education, fertility, and development we have seen that education is, in most countries related to...
TRANSCRIPT
![Page 1: Education, Fertility, and Development We have seen that education is, in most countries related to fertility decline At early stages of development, only](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649dbb5503460f94aacef5/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Education, Fertility, and Development
• We have seen that education is, in most countries related to fertility decline
• At early stages of development, only the most educated may have lower fertility
![Page 2: Education, Fertility, and Development We have seen that education is, in most countries related to fertility decline At early stages of development, only](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649dbb5503460f94aacef5/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
As development proceeds:
• In addition, those with some education may have higher fertility than those with very little or none - resulting in the reversed-J or reversed-U relationship between fertility and education
• At later stages, the direct relationship may emerge
• Finally, differences diminish
![Page 3: Education, Fertility, and Development We have seen that education is, in most countries related to fertility decline At early stages of development, only](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649dbb5503460f94aacef5/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
Does lowered fertility increase education?
• In most countries, the answer appears to be that it does
• Children from smaller families have higher education
![Page 4: Education, Fertility, and Development We have seen that education is, in most countries related to fertility decline At early stages of development, only](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649dbb5503460f94aacef5/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
But does fertility decline cause an increase in education?
• There may be a tradeoff -- those who choose to have larger families may be also choosing to give their children less education
• Both fertility decline and increased education may be due to a common factor: increased development and investment in education
![Page 5: Education, Fertility, and Development We have seen that education is, in most countries related to fertility decline At early stages of development, only](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649dbb5503460f94aacef5/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
Decrease in unwanted childbearing
• Definitely appears related to increased education -- in that resources of the family can be distributed to fewer children
• However, if the decrease in childbearing occurred amongst the better off, who were already educating their children, there could be a decrease in average education as fertility fell
![Page 6: Education, Fertility, and Development We have seen that education is, in most countries related to fertility decline At early stages of development, only](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649dbb5503460f94aacef5/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
Increase in public expenditure
• In most countries, slower population growth has permitted increased expenditure in education
• This may both alter enrollment rates and the length of schooling
• Other public policies may especially target underserved groups -- e.g. girls
![Page 7: Education, Fertility, and Development We have seen that education is, in most countries related to fertility decline At early stages of development, only](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649dbb5503460f94aacef5/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
The role of siblings
• In many countries, parents are responsible fully only for the education of the oldest siblings
• Thereafter, older children may help finance the education of younger ones as pafrt of their responsibility to the family
![Page 8: Education, Fertility, and Development We have seen that education is, in most countries related to fertility decline At early stages of development, only](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649dbb5503460f94aacef5/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
Is increased education a uniform benefit for women?
• To begin to address this question, we can go back to
• -- the rise of capitalism
• -- notions of patriarchy and the position of women in the family, household, and society
![Page 9: Education, Fertility, and Development We have seen that education is, in most countries related to fertility decline At early stages of development, only](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649dbb5503460f94aacef5/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
Interrelation of family, education change and woman’s status
-- rise of capitalism
• Ester Boserup’s thesis was that the rise of capitalism led to a decline in the status of women
• As production moved outside the home, women had no role in those activities
• They were much more limited to household and reproductive roles
![Page 10: Education, Fertility, and Development We have seen that education is, in most countries related to fertility decline At early stages of development, only](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649dbb5503460f94aacef5/html5/thumbnails/10.jpg)
Chinese society
• Susan Greenhalgh argues that partriarchy had long before created systems for controlling women
• that capitalism only comes lately
• and that both serve as formidable obstacles to reducing gender inequality
• she looks to the family system
![Page 11: Education, Fertility, and Development We have seen that education is, in most countries related to fertility decline At early stages of development, only](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649dbb5503460f94aacef5/html5/thumbnails/11.jpg)
Contracts between parents and children
• Need to look at childhood and young adulthood, when economic bases of gender inequality are laid down
• There are different types of generational “contracts” between parents and children
• These differences in obligations give rise to systematic gender differences in socioeconomic resources and personal autonomy
![Page 12: Education, Fertility, and Development We have seen that education is, in most countries related to fertility decline At early stages of development, only](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649dbb5503460f94aacef5/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
What are the mechanisms through which position of the
sexes is determined?
• A male’s position in the family is ascribed - it is inherited and is set from birth
• A woman’s position changes when she marries -- she has to achieve a position in her new family, usually by producing a male heir
![Page 13: Education, Fertility, and Development We have seen that education is, in most countries related to fertility decline At early stages of development, only](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649dbb5503460f94aacef5/html5/thumbnails/13.jpg)
Rights within family of origin
• All children have rights to some of the resources of the family
• Parents gave them “their bodies,” support before marriage, help in finding a spouse, training for their future lives
• But the training given was quite different
![Page 14: Education, Fertility, and Development We have seen that education is, in most countries related to fertility decline At early stages of development, only](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649dbb5503460f94aacef5/html5/thumbnails/14.jpg)
Training
• Sons: training was for productive work
• Daughters: training for reproduction and work within the household
• The obligation to daughters (and theirs to their parents) generally ended with marriage and was satisfied by dowry - which was treated primarily as a gift
![Page 15: Education, Fertility, and Development We have seen that education is, in most countries related to fertility decline At early stages of development, only](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649dbb5503460f94aacef5/html5/thumbnails/15.jpg)
Obligations to sons
• What parents gave to sons was treated as a loan
• Sons could use this loan as they wished, but had to bow to parental wishes
• Obedience, contribution to the family economy, support in old age
• Parents gave to children in youth, but sons give to parents as adults
![Page 16: Education, Fertility, and Development We have seen that education is, in most countries related to fertility decline At early stages of development, only](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649dbb5503460f94aacef5/html5/thumbnails/16.jpg)
Duration of contracts
• Contracts with sons are seen as being for the lifetime
• Contracts with daughters are seen as being only until marriage
• Under this formulation, it only makes sense to invest differentially in children according to gender
![Page 17: Education, Fertility, and Development We have seen that education is, in most countries related to fertility decline At early stages of development, only](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649dbb5503460f94aacef5/html5/thumbnails/17.jpg)
What is the American contract between parents and children?
