educational and cultural challenges of bicultural adult ...for recently arrived immigrants in a...
TRANSCRIPT
Australian Journal of Adult Learning Volume 52, Number 1, April 2012
Educational and cultural challenges of bicultural adult immigrant and refugee students in Australia
Abi Brooker and Jeanette A. LawrenceUniversity of Melbourne, Australia
We report the relationship between the cultural and educational challenges of immigrant adult students. Thirty-five recently arrived adults in a bridging course completed a self-administered, online computer interview to rate their exploration and commitment to their heritage and Australian cultures, and express their experiences with their own challenges (size and effect of challenges, people who helped them deal with their challenges). Students’ biggest challenges differed in relation to their bicultural identities (their cultural identities for both heritage and Australian cultures): money and school tasks for the more bi-culturally committed; English and personal skills for the less. Students who were more bi-culturally committed appeared to experience some advantages in their experiences with their challenges. How newly arrived immigrants develop their bicultural identities can have implications for how they address their challenges, and find a place for themselves within the new culture and their heritage culture.
Educational and cultural challenges 67
Introduction
AdultimmigrantandrefugeestudentsencountermanychallengesastheystarttheireducationinAustralia.Somenewlyarrivedadultsfindtheirchallengesoverwhelminganddropoutofclasses.Othershandlethesamechallengeswithresilienceandsuccess(CentreforMulticulturalYouth2008).Thechallengesofimmigrantnewcomersincludedifficultiesassociatedwithentryintoanewcultureanddifficultiesdirectlyassociatedwiththeireducationalexperiences.Inamulticulturalenvironment,culturalchallengesoftenrevolvearoundfindingaplaceandapersonalidentityinbothheritageandAustraliancultures(Lawrence,Brooker&Goodnow,inpress).EducationalchallengesforimmigrantsoftenrevolvearounddevelopingtheEnglishandlearningskillsneededinadulteducation.Thesedifficultiesarefacedbymigrants(Townsend2008),refugees(VictorianFoundationforSurvivorsofTorture2007),andinternationalstudents(Ang&Liamputtong2008).Littleisknown,however,abouthowthesenewlyarrivedadultstudentsactuallyhandletheirchallenges,andlessisknownabouthowtheirculturalandeducationalchallengesmayberelatedtoeachother.
OuraimsweretodocumentthechallengesencounteredbyimmigrantandrefugeeadultsearlyintheirAustralianeducation.Wefocusedontheprevalenceandsizeofchallengesthesestudentsexperiencedwhenstudyinginaspecialisedbridgingprogram,andonthestudents’approachestohandlingtheirchallenges.Students’approachesinvolvedtheirfeelingsandactivitiesatschool,andtheirperceptionofthesupporterswhocouldhelp.Wealsofocusedonthestudents’developmentof‘biculturalidentities’aspartoftheiracculturationintoAustraliansociety.Wecouldthenaskhowimmigrantstudents’developmentofabiculturalidentityrelatedtotheireducationally-orientedchallenges.
68 Abi Brooker and Jeanette A. Lawrence
Encountering challenges
Achallengeisaspecifictypeofdifficulty(e.g.asituation,anelusiveskill,asocialconflict)thatarisesinaperson’slife,sometimesuninvited.Thechallengedemandsthatthepersonengagewiththespecificdifficultytotrytogainmasteryoverit(Lazarus&Folkman1984).Severalresearchershavemadedistinctionsbetweendifficultiesthatareseenas‘challenges’inthissenseofinvitationtoengagement,andthosedifficultiesthatareseenas‘threats’(Lazarus&Folkman1984;Williams,Cumming&Balanos2010).Thekeytothedifferenceliesintheperson’sapproachineitherattemptingtomasterthedifficultyorinretreatingfromitsthreat.AccordingtoWilliamsandcolleagues,peoplewhoperceiveadifficultsituationasachallengeandworkonitactuallyfarebetterthanpeoplewhoseethesamedifficultyasthreatening.
Althoughchallengesaredifficulties,theyareassociatedwithactualorpotentialrewardsandgains.Thisisparticularlythecasewhenchallengesareseenassmallratherthanaslargeandoverwhelming.Smallchallengesareeasiertoovercome,involvelessrisk,andoffersaferopportunitiestopractisenewskillsortoaccessnewresources(Azmitia&Cooper2001;Fergus&Zimmerman2005;Lazarus&Folkman1984).
Peopledonotalwayshandletheirchallengessolo.Teachersandcolleaguescanfillmotivatingandsupportiverolesforstudents.Cooper(1999),forinstance,describedhowsomeethnicminoritystudentsusedsocialsupporttohelpthemsucceed.Educationallysuccessfulstudentsreportedfeelingdriventoeitherprovegatekeeperswrong(e.g.teachersorcommunitymemberswhobelievedtheywouldfail),ortosucceedonbehalfoftheirsupporters(e.g.teachersandsupportivefamilymembers).Socialnetworks,whetherprovocativeorsupportive,aidedthemintheirsuccessfulactivities.
Educational and cultural challenges 69
Achieving bicultural identity
Abiculturalidentity(asopposedtoamonoculturalidentity;Lawrenceetal.,inpress)isaperson’ssenseofselfinrelationtomorethanoneculture,inanenvironmentwheremultipleculturesco-exist.Immigrantsandrefugees,forinstance,livetheirdailylivesininteractionwiththeirethnic,heritagecultureandininteractionwiththemainstreamAustralianculture.
