DISSERTATION SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OFMSc IN ENVIRONMENTAL AND DEVELOPMENT

EDUCATION.SOUTH BANK UNIVERSITY

1998

EDUCATION FOR SUSTAINABILITY IN AFIJIAN URBAN COMMUNITY, WAIYAVI;

TACKLING HEALTH PROBLEMSTHROUGH HOME GARDENING.

Joseph C VeramuBox 7180, Post Office Nasinu,

Suva City, Fiji

CONTENTS

Chapter 1: Background framework of the dissertation 1Chapter 2: Literature Review 6Chapter 3: Methodology 25

Chapter 4: The Waiyavi Settlement Project 32Chapter 5: Conclusion/Recommendations 44

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Chapter 1

Background Framework of the Dissertation

The mention of Fiji to people in the North usually bringimages to them of white sandy beaches, blue skies and friendlycarefree people; an accessible paradise on earth! Northernersshould be forgiven for having this image because theGovernment aggressively markets Fiji as an ideal touristdestination. Tourism is our largest foreign exchange earner.Unfortunately this hides the true picture of Fiji as a place wherepoverty and other ills of modernity also abound. Pollution andenvironmental degradation are major concerns. There are manyhungry people in paradise including children who suffer frommalnutrition.

The hardships faced by the people is mainly due to thestructural adjustment programmes (SAPs) imposed by theWorld Bank and exarcebated by the military coups. SAPs areausterity measures imposed on countries (mainly third world)who have balance of payment deficits. It is a set of conditionsforced on a country before the IMF or World Bank loan isgiven out. (Harris 1992, p314) People face hardships becauseSAP conditions mean that public enterprises are corporatisedand user-payer schemes in health, education and other socialservices are imposed. Labour laws are usually reformed toallow very low wages to be given particularly in themanufacturing sector.(Slater 1994) As will be explained indetail later, this results in difficulties for people like in mycommunity under study Waiyavi, since people here are unableto have a better quality of life because they can't afford thecosts of food and services.

The Waiyavi Settlement, Urbanisation and Hardships

My dissertation is set within the framework of the globalmarket economy looking at an urban Fijian community,Waiyavi in Lautoka City (the second largest,city in Fiji), thehardships people face and the ways in which- Education forSustainability (EfS) can be used to alleviate the difficulties oftheir lives.

It will specifically look at how EfS as manifested incommunity health education can be used to stop the growingproblem in Waiyavi of non-communicable diseases, (NCDs)

This dissertation is based on an on-going project that isbeing carried out in Waiyavi through the Fiji CommunityEducation Association (FCEA) of which I am its VicePresident. This is an extra-curricular interest which 1 am doingon a part-time voluntary basis in addition to my Universitywork. As mentioned earlier, this dissertation has a practicalslant, the aim being to see how EfS dealing specifically withcommunity health can be applied to prevent the alarmingincrease in non-communicable diseases (NCDs) brought aboutthrough changing lifestyles in Waiyavi. This research has twofacets, a community EfS component and an action learningprogramme to put into practice the enlightened ideashighlighted through participatory means. This is through thepeople's own initiative.

The research questions that will be looked at are asfollows:(1) What is the extent of lifestyle diseases in Waiyavi?(2) Does EfS have a role to play in enlightening Waiyavipeople on improving the quality of their lives?(3) In what ways can home gardening improve the people'shealth and promote sustainability?(4) What is the role of education/learning in mobilisingWaiyavi people to take action to solve their health problems?

I have chosen Waiyavi because it is typical of urban Fijiancommunities. The people here are ethnic Fijians who livedillegally on a piece of Government land. Through the efforts ofan FCEA member who works in the Lautoka City HousingAuthority, the land was sub-divided in 1985 and the peopleinvited to buy lots where their shacks, lean-to houses orcorrugated iron houses were erected.

This research covers the 48 houses in the settlement made upof 16 nuclear families and 32 extended families. The increasein extended families imply that the settlement is overcrowdedwith relatives coming from the villages to live hereindefinitely. (The source of official information on Waiyavi is OrisiQaranivalu of the Lautoka Housing Authority, See Chapter 4 onMethodology.)

More details of Waiyavi Community will be provided inChapter 3.

Waiyavi Settlement is part of the rural-urban drift withpeople leaving their rural villages to come to the city lookingfor jobs, better education and health facilities, the bright citylights and the various forms of entertainment available herethat is not found in the village. To put Waiyavi in theappropriate context of urbanisation, 1990 statistics reveal that43% of Fiji's population live in urban areas. (Bryant-Tokalau1993). Parkinson notes that by the year 2000 the Pacific islandspopulation may have fulfilled the UN's demographicpredictions that 50% of the world's population will be living inurban areas. (1990, p231) The Australian National University'sCentre for Development Studies sees Lautoka City (whereWaiyavi is located) as one of 6 South Pacific cities where"urbanisation is likely to focus. Declining commodity pricesand changing expectations alongside continued high rates ofpopulation increases have led to faster urbanisation." (Connell& Lea 1993, p2)

The people in Waiyavi are working class people withaverage wages of $5000 per annum. This is relatively low payconsidering that 65% of workers in Fiji earn below FJ$5000.(Ram 1994). The hardships in Waiyavi, like other parts of Fiji,is due to SAPs which resulted in the "adoption of user-payerschemes in health, education and other social services. Hospitalfees have been re-introduced and health charges are likely to beincreased. The Fiji Electricity Authority increased their tariffsbetween 1987 and 1990 by 30%. There has also been arelaxation of occupational health and safety regulations in thetax free factories," (Ram 1994, p 240)

People in Waiyavi face hardships because they earn so littleand have to pay more in electricity charges, education, healthand other essential services. Privatisation means that they payfor all other government services including city rates. There isalso a 10% value added tax on household goods includingcertain groups of essential foods.

Low wages mean that they cannot buy all the nutritionalfood they need for healthy living.

Asha Lakhan (1996) reports in the Daily Post newspaper thepassing in Fiji's Parliament of the Employment AmendmentBill lifting restrictions on night work for women between theages of 16 and 18 to work from 6.00pm to 6.00am. It was

passed on International Family Day! Lakhan adds that "theLabour Ministry has failed to effectively monitor conditions ofwork and ensure that the provisions of the Labour Laws aremet by employers. Quoting Father Barr she reports that this"move was simply part of the whole new economic order wherethe interests of the people...were being ignored....for) thebenefit of a few investors." (p13)

Health and Non-Communicable Diseases

There is therefore a lot of diseases caused by changinglifestyles, ie from traditional Fijian to modem processed foods.These non-communicable diseases (NCDs) include diabetes,gout, high blood pressure, alcoholism, malnutrition, heartdiseases and intestinal and bowel cancer.

To illustrate the problem, Lavenia Qaranivalu a trained nurseworking as a facilitator on community health education inWaiyavi noted that as at 21/3/97 there have been cases of highblood pressure, diabetes and 3 recent serious heart cases. Inaddition, virtually all deaths here are caused by NCDs. Thisdissertation aims to show that these lifestyle diseases can bestopped and people here can lead happy, healthy andmeaningful lives,

Education for Sustainability in Waiyavi

One important function for EfS is to get Waiyavi people tothink and act on what sustainability means for them, and findbetter ways of surviving in the long term, using informed anddemocratic ways. (Huckle 1996, p3) Huckle adds that peopleshould adopt more ecocentric values showing respect for theearth as a separate entity in itself reuniting mind and body,people and nature and moving towards sustainability. (ibid,p12)

In the case of Waiyavi, this will involve people using theircultural wisdom to find ways of developing themselves insustainable ways. These ideas become more meaningful whenseen in the practical component of this research whichencourages Waiyavi people to develop home gardens as ameans to stopping non-communicable diseases. EfS forimproved health in this regard happens through action-basedlearning which Fagan (1996) notes, "confronts people with the

reality of their locality, an assessment of what is happening intheir environment and helps them to demand changes and takeaction." (p137) Fagan adds that "it links knowledge toapplication....It accepts that local people are capable ofenabling their own learning... It contributes to an owned notionof sustainability." (ibid p137)

The idea here is for the Waiyavi people to work together.Sterling (1996) puts it aptly when he says that "forcommunities, it is a matter of regenerating networks ofbelonging and mutual support, and countering widespreadalienation.... In economic and ecological terms suchregeneration of local integration begins to counter and checkthe vulnerability that the global system has brought..."(p30)

References

Bryant-Tokalau, J J (1993) What Future Pacific Cities? The Challenge inManaging Urban Environments in Nunn P P (Ed) The Margin Fades:Geographical Itenaries in a World of Islands, Suva, IPS

Connell J & Lea J P (1993) Planning the Future: Melanesian Cities in2010, Canberra, ANU

Fagan G (1996) Community Based Learning in Huckte J & Sterling S (Ed)Education for Sustainability, London, Earthscan

Harris L (1992) The IMF and Mechanisms of Integration in Crow B et al(Ed) Survival and Change in the Third World, Cambridge, Polity Press

Huckle J (1996) Realizing Sustainability in Changing Times in Huckle J &Sterling S (Ed) Education for Sustainability, London, Earthscan

Lakhan A (18/5/96) Night Shift in Daily Post, Suva

Ram K (1994) Militarism and Market Mania in Fiji in Emberson-Bain A(Ed) Sustainable Development or Malignant Growth, Suva, MaramaPublications

Slater C (1994) Banking on the growth model? The World Bank andMarket Policies in the Pacific in Emberson-Bain A (Ed) SustainableDevelopment or Malignant Growth? Suva, Marama Publications

Sterling S (1996) Developing Strategy in Huckle J & Sterling S (Ed)Education for Sustainability. London, Earthscan.

Chapter 2: Literature Review

Introduction

This review looks at Education for Sustainability (EfS) as ameans of encouraging sustainable livelihoods in the third worldsuch as the community under study, Waiyavi. EfS will bediscussed as two separate issues at the outset, ie sustainabilityand its relevance to Waiyavi; and education as a means bywhich the people achieve it. EfS is finally looked at as a meansof raising the quality of their lives and making them cope betterwith their changing world,

The review will also focus on ecologically viable homegardening because this connects to my study showing thatgrowing local nutritious fruits, vegetables, root-crops,medicinal and multi-purpose plants helps in combating lifestylediseases, The literature on home gardening will be looked at toprovide insights into how this contributes to sustainability.

