~~~ment.~ith Economic DevelQPment, Labour Office, Geneva.
Q'DollOghue Martin, (1971), ~CQJl-.9}!lj.C EducatioD, Aldine, Chicago.
St ructu re .Q.f International
in
343
Oommen, M.A. (ed.), (1979), Kerala Independence, Mohan Premilane,
Economy Oxford and
since IBH
Publishing Co., New Delhi.
Oommen, M.A., (1993),Essays on Kerala Economy ,Oxford and IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi.
Panchamu kh i , P. R. , (1984), Graduates and Job Market: A Qu~~ntj_tati~~ ~_tu_Qyil} India, Paris,IIEP (Mimeo).
Panchamukhi, P. R. (ed. ), (1989), Studi es ill Reform ill India Volume II Educational Different Levels, Indian Institute of Pune, Himalaya Publishing House, Bombay.
Panitchpakdi, S., (1974), Educational Growth ill Countries, An Empirical Analysis, University Press, Rotterdam.
Educational Reforms at
Education,
Developing Rotterdam
Parkh, G.D. (ed.), (1972), The Crisis in Higher Education, Leslie Sawhny Centre, Bombay.
Parmaji, S., (1979), Education and Jobs, Leeladevi, Delhi.
Parness, H. S., (1962), Forecast i ng Educat i ona 1 Needs for Soci~l and Economic Development, O.E.C.D., Paris.
Parness, I-I.S. (ed.), (1964), PlannJJ::!.g Education for Social and Economic Development, O.E.C.D., Paris
Parvathamma, C., (1984), Employment Problems of Univer~ Graduates, Ashish, New Delhi.
Patil, V.T. and Patil, B.C., (1982), Problems in Indian Education, Oxford and IBH, New Delhi.
Perlman Richard, (1973), Economics of Education: Conceptual Problems and Policy Issues, McGraw-Hill, London.
Prasad, Eswara, K.V., (1982), Analysis of the Labour Market for ~~chnical Manpower ill India,Ph.D Thesis,Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi.
Prasoon Kumar Roy, (1983), Problems of Unemployment: A case Study of Bihar State, Capital Publishing House, De 1 hi.
Premi, M. K., (1972), Educational Planning ill IndiCl., Sterling Publishers, New Delhi.
Puttaswamaiah. K .• (1977). ~ne~~Q.Y.ment i!l India: Policy for ~anpower, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co., New De 1 hi .
344
Raj, Samuel, (1984), India's Eductional Policy, Select Books, New Delhi.
Rajeev, P.V. ,(1983), Economic Development and Unemployment, Asian Publication Services, New Delhi.
Raju Kakkadan Nandanath, (1971), Crisis of Higher Education in_ Jndia, Publishing Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, New Delhi.
Rao, V.K.R.V., (1961), Un_iversity Education and Employment:
Rao,
A Case ~~udy of Delhi Graduates, Asia Publishing House, Bombay.
V.K.R.V., (1961), Education and Employment ~ study of Delhi Graduates, Occasional Paper Institute of Economic Growth, Delhi.
Rao, V.K.R.V. (ed.), (1968), Employment and Unemployment, Allied Publishers Pvt. Ltd., Bombay.
Reddy, D. J., (1972), Cha 11 enges iD. Hi gher Educat ion, Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupathi.
Reddy, D., Jaganatha, (1973), I ssues iD. ~her ~ducat ion, Seshachalam, Madras.
Richard Victor Knight, (1973), ~oyment Expansion and Metropolita~ Tc~de, Praeger Publishers, New York.
Richard W. Franke, Barbara H. Chasin, (1992), Kerala Development through Radical Reform, Promilla & Co., Pub 1 i shers New Delhi.
Roger Dale, (ed.), (1985), Education, Training and
Rurd,
Employment Jowards ~ New Vocational ism?, Pergamon Press, Oxford.
Kaare, (1970), Manpower and Educat i ona 1 of Pakistan 1961-90 Islamabad, Planning Government of Pakistan.
Requirements Commission,
San karanarayanan, K. C. and Karunakaran, V., (1985), Kera 1 a ~conomy,Oxford & IBH publishing Co. New Delhi.
Sanya 1, Bi kas, C., (1982), Higher Educat i on and the Labour Market tn Asia, UNESCO, Paris.