Findingaplace(a‘culturalhome’;Lawrence,Benedikt&Valsiner1992)withinbothculturesallowsnewcomerstoadapttotheirnewsurroundings,whilemaintainingtheirpreviousculturalvaluesandresourcesaspartoftheiracculturationprocess(Laosa1999;Schwartz,Unger,Zamboanga&Szapocznik2010).Todate,researchershavetendedtofocusonpeople’sidentificationwiththeirethnicculture.Schwartzetal.(2010),however,recentlypointedtotheimportanceofalsodevelopinganidentitywiththemainstreamnationalculture.
Achievingastrongidentityinone’sheritageculturecanhelppeopletodevelopgreaterinter-culturalawareness,proactivecopingwithdiscrimination,andimprovedpsychologicalwell-being(Phinney,Jacoby&Silva2007;Rivas-Drake&Hughes2008;Umaña-Taylor,Vagas-Chanes,Garcia&Gonzales-Backen2008).Todescribehowpeopledevelopthatculturalidentity,Phinney(1989)drewonErikson’s(1968)conceptofego-identityandMarcia’s(1993)processesofexplorationandcommitment.PhinneydevelopedandrevisedaMulti-groupEthnicIdentityMeasure(MEIM-R;Phinney1989;Phinney&Ong2007)toassesspeople’sculturalidentitiesintermsoftheirexplorationandcommitmentactivities.Theseactivitiescanbeexperiencedindifferentways.Apersonmayhave,forexample,noexperienceofeitherexploringorcommittingtoaculture,ors/hemayexplorewhatthecultureinvolveswithoutmakinganycommitment,ors/hemaybothexploreandcommittothatculture.
70 Abi Brooker and Jeanette A. Lawrence
Phinney(1989)sawtheseexploringandcommittingactivitiesasappearingandprogressinginaparticularorder.Shearguedthatethnicminorityadolescentswhohadachievedtheirethnicidentityhadfirstexploredtheirethnicityandthencommittedtotheirethnicculture.Syed(2010),however,foundthatprogressionpatternswerefarmorecomplex,especiallyincollegestudents.
Thestudyofbiculturalidentitydevelopmentisalsomorecomplexthanaskingonlyaboutaperson’sethnicidentity.Inamulticulturalenvironment,mostpeopledonothavetheluxuryofexcludingoneortheotherculturefromtheirconsciousness.WetookthemorerealisticapproachofaskingimmigrantadultshowtheywereexploringandcommittingtoboththeirheritageandAustraliancultures.Developingsomeformofidentificationwiththemainstreamcultureaswellastheirheritageculturecaneasethestrainsandconflictsofimmigrants’transitions(Fuligni,Witgow&Garcia2005;Ogbu2004).
Challenges for immigrant and refugee adults in Australian education
LikealladultsinAustralia,immigrantstudentsmustachieveacertainlevelofeducationiftheyaretomoveontosustainableandrewardingemployment.Unlikeotheradultstudents,however,immigrantsarenottypicallycontinuingtheireducationor‘returningtoschool’.Manyarestartingtheiradulteducation,orrestartingitafterdisruption.MostrefugeesandsomeimmigrantsarrivewithlimitedEnglish.SomehaveformalqualificationsthatarenotrecognisedbyAustralianauthorities,butothershavenoexperienceofformaleducation(CMY2008).
Somechallengesfornewlyarrivingstudentsrelatedirectlytotheirculturalexperiences,forexample,dealingwithracismanddiscrimination(Ang&Liamputtong2008;Mestheneos&Ionnidi2002).Otherchallengesrelateindirectlytotheirculturalexperiences,forexample,poorhousinginlowsocio-economicareas,limitedtransportandcrowdedmedicalfacilities(Earnest,Housen,&Gillieat
Educational and cultural challenges 71
2007).Immigrantandrefugeeadultsoftenfeel‘shut-out’fromeithertheirethnicorthewidercommunityastheystruggletobuildsocialnetworksandsupportsystemsthatwillhelpthemintheirnewenvironments(McMaster2007;Townsend2008).
Thechallengesthatnewlyarrivedadultsfacecanhaveaseriousimpactontheireducationalexperiences.Studentslivinginpovertyoftencannotaffordfeesormaterials,andthusmissoutonservicesthatcouldotherwisesupporttheirstudyefforts(e.g.accesstocomputers,libraries,publictransport).ThosewithapoorgraspofEnglish,orwithseriousgapsintheirschooling,mayfindbarrierstodevelopnewandsupportivefriendships,missimportantsocialnuancesinclass,andexperiencedifficultyincompletingassignmentstothestandardsoftheirclasspeers(Sidhu&Taylor2007;Suarez-Orozco,Gaytanetal.2010).
Studentswhofindwaysofdealingwiththeirchallengesproductivelyarebetterplacedtoprogressthroughtheirearlyeducationalexperiencesintocollegeoruniversity.Theyarealsobetterpositionedtofindmeaningfulplacesforthemselveswithinthenewculture.Toprovideadequateservicesandsupport,educatorsandcounsellorsneedtoknowthechallengesfacedbyadultimmigrantstudentsearlyinAustralianeducation,andhowtheirculturalandeducationalchallengesmayrelatetoeachother.