When I initially decided on this research topic it was withthe contention that most third world communities like Waiyaviare suffering from a malaise brought about by their integrationinto the global economy. However I was also convinced thatthese malaise could be alleviated/solved through sustainablepractices integrating the best of local and Westernculture/lifestyles.

The Community and Sustainability

Given the increase of lifestyle diseases in Waiyavi, one wayof tackling this issue is to get people to solve their ownproblems. Ruckle's comment here is noteworthy when he saysthat "a key function of EfS is to help people reflect and act onmeanings (based on ideologies and programmes under-pinnedby different kinds of knowledge, values and philosophy) and sorealise alternative futures in more informed and democraticways." (1996, p3) The issue of sustainability in Waiyavi can bea long, patient process involving dialogue and education giventhe tensions that exist between some members who subscribe toa "nurturing view (ecocentric) and others who subscribe to aradical or manipulative (technocentric) view of society-naturerelationships." (O'Riordan 1989, p1)

Those who follow an ecocentric view accept that we areexpected to look after the earth, avoid wastefulness and excess,recognise the spiritual component in all non-human existenceand respect the creative force through acts of environmentalresponsibility. (O'Riorclan 1989, p1)

Waiyavi community members who subscribe to theecocentric viewpoint are more open to ideas on homegardening, eating local nutritious foods, using medicinal plantsand maintaining harmony with the environment. Those whofollow the technocentric view aimed at "exploiting the Earth toimprove public wellbeing and transforming eco-systems" (ibidp3) will often be contemptuous of initiatives like finding localsolutions to problems since they see the global economy andWestern lifestyles as the answer to our difficulties. They maysee local foods and herbal medicines as backward and ancientas opposed to processed foods which is modern. This is animportant distinction between the ecocentric and technocentricviewpoints because EfS has to be understood in the context ofthe tensions and dynamics of these paradigms, (ibid p19-20)Enlightened ideas that are brought up are often notautomatically accepted because some people have beenconditioned to believe that all that is Western is good and thatlocal initiatives are inferior.

Problems of Modernization

PovertyThe World Bank estimates that there are between 340 to 730

million people who don't have enough to eat because theirincome level is very low. (Crow 1997) "Hunger and povertyare closely related" "Chronic hunger is undernourishmentdue to inadequate food consumption." (ibid, p15 & 33)

Looking at the micro example of Fiji, Barr (1990) quotingStavenuiter and Kanbur's research in 1983 and 1984respectively notes that "the bottom 40% of wage earners haveto spend all they earn in order to live - most of it on food."(p114) Barr further adds that in 1977, 9% of all households inFiji consumed less than the minimum... 15% of all householdsreported incomes below the standard level. This is absolutepoverty." (p38) The Fiji Poverty Report released by theUNDP/Fiji Government in early 1997 put the absolute poverty

figure at 25% although NGOs dispute this saying the actualfigure is 40%. (Review 1997, p13)

UrbanizationAs in most third world countries the urban drift is a big

problem in Fiji and has resulted in the existence ofcommunities like Waiyavi. Apart from food problems anddiseases, urban dwellers live in over-crowded sub-standard andoften informal housing. 20% of Fiji's urban families live in asingle room. Rubbish disposal and traffic pollution are otherproblems. There are also health risks if pit-toilets are not wellmaintained. An inadequate water supply may result in peopleusing polluted streams or wells. (Bryant-Tokalau 1993 p155-156)

Katz (1993) notes that "Housing and other basic livingrequire cash. But since job opportunities have not kept up withdemand...many urban dwellers in Fiji experience hardships."(P31)

Parkinson's research has shown that the movement of peoplefrom the village to peri-urban shack dwelling and low costhousing areas usually results in family welfare and nutritionsuffering. (1990, p231)

Nutritional problems and diseasesLike other urban third world communities Waiyavi is

integrated into the global market based economy. While thishas brought the best of western goods, services,communication etc, it has also resulted in people relying moreon cheap, low quality processed foods. This means that peoplehere are eating canned foods, white bread and biscuits, take-away fatty foods, soft drinks and beer. (Shaw 1983) A surveyin 1986-1987 of 678 food items sold in Fiji supermarkets andadvertised in newspapers found that 63% were mainly importedprocessed foods. The remaining local products were mainlylocally produced processed foods. (Thaman 1990, p83) To backup these statistics, Dr Krishna is reported in the Fiji Times assaying that heart diseases in Labasa Town area has risen by100%. He attributes this to changes in eating habits. "Fijianpeople have changed their diet and are mostly eating importedand tinned foods." (Dwivedi 1997, p11)" A news report in theFiji Times of 30th August stated the findings of the SouthPacific Consumer Protection Programme that Pacific Islands

people "have succumbed to the trappings of cheap, fattyimported foodstuffs (like mutton flaps which are mostly fat)consequently putting their health at great risk," (Fiji Times30/8/97, p13)

Under-nutrition is also a big problem in the South Pacificand takes the form of inadequate calory intake, and vitamin ormineral deficiencies. (Taylor 1983 p57-58) Taylor's researchalso showed that middle-aged people in the Pacific died mainlyfrom cardiovascular diseases like heart diseases, hyper-tension,stroke, and diabetes mellitus. Poor nutrition was found to bethe cause of these deaths.

Many working class people in third world urban areas likeWaiyavi are poorly paid and live in overcrowded conditions. Itis difficult for urban families to have balanced meals every day.Malnutrition amongst urban children is very high.

People find that with the little money they earn, they cannotafford to buy all the food they need for healthy daily living.Were it not for the subsistence economic lifestyles existing sideby side with the cash economy in Waiyavi, people wouldprobably be starving. The subsistence lifestyle means thatpeople who are related through tribal, clan or kinship links inthe community often help each other by distributing some oftheir food. But even this sharing is becoming increasinglydifficult. "Food is still shared but the exchange is lessextensive. Store bought foods such as canned mackerel andtinned beef are a major part of the urban diet and the smallerquantities and the price make sharing more difficult." (Katz1993, p36)

The UNDP (1994) Pacific Development Report noted that"the subsistence economies display relatively highproductivity...However tensions become apparent when surplusproduction can be traded for other goods offering an alternativeto community distribution. The challenge is to ensure that thesechanges do not produce significant hardships and unsustainablecosts." (p18)

Specific nutritional surveys have been carried out in Fiji'surban settlements similar to Waiyavi. Parkinson reports anumber of them, one being a settlement in Vaileka Town wherepeople lacked Vitamins A and B. Large families with lowincomes here had the poorest diets. (1990, p216)/ would like to add that while the trend in the Pacific istowards rising non-communicable diseases, this seems to

contrast with other third world countries where according toGordon Wilson (1997) infectious diseases predominate due to"dirty water and food, polluted air and malnutrition. " (p54)

Sustainable livelihoods

By sustainable livelihoods I mean that the people are able tomake a living that satisfies the minimum requirements of theirbasic needs for food, shelter and other essentials for living thatis in harmony with nature. Crow (1997) succinctly puts it whenhe says that "an adequate life requires the capability to getenough food, adequate health care, access to clean water andsanitation and to be a functioning member of society." (p28)

The Waiyavi project involved the people, the Fiji Ministry ofHealth who provided seed funding and the Fiji CommunityEducation Association. The initiatives that arise out of Waiyavihas implications for global sustainability, This is connected tothe idea of 'acting locally' in the sense that pragmaticinnovations can cumulatively result in a global distillation ofwhat is sustainable. In other words, the various microinitiatives like Waiyavi when added together with what ishappening all over the world will enrich sustainable practices.

In this regard the people's priorities are more important thanthe facilitator's views. Once the people's basic needs are met,they will take a long term view to environmental sustainability.(Chambers 1988)

Sustainable livelihoods must be based on the needs andaspirations of the poor,articulated by them rather than on theperceptions of development/environmental workers.

Sustainable livelihoods is also informed by the views oftraditional third world practices. I stress this point because inaspiring for the most appropriate type of sustainability, thepeople have to be encouraged to use their cultural traditionsintegrating it with the best of westernization. For example,traditional Pacific communities integrated their daily economicactivities (forestry, agriculture, housing, medicine) into asystem compatible with the local environmental conditions andneeds of the people. There was no environmental degradationbecause the people's practices and livelihood were in harmonywith nature. (Clarke & Thaman, 1993) They saw trees as animportant part of the agro-ecosystems maintaining soil fertility,stopping floods, keeping down weeds and providing wind

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protection. This is different from the modern technocentricview seeing trees as nuisances since they compete with annualcrops and prevent the use of farm machines. (Clarke & Thaman1993)

The idea of Gaia as a single living organism (with) mysticaltheological and feminist potential (Pepper 1996, p22) and agrowing convergence between the explanations and ideas ofholistic science and a rediscovered spirituality and theology(Sterling 1990) has parallels with many third world notions ofspirituality and nature. One example is the Indian concept ofPrakriti, the active and productive power which permeatesevery stone or tree, fruit or animal and sustains them along withthe human world, Prakriti grants the blessing of nature as agift: she has consequently to be honoured and wooed. (Sachs1996,p34)Agarwal and Narain (1995) note that 'traditional knowledge isvital because of its ecological rationality- its inspiration beingthe sustainable use of the ecosystem m which it hasdeveloped." (p253) They add that in India where the populationis constantly rising, ecological rationality is important in themodern world and this must be the basis upon which modernscience is built, (ibid, p255) Anil Gupta says that "some people(believe) that traditional knowledge is frozen in time and has tobe resurrected in purely archival fashion (but) such knowledgeis not static and is continually evolving to suit changingconditions." (Quoted in Slim and Thompson 1993, p22). This isconnected to the idea that nature is not something passive andlifeless waiting to be acted upon. Cultures that see nature asliving (like the Fijians of Waiyavi) have practices forrespecting, even appeasing nature. (Sachs 1995, p34) This isconnected to the idea of ecocentrism which "sees the world interms of interacting and interdependent whole systems" ratherthan separate and competing entities. (Sterling 1990, p123)

Community nutrition and home gardening

This paper asserts that home gardening is the most effectiveway of solving nutritious food supply problems and incombating urban poverty. "A home garden is a store ofnourishment just outside the house. It provides you withhealthy food and gives pleasure and exercise." (Parkinson,Tunidau, Chand1992, p73) Many residents of low cost housing

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estates in the Suva City area and suburbs would not have beenable to pay their rents if it were not for the US$9,50 -US$14.00 they "saved by growing their own cassava, taro, treecrops, other foods, medicines and Firewood on idle urban landsand in home gardens. (Thaman & Clarke, 1993, p31) Parkinsonreporting on food consumption in Nabua Settlement in SuvaCity (a settlement almost identical to Waiyavi) said that themajority of homes had gardens that grew between 2-5 varietiesof vegetables, cassava, taro, and sweet potatoes. She felt thatsuch home gardening was important for Fijian families livingin urban areas.(1990, p231)

Food analysis results in Fiji and four other Pacific countriesshow ''that an adequate and balanced diet (can) be derived fromlocally available foodstuffs and (that) traditional diets werenutritionally sound." (Thaman 1990, p78) Most of these foodscan be planted in home gardens.

