8/3/2019 edugis

1/11

GIS EDUCATION AND TRAINING: THE MISING LINK?

Samuel Dekolo 1 and Leke Oduwaye PhD 21Department of Town and Regional planning,

Lagos State Polytechnic, Ikorodu, 104001, Nigeria[GSM (234) 803 3014154, dekolo2@yahoo.com]

2Department of Urban and Regional Planning,University of Lagos, Akoka, Lagos, Nigeria

AbstractThe development and adoption of geographic information technologies requires hat potential usersare made aware of its benefits and that there exists a body of adequately trained personnel at alllevels to implement, manage and operate the systems; education and training are essential for this.With this background, this paper reviews GIS development in Nigeria and the response toeducation and training needs. Particular references are given to experiences gained in developingcourses and curricula in higher education in Lagos State and suggest the paper suggests a

framework for implementing GIS education in developing countries.

1.0 INTRODUCTIONGeographic Information System has gained increased importance and widespread acceptance as toolsfor decision-making in planning in developing countries because of its wide range of applications innatural resources and environmental managements. Its liberating force enables access to large volumesof data and to manipulate such in order to select, update, combine, model and display the information onthe natural environment which is the major economic base for developing countries.

Taking a cursory look at African countries, one of the major problems that inhibit the implementation ofgeospatial technologies is a lack of trained manpower. Though most GIS implementation schemes havegiven much concern to cost of hardware and software, the key issue for success lies in the peopleresponsible for managing, implementing and using the systems (see Somers 1994). Without properlyeducated and trained personnel with vision and commitment to the project, such project may not besustainable (Shalaby et al, 1996). Moreover, the human capacity is on major component of SDI, withoutwhich the objectives of the GSDI will not be realized.

2.0 CONCEPTUAL ISSUES: TRAINING VERSUS EDUCATIONThe role of training and education is crucial to any GIS implementation. Training and education arefundamentally different processes which are used to accomplish similar but unique objectives (Burns andHenderson, 1989); while the latter emphasizes the salient features of GIS and imparts a conceptualizationof the more generic GIS the former instills sufficient familiarity to enable the development, operation andmanagement of specific systems (Banting, 1988). One cannot be a substitute for the other, butcomplement each other.

Training is an intensive process that is generally delivered in compressed time formats (e.g. Two days totwo weeks), which uses specialized instructions with a practical emphasis and requires concentratedattention on the part of the trainee. It is geared to immediate improvements in a trainees performance

skills and it has a narrowed focus on technicaland application issues. Education on the other hand is amuch longer term process that results from general instruction in a variety of areas, which has atheoretical emphasis and is geared to knowledge acquisition and synthesis. Education results fromgeneral courses and empirical experiences with interdisciplinary and professional orientations (Millette,1989).

2.1 GIS EDUCATION FRAMEWORKS: OBJECTIVISM OR COSTRUCTIVISM?

8/3/2019 edugis

2/11

There have been extensive contributions on preferred models or frameworks for GIS Education (seeGarner, 1990; Kemp et al. 1992; Bennarz, 1995). Objectivism and constructivism are two paradigmsthat have formed the basis of these models of teaching GIS: teaching ABOUT GIS and teaching WITHGIS. The former is a training model, which focus on GIS as a technology and students are taught to useit. Emphasis is on technicalaspect of GIS such as data handling and information management. The latteremphasizes the process of geographic enquiry and learning to reason spatially, whereby this helps thestudents to construct understanding. This will give students and teachers alike the ideal environment toconstruct understanding about complex geographic relationships (Bennarz, 1995).

Constructivism holds that knowledge is not transmitted from one knower to the other but is built up(constructed) by the learner himself. Teaching with GIS can help achieve this. This is a paradigm shiftfrom objectivism which assumes that there is a real world and knowledge can be transmitted from theknower (teacher) to the learner (Bennarz, 1995).

Sui (1995) in attempt to synthesize these paradigms conceptualized the duality of GIS education, whichinvolves embraces objectivism and constructivism: to teach about GIS and teach with GIS. In essence,GIS education his concept involves the two aspects; teaching about GIS essentially deals with eitherSpatial DATA handling or geographical INFORMATION management while teaching with GISconcentrates more on the inquiry of geographical KNOWLEDGE and the development of spatialINTELLIGENCE (see fig. 1).