And how has it changed over time?
![Page 18: Education, Fertility, and Development We have seen that education is, in most countries related to fertility decline At early stages of development, only](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649dbb5503460f94aacef5/html5/thumbnails/18.jpg)
What is the American contract?
• In general, the contract has shifted to a one-way system, whereby parents contribute to children -- and for a much longer time
• In the past, there was the obligation to support parents, and it was much less gendered
• Sandwich generation -- finds itself with obligations to both parents and children
![Page 19: Education, Fertility, and Development We have seen that education is, in most countries related to fertility decline At early stages of development, only](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649dbb5503460f94aacef5/html5/thumbnails/19.jpg)
Implications of this system during childhood
• Less education for girls
• More work-time for girls - boys had more time for play, whereas girls worked more within the household
![Page 20: Education, Fertility, and Development We have seen that education is, in most countries related to fertility decline At early stages of development, only](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649dbb5503460f94aacef5/html5/thumbnails/20.jpg)
Development in Taiwan
• After WWII, rapid expansion of education
• Pressure on families to educate children
• High school graduation rates became very high
• Little difference between boys and girls
• Did these changes translate into reduction in gender inequality?
![Page 21: Education, Fertility, and Development We have seen that education is, in most countries related to fertility decline At early stages of development, only](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649dbb5503460f94aacef5/html5/thumbnails/21.jpg)
What were the changes?
• Increased opportunities for women to work, particularly in manufacturing, but also in commerce and social and personal services
• Increased opportunities for men were much greater and more broadly distributed
• Women faced limited access to the best jobs• - less likely to be an employer or self-employed
• - wage gap
![Page 22: Education, Fertility, and Development We have seen that education is, in most countries related to fertility decline At early stages of development, only](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649dbb5503460f94aacef5/html5/thumbnails/22.jpg)
Consequences for the family
• Little incentive to change bias against daughters
• Increasing development brought the opportunity to invest even more in sons so that parents reaped the payoff
• So, even though education increased for all, inequality remained
![Page 23: Education, Fertility, and Development We have seen that education is, in most countries related to fertility decline At early stages of development, only](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649dbb5503460f94aacef5/html5/thumbnails/23.jpg)
Taiwan
• Parents took from their daughters to invest in their sons
• Daughters were expected to earn and remit to the family -- which then invested in better education for sons
• Girls had increased opportunity and greater autonomy - but this masked overall inequality
![Page 24: Education, Fertility, and Development We have seen that education is, in most countries related to fertility decline At early stages of development, only](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649dbb5503460f94aacef5/html5/thumbnails/24.jpg)
What happened?
• Rise in female education
• Rise in gender inequality in education
• Boys received more years of education and different kinds of training that would lead to greater opportunity
![Page 25: Education, Fertility, and Development We have seen that education is, in most countries related to fertility decline At early stages of development, only](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649dbb5503460f94aacef5/html5/thumbnails/25.jpg)
The new family strategy
• Educate your daughters some, but then send them out to work so that you could educate your sons even more
• Older sons received less education, because family could not afford to educate them
• The more older sisters a boy had, the higher his education -- but there was not relationship with older brothers
![Page 26: Education, Fertility, and Development We have seen that education is, in most countries related to fertility decline At early stages of development, only](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649dbb5503460f94aacef5/html5/thumbnails/26.jpg)
Context matters• Others who have looked at gender inequalities
and family strategies have found somewhat different results
• Lillard and Willis: Malaysia
• There the investment seemed to go to the oldest sons - the more older brothers, the lower the education of a son
• For girls, it was the opposite, the more younger sisters, the lower her education
![Page 27: Education, Fertility, and Development We have seen that education is, in most countries related to fertility decline At early stages of development, only](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649dbb5503460f94aacef5/html5/thumbnails/27.jpg)
Malaysia
• The strategy seems to be that a daughter gets educated if there are few others coming after her
• A son gets educated as early as possible - and younger sons get educated if it’s possible
• So there is a strategy of concentration -- maximizing the education of the first
![Page 28: Education, Fertility, and Development We have seen that education is, in most countries related to fertility decline At early stages of development, only](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649dbb5503460f94aacef5/html5/thumbnails/28.jpg)
How else were inequalities perpetuated?
• Girls were more likely to be in blue-collar, unskilled jobs
• Boys were more likely to change jobs - to take risks, while girls stayed in secure jobs
• Girls were less likely to live outside the home
• Boys had higher income
• Girls remitted a higher proportion of income
![Page 29: Education, Fertility, and Development We have seen that education is, in most countries related to fertility decline At early stages of development, only](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649dbb5503460f94aacef5/html5/thumbnails/29.jpg)
Women’s education
• Even when constraints on women’s education are reduced, there is not guarantee that gender inequality will be reduced
• Even when women become cash contributors to the household, which would argue for reevaluation of their contributions, this does not guarantee reduction in gender inequality
![Page 30: Education, Fertility, and Development We have seen that education is, in most countries related to fertility decline At early stages of development, only](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649dbb5503460f94aacef5/html5/thumbnails/30.jpg)
Content of education
• Some argue that girls are admitted to an education system that is geared to perpetuate existing culture
• Sex stereotyping in fields of study occurs even when overall enrollment appears to be similar for boys and girls