There is no denying the importance of food in the Pacificgiven that 40% of total cash expenditure is used on it by peoplehere. Apart from nourishment, it is also an object of status andhealth. (Shaw 1983, p25)

It is amazing to see the wide variety of things that can beplanted in a very small area around one's modest home. Mosturban squatter shacks or low cost houses have very smallcompounds yet they have been able to plant various kinds ofvegetables, root crops like taro and cassava, fruit trees,medicinal plants, fragrant plants and multi-purpose plants. Inurban areas where people live in overcrowded barracks withvery small porches and no compounds, they have still been ableto grow food plants in empty 44 gallon drums which have beencut open lengthwise, in old tyres, and containers.

The National Food and Nutrition Committee "through their'Feed Fiji First' campaign have placed major emphasis onhome food production in destitute areas and low cost housingareas." (Clarke and Thaman 1993, p155)

I will discuss adult community environmental education indetail later but 1 stress here that people can learn and beenlightened with the diverse types of plants that can grow intheir home gardens, Even weeds can be used as medicines,fodder, mulch, roofing materials, fish poisons, tooth brushesand vegetables. (Clarke & Thaman, 1993)

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Non food handicraft plants such as pandanus can be used formats, or mulberry for tapa cloth. Perfumed plants can be usedfor body oils, perfumes and deodorants,(ibid, p1499)

There is still sparse literature on community home gardeningprojects. However a recently produced book on communityeducation case studies written by practitioners who took a NFEcourse at the University of the South Pacific provide a numberof first hand reports of home gardening and nutrition projects.They provide valuable insights in the processes involved.(Kedrayate 1997)

Two case studies reported in this book show the importanceof adult community education facilitators in mobilising thepeople to take action on needs they have identified themselves.A peri-urban project for unemployed youths in Vitogo not onlyassisted in improving family nutrition but gave the participantsconfidence to be self reliant and self sufficient. (Lakhan 1997)

Another project reported in this book is closer in nature tothe Waiyavi Project. It was initiated by a Fijian nurse workingin the Marshall islands, a former US Trust Territory, Herproject grew out of her concern for the large number ofMarshall Islanders who ended up in the main Majuro Hospital.This included children with nutritional disorders and adultswith NCDs such as cardiovascular diseases due to fatty andhigh cholesterol foods, diabetes, hypertension, anaemia andobesity. She initiated a home gardening project amongst her co-workers (who already knew the importance of nutrition)knowing that by setting a good example and by showing thevast potential of planting fresh foods around one's home thatthe community would realise that NCDs can be lessened ordone away with. Her project included the planting ofvegetables (beans, tomatoes, hibiscus spinach, peppers etc) androot crops (sweet potatoes and taro) with a communityeducation component. (Bale 1997)

These two projects clearly showed the importance offacilitators in motivating people. The people were made torealise that their NCDs could be solved through homegardening not only providing nutritions foods but also being agood source of exercise.

With the very high cost of fruits, vegetables and root cropsin the markets, a home garden will greatly assist in meeting thenutritional requirements of the family especially those that arepoor.

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The ideal situation in a home garden is to rotate crops fromlegumes, leaf crops and root crops into 3 yearly harvests.(Parkinson, Tunidau, Chand 1992, p73)Below is a diagram of a standard home garden we had plannedfor Waiyavi.

300 SQUARE METER HOMESITE OMESITE

Source: Parkinson S, Tunidau J, Chand M (1992) Nutritional Handbook for(the South Pacific, (p75)Ecologically Viable Gardens

One of the difficulties in mounting a project like this is thatpeople are often cynical and convince themselves that nothingmuch can grow on their infertile soils. While education ishelpful here I would like to provide examples from the tropicalthird world to counter these self defeating arguments. Althoughthey deal with small scale rural farming, the innovations can beapplied effectively in small home gardens in urban areas.

There are ample studies showing the initiatives of thirdworld communities working with NGOs to turn infertileleached lands to good health capable of providing sustainablelivelihoods to those who inhabit them. Most of the targetgroups are small farmers with very small holdings.Sustainability here is achieved through creating agriculturalconcepts maximising the use of local resources and revivingtraditional thinking, logic and production techniques. In thesefarms, natural fertilisers are used, organic matter is recycledand biological interdependencies are stimulated. (Letelier 1995,p230)

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Yet another innovation in gardening is the use of greenmanure made up of legumes (and other plants) that areploughed back into the earth. Organic matter and nitrogen aretherefore applied to the soil. This is appropriate for poorfarmers as it does not involve money. Green manure used insouthern parts of Brazil, Mexico and northern parts ofHonduras is working well even on infertile lands. The use ofgreen manure improves soil fertility, and keeps down weeds.(Bunch, 1996)

In the Pacific, the people saw their agro-systems asproductive capital to be preserved for future generations. Theytherefore respected their immediate environment especiallytheir forests. However one has to be patient at times inexplaining these matters to people as poverty makes them loseconfidence in themselves. They will first need to see thatsimple and cheap innovations like using natural fertilisers, orgreen manure actually works before they do somethingthemselves.

Environmental Education

Having discussed the importance of good health andnutrition through home gardening 1 now turn to adultcommunity environmental education (EE) as a very importantcomponent of getting people to do things positively. It's allvery well to talk about the importance of good health andgetting this through cheap nutritious locally planted food butwithout a sustained education programme, action will often nottake place. A participatory education programme has to be putin place to mobilise people to take action that is beneficial tothem. As Wilson (1997) puts it aptly, "any strategy aimed atproviding permanent improvements in health...must be a socialprocess that encourages the community to involve itself inpreventive health measures such as personal hygiene, improveddiet and health education."

EE is an important component of sustainable livelihoods inthe sense that third world people like those in Waiyavi have tobe reaffirmed to think positively about their traditional ways ofdoing things which has sustained them through timeimmemorial. In addition, they have to learn to adapt the bestfrom Western traditions and integrate this into their culture.One way of doing this is to show the interconnections and the

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interdependence of the Waiyavi people and their environment.This is the bio centric philosophy emphasising the holistic waywhere we live in total harmony with our environment. (Greig,Pike, Selby1989, p9-10) Greig et al further quote NeilEvernden who pointed out that to "divorce ourselves from theenvironment (would be to) lose something essential to ouridentity. Waste away the environment and we waste awayourselves." (ibid p11) I have gone into this long explanations toshow that some third world communities may be sodemoralised by the global market economy that in order tosurvive they have to resort to unsustainable livelihoods thatcause more environmental degradation,

EE programmes are therefore needed to bring aboutattitudinal changes and conscientize people to live in harmonywith their environment. In such cases EE programmes can bemounted to show the importance of preserving ecosystems. EEin Waiyavi for example could show that agro-forestry shouldbe seen as protecting culture through the social ties that arestrengthened by the distribution of produce. (Clarke & Thaman1993) EE can also be used to apply modern conservationoriented technologies such as solar energy stations to providelight, or allow the cooking of meals without the use ofkerosene. This will also check the constant felling of trees andshrubs and consequently drastically cut down ondesertification. It will also allow third world communities tobe free of foreign energy concerns run by the local elite. Smallappropriate rural technologies will assist in local or regionalsustainable livelihoods, practical environmental protection andalso preserve social kinship structures. (Lob 1993)

In this situation EE is defined as "the process of recognisingvalues and clarifying concepts in order to develop skills andattitudes necessary to understand and appreciate the interrelatedness among (humankind), culture and bio-physicalsurroundings" (IUCN/UNESCO definition quoted by Sterling1992, p92) Connected to this definition is the idea of Education

for the Environment which should be the philosophy of thirdworld adult community environmental education. Fien notesthat it challenges the dominant social paradigm. It further"engages (people) in the exploration and resolution ofenvironmental issues in order to foster the values of the newenvironmental paradigm and to promote lifestyles that are

compatible with the sustainable and equitable use of resources.(1993, p22)

The bottom line purpose of EE is the development ofresponsible individual and societal environmental behaviour.(Robottom& Hart 1993 quoting Howe & Dissinger 1991, p5)In additional EE micro projects like in Waiyavi should changepeople's perceptions and behaviour so as to engage them inenvironmental protection activities too. (Thiounne 1992, p221)Orduro-Mensah (1992) notes that humankind's survival isrelated to the survival of the earth and that it is necessary for usto learn to live in harmony with the forces and elements thatsurround and sustain our lives. I would go a step further inadding that EE should give us the wisdom to curtail many ofour egotistic instincts for the luxuries of life that will bedetrimental to the earth. Where a choice has to be made aboutsatisfying our decadent desires or healing the earth, natureshould take precedence.

Unfortunately what often looks noble on paper is oftendifficult to implement in reality. I therefore add that in additionto EE there should be security of land tenure for the poor, Theyshould be allowed to own the commons or be givenunconditional access to use water resources, fruit trees andother natural resources. Serrano (1992) asserts that there shouldbe "basic reforms in the ownership, structure and managementof key resources."(p155) The poor must "determine themodalities of resource control and utilization. Increasing theirstake in terms of benefits will be the guarantee of ecologicalsustainability." (ibid p36) Thankfully in Waiyavi, theGovernment has subdivided land lots existing around theirshacks and allowed them to purchase them at reasonableprices. This for example has helped cut down drastically on thepollution of the Wainivakasoso Stream that runs behind thesettlement and environmental degradation in general.

The poor should be empowered to decide the process oflearning and of sustainable livelihoods, EE facilitators shouldtherefore work in partnership with the poor and see suchinteraction as a learning experience for them too. In short, thesocio political conditions must be favourable to the poor evenif it means partly disempowering the elites.

