Educational Psychology:Educational Psychology:Theory and PracticeTheory and Practice

Chapter 10 & 13Chapter 10 & 13

Motivating Students to Learn

&

Assessing Student Learning

Organizing QuestionsOrganizing Questions

• What Is Motivation?• What Are Some Theories of Motivation?• How Can Achievement Motivation Be

Enhanced?• How Can Teachers Increase Students’

Motivation to Learn?• How Can Teachers Reward Performance,

Effort, and Improvement?

MotivationMotivation

Definition: an internal process which activates,

guides, and maintains behavior over time• Intensity and direction vary• Sources of motivation:

− Personality characteristic− Intrinsic characteristics of a task− Sources extrinsic to a task

Definition: an internal process which activates,

guides, and maintains behavior over time• Intensity and direction vary• Sources of motivation:

− Personality characteristic− Intrinsic characteristics of a task− Sources extrinsic to a task

Maslow’s Hierarchy of NeedsMaslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow and the Real Classroom

Teachers should do the following to Meet the Needs Identified by Maslow:

1. Meet the Needs of Students—Cognitive and Affective.

2.2. NurtureNurture and Put Students at Ease.

3. Respect and Care for Students.

4.4. RealisticRealistic Expectations.

5. Teach with Passion. Passion.

Motivation and AchievementMotivation and Achievement

1. Achievement Motivation—Strive for Success and Select Success/Failure Activities. 1. Achievement Motivation—Strive for Success and Select Success/Failure Activities.

2. In the Early YearsEarly Years of Education, Achievement Motivation is Affected by Family Experience. 2. In the Early YearsEarly Years of Education, Achievement Motivation is Affected by Family Experience.

3. In the Upper Grades, Success and Motivation Cause Each Other—nothing succeeds like success. 3. In the Upper Grades, Success and Motivation Cause Each Other—nothing succeeds like success.

Motivation and Goal Orientations

1. Learning Goals/Mastery Goals:1. Learning Goals/Mastery Goals: motivated by desire for knowledge

acquisition and self-improvement

2. Performance Goals:2. Performance Goals: motivated by desire to gain recognition from others and earn good grades

• Characteristic of self-regulated learners

• One can fall into pattern ofpattern of hopelessnesshopelessness when abilities are perceived to be low

3. Social Goals:3. Social Goals: motivated by desire to please teachers, parents, or peers

• importance of peer group influence

Teacher Expectations and Achievement

• Students Live Up/Down to Teacher Expectations.

• High Teacher Expectations Produce Higher Achievement for Students.

Communicating Positive Expectations

1. Wait for Students to Respond.

2. Avoid Unnecessary Achievement Distinctions Among Students.

3. Treat ALL Students Equally.

Anxiety and Achievement

Anxiety: a constant companion of education

Effects of Anxiety on Students:

• Difficulty learning

• Difficulty transferring knowledge

• Difficulty in test taking

• Self-conscious in performance settings

• Experience math anxiety and freeze

Strategies to Reduce Negative Impacts of Anxiety

Teachers should:

Create a sense of a noncompetitivenoncompetitive classroom

Provide opportunities for students to correct correct errors/improveimprove work before it is collected

Provide clearclear, unambiguousunambiguous instructions

Create a nurturing nurturing and acceptingaccepting classroom climate

Provide sufficient time time to complete tasks & tests

Create tests that proceed from easyeasy to more difficultdifficult items

Provide standard, simplestandard, simple answer formats

Train students in test taking strategies

Intrinsic & Extrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic Incentives: activity people enjoy and therefore find motivating

• Future Time Perspective: completing things now might bring benefit in the future

•Students with intrinsic motivation want to learn without immediate

incentives

Extrinsic Incentives: reward is external to the activity

• Necessary when material is not intrinsically interesting (grades, praise, or other rewards