Sanyal, Bi kas, C. and Others, (1983) J Universili ~fH~ ~r_a·duat_~ Emp 1 oyment iD. UNESCO/Colombo, Marga Institute, Paris.
Education Sri Lanka,
Sapra, C. L. and Yash Agarwa 1, (ed.), (1987), Educat ion in Indj~ ~o_me_ ~ct:tical L~suE:!$, National Bank Organization, New Delhi.
345
Saxena, J . P. , ( 1972), Educated Unemp 1 oyment i!! I ndi a, Commercial Publications Bureau, New Delhi.
Schultz Theodore, W. (ed.), (1972), Investment iD. Edl!catj_~~ The Equity, .J:fficiency Quandary, Chicago Press, Chicago University.
Sha, K.R. and Srikantiah, S., (1984), EdlJcation, Earnings and Income Distribution, Criterion, New Delhi.
Sanyal, B.C., (1985), Higher Education and Employment: A ~~hes~ of IIEP Research, Paris, IIEP (Mimeo).
Sharma, Swash Raj, (1981 ) , Educat i on and _Employment Policies irr Nepal; ~ Perspective View, UNESCO, Bangok. Shukla, P.D., (1984), Towards New Pattern of Education in Jnd~, Apt, New York.
Simone Morio and Yarisse Zoctizouon, (1980), Two studies on Unemployment among Educated Young People, United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization, Paris.
Singh, Amrik and Altbach, P.G. (ed.), Learning _in Indi~, Vikas, Delhi.
(1974), !:!i..9tler
Sitapathi, P., (1970), Manpower, PlanninQ and Employment in JI1~L~, Vora Publishers, Bombay.
Stephen Fineman, (1987), Unemploymen~ Personal and Social Co~s~quences, Tavistock Publications. London.
Thomas, L., (1956) , The Occupat i ona 1 Structure EducatJ on, Prent ice L td., London.
Tilak Jandhyala, B.G., (1982), Educational Planning .find I)}J~!!!1?JQ_ymell_t j n J-'J~i a, Nat i ona 1 I nst i tute of Educational Planning and Administration, New Delhi.
Tilak Jandyala, B.G. (ed.), (1986), Education and Regional O~~,-~JQpmen~_, Yatan, New De 1 hi.
Tyrrell Burgess, (1972), The Sh~ of Higher Education, Cornmarket Press, London.
Uddesh Kohil and Vinayashil Gautam, (1988), Human Re~ourc~ peve 1 oPr:!lent and the Pl ann ill9. Process i!! I n<iL~. Vi kas - HB, New Delhi.
Varghese N.V., (1982), Manpower planning i!! ~ Developing Economy_~ 8 study i!! Education-Employment Linkages, Ph.D Thesis, New Delhi, Jawaharlal Nehru University.
346
Varghese N.V., (1986), lnC!i~ 8 Review,
______________ , (1986), survey of Indian
Higher Education New Delhi, NIEPA
Education and evidence, NIEPA,
and Employment (Mi meo) . Labour Market New Delhi.
in
A
, (1988), Education-employment relations: 8 case study of organised sectors in India, Unesco. International Institute for Educational planning.
Veena, D.R., (1987) Education and Economic Growth, (Abhish Publishing House, 8/81, Punjabi Bagh. New Delhi.
Watson Keith (ed.), (1983), Youth. Education and Employment International Perspectives, Groom Helm HB. London.
Willy Van Rijckeghom (ed.), (1976), Employment Problems and Policies in Developing Countries. Rotterdam University Press.
Worswick,GDN (ed.), (1985), Education and Performance, Joint Studies in Public Policy 9, Gower, PB. Aldershnt.
Economic Series,
Wykstra Ronald, A. (ed.), (1971), Education and the Economics of Human Capital, Free Press. New York.
Articles
Abraham, K., (1971), Higher Education in the States: Kerala, New Frontiers in Education, No. 1.
Adiseshiah Malcolm, S., (1980), Future Asian Education: The Challenge of Numbers, Prospects, Vol. 10, No.4.
Agarwal, S.P. and Kumar, 5., Stocks of Educated Vo1.2, No.4.