One effective strategy to use in such situations as Waiyavi isaction research where people highlight in discussion groupsenvironmental problems they face. Wals, Beringer & Strapp

17

1990 quoting Lewin explain that action research sees "practicalproblems as a source of ideas and knowledge (and) the affectedgroup articulate, discuss and eventually act on a particularproblem." (pl3-14) The action research process begins whenparticipants decide to address problems that affect them.Participants "work to understand the problems, recognise thepossibilities of resolving it, explore the opportunities for takingaction and identify the potential constraints that may impedetheir efforts." (ibid p209)

These ideas of praxis in linking practice and theory is animportant component of third world community EE. It showswhether the practice of EE is rooted in a sound conceptualframework of traditional empirical wisdom and the ecocentricperspective.

Education for Sustainability

I have talked about education as a means through whichbetter community health in Waiyavi is achieved. However wehave to look beyond formal types of education whichepitomises the dominant social paradigm which is materialisticand reductionist (Sterling 1996, p19) and aims to integratepeople into the global economy. Even the non-formal types ofeducation catering for school leavers and communities havebeen accused of being an extension of rigid classroom teachingmethods, Given the limitations of education in such situationsour strategy has called for us to think in terms of learning forsustainability. Connected to this idea is "a new structural stateresult(ing) from learning- changing, thinking and practice tolive within the limits that sustainability requires. A sustainablesociety (like Waiyavi) will incorporate learning in fetation tosustainability as an intrinsic and continuous part of the socialprocess." (ibid, p25)

By talking about learning for sustainability I am highlightingthe rights and central focus of the learner. Khawaja& Brennan(1990) concur with this view when they note that "whereaseducation has been seen as being owned as the property ofeducational institutions, learning is owned by the individual,the learner. In fact, learning is being accepted as a right of theindividual." (p83) I stress this point because for sustainabilityto work, people need to undo or come out of the shackles of theeducation they have received in schools which aims to

reinforce the dominant social paradigm and disempowerscommunities. Foley (1995) notes six principles which areconducive to and necessary in sustainability in a place likeWaiyavi. They are voluntary participation, mutual respect,collaborative spirit, action and reflection, critical reflection andself direction." (p45)

The term learning is closer to the "radical ecologic orsystemic view (which) focuses on what sustains people andcommunities...In cultural terms, it is a matter of rediscoveringand rebuilding the connection between culture andenvironment." (p29-30) This is good in communities likeWaiyavi where the people have communal values encouraginginterdependence. They can also go beyond their formalschooling and tap on their cultural ethos for learning andwisdom to be sustainable.

The term learning implies flexibility and the will to change.It is a more realistic term because learning may be worthwhileor detrimental. What was sincerely thought to be sustainablefifty years ago is considered unsustainable now. Learningshould give us the courage to confront ourselves with what isunsustainable (even if it is at our great discomfort) so futuregenerations can live in a better world. To take just oneexample, Beare and Slaughter (1993) note that "learning bydisaster is a very poor and very expensive approach....so itmakes sense to monitor the situation, develop models of whatwould happen and use the results to continually updatepolicy...Would the private car be in such wide use today if wehad known more of its full costs. It is doubtful." (p120-121)

Implementation of the EfS programme

There are three aspects of EfS that needs to be encouragedwhen working on projects/programmes in places like Waiyavi.

The first is the action programme where people in thecommunity work together to implement the programme. Weare assuming that this programme has already evolved fromthorough participatory discussions, As in Waiyavi we startedthe home gardening project with a pilot group of 12 householdsbecause not all families saw its usefulness at that stage. (To berealistic any well meaning programme will not have thesupport of everyone in a community (at the outset) particularly

19

poverty stricken ones where people tend to be cynical aboutlife.)

Through the project we integrated traditional discussionsessions around the yaqona bowl and this allowed the twelvefamilies and other interested people to sit together and discussany problems in implementation. This second aspect of EfSfacilitated conflict resolution.

The third facet is the formative or on-going evaluation of theEfS programme.Evaluation of EfS Programmes

The evaluation of EfS programmes in its formative stageshould be based on the idea of a critical praxis that is a form ofpractice in which the enlightenment of actors come to beardirectly in their transformed social action. This requires anintegration of theory and practice "as reflective and practicalmoments in a dialectical process of reflection,enlightenment...carried out by groups for the purpose of theirown emancipation." (Carr&Kemis 1995,p144)

The evaluation should be based on the conceptualframework of EfS of which the programme is based on and theaction taken. Its success should be seen in how it hasempowered the Waiyavi people and more visibly in how it hasreduced lifestyle diseases and endeared people to becominghealth conscious. The specific method of evaluation that can becarried out here is called Illuminative Evaluation which"emphasises increasing the overall knowledge andunderstanding of a programme. (It) focuses on thedocumentation of programme details and can includeprogramme processes, participant experiences and programmeoutcomes." (Athanasou 1995, p81--82)

The involvement of participants in evaluation can increasethe accuracy of the data and promote "ownership of thefindings. (It) seeks to understand an issue from the multipleperspectives of stakeholders." (ibid, p82)

Conclusion

In this review I have tried to connect the importance ofcommunity health through home gardening as a means ofalleviating lifestyle diseases. I have drawn on various researchto show the extent of the health problems brought about by

20

urbanization and the gradual acceptance of modern lifestylesparticularly the reliance on processed foods.

I have also reviewed research on ecologically viable homegardening to show that it is something that anyone can do withpleasure. It is a good source of exercise too.

Finally I have explained the importance of EfS programmesin places like Waiyavi since they clearly show that "localpeople are at the core of sustainability. (We need) to devolvedecision making to the very simplest and lowest communitylevels. (We should) recognise their particular commitment tothe locality and their role in their future." (Fagan 1996, p136)This view is part of the local-global dynamic: think globally,act locally. This calls for the people to have an inclusivevision. This is to have an enlightened perspective on actinglocally so a sustainable future can be attained globally.

When people's learning contribute to equality, justice,democracy and enlightened environmental practices,sustainability begins to materialise. When many smallcommunities like Waiyavi are involved in similar actionoriented practices everywhere, we begin to move closer to amore sustainable world.

ReferencesAgarwal A & Narain S (1995) Towards Green Villages in Sachs W (Ed) GlobalEcology, London, Zed Books.

Athanasou J (1995)/Issues in the Evaluationof Adult Education in Foley G (Ed)Understanding Adult Education and Training, Allen & Unwin

Bale V (1997) Home Gardening in Kedrayate A (Ed) Community Education :Project Reports. Suva, IOE.

Barr K J (1990) Poverty in Fiji, Suva, Fiji Forum for Justice.

Beare H & Slaughter R (1994) Education for the Twenty-First Century, London,Routledge

Bryant-Tokalau J J (1993) What Future Pacific Cities? The Challenge ofManaging Urban Environments in Waddell E & Nunn P D (Ed) The MarginFades: Geographical Itenaries in a World of Islands, Suva, IPS.

Bunch R (1996) The Use of Green Manure by Small Scale Fanners: What WeHave learned to Date in Adult Education and Development 96(47), Bonn,IIZ/DVV

Carr W & Kemmis S (1995) Becoming Critical, London, Palmer Press

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Chambers R (1988) Sustainable Rural Livelihood: A Key Strategy for People,Environment and Development in Conroy C & Litvinoff M (Ed) The Greening ofAid; Sustainable Livelihood in Practice, London, Earthscan

Clarke W C & Thaman R R (1993) Agroforestry in the Pacific Islands: Systemsfor Sustainability, United Nations University Press, Tokyo

Crow B (1997) Understanding famine ami hunger in Allen T & Thomas APoverty and Development in the 1990s, London, Oxford University Press

Dwivedi A (20/9/97) Heart disease cases increase, Suva, Fiji Times.

Fagan G (1996) Community Based Learning in Huckle J & Sterling S (Ed)Education for Sustainability, London, Earthscan

Fiji Times (30/8/97) Islanders diet shortens lives, Suva.

Foley G (1995) Teaching Adults in Foley G (Ed) Understanding Adult Educationand Training, Sydney, Allen & Unwin

Greig S,Pike G, Selby D (1989) Greenprints for changing schools, London,WWF/Kogan Page

Huckle J (1996) Realizing Sustainability in Changing Times in Huckle J &Sterlings (Ed) Education for Sustainability, London, Earthscan

Katz R (1993) The Straight Path: A Story of Healing and Transformation in Fiji,Massachusett, Addison-Wesley Pub

Kedrayate A, Ed, (1997) Community Education Reports, IOE, Suva

Khawaja S & Brennan B (1990) Non-Formal Education: Myth or Panacea forPakistan, Islamabad, MR Books

Lakhan A (18/5/96) Night Shift Suva,Daily Post

Lakhan S (1997) Income Generation Project in Kedrayate A (Ed) CommunityEducation Project Reports, Suva, IOE

Letelier 0 (1995) Sustainable Peasant Agriculture Adult Education andDevelopment 95(44) Bonn, IIZ/DVV

Lob R E (1993) Environmental Education after Rio- a super conference withexotics Adult Education and Development, Bonn, IIZ/DVV

Orduro-Mensah D (1992) Environmental education and awareness creationthrough adult education' suggestions from Ghana in Adult Education andDevelopment, Bonn, IIZ/DVV

O'Riordan T (1989) The Challenge for Environmentalism Extract from NewModels in Geography, edited by R Peet & N Thrift Vol I, London, Unwin &Hyman

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Parkinson S (1990) Food Intake in Jansen A A J et al(Ed) Food and Nutrition inFiji, Suva, IPS

Parkinson S, Tunidau J, Chand M (1992) A Nutrition Handbook for the SouthPacific, FNFNC, Suva

Pepper D (1996) Modern Environmentalist!!: An Introduction, London,Routledge

Review Magazine ( October, 1997) How Much Poverty (News item),Suva

Robottom I &Mart P (1993) Paradigms and the ideology of environmentaleducational research: UNIT 1 Reader, Introduction to environmental anddevelopment education, London, SBU

Sachs W (1995) Global Ecology and the Shadow of Development in Sachs W(Ed) Global Ecology, London, Zed Books

Serrano I R (1992) Towards a sustainable agriculture in Adult Education andDevelopment 92 (38) Bonn 1iZ/DVV

Shaw B (1983) Food and Nutrition, Policies for South Pacific Countries:Determinants of Government Planning in Thaman R R & Clarke W C (Ed) Foodand National Development in the South Pacific, Suva, USP

Slim H & Thompson P (1993) Listening for a Change: Oral Testimony andDevelompent, London, Panos

Sterling S (1990) Environment, Development Education: Towards an HolisticView in Abraham J et al (ed) Deception, Demonstration and Debate, London,Kogan Page/WWF

Sterling S (1992) A Short History of Environmental Education. Reprinted inUNIT 1 Reader; Introduction to Environmental and Development Education,London, SBU

Sterling S (1996) Developing Strategy in Huckle J & Sterling S (Ed) Educationfor Sustainability, London, Earthscan

Taylor R (1983) Nutrition, Health and Human Production: The Dimension of theProblem in the South Pacific in Thaman R R & Clarke W C (Ed) Food andNational Development in the South Pacific, Suva, USP

Thaman R R (1990) Evolution of the Food System in Jansen et al (Ed) Food andNutrition in Fiji, Suva, IPS

Thioune O (1992) The ENDA Approach to Environmental Education: Reprintedin Unit I, Introduction to Environmental and Development Education, London,SBU

UNDP (1994) Pacific Human Development Report, Suva, UNDP.

