МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ И НАУКИРЕСПУБЛИКИ КАЗАХСТАН

ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТимени ШАКАРИМА г. СЕМЕЙ

Документ СМК 3 уровня УМКД

УМКД 042-18-17.1.17/03-2014УМКДУчебно-методические

материалы по дисциплине «Иностранный язык»

Редакция №1 от 11.09.2014г

УЧЕБНО-МЕТОДИЧЕСКИЙ КОМПЛЕКС

ДИСЦИПЛИНЫ

«Иностранный язык»

для специальностей магистратуры

6М080100 -Агрономия, 6М080200 - Технология производства продуктов животноводства, 6М060700 – Биология, 6М060600 – Химия, 6М120100 – Ветеринарная медицина, 6М072800- Технология перерабатывающих продуктов, 6М 072700 – Технология

продовольственных продуктов, 6М 072400 – Технология машины и оборудования, 6М060100- Математика, 6М073200 – Стандартизация и сертификация,

6М 077500 – Метрология, 6М 073500- Пищевая безопасность.

УЧЕБНО-МЕТОДИЧЕСКИЕ МАТЕРИАЛЫ

Семей

2014

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CONTENT

Module 1

Theme 1 ……………………………………………………………………….1-22

Theme 2 ………………………………………………………………………22-52

Theme 3 ………………………………………………………………………52-64

Theme 4 ………………………………………………………………………64-92

Theme 5 ……………………………………………………………………...92-112

Theme 6 …………………………………………………………………….113-135

Module 2

Theme 7 ……………………………………………………………………135-172

Theme 8 ……………………………………………………………………172-185

Theme 9 ……………………………………………………………………185-193

Theme 10 …………………………………………………………………..193-214

Theme 11 …………………………………………………………………..214-226

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MODULE 1

Theme 1. English language as a means of international communication. The role of English language among culturally meaningful means of communication. The ways of scientific representation and description of the language. Basic concepts of the theory of text.

ENGLISH AS AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGEThe English language has become an international language from that of a tiny island off the European continent since it was brought from the Continent 1,500 years ago. As language changes in time and space, English has changed in Britain and has transformed into North American English, Australian English, and further into Nigerian, Indian, Philippine, Singaporean Englishes as the language spread globally. In its destinations, English has developed into local varieties by adopting and adapting to local languages and cultures in its process of inevitable localization and internalization. English, or should I say ‘Englishes,’ has adopted concepts and forms of indigenous languages and incorporating local cultures and traditions in order to accommodate local needs and for the sake of identities. In North America, ‘potato chips,’ ‘lift,’ ‘underground,’ and ‘lorry’ have become ‘French fries,’ ‘elevator,’ ‘subway,’ and ‘truck’; the spelling of ‘programme’ and ‘centre’ have changed to ‘program’ and ‘center’; the pronunciation of the first consonant sound in ‘schedule’ has changed from that of the first consonant sound in 'shot' to that of the first consonant combination in 'skirt'. ‘Have you any valuables in it?’ has become ‘Do you have any valuables in it?’ and even the meaning of the aphorism, ‘A rolling stone gathers no moss’ has been reversed in the mobility-oriented society. In the former British colonies in Asia and Africa which have adopted English as the official language, the transformation is more drastic than North America or Australia due to the non-Judeo-Christian cultural climates. In many African and Asian Englishes, ‘discuss about’ is the standard usage; the tags of tag questions are invariable ‘isn’t it’; telephone operators say ‘Come again’ instead of ‘Please repeat it again.’ There are cases of nonnative speaker’s creativity such as ‘infanticipating’ coined from ‘infant’ and ‘anticipating’ and ‘prepone’ coined on the analogy of ‘postpone. the number of speakers in the Outer Circle, which includes India, the Philippines, Singapore, Malawi, Nigeria where English is used daily as an official language by nonnative speakers, exceeds those of the Inner Circle, where the language is a mother tongue as in Britain, North America and Australia. Not only exceeds in the number of speakers, the Outer Circle people are gradually shifting their norm of usage from Anglo-American (exonormative) standards to their own (endonormative) standards. Kachru (2005, 12) refers to them as ‘functional native speakers’ and many of my colleagues in Hong Kong, India, Malaysia, Nigeria, the Philippines, and Singapore have native speaker’s intuition and say that they feel English is one of their native languages. If English in the Outer Circle continues to be used according to their endonormative standards and develops into distinct varieties, will English follow the trace of Latin which diversified into Italian, Spanish, French, and other separate languages? The answer is NO. The U.S.-led economic, technological, and cultural globalization has made English the most widely used language in the world, but at the same time its worldwide spread has brought de-Anglo-Americanization of the language. Today 80 percent of English use is among nonnative speakers who use it as a lingua franca and this tendency will continue because the number of English speakers in the Expanding Circle far exceeds that of the Inner and Outer Circles. It means that English is required to keep its international intelligibility despite its localization and resulting diversification. Here arises the conflict between the force to diverge the English language in the Outer Circle into more distinct local varieties for international use and that to converge the language into one that has more linguistic and cultural commonalities for use as a

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means of international and cross-cultural communication. The issue is left to language and language education policy makers to solve. Although English is a global lingua franca in politics, business, science and technology, and academia, the frequency, density, and significance of its use is increasing more within what I call ‘wider region’ such as Europe, Asian, and Latin America than in the global scale. In each region, standardization of ‘regional English’ is taking place, which has enough locality to function as a means of identity and expression of local culture and yet has enough international intelligibility to function as a global lingua franca. I classified those regional standard Englishes into six—Native Speaker English, Euro-English, Asian English, Latin English, African English, and Arab English. Euro-English among them is most advanced standardizing regional variety as you hear in radio and TV news, in business interactions, and conferences in Europe. It is clearly not British nor American native speaker’s English which has slurs and blurs at times. It is ‘school English-like,’ sounding a little artificial and bookish, yet precise, clear and highly intelligible. For example, [t] of [nt] in ‘twenty’ and 'international’ is not dropped, neither is [t] of ‘water’ changed to a 'flapped t" as in American English. The rhotic ‘r’ in ‘car’ and ‘park’ is clearly pronounced unlike the practice in British English. Further, vowels in the unstressed syllables are not necessarily turned to schwa (´). These are welcoming phenomena since the spelling and pronunciation need to agree for English to develop as English as an International Language (EIL). Its irregularity should be de-irregularized for higher learnability and usability. Words such as ‘Worcester,’ ‘thorough’ and ‘through’ are bad examples (See the highway sign THRU TRAFFIC). At the word level, hybrid expressions such as ‘Telefon junkie’ and ‘Drogenfreak’ are increasingly heard and seen as a sign of Europeanization of English (Jenkins 2003, 42). At the syntactic level, fewer two-word verbs and idiomatic, metaphoric or proverbial expressions are used. The survey done by a Eurobarometer study (1998) indicates that German native speakers are top of the European Union (EU) population (24%) and followed by French, English, Italian native speakers (16% each). However, 31% of Europeans speak English as an added language while French is only 12%, showing almost half of them (47%) speak English for cross-cultural communication in EU. Ten more countries from east Europe joined EU in 2004 and the percentage of English speakers must have further increased by now. How English functions as a means of cross-cultural communication within and outside EU will be interesting to see. In Asia, more than 600 million Asians use English and every Asian city issues English language newspapers and offers radio and TV programs in English. English is used intensively and extensively, making English an important pan-Asian lingua franca in business and academic world. ASEAN countries use English in their meetings. SEAMEO RELC in Singapore trains and retrains English teachers in Southeast Asia and dispatches trained Asian teachers of English to those countries. Asianization of English is going on to establish Asian English as regional standard English. These regional standard Englishes are the first step toward EIL, which is the core of these Englishes, sharing basic grammar and vocabulary, pragmatic strategies, and intelligibility. My concept of EIL is ‘a loose league of regional standard Englishes with high mutual intelligibility which are spoken and understood by the educated speakers of any varieties’ (Yano, 2001, 124). EIL is not a single standard international English which has the higher prestige and function than the existing British and American standard Englishes. Such a single EIL is not possible to establish nor necessary to do so. Educated speakers of any regional standard Englishes can communicate cross-culturally and cross-regionally with any educated English speakers, native or not, with no difficulty of understanding. Cook (2003, 29) points out that being a native speaker does not presuppose that he or she has proficiency in writing, a large size of vocabulary, a wide range of styles, and ability to communicate across diverse communities. In all of these aspects of proficiency, he continues, the expertise of the non-native speaker often exceeds that of many native speakers. When English