(1967), Methods of Manpower, Manpower
Estimating Journal,
Ahmed Rias, (1982), Universities: Perspectives and Problems, Journal of Higher Education, No.7.
Altback Philip, G., (1968), India and the World University Crisis, Th~ Student Revolution.
Amba Rao, U., (1976), Higher Educat i on and Occupat i ona 1 Mobility among the Scheduled Caste Youth, ~ournal of l-!igJ}e~ ~duJ;atjQI'l, Vo11, No.3.
Amba Rao, U., (1978), A Sociological study of Occupational Ch 0 ice 0 fUn d erg r a d u at e Girl 5 t u den t s , I n dLa rl JQ!J-'=--1'l9J 0 f S~cj __ ~_J 'l{o r_~, No. 37.
Amitabha Son, (1987), Forging Linkages Education and Employment, MaBQow~~ XXIII, NO.3.
between Higher JOJ:lsna 1 • Vo 1 .
347
Angus Home, (1968), Unemployed Engineers, Economic and PQJitj_<;:_C!l_ ~ee~Jy, No.3, No.15.
_______ , (1968), What kind of Manpower Planning, Ec~nomic and Political We~, Vol.3 No.30.
Apte, M.D., (1975), Kera 1 a, ~_conomi c No.28.
Education and ~nd Political
Unemployment Weekly, Vol.
i n 10,
Arrow K.J., (1973), Higher Education as Filter, Journal of f'J..ll:>.li~ EconomLc.§_ vo1.2.
Asian Productivity Organisation (1991), Educated Unemployment in Asia, Productivity, Vol. 32, No.1.
Augusstus N. Ghos i , (1990) , graduate unemployment in Nigeria,~~S.R. News letter, vol.XXI, No.2
Balasubramanyan, Vimal, Mainstream.
(1980), Qualification Syndrome.
Bhagavan, K. Naik, (1980), Problem of Educated Unemployed, ~ommerce, Vol. 140, No.3582.
Bhalla, A.S., (1966), Manpower and Economic Planning in the Phi 1 i ppi nes, ID~e_c_n~tignal !,.aboiJ!: Re,-,:i~~.
Bhagwati J.N. and Srinivasan, T.N., (1977), Education in a Job-ladder Model and fairness in Hiring Rule, .:J.Q!,lJ:D~l Qf Pu~Li~ Economi cs , ygl,~
Bhanc:lari, R.K., (1984), Crisis in Education in India, Neyt fr~:mtiers jQ. ~.d.ucfltiQ!!', No.14.
Bhandari, R.K., (1985), Educational Development during Six Five Year Plans: An Evaluation, New Frontiers in Education, No. 15.
Bhargava, P.K., (1967), Economic Development and Investment in Human Capital, Indian Journal of Economics.
Bhatawdekar, M.V., (1965), The Role of Education in Economic Development, Artha Vijnana.
Bhiday, M.R., (1980), Integration of Higher Education for Effective Vocational Training, Journal Qf Hi.~c. Education, No. 5.
Bi kas, C. Sanya 1, (1982), Hi gher Educat i on and the Market in Asia, Journal of tl~~~ Education, No.2. ----- --
Labour Vol.8,
Blaug, M., (1966), An Economic Interpretation of Private Demand for Education, ~~~~Q~~~.
348
Bose, P.K. and Mukherjee, S.P. (1980), Graduate and Higher Education in West Bengal, Higher Education.
Employment Journal of
Brems, M. (1962), Acceleration Theory in Education. ~90nomi~ ~e~iew. Vol. 6. No.1.
Indian
Br i ght Si ngh, D. (1977), Educated Unemployment in Tami 1 Nadu, A Forecast, SoutherQ Economic Review. Vol. VI, No.1.
Calder Ritchi, (1965), Utilization of Human Resources. Manpower Journal, Vol. I. No. 1.
Cambell and Sigal. (1969), The Demand for Higher Education in U.S. 1919-64. American Economic Review.
Chandrakant, L.S. and Others (1982). New Perspectives for Technical Education ......... Industry Interaction. Journal of Higher Education. No. 7.
Charles, K.J. and P.G.K. Panikar (1968). Education and Economic Development A Case Study of Kerala. Dev_e 1 opmeni Di gest .