23

Wals A E, Beringer A, Strapp W B (1990) Education in Action: A CommunityProblem Solving Programme for Schools, London, SBU

Wilson G (1997) Diseases of Poverty in Allen A & Thomas A (Eel) Poverty andDevelopment in the 1990s, London, Oxford.

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Chapter 3: Methodology

IntroductionIn my study of the Waiyavi Home Gardening/Nutrition

Health Project I used an ethnographic type of research based onobservations and field notes. The ethnographic style "depend(s)heavily on observation and in some cases partial integrationinto the society being studied The researcher has to beaccepted by the group being studied and this means doing thesame job or living in the same environment for lengthyperiods." (Bell, 1996, p1O)

Applying the Ethnographic MethodI followed the ethnographic method because the Fijian

culture is basically an oral one with very few records keptReports appear from time to time in the FCEA Newsletter oftheir project's progress and of national events like World FoodDay that they participate in. But apart from this, very fewrecords are kept hence the need for me to get more in-depthinformation by working and interacting with the Waiyavipeople.

Secondly my University allowed me 'study-leave' tocomplete my dissertation. This was an important concessiongiven that ethnography "involves the prolonged, intensive and 'direct involvement of the researcher in the lives and activitiesof the group in question." (Hitchcock & Hughes 1994, p52) Bysharing in the experiences of the Waiyavi people I came tounderstand how they viewed life and made sense of theirworld, (ibid, p52) This is important because in researching EfSas it related to community health and nutrition in Waiyavi Iobserved how the 'dominant social paradigm' (which is a resultof the neo-colonial experience and modernisation) had affectedtheir lifestyles. I also saw how they integrated modern andtraditional living to try and evolve sustainable lifestyles.

Thirdly, ethnography was an appropriate methodologybecause I had known the people since 1995 through theirmembership of the Fiji Community Education Association(FCEA). Since then I have visited Waiyavi regularly in mycapacity as Deputy President of FCEA. I have kept notes of myinteractions with them particularly in collaborating on theirvarious projects.

25

My Involvement with their Home Garden/Nutrition ProjectI came to know the facilitator Mrs Lavenia Qaranivalu

through our membership of the Pacific branch of theInternational Community Education Association (ICEA). I'dmet one of the Waiyavi members at the ICEA WorldConference in Thailand in 1995 and on the way back to SuvaCity I had spent the night as a guest of the communitybecoming acquainted in the process with the group and some oftheir projects. These earlier projects included traditionalhandicrafts, screen printing, seed nurseries and a small fishpond in a tank.

Over the next two years they asked for my advise on theirhome gardening project given my own expertise at theUniversity of the South Pacific (USP in Geography andEnvironmental Education. In 1996 I had arranged for a smallfund of FJ$500 from the Ministry of Health to launch theircommunity home-gardening project. (I also taught them howproposals were written and in 1997 (writing their ownproposals) they received additional funds of FJ$19.50 toconstruct appropriate technology materials like smokelessstoves and solar cookers. This is to help retain the nutrientswhen cooking their garden crops. Most foods here are cookedin open fires which destroy their nutrients. I had mainlyprovided advise and was not a principle actor in any of theirprojects. The facilitator, her project committee and the peoplethemselves were responsible for all the innovations and hardwork in the home gardening and

the EE component (ie participatory learning, drama,demonstrations etc)

Method of Recording Data

For information from 1995-1996 I relied on reports in themonthly FCEA newsletter and news reports in theCountrywide section of the Fiji Times newspaper. This hadinformation on community health/nutrition programmes inLautoka City which Waiyavi people usually attended.Whenever I visited my University students on school practicumin the Lautoka area I stopped over in the community in theevenings or on weekends after 1 had completed my Universitywork. I used these opportunities to observe their project,participated in their activities where possible and informally

26

interviewed and got information from the project facilitator andthe people particularly around the kava bowl.

One of the advantages of ethnography is that it is "a form ofqualitative research which combines several methods includinginterviewing and observation," (Fielding 1996, p154) He goeson to say that "it is a curious blending of methodologicaltechniques...(This) involves direct observations, formal andinformal interviewing, some systematic counting, somecollection of documents and artefacts; and open mindedness."(ibid p157) The facilitator's son Orisi Qaranivalu works in theLautoka City Housing Authority and he provided surveymaps/site plans of the Waiyavi sub-division. He also providedvaluable information on the history and background of thepeople. The facilitator helped to take photographs of the homegarden project in its various stages of progress.

As explained earlier the ethnographic method was suited tothis project because there were very few written records. TheFijian culture follows an oral tradition with few communitydecisions written down. In Waiyavi most plans were discussedorally and when a consensus was reached it was implemented.Practical demonstrations and on-the-job learning wasencouraged. Drama and songs were other means of spreadingthe importance of home gardening/nutrition and communityhealth. Although there are 48 families in Waiyavi I studied 15intensively. Ethnography often involves small samples but asFielding (1996) has noted, it does not mean that it be limited insample size but because of the great emphasis on depth andintensity it usually is. Ethnographers focus on the micro levelof human interaction and social processes. (Hitchcock &Hughes 1994)

Participant Observation

As outlined earlier, ray research methodology has involvedmy living within the community on extended periods. Ifollowed the participant-observer approach. Wiersma (1986)defines this as "the attempt to assume the role of theindividuals under study and attempts to experience theirthoughts, feelings and actions." (p 235) The people know that Iam a University Lecturer doing research on health, nutritionand home gardening. I was however unobtrusive and did notget in their way, I think they tolerated me because I had helped

27

with getting them the small FJ$500 Health Ministry grant in1996 and had personally purchased seeds and other smallgarden requirements. I tried to be objective and to understandbehaviour within the context of how Waiyavi people thoughtand acted. Participant-observation is based on the 'Chicagoschool' approach to empirical social research combiningparticipant-observation with other sources of data andtechniques. (Hitchcock & Hughes 1994, p53; See also Fielding1996, pl56.)

I talked to the people around the traditional kava bowl in theevenings, worked with them in their home gardens and satinformally with them in their kitchens, living rooms, church orcommunity hall. I was able to construct their life histories andunderstood more of what 'moved them'.

One advantage was that 1 was of the same ethnic group asthe people and understood their language, the different dialectsand their special nuances and behaviour. This helped me to"identify the rules which govern relationships in the setting anddiscern patterns in members' behaviour." (Fielding 1996, p157)

in doing this research I did not hide the fact from them thatI was a participant-observer. The people were told at the outsetthrough the traditional Fijian kava ceremony of i sevusevu thatI was researching their community. There would have beensome ill feelings later, particular within FCEA if I wasperceived as 'infiltrating' the community and secretly doingresearch. The advantage of disclosing at the outset was that Icould "establish close relationships, ask members to explainvarious aspects of what is going on, get key informants toprovide more analytical reflections about processes and thegroup's functioning and evoke a particular situation orbehaviour from members of the group." (Robson 1996, p197)

Some Disadvantages of the Research

It is true that I'd grown up in a village and then moved to thecity so I was familiar with what to expect in living in Waiyavi.The community is made up of working class Fijians working infactories, sweat shops and other low paying industries. Thefirst disadvantage was that because of the overcrowdedconditions of Waiyavi (they did not have enough room for me)I stayed at the facilitator's home which was 100 metres away

28

from the settlement towards the hills. It was a more spacioushome.

The second disadvantage was that as a university lecturerthey expected me to talk while they listened. They felt 1 hadmore knowledge and wisdom than them. We graduallyovercame this through frequent informal meetings andparticipatory types of non-formal education programmes wherethey provided most of the responses, Hitchcock and Hughesnote that I should "learn to listen to others, not appearingdogmatic and overbearing. The more the researcher's views,attitudes and opinions enter into the research situation, the lessof the actor's perspectives and ideas will be revealed." ( 1994,p57)

The third disadvantage was that people tended to hideunflattering points about themselves or their communityparticularly when discussing health problems. I made a pointabout not asking them things that would embarrass them. I gotthe information through observations, through hearing theirconversations and getting to know about those who were sickor admitted to hospital. To emphasise this disadvantage Ball(1993) quoting Hammersley (1984) makes the followingobservations, "there is also the question of my presence. Whileone of the reasons for collecting data on (other) talk rather thanrelying on interviews was to minimise the effects of theresearcher on the data, such effects may still be present, ...Theeffects were quite noticeable... in the case of Webster wherewhat he said to me contrasted sharply with what he said in thepresence of colleagues," (p35-36)

To combat this I relied more on informal interviews andobservations rather than formal type of interviews. Mysituations is also outlined by Robson when he talks about "theextent to which an observer affects the situation underobservation." The second point is that it "tends to be timeconsuming" (1996, p191-192). To the first point, 1 tried tomake people become very accustomed to my presence so thatthey carried on with their lives as if I was not present. Thepeople had known me from 1995 and were now used to mypresence.

Another disadvantage was that my whole working life hadrevolved around the academic world. Participant-observationmeant "going native" (to some extent). As Fielding suggestedI followed a useful observational tactic of cultivating an

29

impression of naivete and humility so that the Waiyavi peoplefelt obliged to explain such matters as culture/traditional waysof doing things, solar/smokeless stoves etc that seemed obviousto them. Although Fielding stressed that this was amethodological tactic to get detailed data, it took some time forme to develop it well without seeming contrived. (1996,p158),

The other disadvantage was that some of the people fearingan 'inquisition' wanted to know why they had been singled outfor study. Taking the cue of Bogden and Biklen I told themthat I had observed positive things about them and that directedmy choice to study them in more detail. Also that the peoplehad lots of insights and that interesting things were happeningthere in the area of environment education. I also said I was aneducational researcher trying to understand EfS in smallcommunities. (1992, p84)

Validation

While collecting data in Waiyavi, I was also involved insynthesising and summarising it. [ explored the idea of "a testof congruence or principle of verifiability."This will allowothers to pass in the same settings based on the instructions theresearcher provide. Congruence is achieved when theresearcher can "communicate them to both members andcolleagues in such a way that if a colleague were to followthem he or she could also become a member of the group."(Fielding 1996, p164). This means that I must provideauthentic and clear observations revealing the norms or rules ofbehaving in Waiyavi.