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language teaching becomes increasingly efficient, it no longer matters where you are educated—the Inner Circle, the Outer Circle, or the Expanding Circle, but how you are educated. In the not so distant future, the issue of being a native speaker or not will be replaced by that of being educated or not. It is more so at the professional level since gaining areas of knowledge and expertise has much less to do with being a native English speaker or not. Proficiency in English is shifting from the communal factor—whether you are brought up to be a native speaker to the educational factor—whether you receive education and training. Medical doctors can participate in an international conference wherever he or she received medical training—Brazil, Russia, Japan, or Poland, but not untrained native speakers of English. When language education raises the generation who turns Euro-English as a communication means of pan-European culture, Asian English as that of pan-Asian culture, and so on, they are speakers of EIL, a communication means of general human culture, which overarch or underlie specific cultures.

Literature.1. Yasukata Yano, Waseda University, Japan, Cross-cultural Communication and English as an International Language, 2006

ENGLISH LANGUAGE AS A MEANS OF CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION IntroductionIn our time of globalization, we have more to be exposed to and share with than ever before in terms of culture- beliefs, worldviews, values, attitudes and ideologies- but at the same time much of them remains different and unshared, which is enhanced by raising people’s awareness of cultural, ethnic, and religious identities.The Internet and modern technology have opened up new marketplaces, and allow us to promote our businesses to new geographic locations and cultures. And given that it can now be as easy to work with people remotely as it is to work face-to-face, cross-cultural communication is increasingly the new norm.Today, we communicate beyond the national borders by e-mailing, chatting, blogging, webbrowsing besides speaking and writing. In these days of global networking, we are thrown into the society of deterritorialized, hybrid, changing and conflicting cultures, where we are expected to become pluricultural individuals. In the light of cross-cultural communication, the language policy and planning of the Council of Europe is a grand experiment based on plurilingualism and pluriculturalism.Effective communication with people of different cultures is especially challenging. Cultures provide people with ways of thinking - ways of seeing, hearing, and interpreting the world. Thus the same words can mean different things to people from different cultures, even when they talk the "same" language. When the languages are different, and translation has to be used to communicate, the potential for misunderstandings increases.It is important to teach our students cross-cultural values and attitudes and their impact on how we communicate across cultures.Our cultural milieu shapes our world view in such a way that reality is thought to be objectively perceived through our own cultural pattern, and a differing perception is seen as either false or ‘strange” and is thus oversimplified. If people recognize and understand differing world views, they will usually adopt a positive and open-minded attitude towards cross-cultural differences. A close-minded view of such differences often results in the maintenance of a stereotype – an oversimplification and blanket assumption. A stereotype assigns group characteristics to individuals purely on the basis of their cultural membership.[1]The stereotype may be accurate in depicting the “typical” member of a culture, but it is inaccurate for describing a particular individual, simply because every person is unique and all of a person’s behavioral characteristics cannot be accurately predicted on the basis of overgeneralized median point along a continuum of cultural norms. To judge a single member of

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a culture by overall traits of the culture is both to prejudge and to misjudge that person. Worse, stereotypes have a way of potentially devaluing people from other cultures.Sometimes our oversimplified concepts of members of another culture are downright false.While stereotyping, or over generalizing, people from other cultures should be avoided, cross-cultural research has shown that there are indeed characteristics of culture that make one culture different from another.Learners and teachers of a foreign language need to understand cultural differences, to recognize openly that people are not all the same beneath the skin. There are real differences between groups and cultures. We can learn to perceive those differences, appreciate them, and above all to respect and value the personhood of every human being.Because learning a foreign language implies some degree of learning a foreign culture, it is important to understand what we mean by the process of cultural learning. Many students in foreign language classrooms learn the language with little or no sense of the depth of cultural norms and patterns of the people who speak the language. Another perspective was the notion that a foreign language curriculum could present culture as “a list of facts to be cognitively consumed” by the student, devoid of any significant interaction with the culture. Robinson-Stuart and Nocon , casting those perspectives aside as ineffective and misconceived, suggested that language learners undergo culture learning as a “process, that is, as a way of perceiving, interpreting, feeling, being in the world,… and relating to where one is and who one meets’.[2] Culture learning is a process of creating shared meaning between cultural representatives. It is experiential, a process that continues over years of language learning, and penetrates deeply into one’s patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting.Second language learning involves the acquisition of a second identity. This creation of a new identity is at the heart of culture learning, or what some might call acculturation.Stella Ting-Toomey describes three ways in which culture interferes with effective cross-cultural understanding. [3]First is what she calls "cognitive constraints." These are the frames of reference or world views that provide a backdrop that all new information is compared to or inserted into.Second are "behavior constraints." Each culture has its own rules about proper behavior which affect verbal and nonverbal communication. Whether one looks the other person in the eye-or not; whether one says what one means overtly or talks around the issue; how close the people stand to each other when they are talking--all of these and many more are rules of politeness which differ from culture to culture.Ting-Toomey's third factor is "emotional constraints." Different cultures regulate the display of emotion differently. Some cultures get very emotional when they are debating an issue.  They yell, they cry, they exhibit their anger, fear, frustration, and other feelings openly. Other cultures try to keep their emotions hidden, exhibiting or sharing only the "rational" or factual aspects of the situation.All of these differences tend to lead to communication problems. If the people involved are not aware of the potential for such problems, they are even more likely to fall victim to them, although it takes more than awareness to overcome these problems and communicate effectively across cultures.  The key to effective cross-cultural communication is knowledge. First, it is essential that people understand the potential problems of cross-cultural communication, and make a conscious effort to overcome these problems. Second, it is important to assume that one’s efforts will not always be successful, and adjust one’s behavior appropriately.We communicate so much information nonverbally in conversations that often the verbal aspect of the conversation is negligible. This is particularly true for interactive language functions in which social contact is of key importance and in which it is not what you say that counts but how you say it—what you convey with body language, gestures, eye contact, physical distance, and other nonverbal messages. Nonverbal communication, however, is so subtle and subconscious in a native speaker that verbal language seems, by comparison, quite mechanical and systematic.