A clear distinction is necessary among data, information, knowledge, and intelligence. Data refers to amere description of phenomena in the real world. Information is the processed and filtered data withcoherent logical order. Knowledge is derived from the processed information by imposing and testing acause-effect proposition made according to previous knowledge. Knowledge is converted into intelligencewhenever it is applied to derive new ideas or solve a real problem (Penzias, 1989; Sui, 1995).

As we reflect on GIS education in Nigeria or other African countries; have we been concentrating ontraining or education? Are we concerned on the technical aspect of the technology or the application tosolve problems (diseases, poverty, environmental degradation, social imbalance, conflicts, violence andothers) that seemed to make the Dark Continentdarker? Except GIS education moves from objectivism toconstructivism, from training to education and from technical issues to real life application, we may end upa society data-rich, information poor, knowledge-starved and intelligence-devoid (Penzias, 1989; Sui,

1995).

Figure 1.The Duality of GIS Education: Teaching about GIS and Teaching with GIS (Source: Sui, 1995)

3.0 GIS DEVELOMENT IN NIGERIA

8/3/2019 edugis

3/11

Nigeria as a developing country has taken some initiatives toward SDI development by holding itsstakeholders workshop organized by the National Space Research and Development Agency in February2003. The forum was aimed at sensitizing various producers and users of geospatial data on the concept,components of SDI and the proposed geoinformation policy for Nigeria. Experts from UNECAGeoinformation team, ITC, USGS and others made presentations. The Geoinformation Society of Nigeriawas inaugurated at the workshop, with its members drawn from all geography related professionalassociations. A committee was set up to prepare a draft GIS policy and identify various sources of dataand modalities for developing their metadata.

Though GIS technology has been used in the country since the late 1980s when the first NationalGeographic Information Systems (NGIS) committee was inaugurated to inventory all the mappingresource in Nigeria; to harmonize and coordinate various establishments using GIS (Adeoye, 1998). Overthe years, the drive towards implementation has focused mainly on technological development whilepaying less attention to developing human capacities through training and education.

Nigeria has 36 states, a federal capital territory and 776 Local government councils (municipalities). It hasnatural resources driven economy and various governments require geographic and land relatedinformation for their day-to-day survival. At the federal level of government, GIS is being applied in the2005 population census, space research and exploration by NASRDA (National Space Research andDevelopment Agency), last year the country launched its first Satellite NigeriaSAT-1; other applications

include natural and forest resources management by FORMECU (Forest Management, Evaluation andCoordination Unit), emergency response by NEMA (National Emergency Management Agency) amongothers. In the Nigerian National Information Technology Policy the federal government is expected tofacilitate the use of GIS for Agriculture and Urban and Rural Development (NNITP, 2000).

At the state government level, only the Federal Capital Territory (Abuja) and Lagos State have developeda significant application of GIS. Though GIS was used for local government profiling in the SustainableIbadan Project, the project itself was not sustainable. Also in Lagos State, a GIS project the LandInformation System Support Unit (LISSU) was developed with the help a World Bank loan under theMinistry of Lands and Housing of the state; the first phase was completed in 1997 i.e., a pilot that covered40 Square km of the metropolitan area and small-scale mapping and orthophotographs covering theentire city. The project was to provide a database of all land transaction document alongside a cadastralgeographic database. However, this project also was short-lived due to problems that includes lack of

skilled personnel (Speer, 1997; Dekolo 2001).

Presently the state has started another GIS for urban and regional planning purpose under the Ministry ofPhysical Planning and Urban Development (MPPUD), which it refers to as Lagos State PlanningInformation Centre (LASPIC). The purpose is to establish a GIS-based data centre for archival andretrieval of information for managing, and monitoring physical development and urban planning.

The project will be web-GIS based, having a central server with storage capacity of 1 terabyte at theLASPIC and linked up through wireless network. The LASPIC database can be accessed throughInternet and Intranet from the ministry and all its district and local planning offices. The major thrust of firstphase of this project is to have an archival system that safe guard records and reduces volumes of files,which characterize all local, district or state planning offices.

In spite of these efforts, there remained an undeniable chronic shortage in GIS skills, which cuts acrossusers, technicians, programmers, analysts and consultants. There is an associated danger with thistrend, which is, incompetent and ill-equipped personnel will fill GIS vacancies that seem to be on theincrease in both private and public sectors.