The present study
WeaskedstudentsabouttheirexplorationsandcommitmentsinrelationtoboththeirheritageandAustraliancultures,aboutthetypeandsizeofanychallengestheyencounteredearlyintheirAustralianeducation,andabouttheirapproachestothesechallenges(intheirfeelingsandactivitiesatschoolandtheirsocialsupport).Ourapproachinvolvedusingaself-administered,onlinecomputerinterviewthatgavestudentscontrolandprivacytoreflectandreport
72 Abi Brooker and Jeanette A. Lawrence
ontheirchallengingexperienceswithinasupportive,well-informedresearchenvironment(Lawrence,Dodds,&Brooker,2010).
Methodology
Participants
Participantswere35students(19women,16men)attendingacollegeforrecentlyarrivedimmigrantsinasuburbofAdelaide.ThecollegecatersforthespecificneedsofadultimmigrantstudentswhoarebeginningtheireducationinAustralia.
Themeanageforthe35studentswas23.5years(SD =6.9).Onlythreewereolderthan30years.Theyrepresented60%of58studentsinvitedtoparticipateatclasssessions.Non-participantsincludedstudentsabsentontheinterviewdayordecliningtoparticipate(19),andfourwhodidnotcompletetheonlineinterviews.Theycamefromregionswithrecenthistoriesofsubstantialconflictandwar:CentralandEastAfrica(14),SouthAsia(11)andtheMiddleEast(10).Most(32)hadlivedinAustraliaforlessthanfiveyears.ThreeolderstudentshadbeeninAustraliaformorethannineyears,andtheirpresenceintheclassesindicatedthattheyhadnotyetbeenabletomoveonintheireducationoremployment.Most(31)hadbeentohighschool,twohadcompleteduniversitydegreesand14hadnevercompletedhighschoolstudies.Ofthefourwhohadonlyexperiencedprimaryschool,threehadnotcompletedit.
Procedures and materials
Studentsworkedthroughtheonlinecomputerinterviewinclasssessionsatthecollege.Theinterviewwasprogrammedtoaskinitialandfollow-upquestions,andtogiveparticipantsavarietyofactivities(ratings,mapconstruction,typedinopen-endedcomments).Twotrainedresearchersandoneormoreteacherswerepresenttoassistanddebriefstudents.Assistanceincludedexplainingquestionsandtypinganswersifstudentsrequestedhelp.
Educational and cultural challenges 73
Cultural identities. Afterenteringdemographicdetails,studentsratedhowmuchtheyagreedwithMEIM-Ritems(0=‘stronglydisagree’,to4=‘stronglyagree’;PhinneyandOng2007).TheMEIM-Rcontainsthreeitemsaboutaperson’sculturalexploration(e.g.‘Ihavespenttimetryingtofindoutmoreaboutmyculturalgroup’)andthreeitemsaboutaperson’sculturalcommitment(e.g.‘Ifeelastrongsenseofattachmenttomyculturalgroup’).MEIM-RitemsforAustralianandheritageculturesarelistedinTable1.
Challenges. Studentsnextconstructedconceptmapsshowingindiagrammaticformthetypeandsizeofchallengestheyexperienced,withtheiremphases(Novak&Cañas2006).Weprovided11potentialchallengesandallowedstudentstogenerateothers.The11challengesweredevelopedinpilotstudieswithimmigrantandlocalstudents.Theywere:Englishlanguage,money,family,health,skills,timemanagement,discrimination,otherpeoples’expectations,culture,schooltasksandschoolrules.Studentslocatedanyofthesechallengesinoneoftwolabelledspaces:aninnercentralspacewheretheycouldplacetheirbigchallenges,andanoutside,peripheralspacewherestudentscouldplacetheirsmallchallenges.
Approaches to challenges. Studentsthentypedtheiropen-endedresponsestotwoquestionsabouttheirapproachestotheirbiggestchallenges:‘Howdoyourchallengesmakeyoufeelaboutschool?’and‘Howdoyourchallengesaffectwhatyoudoatschool?’Tworesearchersindependentlycodedeachopen-endedresponseaseither‘positive’,‘negative’or‘neutral’.Inter-rateragreementwashigh,withcompleteagreementon83%of35commentsaboutfeelings(Kappa=.68),and91%of35commentsaboutactivities(Kappa=.86).Wealsoaskedstudents‘Doesanyonehelpyouwithyourchallenges?’andprovidedchecklistsoffamily(e.g.parents)andnon-familypeople(e.g.teachers)forthemtotickastheirhelpers.
74 Abi Brooker and Jeanette A. Lawrence
Findings
Students’ bicultural identities
ThestudentsweredevelopingbiculturalidentitiesintheirexplorationsoftheirheritageandAustraliancultures.Theyalsoweremakingcommitmentstooneorbothcultures,butthesecommitmentsinvolvedgreatervariability.Thegrouphadahighermeanratingofculturalidentityfortheirheritage(3.04,SD=0.54)thanfortheAustralianculture(2.74,SD=0.60),t (33)=2.82,p =.01.Thetwoculturalidentities,however,correlatedreasonably,r=.40,p=.02.
Two subgroups with different patterns of cultural identity
TwosubgroupsemergedfromouranalyseswithdifferentpatternsofbiculturalidentityintheirratingsofMEIM-Ritems.Subgroupdifferenceswereparticularlyrelatedtotheircommitmentstooneorbothcultures.Thesubgroups,however,differedonlyintheirratingsoftheirbiculturalidentities.Theydidnotdifferinage,gender,culturalgroup,lengthoftimespentinAustralia,totaleducationpriortoAustralia,orcollegecourse.