The other method of validating the data was throughtriangulation. Wiersma described this as "qualitative cross-validation. It assesses the sufficiency of the data according tothe convergence of multiple data sources or multiple datacollection procedures." (1986, p246) I triangulated the data byusing diverse means of gathering data (ie interviews,observations, questionaires, checking official records, etc).This meant my comparing the information to find out whetherthere was some corro bo ration of the data by common findingsor concepts. Triangulation showed the consistency orinconsistency and reliability of the Waiyavi data collected.Data here is about the relationship of home gardens and

30

nutrition integrated with education to bring about goodcommunity health.

Conclusion

The success of this ethnographic research depended on how iconduct myself in Waiyavi. As Ball has noted, "researchers arethe primary research tool with which they must find, identifyand collect the data." (1993, p32). I was self-critical inacquiring it and also had to develop a type of self interaction inanalysing and evaluating it. I found connections between thesocial processes of field work and the technical processes ofdata collection, (ibid, p33)

In writing up the dissertation 1 wanted to "be honest enoughto report mistakes and failures as part of the overall analysis."(Fielding 1996, p170)

References

Ball S J (1993) "Self-Doubt and Soft Data: Social and TechnicalTrajecting in Ethnographic Field Work," in Hammersley M(Ed) 1993Educational Research; Current Issues, London, Paul Chapman Publishing,

Bodgen R C and Bidden S K (1992) Qualitative Researcli for Education:An Introduction to Theory and Methods, Boston, Allyn and Bacon.

Fielding W (1996) Ethnography in Gilbert N (Ed) 1996, ResearchingSocial Life, London, Sage Publications.

Hitchcock G and Hughes D (1994) Researcli and the Teacher; AQualitative Introduction to School-based Research. London, Routledge.

Robson C (1996) Real World Research. A Resource for Social Scientistsand Practitioner Researchers, Oxford, Blackwell.

Wiersma W (1986) Research Methods in Education: An Introduction,Boston; Allen and Bacon Inc.

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Chapter 4: The Waiyavi Settlement HomeGardening/Nutrition Project

This is a descriptive account of the Waiyavi Home GardeningNutrition Project, I will begin by explaining the geographicallocation, the history of the settlement and the socio-economicbackground of the people. I will also look at community healthproblems and NCDs affecting the people. Then I will describehow the home gardening project was initiated in 1995 to thepresent time with the aim of alleviating community healthproblems relating to changing lifestyles. Interspersed with myaccount will be my analysis of the various actions taken and thestrengths and weaknesses of the project.

The LocationFiji is in the South Pacific and is considered to be the hub of

this region. It has a population of 780,000 (1997 est). Whilethere are about 300 islands making up the Fiji Group, the twomain islands are Vitilevu and Vanualevu. The area under studyWaiyavi is situated on western Vitilevu,

Map of Fiji

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Waiyavi settlement is a suburb of Lautoka City. It is 1kilometre from the city centre and 25 kilometres from NadiInternational Airport. The climate in Waiyavi is hot and dry withrelatively little rainfall when compared to the wet and humideastern part of Vitilevu. While the eastern part has rainforest

32

vegetation, the landscape around Waiyavi is marked by sunburnthills and grasslands. (In recent years tliesc grasslands have beenplanted with pine trees.) Lautoka sustains a very large sugarcane fanning industry. There are also many garment,manufacturing, and service industries employing large numbersof people like those in Waiyavi in low paying jobs.

An overview photo of Waivavi settlement. The building marked C is the Waiyavi MethodistChurch which is a focal point of social/religious activities. Ncxt to the church is a mini supermarket,marked S. Note the sunburnt hill on the top left and in the background. On the top right hill tare thehomes of the nonvean riche (More low cost cottages;shacks are to the left of the church and to theright of the mini-supermarket not seen in this photo.)

The History of Waiyavi SettlementPreviously the people who lived in Waiyavi were squatters

living illegally on this government land. In 1985 the governmentthrough the Homing Authority sub-divided land here for sale atlow prices to these squatters. The land lots were sub-dividedaround their existing shacks. To make the land affordable for thepoor, the government did not install sewerage pipes and wasteoutlets. No connecting streets and lanes, small parks or playingareas were provided. Many people here do not have flush toiletsand use water-sealed pit latrines. Walking around Waiyavi onestill gets the overpowering feeling of living in a veryovercrowded slum rather than a well planned urban low-costhousing estate.

Many families still live in extended families and save on fuelby using open fires and the smokeless stoves recently introducedby the Fiji Community Education Association (FCEA.) Since

33

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34

the people are not able to keep up with the Lautoka City rates,household garbage disposal is quite erratic. Behind thesettlement runs the Wainivakasoso Stream which is supposed tobe maintained by the people and not the City Council. It ispolluted with household refuse particularly from homes withbackyards near the stream.

The Background of Waiyavi PeoplePeople who live in Waiyavi are mainly working class ethnic

Fijians (90%) who have drifted into Lautoka City from theirvillages from all the 14 provinces of Fiji. (16% are ethnic Indiansand 4% are of minority races.) All the people work in lowpaying jobs in garment factories, and the manufacturing andservice industries including tourism. The average pay is $5000,In 85% of the 48 households there is only one breadwinner. Theaverage pay would be indicative of poverty in Fiji.

Problems

Crime

Because of the large number of unemployed particularamongst the young, juvenile delinquency is high. Drug use(particularly marijuana) is widespread. Many youths havedropped out of school and idleness due to unemploymentaccelerates anti-social behaviour.

Food

Because of their low income, people here are not able to havebalanced diets. Fish, meats and milk products for example arevery expensive and beyond the low budgets of the people.Malnutrition amongst children is high. The matter is made worseby the people's change of diet to cheap processed foods, tinnedfoods and fatty meats like mutton flaps. Traditional nutritiousFijian foods are no longer eaten regularly.

Diseases

In Waiyavi the incidence of non-communicable diseases isvery high. There have been many recent cases of heart diseases.Diabetes, hypertension and stroke is also high. Alcoholism, druguse, including excessive yaqona (piper mysticum) consumptionand sexually transmitted diseases particularly among the youngare rising problems.

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The Waiyavi Home Gardening ProjectWhen facilitator Mrs Lavenia Qaranivalu and her Waiyavi

Community Education Group decided to start up the homegardening project in June of 1996 they drafted a five point planfor doing so. They are listed as follows:(1) They decided to get to know their Waiyavi Settlement reallywell (ie getting clearer background information.)(2) They researched the types of health problems/lifestylediseases the people faced(3) They prepared objectives and targets based on the views ofthe people. This also included a plan of action.(4) The home gardening project is implemented(5) Formative (on going) evaluations is carried out while theproject is still in progress. (A summative evaluation will becarried out in June 1998 after the completion of the project.)(The source of these ideas was a book by Badcock J (etal) 1990Developing Community Nutrition Programmes, USP, Suva.)

Plan 1: Knowing the Waiyavi Community Really WellMrs Qaranivalu the facilitator spoke to the people especially

after Sunday church. She also visited people's homes with someof her committee members and looked at their existing gardens.She had informal discussions with them about other types ofplants (ie vegetables, fruits, medicinal etc) that could be plantedapart from ornamental plants. On her visits, she noted the healthof the people (good drinking water but not enough water sealedpit latrines), the things they currently planted in their gardens(mainly flowers with the usual mango and banana trees andsome hibiscus spinach) their cultural habits (very conservative,fundamentalist Christians), their economic conditions (workingclass people with many unemployed), their social conditions(many live in overcrowded conditions) and their education(many have been educated to upper primary and juniorsecondary school level).

Plan 2: Finding Out About Health and Nutritional ProblemsThe facilitator and the project committee found out about

health and nutritional problems in Waiyavi through observations.AHof the committee members (apart from the facilitator) lived inthe settlement and they recorded the various cases and signs ofhealth and nutritional problems. They gathered informationthrough observations of children and adults with skin diseases,

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sores, scabies, and scales (from drinking too much kava). Theyobserved the number of adults who suffered from diabetes, highblood pressure, and heart diseases. They also observed howmuch beer, kava or cigarettes people drank or smoked in thesettlement.

In June 1996 the project committee organised an 'awarenessmeeting' at the home of Ana and Lemeki Radinibau in Waiyavi.A large shed was built and forty three people came. The peoplewere put into groups and encouraged to put information throughpictures about their settlement (ie, kitchens, toilets, homegardens, etc) on their community map.

The groups were then asked to discuss problems facing them.This was limited only to lifestyle diseases and nutritionalproblems. It was felt that it would be impossible to discuss andsolve all community problems. On their 'community maps' theyshowed where serious problems were by marking them with redfelt pens, moderate problems using orange felt pens and greenwhere there were no problems.

The community members present analysed and discussed theirfindings. A decision was then taken to have a health/nutritionhome gardening project, (The ideas on 'community mapping work' wastaken from Save the Children Fund (1982) Bridging The Gap, Save theChildren Federation, USA.)

At that meeting, the committee had also invited the localMinistry of Health official (They had initially provided $500 forthe project) the Agricultural Officer and the National Food andNutrition official,

A simple nutrition survey questionnaire was given out to theparticipants. This provided additional information on homegardening.

Questionnaire for Identifying Food Problems(Adapted from, Brown J & R (1979) Finding the Causes, TALC, Atlanta)

-Do families have a home garden?-Is there space for family food gardens?-Are family gardens too small?-Are there people to work in the garden?-Could families improve their gardening methods cheaply and easily?-Could families grow a better variety of crops?-Do insects, animals or diseases attack the plants in the garden?The project committee helped in administering the survey.