4.0 CURRENT GIS EDUCATION AND TRAINING PROVISIONSTucker and Devine (1988), identified four types of GIS training and education that could also be seen inNigeria:

Self teaching

Vendor training

8/3/2019 edugis

4/11

Authorized training centres and regional training centres

Formal Education (University/colleges instruction)

4.1 Self teachingSelf teaching or independent learning of GIS is dependent upon the motivation and aptitude of the studentand the availability of good learning materials. Though inexpensive and convenient, there is a limit to

learning a new technology by an average student.

4.2 Vendor TrainingPrivate companies in Nigeria, especially oil companies have benefited from trainings provided by vendorsor third party companies. This also has some limitations because trainees learn more about certainproducts rather than understanding of the GI Science or Technology. Training consultants and vendorslike ESRI, Intergraph and Autodesk have also run tailor made training programmes to suite theircustomers whenever their software or products are purchased; even though these training courses arehandled by professionals, its short duration and lack of depth leaves the trainees understanding asoftware package than GIS.

ESRI have donated its software and educational materials to universities to help them develop andintegrate into their curriculum; an example is the University of Jos. Unlike other parts of the world wherethe ESRI Virtual Campus is being used as integral part of GI education, only very few consultants haveadopted the web-based resources in their training programmes.

4.3 Authorized and Regional Training CentresThere are some training centres that provide GIS training and education. This may be privately ownedand linked with some products or government owned aimed at capacity building. Training courses maylast for 6-18 months; these centres are linked to external programmes of universities and it is aimed atprofessionals who have some geography related qualification or those who need to apply GIS in theirchosen discipline. An example is the Regional Centre for Training in Aerospace Surveys (RECTAS); thecentre is located on the campus of Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria and has conductedtraining for African Nationals since 1972. The project is a collaboration of 8 countries (Mali, Niger, Nigeria,Cameroon, Senegal, Burkina, Ghana and Benin under the auspices of UNECA (United Nations EconomicCommission for Africa) to provide comprehensive training in both theory and practice of Geoinformatics.

The centre also conducts seminars, workshops and short term courses for GIS Technicians,Technologists and managers; graduates are given Diploma in Geoinformatics Production andManagement. RECTAS also offers opportunities for post graduate education in GIS. It admits students toits post graduate diploma and subsequently the MSc programme which will be completed in ICT, theNetherlands.

4.4 GIS in Higher EducationOut of the 51 universities in the country, none at present offers GIS as an undergraduate degree course;only few have GIS built into courses like geography, urban and regional planning, land surveying, andgeology. Most of these courses run for a semester or two and aimed at giving introductory knowledge ofGIS theory and practice.

Universities provide postgraduate training and education in GIS. An effort made at this level by the

academia is slow but significant. Only 6 of all the universities in Nigeria have developed post graduatecourses or have research programmes in GIS.

University of Ibadan

University of Lagos

Obafemi Awolowo University

Federal University of Technology, Minna

Federal University of Technology, Akure

University of Abuja

8/3/2019 edugis

5/11

GIS at University of IbadanThe university developed its GISLAB in 1996 under a linkage program with Iowa University, U.S.A. It runsa professional M Sc degree in GIS, which lasts for 12 calendar months (2 semesters). The course is opento graduates of all disciplines and its main objective is to train candidates to a professional level wherethey can apply GIS in various field of human endeavour. Since the inception of this course over 300students have been trained.GIS at the University of LagosDepartment of GeographyGIS education has been very active in the Department of Geography of the University of Lagos. The GISand Remote Sensing laboratory was set up in 1988. GIS is built into the curriculum of 300 and 400 levelstudents as Computer Applications to GeographyandAdvance GIS.

The department also runs a post graduate diploma (PGD) and M. Sc. in Geoinformatics which is open tograduates of geography, surveying and other environmental sciences. The PGD lasts for 2 semesterswhile the MSc takes 3 semesters. Successful Msc students may be admitted to the MPhil or PhD degreeprogram

Department of Survey and GeoinformaticsThe department also has GIS in its undergraduate curriculum after which students can to be admitted into

a higher degree - MSc, MPhil or PhD in survey and Geoinformatics. The department also runs aprofessional Masters degree in Geoinformatics.

GIS in Polytechnics and CollegesFew polytechnics and colleges have already developed and integrated GIS into their urban planning andsurvey curriculum: Federal School of Survey Oyo; the Lagos State Polytechnic; the Polytechnic, Ibadanand Yaba college of Technology. The Federal School of Survey also awards post graduate diploma inGeoinformatics.