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Language becomes distinctly human through its nonverbal dimension, or what Edward Hall   called the "silent language." The expression of culture is so bound up in nonverbal communication that the barriers to culture learning are more nonverbal than verbal. Verbal language requires the use of only one of the five sensory modalities: hearing. But there remain in our communicative repertoire three other senses by which we communicate every day, if we for the moment rule out taste as falling within а сcommunicative category (though messages are indeed sent and received through the taste modality). We will examine each of these.KinesicsEvery culture and language uses body language, or kinesics, in unique but clearly interpretable ways. "There was speech in their dumbness, language in their very gesture," wrote Shakespeare in The Winter's Tale. All cultures throughout the history of humankind have relied on kinesics for conveying important messages. Books like Dresser's Multicultural Manners join a long string of manuals offering light-hearted but provocative insights on the use of kinesics in North American and other cultures. Today, virtually every book on communication explains how you communicate—and miscommunicate—when you fold your arms, cross your legs, stand, walk, move your eyes and mouth, and so on.But as universal as kinesic communication is, there is tremendous variation cross-culturally and cross-linguistically in the specific interpretations of gestures. Human beings all move their heads, blink their eyes, move their arms and hands, but the significance of these movements varies from society to society. Consider the following categories and how you would express them in American culture.Agreement, "yes""No!""Come here"Lack of interest, "I don't know"Flirting signals, sexual signalsInsults, obscene gesturesThere are conventionalized gestural signals to convey these semantic categories. Are those signals the same in another language and culture? Sometimes they are not. And sometimes a gesture that is appropriate in one culture is obscene or insulting in another. Nodding the head, for example, means "yes" among most European language speakers. But among the Ainu of Japan, "yes" is expressed by bringing the arms to the chest and waving them. The pygmy Negritos of interiorMalaya indicate "yes" by thrusting the head sharply forward, and people from the Punjab of India throw their heads sharply backward. The Ceylonese curve their chins gracefully downward in an arc to the left shoulder, whereas Bengalis rock their heads rapidly from one shoulder to the other.ContactIs eye contact appropriate between two participants in a conversation? When is it permissible not to maintain eye contact? What does eye contact or the absence thereof signal? Cultures differ widely in this particular visual modality of nonverbal communication. In American culture it is permissible, for example, for two participants of unequal status to maintain prolonged eye contact. In fact, an American might interpret lack of eye contact as discourteous lack of attention, while in Japanese culture eye contact might be considered rude. Intercultural interference in this nonverbal category can lead to misunderstanding.Not only is eye contact itself an important category, but the gestures, as it were, of the eyes are in some instances keys to communication. Eyes can signal interest, boredom, empathy, hostility, attraction, understanding, misunderstanding, and other messages. The nonverbal language of each culture has different ways of signaling such messages. An important aspect of unfettered and unambiguous conversation in a second language is the acquisition of conventions for conveying messages by means of eye signals.Proxemics

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Physical proximity, or proxemics, is also a meaningful communicative category. Cultures vary widely in acceptable distances for conversation. Edward Hall  calculated acceptable distances for public, social-consultative, personal, and intimate discourse. He noted, for example, that Americans feel that a certain personal space "bubble" has been violated if a stranger stands closer than twenty to twenty-four inches away unless space is restricted, such as in a subway or an elevator. However, a typical member of  a Latin American culture would feel that such a physical distance would be too great. The interesting thing is that neither party is specifically aware of what is wrong when the distance is not right. They merely have vague feelings of discomfort or anxiety.Sometimes objects—desks, counters, other furniture—serve to maintain certain physical distances. Such objects tend to establish both the overall register and relationship of participants. Thus, a counter between two people maintains a consultative mood. Similarly, the presence of a desk or a computer monitor will set the tone of a conversation. Again, however, different cultures interpret different messages in such objects. In some cultures, objects might enhance the communicative process, but in  other cases they impede it.ArtifactsThe nonverbal messages of clothing and ornamentation are also important aspects of communication. Clothes often signal a person's sense of self- esteem, socioeconomic class, and general character. Jewelry also conveys certain messages. In a multicultural conversation group, such artifacts, along with other nonverbal signals, can be a significant factor in lifting barriers, identifying certain personality characteristics, and setting a general mood.KinestheticsTouching, sometimes referred to as kinesthetics, is another culturally loaded aspect of nonverbal communication. How we touch others and where we touch them is sometimes the most misunderstood aspect of nonverbal communication. Touching in some cultures signals a very personal or intimate register, while in other cultures extensive touching is commonplace. Knowing the limits and conventions is important for clear and unambiguous communication.Olfactory DimensionsOur noses also receive sensory nonverbal messages. The olfactory modality is of course an important one for the animal kingdom, but for the human race, too, different cultures have established different dimensions of olfactory communication. The twentieth century has created in most technological societies a penchant for perfumes, lotions, creams, and powders as acceptable and even necessary; natural human odors, especially perspiration, are thought to be undesirable. In some societies, of course, the smell of human perspiration is quite acceptable and even attractive. Second language and especially second culture learners need to be aware of the accepted mores of other cultures in the olfactory modality.We cannot underestimate the importance of nonverbal communication in second language learning and in conversational analysis.Communicative competence includes nonverbal competence—knowledge of all the varying nonverbal semantics of the second culture, and an ability both to send and receive nonverbal signals unambiguously.The language teacher and researcher, in dialog with each other, can be a part of that creative event by fashioning an integrated and cohesive understanding of how learners acquire the ability to communicate clearly and effectively in a second language.We asked our students to compare their culture nonverbal communication norms (in our classes we have Kazakhs, Tatars, Uzbeks, Koreans, etc) with that of Americans.Eye contact – in Muslim culture everything depends on a sex (male, female). A woman doesn’t maintain eye contact speaking to a man. Speaking to boss, they don’t maintain eye contact either.Americans consider eye contact to be important in a conversation.As for proxemics, when a woman speaks to a woman, the distance is closer than when she speaks to a man. Proxemics is also important in American culture.

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Artifacts – the length of a dress is important for girls, though most of them keep to European style now. As for jewelry, it is up to their taste. Silver, they believe, protects from an “evil eye”.Kinesthetics: Touching signals very personal register. But men sometimes embrace each other while greeting.Olfactory dimensions – though it can seem strange, girls don’t use perfume as much as men.To demonstrate our students how nonverbal communication is important, we organize a short-term project Cross-Cultural Encounters. The aim of the project is to make students experience and explore some cultural differences. The students work in small groups, then half-class, and in the end – whole class. It does not take a long time – about 40 minutes.Procedure:  Divide the class into two groups and designate them Group A and Group B. Separate the groups, using different rooms if possible. Give each student a copy of his group's work sheet to read.When the students have finished reading, give them five minutes to discuss and practice the rules and behaviors indicated on their sheets. If the class is large, Groups A and В may be subdivided for this step. If both groups are in the same room, this discussion and practice should be done in such a way that members of the two groups do not hear and see each other.Next, explain to the class that they will each receive two cards. Designate one color the Haves and the other the Needs. Hand out the cards in such a way that the Haves of one group match the Needs of the other.The students will then walk around the class and talk to people in order to locate those whose Have cards match their Need card.The teacher may want to demonstrate this part of the activity.In searching for the cards, the students must follow the cultural rules and behaviors they have just read and discussed.Give them five to ten minutes to try to locate the cards. Then send the students back to their original groups.Ask them to discuss how they felt about the people from the other culture and to make a list of the rules that they thought the people from the other culture were following.Finally, have the groups report back to the whole class. Discuss the observations and feelings resulting from the exercise.Writing Output:  1. Describe your feelings while you were playing the game and explain why you think you felt that way.2. Compare the two cultures described in the game.3. Compare your culture and American culture on the issue of touching. Interview one or two Americans to check when they feel they can or can't touch someone.Cross-Cultural-Encounter Work SheetsWork Sheet A1. Time is very important in your culture. When you are talking to someone you must get to the point quickly. Otherwise, they will think you are wasting time.2.  In your culture it is important to look directly into the yes of the people you are talking to. If you do not, the people you are talking to may get the idea that you are not being completely honest with them.3. When you are talking to someone in a friendly way, you stand close enough to them to feel their breath.4. In your culture it is impolite to talk about another person’s belongings – clothes, furniture, etc.Work Sheet B1. Politeness is very important in your culture. When you meet people, you must show an interest in them and their family. This is particularly important if you have a request to make of them, as they must be convinced that you like them for themselves – not for anything they can do for you.2.  In your culture when you are talking to people, it is polite to look down except when you have a problem understanding what they are saying.