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Plan 3: Setting Health and Nutrition Objectives in Waiyaviincluding an Action Plan

Once the community members had decided on having ahealth/nutrition home gardening project, objectives wereformulated. These were articulated as follows:(a) To reduce the incidence of vitamin deficiency andmalnutrition through planting green leafy vegetables, fruits andnuts, legumes, protein crops and root crops(b) To provide a source of cheap, nutritious, fresh local gardenfoods for balanced family meals(c) To provide a readily available source of medicinal plants notonly for common ailments but for non-communicable diseases.

Plan of ActionTarget Problems that What can be done When to complete Who does it

may arise

Overweight

Diabetes

Cut down on alcohol, carbohy-drates, cheap fatty foods. Plantmore fruits, coconuts for juice /toddy

Plant dark green leafy vegetableswith little or no sugar/starch andhigh in dietary fibre

High bloodpressure andheart diseases

Plant more root crops, lentilsand vegetables. (Eat less fattyfoods and exercise daily.)

May not

receive

enough

plant

cutting s from

Ministry of Agriculture

Lack of plantcuttings andseeds

germinateseedsinWaiyavi

Raise funds tobuy them

March 97toSept 97

Get them fromKANA Project/Fiji National Food& NutritionCommittee

June 97toDecember(Ongoing)1998

June 97toDec 97ongoingin1998

Mrs Vulikilai to be resposible

Mrs La Qaranivalu to beresposible

Committee sectretary to beresponsible

Plan 4: Implementing the Waiyavi Home Gardening ProjectIn July of 1996 a pilot group of 15 families began their home

gardens. (I'd like to clarify that as mentioned previously all thepeople already had home gardens but the gardening was informalconsisting mainly of ornamental flowers and shrubs and rootcrops with some bananas and coconuts and hibiscus spinach.)

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The project was now a systematic effort to grow nutritiousvegetables, fruit trees, medicinal and multi-purpose plants andplants that were a good source of proteins given the very highcost offish and meats.

The Waiyavi mothers were in charge of the gardens with helpfrom their children and teenage sons and daughters. The youthshelped for half an hour some afternoons before going to playvolleyball or touch-rugby. (This was a more practicalarrangement given that fathers worked long or irregular hours inlow paying semi-skilled work. Many return tired in the lateevenings.)

While mothers and their children worked on their own homegardens, they sometimes worked in groups of five families each.This is known as veisolesolevaki in Fijian. This means that thegroups plant in a members garden aid the cycle continues untilall group members are covered. This was done usually whereseeds had been sewn in communal beds and needed to betransplanted within a fortnight to take advantage of seasonalrains,

The Crops that were PlantedThe crops that were planted in their gardens can be classified asfollows:(a) root crops (b) vegetables (c) fruit trees (d) medicinal plants(e) fragrant plants (f) multi-purpose plants

(a) Root crops included cassava, taro, and sweet potatoes. (Taroand sweet potato leaves are also eaten as vegetables.)(b) The vegetables included tomatoes, hibiscus spinach,Chinese/English cabbages, cucumbers, pumpkins, French andlong beans. (At the time of writing this chapter, they were notable to get seeds for lentils, green peas and bean sprouts.)(c) Fruits included bananas, plantains, peanuts, pineapples,pawpaws, water-melons, corn, mangoes, and guava.(d) Medicinal plants included the common varieties ofbotebotekoro for healing wounds, totodro for stomach aches, ucifor colds and fevers, tamole for coughs and dralakaka forasthma.(e) Fragrant plants included mokosoi, uci, tamole and misimisiwhich are used for garlands, body oils and deodorants.

As mentioned previously, the home gardening began in July1996 and continues to the present time. There were disruptions

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to the gardening in April of this year when Cyclone Gavin struckthe Lautoka area causing much destruction. After the clean-up,they carried on with their gardening. Cyclones come every yearanyway and people have adapted to them. The recent droughts inthe Lautoka area has meant prohibitions on the use of water forcleaning cars and other non-domestic purposes. However peoplehere have been using water saved from their sinks andbathrooms to water their plants.(I include some photos of gardens here. One of the difficulties of taking photos isthat the gardens are all around die shacks. As outlined in the methodology section,the people were very reluctant to have frontal photos taken as they were veryembarrassed about their shacks being viewed in London!)

Part of the home garden of Vulikilai's Family

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Part of Mrs Taina Dan's Garden

A Community Healtli/Nulrition Awareness Workshop

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As part of the home gardening project, the families meet everymonth at the facilitator's home to have cooking demonstrationsof the crops they have harvested. An additional aspect of thisproject not covered in this paper is the construction of smokelessstoves and simple solar devices for cooking. Enlightened waysof cooking nutritious meals are carried out by the families. TheSeptember 1997 issue of the FCEA Newsletter reports that theyalso participated in the Lautoka City World Food Dayprogramme displaying their garden produce and samples of theircooking. (FCEA 9/97, p4) The October 1997 issue of the FCEANewsletter reported that they ran a refresher workshop onOctober 20th and 21st as a follow-up to the one done last year todiscuss NCDs. They also built smokeless stoves/ovens and solarcooking devices for cooking demonstrations. These smokelessstoves help to retain food nutrients unlike open fires that destroythe nutrients due to their excessive heat. Funding was from theMinistry of Health's National Centre For Health Promotion.

Plan5: Formative Evaluation of the ProgrammeSince this project will be completed in June of 1998, they

have been conducting formative evaluations (ie evaluationswhile the project is in progress) to see its effectiveness. Theformative approach is also a good monitoring strategy for theproject. With an additional grant of $1950 given by the Ministryof Health it is important that positive changes are carried out assoon as weak areas are identified and rectified. The on-goingevaluation looks at the methods used in home gardening, theresults and the costs. It also looks at the problems (ie plantdiseases, availability of seeds, water needs and naturalfertilisers) and what can be done to alleviate them.

The evaluation is mainly through observations of theindividual gardens and their progress. The group members alsomeet around the Fijian kava bowl for fortnightly discussions andevaluations of their project. This is a traditional way ofevaluating projects given that the Fijian culture is still very muchan oral tradition.

ReferencesBadcock J (et al) 1990 Developing Community Nutritionprogrammes, USP, Suva.

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Brown J & R (1979) Finding the Causes of Child Malnutrition,TALC, Atlanta.

FCEA (Sep 1997) Let's Do It Our Way: Promoting Health inWaiyavi, Lautoka, FCEA Newsletter, Suva.

FCEA (Oct 1997) Lautoka Show the Way, FCEA Newsletter,Suva.

FCEA (Nov 1997) Encouraging Community Home GardeningWith Support from the National Centre for Health Promotion,FCEA Newsletter, Suva.

Save the Children Federation (1982) Bridging the Gap,Connecticut.

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Chapter 5Conclusion

This dissertation on EfS in an urban Fijian community,Waiyavi, has been concerned with how people solve their ownproblems, without harming their environment and how theyfind better ways of surviving in the long term using informedand democratic ways. (Huckle 1996) In previous chapters Ihave described how people here have adopted more ecocentricvalues showing respect for the earth as a separate entity initself, reuniting people and nature, and moving towardssustainability. (ibid p12) This has meant people using theircultural wisdom to find ways of developing themselves insustainable ways particularly in these hard economical times.This has not implied doing away with economic andtechnological growth "but (that this) growth should take intoaccount sustainability and equity and not profits for a few.What is questioned is not the technology itself but the choiceand direction of its use." (Ahmed 1991, p18.)

Education for Sustainability

I have stressed in this dissertation that education is vital toattaining sustainability in Waiyavi. While agreeing that EfS is"critical for promoting sustainable development and improvingthe capacity of people to address environment and developmentissues" (UNCED 1992, pl2) I have gone to great pains, in thecase of Waiyavi, to show that this does not mean unrestrainedeconomic growth being carried out in tandem withenvironmental protection. I have argued that environmentalconservation should be the top priority in EfS and should takeprecedence over economic growth. By this I mean that if theeconomic activity is perceived to cause environmentaldegradation now and for future generations than more viablealternatives should be looked at.

Urban EfS within the Context of the Global Economy

I had chosen to do my EfS research in Waiyavi because it istypical of a trend in Fiji and the South Pacific of peoplemoving to urban areas from their villages and islands. (43% ofFiji's population live in urban areas,) Lautoka City where

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Waiyavi is located is seen by the Australian NationalUniversity's National Centre for Development Studies (NCDS)as one of six South Pacific cities where population is going torise rapidly and constraints faced with the decline ofcommodity prices, The NCDS says that there is adequateevidence pointing to the growth of squatter settlements and a"lack of basic services needed for social stability. Those whowill most suffer will be the poor," (Tait 1994, pl7) In additionBob Thistlewaite and Derrin Davis provide data to show that inthe Nadi/Lautoka area (where Waiyavi is located) thepopulation has risen by 30% between 1976 and 1986. They addthat "unplanned fringe settlements grow rapidly (to becomeslums), (and) health services lag behind." (1996, p35-36)

The hardships faced here is also due to the structuraladjustment programme (SAP) in Fiji provided by the WorldBank. This has meant user-payer schemes in health, educationand other social services. There has also been a relaxation ofoccupational health and safety regulations in tax free factories(Ram 1994, p240) where many Waiyavi people work.

Given this situation, the Fiji Community EducationAssociation (FCEA) has stepped in as a social movementaiming to empower the people. FCEA has successfully easedthe tensions with the Fiji Government. (From 1987 to 1989 Fijiwas a military dictatorship). FCEA has been involved in'constructive engagement1 so much so that the government seesFCEA as complementing its role in providing services to thepeople.

Edwards and Hume (1994) give very practical reasons whyNGOs like FCEA should work together with the state. They saythat this will allow NGOs to influence government policy.States however must show that they are flexible and can bereformed. This has implications for ecological sustainability forin the rush for economic growth, resources may not be usedsustainably, Thistlewaite and Davis commenting onMelanesian countries like Fiji write that "rapid populationgrowth and rampant urbanisation are so pressing that concernfor wider environmental issues is often put aside in the fight totackle what are seen by politicians as the immediate problems."(1996 p149) This is where NGOs like FCEA come in aswatchdogs pressuring for sustainable usage of naturalresources. FCEA has "an advocacy role to sensitize policymakers to the need for a sound environmental policy..so that

45

sustainabilhy is not sacrificed to mindless commitment toeconomic growth." (Ahmed 1991, p26) In Waiyavi, this hastaken the form of working closely with the Ministry of Healthon non-communicable diseases and the Ministry of Agricultureon the home gardens. In addition Waiyavi's cause has beenhelped by FCEA highlighting it on Radio Fiji and Fiji TV.