Onesubgroupof22studentswecalledBiculturallyExploringandCommitting,andtheothergroupof12,BiculturallyExploringwithoutCommitting.Table1showsthemeanratingsofthesixitemsthatthesesubgroupsgavetoeachitemforeachculture,togetherwiththesubgroupoverallmeanratings.
Educational and cultural challenges 75
Table 1: Mean ethnic and Australian cultural identity scores for two subgroups of 22 Exploring and Committing and 12 Exploring without Committing students
MEIM items
Group mean rating (standard deviation)
BiculturallyExploringandCommitting
BiculturallyExploringwithoutCommitting
Commitment items:Iunderstandwhatmembershipof…meanstomezz myethnicculture 3.41(0.50) 2.58(0.79)zz theAustralianculture 3.05(0.72) 2.17(0.94)Ifeelastrongsenseofattachmentto:zz myethnicculture 3.32(0.65) 2.42(0.90)zz theAustralianculture 3.18(0.40) 2.00(0.85)Ihaveastrongsenseofbelongingto:zz myethnicculture 3.23(0.75) 2.67(0.78)zz theAustralianculture 3.00(0.87) 1.50(0.80)Overallcommitmentscore:zz myethnicculture 3.32(0.51) 2.56(0.43)zz theAustralianculture 3.08(0.46) 1.89(0.61)
Exploration items:Ihaveoftendonethingsthatwillhelpmeunderstand:zz myethnicculture 3.27(0.63) 2.75(0.75)zz theAustralianculture 3.18(0.59) 2.33(0.78)Ihavespenttimetryingtofindoutmoreabout:zz myethnicculture 3.14(0.83) 2.92(0.79)zz theAustralianculture 2.82(1.01) 2.75(0.62)Ihaveoftentalkedtootherpeopletolearnmoreabout:zz myethnicculture 3.09(0.75) 2.75(0.87)zz theAustralianculture 2.82(1.01) 2.75(0.97)Overallexplorationscore:zz myethnicculture 3.17(0.62) 2.81(0.44)zz theAustralianculture 2.94(0.61) 2.61(0.68)Overallculturalidentityscore:zz myethnicculture 3.24(0.53) 2.68(0.36)zz theAustralianculture 3.01(0.47) 2.25(0.49)
76 Abi Brooker and Jeanette A. Lawrence
Asagroup,BiculturallyExploringandCommittingstudentswereexploringandcommittingtoboththeirheritageandAustraliancultures.Theygavehighratings(3=‘agree’or4=‘stronglyagree’)toallexplorationandcommitmentitemsforeachculture.StudentsintheBiculturallyExploringwithoutCommittinggroupwereexploringbothcultures,withratingsgenerallylowerthanthoseoftheBiculturallyExploringandCommittinggroup.Theyalsogaveparticularlylowratingstocommitmentitems.Asagroup,theydidnothaveasenseofbelongingtotheAustralianculture,anddidnotunderstandwhat‘beingAustralian’meantforthem.
Students’ experiences of their challenges
Thestudentsidentifiedbetweenoneand13challengesbyplacingtheminthecentralorperipheralspacesoftheirconceptmaps.Therewasameanof7.46challengesforthesample(SD =3.23),withsimilarmeannumbersforbigchallenges(3.88,SD =2.73)andsmallchallenges(3.65,SD =2.16).Table2showsthenumberofstudentswholocatedeachof11challengesasbig(inthecentralarea)andsmall(intheperipheralarea)intheirconceptmaps.
Educational and cultural challenges 77
Table 2: Number of students placing 11 challenges as ‘big’, ‘small’ or not challenges
Challenges Students’ location of challenges in concept maps
‘Big’challenges(centralarea)
‘Small’challenges(peripheral
area)
Challengesnotincludedinmap
English 23 11 1
Money 19 11 5
Personalskills 15 15 5
Schooltasks 12 8 15
Family 11 12 12
Health 10 10 15
Timemanagement 9 14 12
Discrimination 8 12 15
Schoolrules 8 6 21
Culture 7 16 12
Otherpeople’sexpectations 7 12 16
Englishwasthemostcommonlyidentifiedchallenge,with97%ofthesampleputtingitintotheirconceptsmaps,and68%(23)identifyingitasabigchallenge.Schoolruleswastheleastcommonlyidentifiedchallenge(for40%),butitwasabigchallengeforeight.Culturewasachallengefor66%,butabigchallengeforsevenofthestudents.
Subgroups’ different patterns of challenges
WeusedaCorrespondenceAnalysistoshowhowthetwogroupsdescribedthesizeofthe11challenges(‘big’,‘small’or‘notachallenge’),χ²(50,374)=76.25,p =.01.Thisformofanalysis
78 Abi Brooker and Jeanette A. Lawrence
yieldsatwo-dimensionaldiagram(showninFigure1)oftherelativeassociationofthetwogroupswithdifferentsizechallenges.
Figure 1: Location of 11 challenges as ‘big’, ‘small’ and ‘not’ challenges, by Exploring and Committing students (BEC) and Exploring without Committing students (BEnotC)
TheBiculturallyExploringandCommittinggroupwasmorecloselyassociatedwithbigchallengesofmoneyandschooltasks,andsmallchallengesoftimemanagementandtoalessextent,culture.Schoolrules,discrimination,health,andfamilywerenotchallengesforthisgroup.