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3. When you are speaking, you should stand several feet away from the person you are talking to. This is so you will not breathe on them and spread germs.4. To say thank you politely, you put your hands together and bow your head without speaking.To make our students understand the importance of understanding and valuing other country customs and traditions we ask them to do a culture quiz. After this, the students read the text to see if they were right. Then we organize a discussion and ask our students if Kazakhs have any traditions that may surprise the representatives of other cultures. As we teach Business English and English for Economists, our examples are taken mostly from the business world.There are many different traditions in addressing people in the world. In some cultures people use each other’s first names immediately, in other cultures, the first name is only used by the close friends and family. And in some cultures the first name is the family name and the second name is the given name.[4]As the example, we use the text  “A Singaporean – American Encounter”A partner in one of New York’s leading private banking firms went to Singapore to meet one of his clients. In Singapore there are three different cultural traditions: Chinese, Malaysian and English. His clients were ethnic Chinese.The banker wanted to do everything correctly, so on his way to Singapore he memorized the names of three representatives he would meet. In the first meeting with the representatives and some business contacts, he began by addressing the top man, Lo Win Hao, as Mr. Hao. As the meeting continued, he made sure to address each representative by name. After a while, one of his contacts passed a note to the American banker. The note said, “Too friendly, too soon”.After reading the text, the students discuss the following questions:1. What did the note mean?2. Why is it important to know about the traditions for addressing your foreign business partner?3. Have you ever been called by the wrong name or was your name pronounced incorrectly? How did you feel? What did you do? Did you correct a person or correct the mistake?Using this text as a starting point, we organize a short-term project, in which students compare ways of addressing people in Kazakhstani culture, Turkish, and American cultures. The final product of such a project is students’ short presentations.

You Turkey In America1. How do people address classmates?

By first name or nickname

2. How do people address their business colleagues?

By first name or nickname

3. What different titles are used for women?

Miss or Ms for unmarried women and Mrs. Or Ms for married women

4. How do people address a person at their business social level if they have just first met?

Usually by first name

5. How do people address a boss or supervisor?

Usually by first name. If there is a large difference in power they may use Mr. or Ms.

6. How do people address a secretary or receptionist?

By first name

7. Are there social titles in a company depending on their positions or their education?

In a company they do not use different titles for different positions. Education and other professionals sometimes use their titles but usually in business cards and letters

 

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Students can understand the importance of culture awareness doing this simple task: Read about the problems companies had in selling their goods. What went wrong?1. Western companies had problems selling refrigerators in Japan until they changed the design to make them quieter.2.  In Saudi Arabia newspaper adverts for an airline showed an attractive hostess serving champagne to happy passengers. A lot of passengers cancelled their flight reservations.3.  In airline company called itself Emu, after the Australian bird. But Australians didn’t want to use the airline.4.  A TV commercial for a cleaning product showed a little girl cleaning up the mess her brother made. The commercial caused problems to Canada.5. Several European and American firms couldn’t sell their product in Dubai when they run advertising campaign in Arabic.6.  A soap powder ad had a picture of dirty clothes on the left, a box of soup in the middle and clean clothes on the right. The soap didn’t sell well in the Middle East.7.  A company had problems when it tried to introduce instant coffee to the French market.8.  A toothpaste manufacturer couldn’t sell its products in parts of South East Asia.9. An American golf ball manufacturer launched its products in Japan packed in boxes of four. It had to change the pack size.10.  A ladies’ electric shaver was sold well throughout Europe but not in Italy.Here are the reasons of the problems, but they are in the wrong order. Number them from 1 to 10. How many you get right?

1. In Japanese word for “four” sounds like the word “death”. Things don’t sell well four-packed.

2. People thought the commercial too sexist and reinforced old male/female stereotypes.3. Unveiled women don’t walk with men in Saudi Arabia and alcohol is illegal.4. 90% of the population came from Pakistan, India, Iran and Arabic was the wrong

language.5. It seems Italian men prefer ladies’ legs unshaven.6. The advertisers forgot that in this part of the world people usually read from right to left.7. The Emu can’t fly.8. The people in this area didn’t want white teeth they thought drake-strained teeth were

beautiful and they tried to blacken them.9. Japanese houses were small and sometimes walls were made of paper. It was impossible

for the refrigerators to be quiet.10. Making “real” coffee was an important part of French way of life. Instant coffee was too

casual.Case study is often used by us to present cultural differences and how they can affect negotiations and business.Whom should we send?A US- based computer software company has recently heard from a Nigerian manufacturing company. The Nigerian company has expressed interest in one of software programs. The Nigerian company has invited the US Company to Nigeria to demonstrate the software.The US Company has been very successful domestically, but this will be the first time it has ever ventured into the international business world. The company would like to expand and begin to build status in the international community. Being successful with the negotiations would help the company very much.The top managers have come together to plan a business strategy for the Nigerian business trip. They must also decide who the most appropriate person to send to Nigeria to represent the company is. The person chosen must be a highly competent negotiator, able to persuade the Nigerians that the company’s software is the best in the market and exactly what the Nigerian company needs. Therefore, they must think very carefully about the qualities of the person they send.

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After comprehension checking questions, we ask students to decide in groups which qualities can affect the negotiations. The students rank them in an order of importance.1 Very important.                                   2 Not important1. Educational background (degrees, universities, attendant)2. Sex (male, female)3. Age.4. Technical knowledge of the company’s product.5. Seniority and experience in the company.6.  Personal connections.7.  Social competence, good social skills. Social status in the community.8. Power and authority position within the company (power to make decisions).9. Symbolic position of authority within the company (no power to make decisions).10. Respect for authorities and rules.After the students discussed the qualities, they read descriptions of three possible people of the company could send to Nigeria. One of the representatives is a woman. The students decide in groups who their final choice is and why.They should take into the consideration the following:Which of negotiator qualities of the chart their choices have?Would they consider sending a second person? Why or why not?Do they think they should consider the characteristics of the other country’s negotiator’s when deciding whom to send? Why or why not?Then Group A reads Nigerian cultural information, Group И – the US cultural information. They try to find the answers to the following questions:1. If you are seriously interested in doing business, what qualities are most important in the negotiators you send? Why?2. How important is age?3. What gives a person respect in a company?4. What other qualities are important in a negotiator? What qualities are not important?5. What is the role of women in business?6. What is more common, negotiating in groups or alone?Meeting as a whole class the students discuss;1. Which cultural differences could cause the most serious problems between the Nigerian and the U.S. negotiators?2. Based on your notes, what person or people do you think would be most appropriate to send to Nigeria? Does your choice differ from your group initial choice?3. Who would be the least appropriate person to send? Why?Next case study is connected with training of the international executive.Many companies are now helping their employees build their cross-cultural communication skills. These companies offer cultural training workshops and seminars. Each year more and more companies are offering this type of training. They realize the importance of preparing their employees for very different and challenging international business world.Imagine that you and your group mates are salespeople for a sports clothes manufacturer which has been very successful domestically, but has never had any success internationally. The president of your company would like to try the international market again. This time she would try exporting products to Turkey.She would like to set up a training program for the sales team (you and your group mates). She has asked you to arrange a meeting to discuss what type of oversea training you should receive. She has given you the following list of possible topics to be converted in training program. The program is designed to help you prepare for both living and working in Turkey. Unfortunately your company can afford only five workshops due to money problems.Possible training programs to be offered:History of Turkey social practices;