4.5 GIS TRAINING AND EDUCATION: A STUDY OF LAGOS STATEA survey was carried out last year to last year at the Lagos State Polytechnic, to determine the standardof GIS education in all the universities and polytechnics in Lagos State; the survey also wanted toestablish staff capacities in the Lagos State Ministry of Physical Planning and Urban Development since

the it has adopted GIS for building permits and development control.

The survey to determine the staff capacities for adopting GIS shows that education and training is themissing ingredient. In spite of enthusiasm and acceptability of the technology, the major issue is that moststaff does not have the basic education or training to operate or manage these systems. Out of 20 DistrictOfficers only 1 had a formal post graduate GIS education. Most CEOs and District officers have gonethrough training in GIS ranging from 2-Days to 3 months but not adequate for managing or applying GISto solve real problems.

On the standard of GIS education, the survey shows that GIS is quite new, except for the Department ofGeography that had taught the course alongside with remote sensing and cartography since 1988. Thereis no coherent curriculum in all the schools, each school developed a curriculum to suit their ownobjective. A shortfall was also discovered in the level of faculty with GIS experience and the adequacy of

the GIS laboratory. It was also discovered that some teach GIS without licensed software, some havenone; this may be as a result of inadequate funding of the GIS programmes (Udoh, 2004).

8/3/2019 edugis

6/11

INSTITUTIONS

YEARGIS

COMME

NCED

LEV

ELOFSTUDIES

GISLAB

E

QUIPED

N

OOFSYSTEMS

SOF

TWAREINUSE

FUNDING

SO

URCE

FACULTY

TRAINED

FA

CULTY

UNILAGGEOGRAPHY

1988 B.Sc, PGD ,

Masters,

M.Phil &

Ph.D

AVAILABLE 10 ArcviewAtlasArcinfoMapinfo

DepartmentAnd Faculty

18 5

UNILAGSURVEY ANDGEOINFOM.

2000 B.Sc,

Masters&

Ph.D

AVAILABLE 15 ArcviewAtlasArcGISIlwisIdrisi

Government, Oilfirms, Nigerian Inst.Of Surveyors

17 8

UNILAGURBAN & REG.PLANNING

2002 B.Sc NON - - 11 3

LAGOS STATEUNIVERSITY

1994 B.Sc,MSc,

M URP

NON - - 15 4

LAGOS STATEPOLYTECHNICTOWN PLANNING

1998 HND II AVAILABLENOT TOSTANDARD

8 NoLicensedSoftware

Department, Faculty& Ex-Students

7 1

YABA COLLEGEOF TECH.URBANPLANNING

1998 HND IIPD II

AVAILABLENOT TOSTANDARD

3 NoLicensedSoftware

15 -

YABA COLLEGEOF TECH.SURVEY

1997 ND, HND AVAILABLENOT TOSTANDARD

8ArcviewIdrisi

Friends of theDepartment

8 6

Modified from Udoh I. C. (2004)

5.0 STRATEGIES FOR EFFECTIVE GIS EDUCATION

5.1 Determine the NeedThe first step in developing an effective GIS education strategy is to determine the need through a LocalNeeds Assessment Survey. This may be carried out in each local government areas to know areas whereGIS education and training is needed. All users of spatial related data should be identified (government,private and public users of spatial data) and the resources available to provide GIS education.

User identification must be comprehensive enough because full utilization of geographic informationrequires users at all levels to be aware of the relevance and benefits of developments in GIS technology,which education is essential to achieving this. It is equally important that there are trained personnelranging from the highly skilled developers of GIS to the technicians and operators of systems (Chorley,1987; Linden 1990).

The following categories have been identified as in need of GIS education and training:

8/3/2019 edugis

7/11

Decision Makers and Politicians: This category is responsible for decision making policies toadopt GIS or spend funds; however they are often neglected. Therefore should get a generalawareness of the potentials and benefits (ROI) of GIS technology.

Managers and Administrators: This category is answerable to donors (government or private) andcould be personnel from user departments; they must understand the conceptual basis of GISoperations and analysis.

GIS Researchers/ Scientist: GIS researchers are scientists that use GIS as a tool in theirdiscipline and use or develop specialized and advanced theories in GIS. While the scientistfocuses on advancing the science of GIS and develop new techniques. These need postgraduate research degree in GIS.

GIS Managers/ Specialist: They are professionals responsible for the overall system management andadministration. Such requires a professional degree in GIS and must have skills for knowledge in computers,systems implementation and personnel management.