Incontrast,theBiculturallyExploringwithoutCommittinggroupwasmorecloselyassociatedwithbigchallengesofEnglishlanguageandtheirownskills,andsmallchallengesofdiscrimination,healthandfamily.Cultureandotherpeople’sexpectationswerenotchallengesforthisgroup.
Educational and cultural challenges 79
Students’ approaches to their challenges
The35studentsvariedintheirapproachestotheirchallenges.Moremadepositivecommentsabouthowtheirchallengesaffectedtheirfeelingsaboutschool.Twentystudentsmadepositivecomments(e.g.‘IwanttogotoschoolandIamveryhappyatschool,IthinkIcandevelopmyskillshere’).Eightmadeneutralcomments(e.g.‘I’mnotfeelingbad…thischallengedon’taffectmystudy’),andsevenmadenegativecomments(e.g.‘TheymakemefeellikeIwanttodropout’).Similarly,whendescribinghowtheirchallengesaffectedtheiractivitiesatschool,more(17)madepositivecomments(e.g.‘IworkhardallworkandImanagemytime’)thanneutralcomments(5)(e.g.‘Itdoesn’taffecttoomuchmyschoolwork’).However,13madenegativecomments(e.g.‘It’shardtowriteEnglish…Ihavetroublewithmyhomework’;‘Theymakeithardtogettoclasssometimes’).
Subgroups’ different feelings about their challenges
MoreBiculturallyExploringandCommittingthanBiculturallyExploringwithoutCommittingstudentsmadepositivecommentsabouttheirfeelings(73%>33%),andfewermadenegativecomments(9%<42%),χ²(2,34)=6.23,p =.04.Therewasasimilartrendforstudents’commentsabouttheiractivities.MoreBiculturallyExploringandCommittingthanBiculturallyExploringwithoutCommittingstudentstendedtomakepositivecommentsabouttheiractivities(82%<18%),andfewernegativecomments(46%<54%),althoughthistrendwasnotstatisticallysignificant.
People who help students with their challenges
Whenaskedifanyonehelpedthemwiththeirchallenges,32studentsanswered‘Yes’,withthethree‘No’responsesaccompaniedbyexplanationsofpersonalmanagementstyles(e.g.‘Ihavetomanagetime.WhenIhaveanappointmentIhavetodoitafterschool’).The32studentsidentifiedupto10peoplewhohelpedthem(M =4.59,SD =1.68).Most(97%)identifiedteachers,followedbyfriendsand
80 Abi Brooker and Jeanette A. Lawrence
classmates(81%),brothersandsisters(56%),schoolcounsellorsandothersupportworkers(53%),parents(41%),extendedfamily(41%),romanticpartners(31%)andchildren(6%).
Subgroups’ different helpers
MoreBiculturallyExploringandCommittingthanBiculturallyExploringwithoutCommittingstudentsidentifiedschoolcounsellorsashelpers(71%>18%),χ²(1,32)=8.22,p =.00,butmarginallyfewerBiculturallyExploringandCommittingstudentsidentifiedextendedfamilymembers(29%<64%),χ²(1,32)=3.68,p =.06.Thesedifferenceswererelatedonlytothestudents’biculturalidentities,andnottothenumber,typeorsizeoftheirchallenges.
Discussion
Ouraimsweretoexaminetheeducation-relatedchallengesexperiencedbynewlyarrivedadultstudentsandtheirapproachestothesechallenges,andtoanalysehowthesechallengesrelatedtotheirdevelopmentofbiculturalidentities.Wewereinterestedinthetypeofchallengesthesestudentsencountered,andtherelativeemphasesstudentsgavetothesechallenges.Developingabiculturalapproachtolifeinanewcountrycanhelpimmigrantstudentseducationally(Fuligni,etal.2005;Phinney2006).Thedevelopmentofabiculturalidentity,however,alsopresentsimmigrantsandrefugeeswithitsownparticularchallengesin,forexample,handlingdiscriminationandotherpeople’sexpectations(Ogbu2004;Oppedal,Roysamb&Sam2006).Asfaraswecantell,thespecificrelationshipbetweeneducationalandculturalattainmentsandchallengeshasnotbeenanalysedsystematically.
Ourfindingsshowthattheserecentlyarrivedadultstudentsweredealingwithchallengesrelatedtodevelopingbiculturalidentitiesindifferentways.Theiracculturationexperienceshadthedualfocusontheirculturalrootsandtheirnew,mainstreamculturethatSchwartzetal.(2010)sawasthenormalimmigrantexperience.Theywerein
Educational and cultural challenges 81
theprocessoffindingplacesforthemselvesintwocultures,atleasttotheextentofexploringthem.SomestudentsalsowerealreadycommittingtoboththeAustralianandheritagecultures.Otherswereexploringwhatbothculturesmeanttothem,butwereunwillingorunabletocommitthemselvesasstronglytoeitheroneorboth.
AccordingtoPhinney(1989),commitmentrepresentsanadvanceoverexplorationinthedevelopmentofanachievedculturalidentity.Itwouldbetemptingtoarguethatthestudentswhowerebothexploringandcommitting(BEC)weremoreadvancedintheiracculturationexperiences,asPhinneyarguedforadolescents’ethnicidentities.Certainly,itisplausibletoseeexplorationaseasiertoachievethancommitment,althoughSyed’s(2010)datadonotsupportastraightforwardprogression.Itistooearlytomakestronginferencesabouttheprocessesofbiculturalidentitydevelopmentfortheseorotheradultstudents.