Enhancing Intrinsic Motivation

• Get students interested in the material

• Present it in an appealing way

• Make presentation to satisfy and increase students’ curiosity

• Arouse interest with relevant and exciting lessons

• Maintain curiosity with instruction that uses problem solving and hands-on experiences

• Utilize a variety of presentation modes: films, guest speakers, simulations, team games

• Help students set their own goals, it increases self-efficacy

Principles for Providing Extrinsic Incentives to Learn

1. Express clear expectations: clear expectations: students should know explicitly what is expected of them

2. Provide frequent, immediate and clear feedback (quizzes, asking questions, etc.)

3. Increase Increase the value and availability of extrinsic motivators; reward and emphasize effort and improvement

Organizing Questions

• What Are Instructional Objectives and How Are They Used?

• Why Is Evaluation Important?• How Is Student Learning Evaluated?• How Are Tests Constructed?• What Are Authentic, Portfolio, and Performance

Assessments?• How are Grades Determined?

Planning Lesson Objectives

Before students arrive for the first day, teachers should prepare:

Before students arrive for the first day, teachers should prepare:

1. General plan for the year1. General plan for the year

2. Specific plan for the first unit 2. Specific plan for the first unit

3. Very specific plan for the content of the first lessons3. Very specific plan for the content of the first lessons

4. Allocate time to topics 4. Allocate time to topics

5. Know state standards 5. Know state standards

Planning Lesson Objectives

Parts of Lesson Plan: Parts of Lesson Plan:

1. Objective 1. Objective

2. Plan for presenting the information2. Plan for presenting the information

3. Plan for student practice (if appropriate) 3. Plan for student practice (if appropriate)

4. Plan for assessing students’ understanding 4. Plan for assessing students’ understanding

5. Plan to re-teach (if necessary) 5. Plan to re-teach (if necessary)

Linking Objectives and Assessment

Assessment: measure of degree to which instructional objectives have been attained Assessment: measure of degree to which instructional objectives have been attained

• Assessment & objectives must be clearly linkedlinked • Assessment & objectives must be clearly linkedlinked

• In assessment, teaching objectives should be closely linked to instructional objectives

• In assessment, teaching objectives should be closely linked to instructional objectives

• Prepare test questionstest questions before course begins — this allows teachers to specify general objectives for the course

• Prepare test questionstest questions before course begins — this allows teachers to specify general objectives for the course

Using Taxonomies and Instructional Objectives

Bloom’s Taxonomy Bloom’s Taxonomy

1. Knowledge 1. Knowledge

2. Comprehension 2. Comprehension

3. Application 3. Application

4. Analysis4. Analysis

5. Synthesis 5. Synthesis

6. Evaluation 6. Evaluation

Importance of Evaluation

Evaluation/Assessment: Evaluation/Assessment: methods to measure student performance Evaluation/Assessment: Evaluation/Assessment: methods to measure student performance

Purposes:Purposes:

1. FeedbackFeedback to students and teachers 1. FeedbackFeedback to students and teachers

2. Informing parents 2. Informing parents

3. Selection and certification 3. Selection and certification

4. Accountability 4. Accountability

5. Student incentives 5. Student incentives

Evaluating Student Learning

Formative EvaluationFormative Evaluation (during learning process): diagnostic, almost always criterion-referenced Formative EvaluationFormative Evaluation (during learning process): diagnostic, almost always criterion-referenced

How well are you doing and how can you be doing better?How well are you doing and how can you be doing better?

Summative EvaluationSummative Evaluation (at the end of learning unit): can be either criterion-referenced or norm-referenced Summative EvaluationSummative Evaluation (at the end of learning unit): can be either criterion-referenced or norm-referenced

How well did you do? How well did you do?

Principles of Achievement Testing

• Achievement Tests should:Achievement Tests should:

1. Measure Clearly Defined Learning ObjectivesLearning Objectives that are in Harmony with Instructional Objectives.

2. Measure a Representative SampleRepresentative Sample of the Learning Tasks Included in the Instruction.

3. Include Test Items that are Most AppropriateMost Appropriate for Measuring the Desired Learning Outcomes.

4. Fit the Particular UsesParticular Uses that will be made of the Results—each achievement test has its own requirements.