GIS Systems Designers and Analysts: the former are responsible for identifying the need; choose appropriatesoftware; systems specifications and analysis of the current systems. They need a minimum of BS degree inGIS and must have vast knowledge in IT.

Application programmers and Tool Developers: They implement system analysis specifications asprograms and develop customized applications

Operators, technical, and maintenance personnel: These are computing technicians responsible for daily

use and maintenance of the hardware and software environment. These may not necessarily be educatedin spatial technologies but in computer related areas up to college level.

Spatial data technicians These are not professionals but have been trained toinput data, scan, anddigitize maps; convert data and maintain data standards; make backup copies of the spatial data. Theyneed a minimum of college or polytechnic education in spatial related courses.

Other Users: these may occasional or frequent users of spatial information and may not beresponsible in any way for the production or modification of such information. They need to havea general knowledge (at least access, view and manipulate) of GIS.

The Public: They need to a general awareness of what GIS is and how it is used. This may bedone by introducing basic information technology instructions at pre-varsity level; and teaching geographyrelated subjects with GIS at elementary and secondary level.

8/3/2019 edugis

8/11

Fig 2. Suggested Levels of GIS Education for Nigeria (by Author)

5.1 Curriculum Development at All Levels of Education

Within education, curriculum development is the main instrument for translating educational goals into anaction plan for the transfer of knowledge. Consequently, a curriculum will reflect the ideas andperspectives of an educational institute on a subject area in relation to the requirements of a target groupand the institute's mission (Linden 1990). Curriculum development could be demanding and cumbersomeeven in familiar subject areas; therefore, developing curriculum for GIS may be more difficult since thetechnology is new in the Nigerian Context.

In the survey of schools already with a GIS instruction or course, it was realized that there is nocoherence in curriculum. It is the duty of the National Universities Commission (NUC) and National Boardfor Technical Education (NBTE) to fashion out a common curriculum for GIS at the Universities andPolytechnic level. This is on course, however, it is suggested that GIS curriculum should go below furthereducation or postgraduate level as the case is now and extended to secondary and elementary schools

as shown in Fig. 2.

Learning from the U.S. experience, GIS is taught at the elementary, secondary, college and universitylevels. Since 1994 educators groups as National Centre for Geographic Information and Analysis(NCGIA) and National Centre for Geographic Education (NCGE) have developed outreachesprogrammes to K-12. ESRI also distributed free and low cost software and provided training forsecondary and elementary school teachers. This has helped the concept of teaching with GIS; it is usedto teach concepts and skills in earth science, geography, chemistry, biological science, history, and mathematicscourses (Bennarz, 1995; USGS, 2002).

KNOWLEDGE REQUIRED

Postgraduate level

University level

College level

Elementary level

Secondary level

LEVELOFGISKNO

WLED

GE

8/3/2019 edugis

9/11

At the college level teaching about GIS dominates, where courses in methods and theory of GIS aretaught in geography, engineering, business, environmental studies, geology and in other disciplines. Inhigher education, GIS is used as a fundamental research tool in all institutes of higher education ingeography, demography, geology and other disciplines (USGS, 2002).

5.2 Collaboration and CooperationThe NBTE, NUC and the Ministries of Education can take advantage of Vendors outreach to school todevelop curriculum and would be able to receive free educational materials. There are manyorganizations with outreach programmes for developing countries which can be benefited from.

5.3 Training and Technical Education: A need for re-emphasisThe role of Technical and Vocational Education in meeting the educational needs for GIS implementationcannot be over emphasized. The need to train technician and operators of these systems can be wellintegrated into the National Diploma Curriculum of GIS related courses or a diploma certificate in GIS canbe fashioned out to meet this need. Most state owned establishments have depended on holders ofMasters Degree to do the technical work; this is mostly short lived, because highly skilled will look forgreener pastures.

The National Board for Technical Education (NBTE) has prepared a common GIS curriculum to beadopted by polytechnics and colleges all over the country. It is in this vein a GIS workshop was organised

in February 2004 under the UNESCO-NIGERIA Project for Revitalisation of Technical and VocationalEducation (TVE) in Nigeria aimed at building capacities of educators who will teach GIS in eachpolytechnic or college when the new GIS curriculum is commissioned.However, there is also need for training schemes in the GIS life cycle as suggested by Shalaby et al(1996) below; the training should be in different phases:

Before acquisition of the GIS system so as to encourage participation during design stage.

During implementation to improve the GIS application

Regularly after the scheme is completed to updated GIS knowledge and monitor progress.