Ourfindingspointtothestudents’currentculturalexperiences,nottotheorderinwhichexplorationandcommitmentareachievedinrelationtotwoculturessimultaneously.Wecannotforexample,knowwhetherstudentswhoexploredandcommittedtobothcultureswerepreviouslyonlyexploring;orwhetherstudentswhowereonlyexploringwouldgoontocommittooneorbothcultures;orwhethertheonestudentwhosaidhebelongedonlytooneculture—theAustralianculture—willcontinuetoturnawayfromhisheritageculture.Wecansay,however,thatnewlyarrivedadults’biculturalexperiencesvary,withatleasttwoorientations:thosewhocommittobothAustralianandheritagecultures,andthosewhodonotcommittooneorboth.Ourfindingsaddtothestudyofacculturationandbiculturalismbypointingtothisvariabilityinadults’biculturaldevelopment,andalsobyshowinghowdifferentbiculturalorientationsarerelatedtoeducationalexperiences.
Askingstudentstorepresenttheireducationally-relatedchallengesinaconceptmapplacedminimalverbaldemandsonthemandwas
82 Abi Brooker and Jeanette A. Lawrence
attractiveandeasytouse.Thetaskgavestudentsaprivate,engagingandnon-judgmentalresearchenvironmentinwhichtoreflectuponandexpresstheirexperiences(Lawrence,Dodds&Brooker2010).Itwasappropriateforelicitingsensitiveinformation(Bachman2003;vandeWijgert,Padian,Shiboski&Turner2000).Ityieldeddistinctivepatternsamongthechallengesofthetwobiculturally-orientedgroups.Thesegroupsalsoreporteddifferentwaysofrespondingtotheirchallenges.
ThefindingthatEnglishwasthemostconsistentandlargestchallengerealisticallyreflectstheimportanceoflanguagestudyasasignificantgatewaytoacademicandvocationalopportunities.Similarly,thelackofemphasisonschoolrulesreflectstheeffortsoftheteachingstafftoencouragetheirstudentstotakecontroloftheirowneducationalexperiencesandtoreducetheiradherencetotypicalschoolrules.Thesewereadultstudents,andtheschool’semphasisonself-managedlearningwasapartofthestudents’orientationtoAustralianadulteducation.
Aswellasrepresentingtherealitiesofthesestudents’experiences,theconceptmapallowedustorelatebroaderacculturationconceptstotheireverydayconcerns.Previousresearchpointedtoimmigrants’difficultieswithculturalconflict,isolationfromothergroupmembersandstrainsontimeandenergy(Ogbu2004;Oppedaletal.2006).Theseacculturationissueswererepresentedintheconceptmappingtaskbyindividualconceptsofculture,discriminationandtimemanagement.Theywereamongtheleastemphasisedchallengesforthestudents,typicallybeingidentifiedeitherassmallornochallenges.Theimmediatedifficultiesofeducationalandeverydayexperiencesseemedtoloomlargerthanthebroaderacculturationissues.Itappearsthattheseadultsthoughttheycouldhandletheiracculturation-relatedchallenges,oratleastdidnotfeeloverwhelmedbythem.
Educational and cultural challenges 83
Thattheacculturationchallengesdifferedforthetwogroupspointstoaneedtoinvestigatesomeofthesubtledifferencesintheassociationofcultureanddiscriminationaschallengesforstudentswithdifferentbiculturalorientations.Itwouldbeusefultoexplore,forinstance,whyimmigrantswhoweremorebiculturallycommitteddidnotseediscriminationandwhyimmigrantswhowerelessbiculturallycommitteddidnotseecultureasmajordifficulties.
Thedistinctivepatternsforthetwobiculturally-orientedgroupsgiveafirstglimpseathoweducationalandculturaldifficultiesrelate.ThatmembersofthemorebiculturallycommittinggroupweremoreconcernedaboutmoneyandschooltaskssuggeststheymayhavedealtwiththeissuesrelatedtotheEnglishandstudyskillsthatwerethemajorconcernsofthelessbiculturallycommittedgroup.Theymayhavearrivedwiththoseskillsorwithbetterstrategiesforacquiringthem.Hereisalinkbetweenpersonaleducationalandbroaderculturalconcernsthatwarrantsfurtherinvestigation.
Whilemoststudentsmadepositivecommentsabouttheirfeelingsand/orabouttheiractivitiesatschool,thebiculturallycommittedgroupexpressedmorepositivefeelings.AccordingtoLazarusandFolkman(1984),apositiveapproachcanleadtoaneasiertimeovercomingachallenge,becausethepersonseesitaslessthreateningandmoreofanopportunitytoexcel.Itwouldbeusefultoknowifthemorebiculturallycommittedwereabletohandletheirsubsequenteducationalexperiencesaschallengesandnotasthreats.Inafollow-upstudy,wearetrackingrefugeestudentsthroughtheirfirstyearofhighschool(Brooker2012).Weknowofnosimilartrackingdataforadultrefugeeorimmigrantstudents.