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Turkish language;Turkish domestic management styles (management within Turkish companies).Turkish economy;Turkish distribution practices (distribution of goods in Turkey).Turkish negotiation styles.Turkish politics.Turkish cultures.Legal aspects of Turkish business;Organization of Turkish business;Culture shock.Which of the topics are most important for an overseas training program? On your own decide which five topics are the most important and rank those five topics in order of importance. 1 = most important. Than share your decisions in small groups. As a group, create one final list of five topics.Teaching Business English we usually ask our students to prepare country presentation.Country PresentationImagine that someone is going to Kazakhstan to do business and that you must train them before they go. To do this, you will prepare an oral presentation, focusing on business practices in your country and on culture values behind these practices. You can also choose a country that interests you, research the country and prepare a presentation focusing on the same aspects.The students are given presentation guidelines.Presentation Guidelines1. You must give your group mate all the important information they will need to be more comfortable and successful on their business trip.2. Introduce information about the business culture as well as the country’s basic data and information (e.g.: size of the country, economy, major exports and imports)3. Be sure your presentation to be well referenced by doing one or more of the following:a) contacting one of the information centers;b) talking to actual business people from your country;c) reading articles from magazines or books about the country;d) surfing the Internet.A successful international businessperson must have many personal qualities that reflect his or her commitment to cultural awareness and understanding. How exactly can be the qualities listed below help an international businessperson in relationships and experiences with people from other countries?Adaptability: being at ease and comfortable in different environments.Flexibility: being able and willing to change your ideas or plans even on very short notice.Tolerance for ambiguity: being able to work in a situation where you feel information is not always complete and clear.Internationalism: having a commitment to learning about and exploring other cultures.For student’s independent work (SIW) we ask them to write an essay (250 words) discussing the importance of each of the qualities and give an example of a business situation where relevant.With globalisation on the rise, more international educational exchange and cross-cultural interacions are being encouraged. This has led to cross-cultural training to become a discipline in recent times. Traditionally, multinational corporations used to concentrate their training efforts solely on expatriate managers. This resulted in assumptions of how business should be carried out internationally.For an instance, multinational corporations felt that replicating the exsiting staff in foreign lands, including the same perspectives and technical knowledge would keep the company going smoothly. That business culture had a typical top-down management structure whereby major decisions were made at headquarters level. Line-managers were supposed to manage the daily

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operations by abiding with the rules of the firm without involving in matters pertaining to cross-cultural issues.That was then. Today, the international business environment is different. With aggressive competition going all around, multinational corporations around the globe has identified the increasing need for international managers to be equipped with skills on working hand in hand with people from various cultural backgrounds. It is also becoming of increasing importance to train all possible employees so that highly proficient staff are available upon demand.While many companies now offer training in the different cultures where the company conducts business, it is important that employees communicating across cultures practice patience and work to increase their knowledge and understanding of these cultures. This requires the ability to see that a person's own behaviors and reactions are oftentimes culturally driven and that while they may not match are own, they are culturally appropriate.If a leader or manager of a team that is working across cultures or incorporates individuals who speak different languages, practice different religions, or are members of a society that requires a new understanding, he or she needs to work to convey this.Consider any special needs the individuals on your team may have. For instance, they may observe different holidays, or even have different hours of operation. Be mindful of time zone differences and work to keep everyone involved aware and respectful of such differences.Generally speaking, patience, courtesy and a bit of curiosity go a long way. And, if you are unsure of any differences that may exist, simply ask team members. Again, this may best be done in a one-on-one setting so that no one feels "put on the spot" or self-conscious, perhaps even embarrassed, about discussing their own needs or differences or needs.Demand ToleranceNext, cultivate and demand understanding and tolerance. In doing this, a little education will usually do the trick. Explain to team members that the part of the team that works out of the Australia office, for example, will be working in a different time zone, so electronic communications and/or return phone calls will experience a delay. And, members of the India office will also observe different holidays (such as Mahatma Gandhi's Birthday).Most people will appreciate the information and will work hard to understand different needs and different means used to reach common goals. However, when this is not the case, lead by example and make it clear that you expect to be followed down a path of open-mindedness, acceptance and tolerance.When dealing with people in a different culture, courtesy and goodwill can also go a long way in ensuring successful communication. Again, this should be insisted on.If your starting point in solving problems is to assume that communication has failed, you'll find that many problems are quickly resolved.Keep It SimpleWhen you communicate, keep in mind that even though English is considered the international language of business, it is a mistake to assume that every businessperson speaks good English. In fact, only about half of the 800 million people who speak English learned it as a first language. And, those who speak it as a second language are often more limited than native speakers.When you communicate cross-culturally, make particular efforts to keeping your communication clear, simple and unambiguous.And (sadly) avoid humor until you know that the person you're communicating with "gets it" and isn't offended by it. Humor is notoriously culture-specific: Many things that pass for humor in one culture can be seen as grossly offensive in another.Conclusion Second language learning involves the acquisition of the second identity. This creation of a new identity is at the heart of culture learning.Сulture learning is a process of creating shared meaning between cultural representatives. It is experiential, a process that continues over years of language learning, and penetrates deeply into one’s patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting.

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Though there are stereotypes which describe the standards and the values that guide the behavior of representatives of different cultures, the teachers should teach their students not to blindly follow the stereotypes because each person within this or that culture is unique.  The language teacher and researcher, in dialog with each other, can be a part of a creative event by fashioning an integrated and cohesive understanding of how learners acquire the ability to communicate clearly and effectively in a second language, taking into consideration peculiarities of different cultures communication norms.Such kinds of activities as problem-solving, discussions, case study, projects connected with culture study are designed by the teachers to help learners to improve cross-cultural communication skills that include:- Verbal and non-verbal cross-cultural communication styles;-  Cross-cultural working styles and expectations;-  Language issues in a cross-cultural context;-  Tips and strategies for a better cross-cultural communication. 

Literature.1. Brown, H. Douglas. 2000. Principles of language learning and teaching. NY: Longman.2. Robinson-Stuart, Gail and Nicon, Honorine. 1996. Second culture acquisition: Ethnography in the foreign language classroom. Modern Language Journal 80: p. 4323. Ting Toomey, Stella. 1999. Communicating across cultures. Guilford Publications4. Laura M., Lynn S. 1995. Business across Cultures. London: Longman.