Chaudhri, D.P., (1970), Private and Social Returns to Education: A Case Study of Delhi Graduates, ~conomic an_Q Po1.i:Ltcal ~~~, Vol. 5, No.14.
Chitt-is Suma, (1969), Urban Concentration of Education, Economic and Political Weekly, Nc.28.
Higher Vol. 4,
Chitris, S. (1975), Investment in Higher Education: A Reconsideration, New Frontiers in Education,No. 5.
Choudhuri, P.N. and Nandy, R.K., (1971), Utilization of Scientific Manpower, political Weekly, No.6.
Towards Better _Economi c and
Dabholkar, Devadatta, (1980-81), Striving for Height in Higher Education, Journal of Higher Education, No.6.
Datt Ruddar, (1977), Higher Education and Future Educational Policy, Journal of Higher Education. No.3.
Deshmukh, A.G. and A.R. Komat (1960), Wastage in Educat i on Arts Students, Ar1;.hC! VUBana, No.1.
Deshmukh, A.G. and A.R. Kamat, (1960), Waste in Edueat ion - Se i ence Students, ArttLCl YUllCl.J:!Cl, No.2.
College Vcl.2,
College Vcl .2,
349
Deshmukh, A.G. and A.R. Kamat~(1960), Stagnation in College Education, Arth~ Vijnana, Vol 2, No. 2.
Deva Satya, (1985), The New Education Policy, Economic and Politica~ Weekly, No.2.
Dholakia, J. (1970), Some Aspects of Unemployment among the Educated in Gujarat, Artha Vijnana, Vol. 6, No.2.
Dutt, Lirthi Ela, (1979), Education, Unemployment and Youth Unrest The South Asian Syndrome, Prospects, Vol. 7, No. 1 .
Edgar, 0., Edwards and Michael, P.Todasa (1973), Educational Demand and Supply in the Context of Growing Unemployment in Less Developed Countries, World Bank Vol.1, No.S.
Enno, W. Homes and Nivedita Trivedi (1971), The Market for Graduates - A Field Report, Economic and Political W~~~, Vol. 6, No.SO.
Finance Department of Maharashtra (1967), Utilization Pattern of Educated Persons in Maharashtra during Third Plan, ManpQwer Journal, Vo13, No.1.
Gary, S. Fields, (1974), The Private Demand for in relation to Labour Market Conditions Developed Countries, Jhe Economic Journa·' ..
Education in Less
Ganchi, D.A., (1989), Conflict in Higher Education, The Indian Scenario, University News, Vol. 27 No.2S.
Ginzberg Eli, (1971), Employment and Nos. 1,2.
Perspective on Indian Income, Manpower Journal,
Manpower, Vo 1 . 7 ,
Harbi son, F. and Myers, C. A. , (1964) , Educat; on and Employment in Newly Developing Economies, C9mparativ~ Education Review, Vol. 8, No.1.
Heyneman Stephen, P. , (1980) , Investment in I ndi an Education Uneconomic?, WoCLQ Development, No.S.
Hommes, E.W., and N. Trivedi, (1971), Market for Graduates A Field Report, Economic and Political Weekly,
No.6.
Hone, K., (1968)., Unemployed Engineers, Economic and Political Weekly, No.3.
!ichman, W.F., and.Dhar, T.N., (1970), Student and Educated Unemployment, Economic and WeekJ.y.
Discontent Political
350
Iyer, K.V., (1967), More men for fewer jobs, Yojana, Vol. XI, No.17.
Iyer, R.R., (1966), Medical Manpower in Kerala, Kerala Labour and Industries Review, Vol. 4, No. 4.
Iyer, R.R., (1967), Level of Education and Development in Kerala, Kerala Labour and Review, Vol.S, No.1.
Manpower Industries
Idowu Oladeji, (1989), Graduate Unemployment in Developing Countries and the over-production Hypothesis: Nigeria as a case study, Manpower Journal, Vol. XXV, No. 1 & 2.
Jaime Tenjo, (1990), Opportunities, Aspirations, and Urban Unemployment of youth: The case of Colombia, Ec-,>no_mj_~ IteveJ~opm~.Dti!Q_g Cu J-.!J!fa 1 Change I Vol. 38, No.41
Jandyala B.G. Tilak, (1980)' Education and Discrimination, Indi<!.'l Journal Rel~tion~ , Vol.16, No.1.