Conclusion

This paper is not extensive but a snap shot introduction to GIS education issues in Nigeria. Thepaper was able to examine the development of the technology and efforts made so far in GISeducation. It highlighted the gaps in training and education and suggested a framework that willinvolve teaching ABOUT and WITH GIS at all educational levels in developing countries.

8/3/2019 edugis

10/11

ReferencesAdeoye A. A. (1998) Geographic/Land Information System Principles and Application InformationManagement Consultant, Lagos, Nigeria P. 162 164.

Banting, D. (1988) Using GFIS for Teaching GIS Concepts, GIS/LIS 88 Proceedings, San Anthonio,

Vol. 2, pp 678-684

Bednarz S. W. (1995) Using GFIS for Teaching GIS Concepts, GIS/LIS 95 Proceedings, Nashville,Tennessee, Vol. 1, pp 44-52

Burns, T. and Henderson J. (1989) Education and Training in GIS: The View from ESRI, Proceedings ofAutoCarto 9, Published by ASPRS/ACSM, Falls Church, VA pp. 31-37

Chorley Committee (1987) Handling Geographic Information, Report to the Secretary of State for theEnvironment of the Committee of Enquiry into the Handling of Geographic Information chaired by Lord Chorley,Department of the Environment, London

Dekolo, S. O. (2001) Implementing GIS for Land Use Planning and Management in Lagos State inUrban and Regional Information System Association Proceedings. Edited by Mark J. Salling. Long Beach,California, pp. 142-147.

ESRI (2001) Implementing GIS at Institutions of Higher Learning HigherEd_2001 CD Url:-http://www.esri.com/training

Johnson D. A., and Moore S. (2001) Jumpstarting GIS Use in the ClassroomArcUsers, August 2001

Kemp, K. K., Goodchild M. F. and Dodson, R. F. (1992) Teaching GIS in Geography, The ProfessionalGeographer, Vol. 44, No. 2, pp 181-191

Millette, T. L. (1989) Implementation of a State-Wide GIS: Regional Planning Commission as Platform forProducts and Services GIS/LIS 89 Proceedings, Orlando Florida, Vol. 2, pp. 438-447

Penzias, A. (1989) Ideas and Information: Mannaging in a Hightech World, New York, Norton andCompany.

Linden, G. (1990) Education in Geographic Information System, In Scholten, H. J. and Stillwel, C. H.(eds.), Geographic Information System for Urban and Regional Planning, Kluwer academic publishers,the Netherland, pp. 1991 201.

NNITP (2000) Nigerian National Information Technology Policy pp 13-14

National Center for Geographic Information and Analysis (NCGIA), 2000. The NCGIA Core Curriculum in GIScience.Working Document, Last update - August 13, 2000 Url:-http://www.ncgia.ucsb.edu/education/curricula/giscc/

Shalaby, T, Ford, P. and Whitehead, M, (1996) Frame Work for the provision of sustainable Technologyin Developing countries CUSP Research Guide, pp. 11-22.

Somers, R. (1994) GIS Organization and Staffing, in Urban and Regional Information SystemAssociation Proceedings. pp. 41-52. (www.odyssey.maine.edu/gisweb/spatab/urisa/ur94_c.htm)

Speer D, Edward, 1997. Implementing GIS in the Third World, Being a Text presented at the ESRI UserConference. eddie@brewery.wa.com

Sui, D. Z. (1995) Geographic Matrix and GIS Education: Toward a Pedagogic Framework for TeachingGIS GIS/LIS 95 Proceedings, Nashville, Tennessee, Vol. 2, pp 940-949.

http://www.odyssey.maine.edu/gisweb/spatab/urisa/ur94_c.htmmailto:eddie@brewery.wa.comhttp://www.odyssey.maine.edu/gisweb/spatab/urisa/ur94_c.htmmailto:eddie@brewery.wa.com

8/3/2019 edugis

11/11

Tucker, D. F. and Devine H. A. (1988) GIS Education- Ecclectic, integrated, and Evolving GIS/LIS 88Proceedings, San Anthonio, Vol 2, pp 528-540.

Udoh, C. I., (2004) The Appraisal of GIS Education for Urban and Regional Planning: A Study of LagosState, An unpublished HND Dissertation of the Department of Town and Regional Planning, Lagos State

Polytechnic. pp29-60.

USGS (2002) Geography Information Systems in Education FS-02, May 2002