WORD ORDER IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

The position of words and syntactic structures relative to one another is well known to be a most important part of English syntax. On this level of linguistic analysis distinction must naturally be made between two items: the order of words in phrase-structure and the order of words in sentence structure.

Due to the scarcity of morphological devices English has developed a tolerably fixed word-order which in most cases shows without fail what is the subject of the sentence.

But this is not to say that the grammatical rules of the normal word-order are strictly observed in absolutely all cases. The form of expression may depart from the common word-order for certain logical reasons or under the stress of emotion, considerations of style, euphonic reasons, etc. The speaker or writer generally has some special emphasis to put on some part of the sentence (rhetorical order).

The following comparison will show the departure from the normal word-order in expressing subject-predicate relations (S→ P P→S);

(a) Came frightful days of snow and frost. (London) Cf. Frightful days of now and frost came.

(b)Oh! very well. And suddenly she burst into tears of disappointment, shame and overstrain. Followed five minutes of acute misery. (Galsworthy)

Cf. Five minutes of acute misery followed. Further examples are:

(c) He remembered Irene saying to him once: "Never was any one born more loving and lovable than Jon". (Galsworthy)

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(d)Then arrived in a group a number of Nicholases, always punctual — the fashion up Ladbroke Grove way; and close behind them Eustace and his men, gloomy and smelling rather of smoke. (Galsworthy)

Variations in word-order characterising a word or a phrase as to its thematic and rhematic quality have special communicative functions. Examine also the word-order arrangement in the following sentences with the front-position of objects and adverbial adjuncts:

On the hearth stood an enormous bowl, with bottles beside it, glinting in the firelight. (Ch. Snow)

...At last I turned away. On the pavement, walking towards me, was Sheila. (Ch. Snow)

Sometimes emphatic front-position of sentence-element is found without inversion of subject and predicate. This is the case, for instance, with objects referring to what immediately precedes in the context.

To the little I told him, he was formally sympathetic; but in his heart he thought it all inexplicable and somewhat effeminate. (Ch. Snow)

, Of these she read to little Jon, till he was allowed to read to himself; whereupon she whisked back to London and left them with him in a heap. (Galsworthy)

With regard to the relative positions of subject and verbal predicate there are three possibilities which may be denoted respectively:

(a) the "normal" order S→ P;(b) the "inverted" order P → S;(c) the inverted order with P split up into two parts and S coming between them.It is interesting to observe that in sentences of the third type (c) the subject often has a

lengthy attribute attached to it, which adds to its rhematic quality and semantic prevalence in the whole statement.

“PARCELLING” AND "SEGMENTATION" IN ENGLISH SENTENCE-STRUCTURE

Flexibility in sentence-structure merits consideration in sentence-patterning with the so-called "parcelling" by which we mean placing a syntactically dependent sentence-element out of its usual sentence frame and setting it off by a full stop like an independent unit.

Parcelling is not infrequent in spoken English and literary prose. In such isolated position we may find adverbial adjuncts, objective complements, attributes and epithet adjuncts. The expressive value of such sentence-patterns, marked by special intonation contours in actual speech, makes them most effective.

1. Adverbial adjuncts in isolated position:

Suddenly my mind leapt clear. "I should like to talk about that", I said. "Not tonight. Tomorrow or the next day". (Ch. Snow)

2. Isolated predicatives:

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He was exhausted. Completely finished, and sick with the balt water in him. (Aldridge)

3. Isolated subject-groups in patterns with the introductory it:

It had been the most ironical thing of all. To arrive from Gadvos after releasing those from the Metaxists. To come back here and meet Metaxists from Egypt who want cooperation. (Aldridge)

4. Isolated parts of complex modal predicate:

If you have troubles let me share them. You are so much to me — my only trouble I can fix your life. Join it with mine. (Dreiser)

5. Isolated attributive adjuncts:

He had reached the centre of Parliament Square, when a figure coming towards him swerved suddenly to its left and made in the direction of Victoria. Tall, with a swing in its walk. (Galsworthy)

6. Prepositional and prepositionless objects in isolated position: Brian said to his cousin: "I'm signing on as well in a way, only for life. I'm getting married". Both stopped walking. Bert took his arm and stared: "You're not".

The final intonation of the segments seems to convert them into independent syntactic units. The syntagmatic subordination of the separated element comes to be neutralised by its intonation independence.

And here are a few typical examples of sub-clauses placed for emphasis out of their usual sentence frame and set of by a full stop like independent units:

"I could be content", went on Hurstwood, "if I had you to love me. If I had you to go; for a companion". (Salinger)

Parcelling and segmentation are both intended to give emphatic prominence to the separated sentence-elements and as such have much in common. But the two syntactic devices are not absolutely identical.

Parcelling can split a sentence into two or more parts, whereas segmentation is, in fact, a twofold designation, a special kind of reduplication where the sentence is split into two interdependent sentence-elements related as "the theme" and "the rheme" respectively, the former being set off in a position of an independent unit.

Segmentation is also one of the universal features of syntactic arrangement. Structures of this kind are not specifically English and are known to be fairly common in other languages. A few typical examples for illustration:

And those geese — they don't seem, to mind your counting their features, do they? (Galsworthy)

There are important treatments of the subject in Ch. Bally's Linguistique générale et Linguistique française, where segmented sentences are referred to as consisting of two parts:

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"theme" and "propos". The "theme" is generally represented in "propos" by pronouns. If the "theme" (noun) precedes the "propos" (pronoun), the structure is called a reprise, if the "propos" (pronoun) precedes the "theme", the structure is referred to as anticipation. Segmented sentences have always a middle pause and special intonation.

Segmented structures make the long established order of words in French less rigid, the lexical unit functioning in a sentence becoming ever more independent. This new trend in the development of French syntax is gaining attention of many scholars as one of the most striking features of its progressive development.

PROBLEMS OF THE ACTUAL DIVISION OF THE SENTENCE

Syntactic description may begin with "discourse" analysis as its starting point.

In these terms, syntax is described as "textlinguistics" concerned primarily with the grammatical organisation and semantic aspects of supra-phrasal unities.

A supra-phrasal unity usually functioning as a communicative whole consists of a number of semantically related sentences. In writing it corresponds to "paragraph", in spoken language this semantic unity is signalled by pausation.

A "paragraph" is a traditional term used in manuscripts and printing to indicate a distinct subdivision of a discourse, chapter, or writing. It is marked off by indentation at the beginning and a break in the line at the end.

As a logical category the paragraph is characterised by coherence and relative unity of the ideas expressed, as a linguistic category it is a communicative unit marked off by such formal linguistic means as intonation and pauses of various lengths.

A supra-phrasal unit is analysed into sentences and phrases as interdependent units, the value of which results from the simultaneous presence of the others.

Paragraphs in pictorial and emotive prose break up the narrative not only to facilitate understanding but also for emphasis.

Take the following for illustration:

He lay flat on the brown, pine-needled floor of the forest, his chin on his folded arms, and high overhead the wind blew in the tops of the pine trees. The mountainside sloped gently where he lay; but below it was steep and he could see the dark of the oiled road winding through the pass. There was a stream alongside the road and far down the pass he saw a mill beside the stream and the falling water of the dam, white in the summer sunlight. (Hemingway)

Discourse analysis then carries our attention to the actual division of the sentences making up a supra-phrasal unity, i.e. their communicative function in a given situation, in other words, the "functional sentence perspective", which is, in fact, the main category on this level of linguistic analysis.