5. Be Reliable as Possible and be Interpreted with Caution. Caution.

6. ImproveImprove Learning.

• Achievement Tests should:Achievement Tests should:

1. Measure Clearly Defined Learning ObjectivesLearning Objectives that are in Harmony with Instructional Objectives.

2. Measure a Representative SampleRepresentative Sample of the Learning Tasks Included in the Instruction.

3. Include Test Items that are Most AppropriateMost Appropriate for Measuring the Desired Learning Outcomes.

4. Fit the Particular UsesParticular Uses that will be made of the Results—each achievement test has its own requirements.

5. Be Reliable as Possible and be Interpreted with Caution. Caution.

6. ImproveImprove Learning.

Writing Selected-Response Test Items

1. 1. Multiple-Choice Items1. 1. Multiple-Choice Items

Stem:Stem: question/partial statement in a test item completed by one of several choices

Stem:Stem: question/partial statement in a test item completed by one of several choices

DistractorsDistractors: incorrect responses offered as alternative answers to multiple-choice questions

DistractorsDistractors: incorrect responses offered as alternative answers to multiple-choice questions

Goals of Multiple-Choice Items Goals of Multiple-Choice Items

1. Capable students should be able to select the correct answer 1. Capable students should be able to select the correct answer

2. MinimizeMinimize the chance for a student who is ignorant of the subject matter to guess the correct answer2. MinimizeMinimize the chance for a student who is ignorant of the subject matter to guess the correct answer

Writing Selected-Response Test Items

2. True-False Items: form of multiple-choice test items, most useful when a comparison of two

alternatives is called for

2. True-False Items: form of multiple-choice test items, most useful when a comparison of two

alternatives is called for

main drawback is that students have a 50% chance of guessing correctly (therefore should not be used)

main drawback is that students have a 50% chance of guessing correctly (therefore should not be used)

Writing Selected-Response Test Items

3. Matching Items3. Matching Items3. Matching Items3. Matching Items

1. Test items presented in two lists: columns A and B 1. Test items presented in two lists: columns A and B

2. Directions must clearly explain the basis for choosing 2. Directions must clearly explain the basis for choosing

3. 3. Should cover a large number of concepts 3. 3. Should cover a large number of concepts

4. 4. Should appear inin two lists ; ; each list should cover related content4. 4. Should appear inin two lists ; ; each list should cover related content

5. Test the cognitive skill to recall 5. Test the cognitive skill to recall

6. List B should Include more items than list A, or allow re-use of the items in list B. 6. List B should Include more items than list A, or allow re-use of the items in list B.

Students supplysupply rather than select the answer

Fill in the Blanks/Completion Items Fill in the Blanks/Completion Items

• Reduce the element of test-wisenesstest-wiseness to near zero• Reduce the element of test-wisenesstest-wiseness to near zero

• Avoid ambiguity in fill in the blanks/completions items • Avoid ambiguity in fill in the blanks/completions items

Writing Constructed-Response Test Items

Short Essay Short Essay Long Essay Long Essay

Assess the Following Skills: Assess the Following Skills:

• Analysis • Analysis

• Synthesis • Synthesis

• Evaluative• Evaluative

Writing and Evaluating Essay Tests

Two Types of Essay ItemsTwo Types of Essay Items

• Teachers should Write a Model Essay OR Detailed Outline of Essential Elements of a Response.

• Student Answers Should be Compared to Model Essay or Outline.

• Colleagues should Access the Validity of the Elements and their Weights in the Model Response.

• Colleagues Should Apply the Model Criteria to One or more Student Responses—might increase reliability.

• Use Scoring Rubrics and Share them with Students in Advance of the Test.

• Show Students Essays from Previous Years—models of what is expected.