Thatthetwobiculturalgroupsdidnotdifferinthenumberofteachersorsiblingshelpingthemsuggeststhat,regardlessofculturalexperience,thesestudentshadsimilaraccesstothemajorsocialresourcesineachpartoftheirlives.ThisfindingagreeswiththereportofFulignietal.(2005)andPhinney’s(2006)suggestionthat
84 Abi Brooker and Jeanette A. Lawrence
biculturalstudentsarewellsupportedwhentheycanaccessresourcesfrombothculturalarenas.
Thetwogroupsdiddiffer,however,inaccessingsecondarysupports.Moreofthebiculturallycommittedstudentsreliedonschoolcounsellors,andmoreofthelessbiculturallycommittedstudentsreliedontheirextendedfamily.Althoughfamiliescanbeusefulresourcesforethnicminoritystudents(e.g.Cooper,1999;Grotevant&Cooper1998),recentlyarrivedimmigrantfamiliesoftenhavelimitedornounderstandingoftheeducationsystem(VFST2007).Theirsupportcanbelimited.Bynotaccessingoutsidehelp,thelessbiculturallycommittedstudentsmaybeatadisadvantagewhendealingwithinstitutions.Schoolsupportservicessuchascounsellorscanprovideaccesstofunds,training,informationandsocialnetworks.AngandLiamputtong(2008),however,foundthatChineseinternationalstudentsdidnotuseuniversitycounsellingservices,becausetheymistakenlysawthemassupportsformentalhealth,ratherthanforhelpwithaccessingtask-orientedservices.
Weaddtothestudyofacculturationandbiculturalismbydemonstratingthat,evenintheseearlystagesofimmigrants’acculturation,thereare(atleast)twodistinctpatternsofbiculturalidentitydevelopment:thosewhoexploreandcommittobothheritageandAustralianculture,andthosewhoexplorebutdonotcommittooneorbothcultures.Thesepatternsofbiculturaldevelopmentarealsousefulforeducators,becausetheyrelatetostudents’differentexperienceswithpersonalandeducationalchallenges,andwithhowstudentsdealwiththosechallenges.StudentswhowerecommittingtobothheritageandAustralianculturesseemtohavedistinctadvantagesinhowtheydealwiththeirchallenges.Therelationshipbetweenbroaderculturalchallengesandimmediateeducationalchallengeswarrantsfurtherresearchandattentionbyeducators.Helpingstudentstodeveloptheirbiculturalidentitiesmayverywell
Educational and cultural challenges 85
helpthemtodealwiththeireducationalandpersonalchallengesmorepositivelyandproductively.
Acknowledgement
WewishtothanktheVictorianFoundationforSurvivorsofTorturefortheirsupportandfundinginthedevelopmentofthisstudy.
References
Ang, P.L.D.&Liamputtong,P.(2008).“Outofthecircle”:Internationalstudentsandtheuseofuniversitycounsellingservices,Australian Journal of Adult Learning,48(1):108–130.
Azmitia,M.&Cooper,C.R.(2001).Goodorbad?PeerinfluencesonLatinoandEuropeanAmericanadolescents’pathwaysthroughschool,Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk,6(1&2):45–71.
Bachman,J.(2003).Thepatient-computerinterview:Aneglectedtoolthatcanaidtheclinician,Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 28(1):67–78.
Brooker,A.(2012,accepted).HowdoyoungAustraliansclaimtheirculturalidentities?ImplicationsformulticulturalisminAustralia[posterpresentation].International Society for the Study of Behavioural Development (ISSBD) July,Edmonton,Canada.
CentreforMulticulturalYouth[CMY](2008).Pathways and transitions: Post-compulsory education, work, and refugee young people, Carlton:CMY.
Cooper,C.R.(1999).Multipleselves,multipleworlds:Culturalperspectivesonindividualityandconnectednessinadolescentdevelopment.InA.Masten(ed.),Cultural processes in child development,NewJersey:LawrenceErlbaumAssociates.
Earnest,J.,Housen,T.&Gillieat,S.(2007).‘AnewcohortofrefugeestudentsinPerth:Challengesforstudentsandeducators’.PaperpresentedattheTeachingandLearningforum,fromhttp://otl.curtin.edu.au/tlf/tlf2007/refereed/earnest.html
Erikson,E.H.(1968).Identity: youth and crisis,NewYork:Norton.Fergus,S.&Zimmerman,M.A.(2005).Adolescentresilience:Aframework
forunderstandinghealthydevelopmentinthefaceofrisk,Annual Review of Public Health, 26:399–419.
86 Abi Brooker and Jeanette A. Lawrence
Fuligni,A.J.,Witkow,M.&Garcia,C.(2005).EthnicidentityandtheacademicadjustmentofadolescentsfromMexican,Chinese,andEuropeanbackgrounds,Developmental Psychology, 41(5):799–811.
Grotevant,H.D.&Cooper,C.R.(1998).Individualityandconnectednessinadolescentdevelopment:Reviewandprospectsforresearchonidentity,relationships,andcontext.InE.Skoe&A.vonderLippe(eds.),Personality development in adolescence: A cross national and life span perspective(Vol.3–37),London:Routledge.
Laosa,L.M.(1999).Interculturaltransitionsinhumandevelopmentandeducation,Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 20(3):355–406.
Lawrence,J.A.,Benedikt,R.&Valsiner,J.(1992).Homelessinthemind:Acase-historyofpersonallifeinandoutofacloseorthodoxcommunity,Journal of Social Distress and Homelessness, 1(2):157–176.