At the micro level FCEA (like PROSHIKA an NGO inBangladesh which has facilitated the planting of fruit trees andsaplings of timber around homestead of the poor) has madesure that the Waiyavi people have been "involved in planning,implementing and gaining ownership of the resources created."(ibid p26~27)

Non-communicable Diseases and EfS

With their low wages, people in Waiyavi find it hard to buynutritious foods. Many eat carbohydrates daily, supplementedby cheap fatty mutton flaps or canned corned meat. This hasresulted in the rise of non-communicable diseases like diabetes,high blood pressure and heart diseases here. This, as has beenexplained in previous chapters is a widespread problem in Fijiwhere "the higher incidence of heart diseases, cancer anddiabetes has slowed increases in life expectancy." This is dueto "urbanisation, widespread lifestyle changes andenvironmental and economic factors." (Tait 1994, p24)

This dissertation has shown that these diseases can bestopped and people can lead happy, healthy and meaningfullives through home gardening. A good home garden canprovide the family food needs in the three food groups. Theseare health and protective foods, energy foods and bodybuilding foods. Even people in Waiyavi who had complainedinitially of having extremely small compounds have been ableto do some home gardening in old containers.

Waiyavi Women in Home Gardening

My experiences in Waiyavi has shown that communityeducation particularly for women has resulted in the success ofthis project. The women here initiated the project andpersevered in making it a success. This is not surprisingbecause "women (in Melanesia) primarily have responsibilityfor nutrition, hygiene and basic preventative health care" in the

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home. (op. cit Tait 1994, p25) There is also a long tradition ofwomen being "responsible for the majority of householdagricultural production (in Melanesia)" (Ward 1995, p5) This isespecially true in the case of Waiyavi, where husbands earn solittle so semi subsistence gardening helps to meet basic familyneeds. Like the SIDT and Sup Sup Garden programme run byNGOs in the Solomon Islands, FCEA has also supported"household food production through nutrition education, lowcost technology and promoting the cultivation of indigenousplants." (ibid, p17)

The EfS Project in Waiyavi

In Waiyavi, the Fiji Community Education Association hadfacilitated an EfS project dealing with community health andnutrition mainly because this had been identified as the biggestproblem faced by the people. The home gardening project had asocio-economic component of sustainable livelihood and alsoaddressed environmental degradation. By this I mean that thehome gardens have provided fresh vegetables, fruits, root-crops, herbal and multi-purpose plants for family use, with thesurplus being sold. Natural fertilisers have been used.

Secondly the people had been encouraged not to throw theirrubbish into the Wainivakasoso Stream but to create compostheaps of organic ones. The people had also been encouraged toput out non-biodegradable rubbish for the Lautoka City RefuseCollectors. Waiyavi is in this coastal city and 'marine pollutionis an increasing issue because of suspended sediment outflowand discharge of untreated affluent and sewage." (Thistlewaite& Davis 1996, p38) Here, FCEA's role has been to encourage asense of community participation so that action is aimedcollectively at the needs of the wider Waiyavi community andnot just serving narrow clan parochial needs. By this I meanthat "some urban services, particularly waste disposal, canbenefit greatly from collective resident action. The challenge isto redirect existing community allegiances towards these widergoals."(Connell &Lea 1995 p145)

The project had been determined by the people themselvesusing participatory methods. The people had addressed theirhealth/nutrition problems, finding out what was causing themand had put in place strategies for alleviating them.

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Third world communities like Waiyavi face a lot ofhardships and survival is their main priority. People here tendto be cynical about life and particularly of adult communityeducation if it is seen as limiting their abilities to provide fortheir families. (This is because community education hereexhorts people to use sustainable methods that may not befeasible for these people who have very large families to feed.)

In the light of this, the EfS project in Waiyavi has followedthe pragmatic strategy of getting the people to identify theirneeds, clarifying objectives, building consensus, promoting co-operation, building on existing work (their existing homegardens) and allowing progress to be monitored andevaluated." (Sterling 1996, p202) The success of this has beenseen for example in the vast potential people now see in homegardening. The gardens have cut down on food costs withsurpluses being sold. People have also been able to exercisethemselves thereby helping to combat non-communicablediseases. Seeing its effectiveness, the people have becomereceptive to other sustainability messages facilitated by FCEAand the Waiyavi project organisers.

In addition to broadening their outlook to EfS, the Waiyavipeople were encouraged to exchange ideas on good sustainablepractices in health/nutrition and home gardening. There wasalso a genuine attempt to co-ordinate thinking on sustainabilitybetween the adults and the younger generation. (The youthswere used to help dig up the garden plots, prepare seed bedsand work on the compost heaps in the afternoons before theywent to play volleyball). The people were also encouraged totalk more to each other and together find constructive andinnovative ways of sustaining their home gardens. This wasparticularly during the trying period of droughts the area faced.

Ecologically Viable Home Gardening

The Waiyavi Home Gardening Project has achievedsustainability through the creation of agricultural conceptsmaximising the use of local resources and reviving traditionalthinking, and also modern production techniques. It aims at selfsufficiency and intensive farming. (Letelier 1995)

"New crops and new ways of growing traditional crops havebeen added almost everywhere (in the South Pacific). One needonly observe the broad range of exotic crops now widely grown

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by small holders to see that this is true." (Hardaker & Fleming1994, p33) Ahmed's (1991) comments of the NGO PROSIKA'swork in Bangladesh is similar to FCEA's initiative in Waiyavi,Ahmed writes that NGOs need to initiate programs of organicagriculture where poor peasants learn to make and use compostfrom locally available organic materials, (use) green manures,rotate crops wisely and use biological pest control methods. Alot of (traditional) knowledge (on) organic agriculturalpractices need to be encouraged." (p27-28) Fleming andHardaker (in another book) writing of the Pacific stress theimportance of the small holder mode of gardening. They alsostress that Pacific people need to provide their input intosustainable natural resource management. "They after all havethe best fund of experience with local eco-systems, and theyare the ones who will have to make any new system work."(1995 p217-218)

The Waiyavi people have patiently used water saved fromtheir kitchens and bathrooms during droughts to nurture theirgardens. They have also made full use of their smallcompounds and planted root crops, vegetables, fruit trees,medicinal plants, fragrant plants and multi-purpose plants. Thisis a sign that they believe in the usefulness of this project.

I have previous explained that the people were able to selltheir surplus garden produce. To be truthful, the project wasmeant to provide the family food needs only. However peoplefrom within Waiyavi and other neighbouring communitiesstarted appearing at their doorsteps requesting to buy eggplants, beans, pumpkins and other vegetables. This was apleasant development given that it is compatible with themarket economy that is now a permanent fixture of life hereand the third world. This marks a move from totallysubsistence type of gardening to semi-subsistence small holdergardeners. This type of small scale gardening carried out inWaiyavi provides "productive employment, a reasonablestandard of nutrition and cash income. (It is) resilient tounfavourable climatic conditions and produce prices. (It)provides a platform for initiatives (when certain types ofproduce is in vogue, or in demand.) Fleming & Hardaker(1995, p210-211.) Semi-subsistence gardening is flexible asdecisions are made by the gardeners themselves. This "mode ismore efficient and better attuned to resource availabilities andsocial circumstances." (ibid p 211-212) Perhaps the next step in

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Waiyavi is for the home gardeners to form a co-operative tomarket their produce once they produce a lot more surplus.

Recommendations

(a) My experiences in Waiyavi has shown that homegardening should be encouraged in all urban settlements,slums, and housing estates. These communities should workclosely with agricultural based NGOs and the Ministries ofHealth and Agriculture. This is one good way of cutting downon non-communicable diseases. For such programmes to besuccessful there needs to be dedicated facilitators who assist innurturing the projects particularly at the embryonic stages.

(b) Home gardening projects will be successful if they areintegrated into other aspects of urban community life, iegardening to improve family nutrition, cut down on lifestylediseases and provide some modest income. The projects shouldmake effective use of the empirical wisdom the people haveregarding traditional farming practices and natural resourcemanagement.

(c) Pacific people, and Waiyavi is no exception areculturally not interested in environmental conservationmessages partly because of the need to survive and partlybecause of the belief that nature has mechanisms for healingitself. Environmental issues are new to the people and theysometimes see it as a fad introduced by well meaning butmisguided green NGOs. There is an urgent need to includeadult community environmental education programmes fromthe outset of home gardening projects. A holistic educationapproach will make people realise the interconnectionsbetween sustainable home gardening and harmonious co-existence with nature.

(d) It is amazing to see the types of traditional vegetablesand fruits high in nutrition that people can be encouraged toplant and eat. The current obsession in Fiji for example is forover-cooked English cabbages and other similar vegetableswith low nutritional value. People should be encouraged togive their children traditional fruits rather than just cheeseflavoured snacks in brightly coloured wrappings. Waiyavipeople often forego traditional fruits for factory made snacksbecause the former is identified with the hoi polloi and thelatter the nouvre riche that they all aspire to join!

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(e) Finally this dissertation on EfS in a poor urbancommunity has enriched my life, I hope it encourages otheracademics and researchers to consider doing these kinds ofresearch instead of sticking to glamour topics like globalwarming, coral reefs and holes in the ozone layer. While theseare important, I believe that the battle for sustainability will befought in the hearts and minds of the common people in thethird world such as those in Waiyavi.

References

Ahmed Q F (1991) Environment: A Casualty of Economic centred Development:A Case Study of Bangladesh in Environment and Development: A Sub RegionalPerspective, Bangkok, ACFOD

Connell J & Lea J P (1995) Urbanisation in Polynesia, Canberra, NCDS/ANU,

Edwards M & Ikilme D (1994) Scaling up the Development Impact of NGOs;amceptiomil experiences in Edwards M &Hulme D (Ed) Making a Difference,Earthscan, London.

Hardaker J B & Fleming E (1994) Strategies for Melanesia!! Agriculture for2010 tough choices, Canberra, NCDS/ANU.

Letelier o (1995) Sustainable Peasant Agriculture; Adult Education aNdDevelopment 95(44) Bonn, iiZ-DVV.

Sterling S (1996) "Education in Change" in HuckLe J and Sterling S (Ed)Education for Sustainability, London, Earthscan.

Tail M (Editor) 1994; The future, a matter of choice, NCDS/ANU, Canberra

Thistlewaite B & Davis D (1996) A Sustainable Future for Melanesia? NaturalResources, Population and Development, Canberra, NCDS/ANU

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