Labour Market Qf Industrial
Jagathpathi, G. (1968), Manpower Development and the National Context, f'1anpower Journal, Vol. 3, No.4.
Jha, L.K., (1982), Education and Employment Social Welfare, Vol. 28, No.11.
Joe U. Umo, (1983), Education - Employment Connection: The Nigerian Experience,Man~ower Journal, Vol .18 No.4.
John, V.V. (1984), India's Challenge: Education for Social Justice, ~~~ f~on~i~~~ iD Education, No. 14.
Josh i Nandi ni, U., (1969), Nature of Manpower Shortages J
~A~~Qwe~ JQ~rnal, Vol. 4, No.4.
Kamat, A.R.,(1980), Educational Policy in India: Critical Issues, Sociological Bulletin, No. 29.
____ . _______ ~, (1982), Higher Education: Kothari Commission and After, Journal of Higher Education, No. 8.
Kau', J.N., (1972), Development of Indian Higher Education, Economic and Political Weekly, NO.7.
Khan, Q.V., (1968), Educational Planning, Manpower Journal, Vol. IV.
_~ _________ , (1979) '. Higher Education in India...... Some Issues, JouInal of Hi~ Education, No. 5.
351
Kothari .V.N., (1967), Economic issues in Education policy in India, Education and Psychology Review.
(1970), Educated Unemployment in India Artha Vikas.
Lewi s. W. A. , (1962) , Educat i on and Economi c Development International Social Science Journal, Vol.14.No.4.
____________ (1968) Manpower Directorate of the of Home Affairs,Educated unemployment Journal,- Vol. IV, No.1 .
Ministry Manpower
Mark Blaug, (1977), Educated Unemployment in Asia with special reference to Bangladesh, India Sri Lanka, Economic Bulletin for Asia and the Pacific, Vol.XXVIII,No.1/2.
Mathias.T.A., (1972) Kerala Colleges in Turmoil QuestNo.78.
Modi Lakshmi Narain, (1980), Miseducation Economic Trend,Vol.5,No.4.
Naik.J.P., (1965), Objectives of Educational Development Manpower Journal, Vol.1,No.2.
_______ , (1969) The problem, Seminar Vol.120.
Nalla Gounen.A.M., (1967), Investment in Education in India The Journal of Human Resources, Vol.2,No.3.
Navin Chandra Joshi, (1983), The Specture of Unemployment Yojana, Vol.27,No.16.
Panchamukhi.P.R., (1975), Devaluation of education A Quantitative Analysis Journal of Higher Education, No.1.
Papanek.H., (1985), Class and Gender in Education Employment Linkages Comparative Education Review,Vol.29,No.3.
Peter R.Fallon, (1983), Education and the duration of job search and Unemployment in Urban India. Journal of Development Economics, Vol.12,No.3.
Pathak,Mahesh, (1970), A Policy Frame for Education and Employment Planning, Artha-Vikas.
Pathak,Mahesh and Arun Patel, (1970), Supply of Graduates from the Sardar Patel University during the Fourth Pl an J ~C:tti~--=-'LLKa~.!-
Pradhan . N . , ( 1987) , Educated Unemp 1 oyment, Causes and Remedies Universi.:tY New~--,--
Pravin
Prasad
352
Visaria, (1970) Unemployment in Perspective, Economic and Political
India in weeklv,
Vol.V,Nos.29,30+31,Special number.
K.V., Eswara, (1979) Education and Unemployment Professional manpower in India, Economic Political weekly, No.14.
of and
Radha Devi D, (1988) Women in Modern sector Employment in India : a look through the 1981 Census results, Economic Bul~ttin for Asia ~ the Pacific Vol .XXX1X,No.1.
Raj.K.N., (1971) Crisis of Higher Education in India. Science and culture, Vol.37.No.3.
Rao.V.K.R.V., (1965). Employment information and Manpower Utilization.Manpower Journal Vol.1.No.2.
Rao.V.R .• (1972) Educated Unemployment. Indian Journal Vol.13,No.4.
labour
Roy.K, (1971), Unemployment and Brain Drain, Economic ~nd Politica1 weekl.Y No.6.