Lawrence,J.A.,Brooker,A.&Goodnow,J.(inpress).FindingaculturalhomeinAustralia.InJ.Bowes&R.Grace(eds.).Children, families, and communities: Contexts and consequences,4thEdition, Melbourne:OxfordUniversityPress.
Lawrence,J.A.,Dodds,A.E.&Brooker,A.(2010).Constructingresearchknowledgewithrefugeeyoungpeople:Usingcomputer-assistedtechniques,International Society for the Study of Behavioral Development Bulletin, Serial 58(2):26–28.
Lazarus,R.&Folkman,S.(1984).Stress, appraisal, and coping,NewYork:SpringerPublishingCompany.
Marcia,J.E.(1993).Ego identity: A handbook for psychological research,NewYork:Springer-Verlag.
McMaster,D.(2007).TemporaryProtectionVisas:Obstructingrefugeelivelihoods,Refugee Survey Quarterly, 25(2):135–145.
Mestheneos,E.&Ionnidi,E.(2002).ObstaclestorefugeeintegrationintheEuropeanUnionMemberStates,Journal of Refugee Studies, 15(3):304–320.
Novak,J.D.,&Cañas,A.J.(2006).The theory underlying concept maps and how to construct them(TechnicalReport).Pensacola:FloridaInstituteforHumanandMachineCognition.
Ogbu,J.U.(2004).Collectiveidentityandtheburdenof‘actingWhite’inBlackhistory,community,andeducation,The Urban Review, 36(1):1–35.
Oppedal,B.,Roysamb,E.&Sam,D.L.(2006).Theeffectofacculturationandsocialsupportonchangeinmentalhealthamongyoungimmigrants,International Journal of Behavioural Development, 28(6):481–494.
Educational and cultural challenges 87
Phinney,J.S.(1989).Stagesofethnicidentitydevelopmentinminoritygroupadolescents,Journal of Early Adolescence, 9:34–49.
Phinney,J.S.(2006).Ethnicidentityexplorationinemergingadulthood.InJ.J.Arnett&J.LTanner(eds.),Emerging adults in America: Coming of age in the 21st Century (Ch.5,pp.117–134).Washington:AmericanPsychologicalAssociation.
Phinney,J.S.,Jacoby,B.&Silva,C.(2007).Positiveintergroupattitudes:Theroleofethnicidentity,International Journal of Behavioral Development, 31(5):478–490.
Phinney,J.S.&Ong,A.D.(2007).Conceptualizationandmeasurementofethnicidentity:Currentstatusandfuturedirections,Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54(3):271–281.
Rivas-Drake,D.&Hughes,D.(2008).Acloserlookatpeerdiscrimination,ethnicidentity,andpsychologicalwell-beingamongurbanChineseAmericansixthgraders,Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 37:12–21.
Schwartz,S.J.,Unger,J.B.,Zamboanga,B.L.&Szapocznik,J.(2010).Rethinkingtheconceptofacculturation:Implicationsfortheoryandresearch,American Psychologist, 65(4):237–251.
Sidhu,R.&Taylor,S.(2007).EducationalprovisionforrefugeeyouthinAustralia:Lefttochance?Journal of Sociology, 43(3):283–300.
Suarez-Orozco,C.,Gaytan,F.X.,BangHee,J.,Pakes,J.,O’Connor,E.&Rhodes,J.(2010).Latinochildrenandfamilies:Developmentinculturalcontext,Developmental Psychology, 46(3):602–618.
Syed,M.(2010).Developinganintegratedself:Academicandethnicidentitiesamongethnicallydiversecollegestudents,Developmental Psychology, 46(6):1590–1604.
Townsend,R.(2008).Adulteducation,socialinclusionandculturaldiversityinregionalcommunities,Australian Journal of Adult Learning, 48(1):71–91.
Umaña-Taylor,A.J.,Vagas-Chanes,D.,Garcia,C.D.&Gonzales-Backen,M.(2008).AlongitudinalexaminationofLatinoadolescents’ethnicidentity,copingwithdiscrimination,andself-esteem,Journal of Early Adolescence, 28(1):16–50.
vandeWijgert,J.,Padian,N.,Shiboski,S.&Turner,C.(2000).Isaudiocomputer-assistedself-interviewingafeasiblemethodofsurveyinginZimbabwe?International Journal of Epidemiology, 29(5):885–890.
VictorianFoundationforSurvivorsofTorture[VFST](2007).Education needs of refugee students in Victoria,Brunswick:VFST.
88 Abi Brooker and Jeanette A. Lawrence
Williams,S.E.,Cumming,J.&Balanos,G.M.(2010).Theuseofimagerytomanipulatechallengeandthreatappraisalstatesinathletes,Journal of Sport and Exercise in Psychology, 32:339–358.
About the authors
Abi Brooker is completing her PhD in Developmental Psychology at the University of Melbourne. She is researching the pathways through education for immigrants and refugees. She has worked with refugee communities and other vulnerable communities in Melbourne for six years.
Jeanette Lawrence is an Associate Professor in Developmental Psychology at the University of Melbourne. Her research projects include studies with children and families from refugee backgrounds, and procedural justice for young people. She has been innovative in developing computer assisted methods of data collection.
Contact details
PsychologicalSciences,UniversityofMelbourne,Melbourne,Victoria,3010,AustraliaTel:+61398344453 Fax:+61393476618Email:[email protected]