• Teachers should Write a Model Essay OR Detailed Outline of Essential Elements of a Response.

• Student Answers Should be Compared to Model Essay or Outline.

• Colleagues should Access the Validity of the Elements and their Weights in the Model Response.

• Colleagues Should Apply the Model Criteria to One or more Student Responses—might increase reliability.

• Use Scoring Rubrics and Share them with Students in Advance of the Test.

• Show Students Essays from Previous Years—models of what is expected.

Evaluating Essays

Key Points about Problem-Solving AssessmentKey Points about Problem-Solving Assessment

• Organize, select, and apply complex procedures with multiple steps/components • Organize, select, and apply complex procedures with multiple steps/components

• Must appraiseappraise students’ Work in each of these steps• Must appraiseappraise students’ Work in each of these steps

• Compare students’ responses to a model answer/outline • Compare students’ responses to a model answer/outline

• Component Component parts are: understanding the problem to be solved, systematically attacking the problem, and arriving at a reasonable answer

• Component Component parts are: understanding the problem to be solved, systematically attacking the problem, and arriving at a reasonable answer

• Facilitate giving partial credit by using model answers and explaining fully the meaning of grades• Facilitate giving partial credit by using model answers and explaining fully the meaning of grades

• Utilize evaluative descriptorsevaluative descriptors • Utilize evaluative descriptorsevaluative descriptors

Writing and Evaluating Problem-Solving Items

Authentic, Portfolio, and Performance Assessments

Authentic Assessment/Performance Assessments: Assessment of Students’ Ability to Perform Tasks in a REAL-Life Contexts.

Authentic Assessment/Performance Assessments: Assessment of Students’ Ability to Perform Tasks in a REAL-Life Contexts.

Portfolio Assessment—Positive and Negative Portfolio Assessment—Positive and Negative

+ Evaluates student work over an extended period of time (drafts of writing to the final product)+ Evaluates student work over an extended period of time (drafts of writing to the final product)

++ Documents Documents progress/change for teachers and parents++ Documents Documents progress/change for teachers and parents

+ Reliability and validity might be established when other measures of achievement are utilized + Reliability and validity might be established when other measures of achievement are utilized

- Problems establishing reliabilityreliability - Problems establishing reliabilityreliability

Scoring Rubrics for Performance Assessments

Rubrics specify in advance the type of performance expected for each activity.Rubrics specify in advance the type of performance expected for each activity.

Answers for performance assessments might be approached in many different ways, therefore students should understand scoring procedures beforehand.

Answers for performance assessments might be approached in many different ways, therefore students should understand scoring procedures beforehand.

• Generic rubrics that are flexibleflexible enough to apply to a wide range of student performance might facilitate this.

• Generic rubrics that are flexibleflexible enough to apply to a wide range of student performance might facilitate this.

• Generic rubrics enhanceenhance student performance.• Generic rubrics enhanceenhance student performance.

Well-written performance assessments can serve as a summative evaluation for an entire unit’s objectives.Well-written performance assessments can serve as a summative evaluation for an entire unit’s objectives.

Teacher Grading

• Teachers should explain the grades they give.

• NeverNever be a Surprise.

• Kept Private. Private.

• Teachers should explain the grades they give.

• NeverNever be a Surprise.

• Kept Private. Private.

Grades should:Grades should:

• Communicate the relative valuerelative value of a student’s work in class. • Communicate the relative valuerelative value of a student’s work in class.

• Help students understand what is expectedexpected and how to improve. improve. • Help students understand what is expectedexpected and how to improve. improve.

Reflection

Write One BigBig Idea from these Chapters:

1. ________________________________

Write One BigBig Idea from these Chapters:

1. ________________________________

Write Three SMALLSMALL Ideas from these Chapters:

1. ________________________________

2. ________________________________

3. ________________________________

Write Three SMALLSMALL Ideas from these Chapters:

1. ________________________________

2. ________________________________

3. ________________________________