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By actual division we mean dividing a sentence into two sections, one of which contains that which is the starting point of the message — "the theme", and the other — the new information for which the sentence has been spoken or written — "the rheme".

The two terms are Greek in origin: "theme" comes from the Greek root the- "to set", "to establish" and means "that which is set or established". The term "rheme" is derived from the root rhe- "to say" or "tell" and means "that which is said or told about".

There have been several pairs of terms proposed for this purpose, such as "psychological subject" and "psychological predicate"1, "lexical subject" and "lexical predicate"2, "semantic subject" and "semantic predicate". The terms "psychological subject" and "psychological predicate", introduced by the German scholar H. Paul3, include a notion of individual psychology, which is beyond the sphere of linguistics itself. Other terms seem to be inadequate as incompatible with our general approach to analysing language phenomena.

Variation in actualising a word or a phrase in a sentence is organically combined with changes in the order of words.

The grammatical arrangement of words in such patterns may well illustrate the fact that the formal and the logical subject of the utterance are two independent elements.

The hierarchy of the components of the utterance is generally made explicit by their syntagmatic relations in the grammatical organisation of the sentence.

We naturally cannot say that every sentence must necessarily consist of two such sections. Some sentences, one-member sentences, in particular, cannot be divided up in this way, and things are not clear with some other types.

However, most sentences do consist of these two sections and the relation between the syntactic structure of the sentence and its division into those two sections merit consideration.

In most Indo-European languages the logical structure of the thought expressed by a sentence is indicated by word-order but the functional value of the order of words is naturally not always the same in languages of different types, where we always find their own idiosyncratic traits and conventional practices of different character.

In a language with a highly developed morphological system and free word order arrangement the order of words is widely used as a means to make the functional sentence perspective explicit.

In languages like English or French, for instance, the grammatical function of the fixed word-order does not always permit the rearrangement of sentence-elements.

Recourse is often made to other linguistic devices doing this duty, e. g.: specific syntactic patterns, articles, particles and adverbs of emphatic precision (even, only, merely, solely, too, just, notably, particularly, especially, positively, etc.), prosodic (suprasegmental) means, such as variation in pitch, emphatic stress, pausation, etc.

The classifying indefinite article is very often used to introduce something that makes part of the new information. Examples are numerous.

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Examine the following for illustration:

1. (а) Девушка выглянула из окна.

Т R

(b) Из окна выглянула девушка. Т R

(a) The girl looked out of the window.

T R

(b) A girl looked out of the window.

R T

2. Лесничество было недалеко от деревни.

T R

Недалеко от деревни было лесничество. T R

(a) The forestry was near the village.

T R

(b) There was a forestry near the village.

R T

The functional sentence perspective (FSP) in Russian is signalled by the word-order arrangement: the words девушка and лесничество are the theme when they stand at the beginning of the sentence and the rheme when they are in the end-position. In English this difference is made clear by the use of the articles in (1) and the structure with "there is" in (2).

Further examples are:

When she left Ernest's a huge basket of groceries rested at the foot of the pram, and the small fortune of a pound note lay in her coat pocket. (Sillitoe)

In answer to the ring, appeared a page boy with a silver soup tureen. (Galsworthy)

The role of the order of words used to signal the T—R arrangement is most evident in examples like the following:

And fast into this perilous gulf of night walked Bosinney, and fast after him walked George. (Galsworthy)

Cf. И. Боснии шел быстро прямо в волны ночи, грозившей бедой, и так же быстро шел за ним Джордж.

The actual division of the sentence stands in vivid and clear relief in syntactic structures with double inversion by which we mean not only putting the subject before the predicate but

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separating the verbal predicate. A few typical examples are given below, others will readily occur to the student.

He stooped over the drawer where she kept her jewels; it was not locked, and came open as he pulled; the jewel box had the key in it. This surprised him until he remembered that it was sure to be empty. He opened it.

It was not empty. Divided in the little green velvet compartment, were all the things he had given her, even her watch, and stuck into the recess that contained the watch was a three-cornered note addressed "Soames Forsyte", in Irene's handwriting. (Galsworthy)

The idea about the jewel box is given in the previous sentence; the adverbial adjunct and the predicate "Divided in the little green velvet compartment were" are the starting point of the statement (the theme) and the new information is carried by the subject of the sentence "all the things he had given her, even her watch" — the rheme.

Similarly: "stuck into the recess that contained the watch was "is the theme, and the new information is carried by the subject "a three-cornered note addressed "Soames Forsyte", in Irene's handwriting"— the rheme.

It is interesting to observe that in sentence patterns of the given type the subject often has a lengthy attribute attached to it, which adds to its rhematic quality and semantic prevalence in the whole statement.

In different speech events the components of the functional sentence perspective may correspond to different sentence-elements. In each case variation in the T—R arrangement as motivated by the consituation will be made clear by variation in prosody.

(a) John is going to Spain next week.

T R

→ an answer to the question: "When is John going to Spain?"

(b) John is going to Spain next week.

T R T

Syntactic means to express the rhematic quality of the subject include also structures of predication with the passive verb-forms and converted subject introduced by the preposition by.

Fixed phrases of emphatic precision it is... (it was) also can, by situation, lay emphasis on any part of the sentence and intensify its rhematic quality.

Sentences that are introduced by it is (it was...) have special traits of their patterning and are logically interesting. We may reasonably say that they homonymically combine a grammatical and a stylistic meaning always signalled by the speech context or situation.

The use of such structures is always a logical result of the previous linguistic situations, and it is but natural that only the syntactical context can define their functional and stylistic value, with all the subtle shades of subjective modal force potentially implicit in them.

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Variation in actualising a word or a phrase in a sentence is organically combined with changes in the order of words. The two devices in such structures appear inextricably involved and are inseparable.

The grammatical arrangement of words in these patterns may well illustrate the fact that the formal and the logical subject in a sentence are two independent elements.

The it-inversion is useful in all types of prose as filling the position of the sentence opener with a structural word that enables postponement of the theme.

The foremost notion in the speaker's thoughts, i. e. the logical subject of the utterance is the element introduced by it is... (it was ...).

When we say It is the teacher that decides or It was the student I was looking for, we mean: the teacher is the deciding person and the student was the young man I was looking for. The relative clause thus does not restrict the teacher or the student but obviously belongs to it. It is coffee I like best of all may be easily transformed into Coffee is what I like best of all. This seems to explain why in such sentences we can have a that-clause or a contact-clause after a word which is in itself so definite that it cannot be further restricted:

It is he that must decide.

It was our victory that saved the whole world from fascist slavery.

We cannot fail to see this logical connection in some proverbial sentences, which, analysed differently, will give no sense:

It is an ill bird that fouls its own nest.

The linguistic essence of structures with it is, it was has been variously treated by grammarians. Patterns of this sort are sometimes referred to as special emphatic forms of a simple sentence (H. Poutsma, O. Jespersen), complex sentences with emphatic attributive clauses (E. Kruisinga), complex sentences with subordinate subject clauses (G. Curme)1.