Sanyal,Bikas.C., (1982), Higher Education and the Labour Market in Asia. Journal of Higher Education No.8.
Saxena.J.P., (1977). Unemployment among Degree and Diploma holders in Engineering. Artha Vignana Vol.19.No.1.
Schultz.T.W., (1961), Investment of Human Capital. American Economic Review Vol .51.
Sharma.G.D.and Apte.M.D., (1976). Graduate Unemployment in India.Economic and Political Weekly Vol.11 .No.25.
Singh, Amrik, (1971), Higher Education in the Seventies, Quest No.72.
Singh.M., (1971). Higher Education in India -Some problems Indian Journal on Public Administration.
Sinha.R.P., (1969), The Educated Unemployed manpower crisis. Seminar No.120.
Sola Fajana, (1991), Graduate Unemployment and the job search analysis from a developing country, Indian Journal of Industrial relations Vol.26,No.4.
Subrahmanian.K.K., (1964), Educational Planning and Economic Growth,Economic Weekly.
Spence.M., (1973), Job Marketing Signalling,Quarterly J_9u..co~1 Qf E~()nomi_cs Vol. 87.
353
Subrahmanian.K.K. and Mohan Pillai.P., (1986) Kerala Industrial backwardness Exploration of Alternative Hypothesis, EconomiG ~nd Pol"itical Weekly Vol .21 ,No.14.
Thourow. L.C.,(1972), Education and Economic Inequality, Public Interest
Varghese.N.V., (1981), Some Conceptual problems in manpower planning,Manpower Journal No.17.
___ ~, (1987), Higher Education and Employment in India Some evidences and thier implications, perspectives in Education Vol.S,No.2.
Venkatraman Naidu, (1982), Creating Employment Rural Educated Unemployed,Kurukshetra No .19.
Vi rendra Agarwal .S., (1978), Need for Employment Education policy, Education Quarterly No.1.
for the Vol.30,
Oriented Vo1.30,
Warren. F. L i chman discontent
ECQnomiG Number.
and and
MId
Tri 1 ok. N. Dhar, (1970), Student _______ , Educated Unemp 1 oyment,
fl.QUttcal_ Weekly Vol.V., Special
Warrier.S.K., (1980),Powerful Industrial Growth Potential in Kerala Economic Trend.
Wood.G., (1972), National Planning and Public Demand in of Mysore Indian Higher Education The case
Minerva Vol.10,No.1.
Yogindar.K. ,Alagh and Gupta.M.M., (1981), Some Aspects of Unemployment and Development in India, Anvesak Vol. X1, No .1-2.
Reports and Publications
Committee on Education and Total Employment,(1972),Educated Unemployment in India: Challenge and Responses, Hindustan, Delhi.
Char.den Mukherjee and Thomas Educated Unemployeq Sample Survey of Exchanges, Centre Trivandrum.
Isaac T.M.,(1991), Study of ifl ~erala, Report of the
Registrants of Employment for Development Studies,
Education Commission, (1966), Education and National Development Report, N.C.E.R.T., New Delhi.
351
Government of India, (1973), Report on Committee on Unemployment, Department of Labour and Employment.
________ ,(1983), National sample Survey Organization, ----- Report Qn the second Quinquennial Survey on
employment and Unemployment, Survey Results, Kerala .
. __________ ~--, Planning Commission, (1956), Outline Report of the study Group on Educated Unemployed.
_______ , (1961), Census of Part 11-B(ii) General
_______ ,(1971), Census of Part 11 - B(ii) Economic
India, Vol.V111,Kerala, Economic Tables.
India series-9,Kerala, Tables.
Census of India 1981 I Series 10, Kerala (Volumes Part 111 a & B (i ) ; Part 111 A & B (i i ), Part 111 A & B (;;1); Part 1V A; Part V A & Bi paper 3 of 1981; and paper 5 of 1981), Controller of Publications, Civil Lines, Delhi.
Census of I ndi a 1991., Sei res-12, Kera 1 a, Paper -2 of 1991, Provisional Population Totals.
Census of India 1991, Series - 12, Kerala, Paper - 3 of 1991, Final Population Totals.
Census of Jndia 1991, Series-1, India, Paper-2 of 1992, Final Population Totals: Brief Analysis of Primary Census Abstract, Amulya RATNA Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India.
Government of Kerala, (1971), Report of the Committee on Unemployment in. Kerala Part 1.
,(1963), N.S.S. Report No.1 Bureau of Economics and Statistics,Trivandrum.
, (1965), Trivandrum .
. _________________________ , (1970), B.E.S. ,Trivandrum.
N.S.S. report B. E.S.,
N.S.S. Report
-- ------- ______ F~ct I!ook 011 Manpower B. E. S., Tri vandrum, for the y~ars 1966 and 1976,1984 and 1988 .
. --- -------------- --, (1 976) , .p~_n n iJ:lg for Emp 1 0 yme n t in K~raJ~ B. E., S. , Tri vandrum.
- ------ , St~_~i~li~s for Tri vandrum, Vari ous iS5ues-.- B.E.S. ,
355
Govt.of Kerala .(1977. '79 &'80)Manpower Studies.(Vol.1.to_~ B.E.S .• Trivandrum.
____________________ .(1978). N.S.S. Report No.20. some Summary information on employment and Unemployment. 27th Round. D.E.S .• Trivandrum.
_____________________ .(1982). Survey on Housing and Employment-1980 D.E.S .• Trivandrum.
________ ~----~------.(1986). Progress of Kerala in three decades. 1956-1985 D.E.S., Trivandrum.
______________________ .Economic Review State Planning Board. Trivandrum, Various issues.
________ ~----~~ ___ ,(1978), Draft five Plan.Vol.1.1978-83 State Planning Board.
______________________ ,(1980), Draft Sixth Five Year 1980-85 and Annual Plan 1981-82.Vol.1. Planning Board, Trivandrum.
Plan state
___ -'--__ ~------_=__----, (1981), Si xth Fi ve Year .Pl an 1980-85. State Planning Board,Trivandrum.
______________________ • (1982), School Education in Keral. A statistical Profile, Data Bank, State planning Board, Trivandrum.
________ -----,-:-::---=----::-::--__ ~ , ( 1 984 )' , D r aft Seven t h Five Yea r P 1 an 1985-90 and annual Plan 1985-86. Vol.1 State Planning Board, Trivandrum.
__________ -:--__ -----, _____ • ( 1 984 ), Hi g h 1 eve 1 Education and Employment. Vol.1 State Planning Board, Trivandrum.
Committee to
.1,
on 1V
___________ -----, _________ ,(1984), Report of the High level Committee on Industry. trade and power, Vol.1 to ~ State Planning Board, Trivandrum.
______________________ • (1991). Draft Ei gth Fi ve Year Pl an 1992-97 and annual ~ 1992-93. Vol .1 ~ ~ State Planning Board. Trivandrum.
______ ~--_.(1992). Interim Report.
Resources Commission,
Government of Travancore. (1954), Travancore-Cochin Report of the Survey of Unemployment.
I.A.M.R., (1965), Nature and Dimesion of Unemployment Among Educated Persons in India. 1953 to 1964 I.A.M.R .• New Delhi.
International
356
Emp 1 oyment in ~ meeting of
Mridul Eapen, (1974), Some Aspects of Unemployment problem iD Kerala, working paper No.79, Centre for Development studies, Trivandrum.
O.E.C.D.,(1978), Youth Unemployment ~ ~ Report on the High Level conference, 15-16 December,1977, Vol.1.Paris
_______________ , (1982), The Challenge of Unemployment. ~
Report to Labour Ministers Paris.
__________ ~~~, (1983), Politics for Higher Education in the 1980's. Paris.
____________ ,(1983), Employment Outlook Paris.
(1985), New Policies for the young Paris.
Prakash.B.A., (1988), Educated Unemployment in Kerala _ Some Observations Based on ~ Field Study, Working Paper No.224 Centre for Development studies, Trivandrum.
___________ , (1989), Unemployment iD Kerala, An Analysis of Economic Causes, Working Paper No.231 Centre for Development Studies, Trivandrum.
State Planning Board, Trivandrum, (1992), Employment Generation strategy in the Eigth Five Year Plan, Report on Rupees Thousand Crore Employment programme.
U.N.E.S.C.O., (1968), Manpower Aspects of Educational Planning, Problems for future I.I.E.P.,Paris.