Any part of the sentence can thus be made prominent and intensified in its emphatic quality. Examples follow:

a) t h e s u b j e с t of the sentence:

It was not she who was after them, but they after her. (Galsworthy) The problem in the background of her consciousness was how to help him, and she turned the conversation in that direction, but it was Martin who came to the point first. (London)

b) t h e o b j e c t of the sentence:

He it was whom they cheered. (Bates)

c) the prepositional object:

It was not the results of their experiments that we disapproved of, but some diagrams (the results of their experiment — the rheme of the sentence).

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d)the attributive adjunct: It's an ill wind that blows nobody good (proverb).

e) a d verb і a 1 s of time:

It was at this time that he wrote letters of enquiry to the general... (London)

f) adverbials of manner:

It was thus that Frank Algernon Cowperwood's Chicago financial career was definitely launched. (Dreiser)

With reference to persons, sentence-patterns with the pronoun he or she are also common.

He would indeed be a clever man who could decipher this old manuscript.

As a matter of fact structures with it is (it was) combine two functions: expressing syntactic relations of subordination and laying logical emphasis on what is prominent in the speaker's mind by placing the words expressing the given idea in an unusual position.

It is to be noted that patterns of this kind are often a logical consequence of a lengthy narration developing in certain sequence. The stylistic aspect of the structure is defined by the context which is always explicit enough to make the meaning clear.

Euphemia Forsyte, who happened to be in the room — she had come round to borrow the Rev. Mr. Scoles' last novel "Passion and Paregoric", which was having such a vogue — chimed in.

"I saw Irene yesterday at the Stores;" she said" and Mr. Bosinney were having a nice little chat in the Groceries."

It was thus, simply, that she recorded a scene which had really made a deep and complicated impression on her. (Galsworthy)

As B. Ilyish very rightly points out, there are some other points to be made concerning the thematic and rhematic analysis.

The theme need not necessarily be something known in advance. In many sentences it is, in fact, something already familiar, as in some of our examples, especially with the definite article. However, that need not always be the case. There are sentences in which the theme, too, is something mentioned for the first time and yet it is not the centre of the predication. It is something about which a statement is to be made. The theme is here the starting point of the sentence, not its conclusion. This will be found to be the case, for example, in the following sentence: Jennie leaned forward and touched him on the knee. (Wilson) which is the opening sentence of a short story. Nothing in this sentence can be already familiar, as nothing has preceded and the reader does not know either who Jennie is or who ,,he" is. What are we, then to say about the theme and the rheme in this sentence? Apparently, there are two ways of dealing with this question. Either we will say that Jennie represents the theme and the rest of the sentence, leaned forward and touched him on the knee, its rheme.

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Or else we will say that there is no theme at all here, that the whole of the sentence represents the rheme, or perhaps that the whole division into theme and rheme cannot be applied here. Though both views are plausible the first seems preferable. We will prefer to say that Jennie represents the theme, and emphasise that the theme in this case is not something already familiar but the starting point of the sentence.

Literature.

1. N.M.Rayevska Modern English Grammar, For Senior Courses of the Foreign Language Faculties in Universities and Teachers' Training Colleges, VYŠČA SKOLA PUBLISHERS KIEV — 1976- 304c.

Theme 2. Grammatical categories of the English language. Ways of translation of passive constructions into the Russian language. Extension and systematization of knowledge of grammatical material necessary for the translation of scientific literature on specialties.

GENERAL NOTION OF THE PROBLEM OF GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR, part 1.

The immediate expression of grammatical time, or "tense", is one of the typical functions of the finite verb. It is typical because the meaning of process, inherently embedded in the verbal lexeme, finds the complete realization only if presented in certain time conditions. That is why the expression or non-expression of grammatical time, together with the expression or non-expression of grammatical mood in person-form presentation constitutes the basis of the verbal category of finitude, i.e. the basis of the division of all the forms of the verb into finite and non-finite.

When speaking of the expression of time exposes it as the universal form of the continual consecutive change of phenomena, time, as well as, space is the basic forms of the existence of matter, they both are ineluctable properties of reality and as such are absolutely independent of human perception. On the other hand, like other objective factors of the universe, time is reflected by man through his perceptions and intellect, and finds its expression in his language.

It is but natural that time as the universal form of consecutive change of things should be appraised by the individual in reference to the moment of his immediate perception of the outward reality. This moment of immediate perception, or "present moment", which is continually shifting in time, and the linguistic content of which is the "moment of speech", serves as the democration line between the past and the future. All the lexical expressions of time, according to as they refer or do not refer the denoted points or periods of time, directly or obliquely to this moment are divided into "present oriented" or "absolutives" expressions of time.

The absolute time denotation in compliance with the experience gained by man in the course of his cognitive activity distributes the intellective perception of time among three spheres the sphere of the present with the present moment included within its framework the sphere of the present by way of retrospect; the sphere of the present day by way of prospect.

Thus, words and phrases like now, last week, in our century, in the past, in the years to come, very soon, yesterday, in a couple days, giving a temporial characteristic to an event from the point of view of its orientation in reference to the present moment, are absolute names of time.

The non-absolute time denotation does not characterize an event in terms of orientation towards the present. This kind of denotation may be either "relative" or "factual".

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The relative expression of time correlates two or more events showing some of them either as preceding the others, or following the others, or happening at one and the same time with them. Here belong such words and phrases as after that, before that, at one and the same time with, so time later, at an interval of a day, or different times, etc.

The factual expression of time either directly states the astronomical time of an event, or else conveys this meaning in terms of historical landmarks. Under this heading should be listed such words and phrases as in the year 1966, during the time of the First World War, at the epoch of Napaleon, at the early period of civilization.

In the context of real speech the above types of time of naming are used in combination with one another, so that the denoted event receives many sided and very exact characterization regarding its temporal status.

Of all the temporal meanings conveyed by such detailing lexical denotation of temporal meaning conveyed by such detailing lexical denotation of time, the finite verb generalizes in its categorical forms only the most abstract significations, taking them as dynamic characteristics of the reflected process. The fundamental divisions both absolute time and of non-absolute relative time find in the verb a specific presentation, idiomatically different from one language to another. The form of this presentation is dependent, the same as with the expression of other grammatical meanings, on the concrete semantic features chosen by a language as a basis for the functional differention within the verb lexeme. And it is the verbal expressions of abstract, grammatical time that forms the necessary background serving as a universal temporal "polarizer" and "leader", the marking of time would be utterly inadequate. Indeed, what informative content should be following passage convey with all its lexical indications of time, if it were with all its lexical indications of time achieved through the forms of the verb – the unit of the lexicon which the German grammarians very significantly call "zuwort" – the "time word".

My own birthday passed without ceremony, I would as usual, in the morning and in the afternoon went for a walk in the solitary woods behind my house. I have never been able to discover what it is that gives these woods their mysterious attractiveness. They are like no woods I have ever known (S.Maugham).

In Modern English, the grammatical expression of verbal time, i.e. tense, is effected in two correlated stages. At the first stage, the process receives an absolute time characteristic by means of apposing the past tense to the present tense.

The marked member of the opposition is the past form. At the second stage, the process receives a non- absolute relative time characteristic by means of opposing the forms of the future tense to the forms of no future making. Since the two stages of the denotation are expressed separately, by their own oppositional forms and besides, have essentially different orientation characteristics, it stands to reason to recognize in the system of the English verb not one but two temporal categories. Both of them answer the question: in the "what is the terming of the process?" But the first category, having the past tense as its strong member, expresses a direct retrospective evalution of the time of the event reflected on the utterance finds its adequated location in the temporal context, showing all the distinctive propeties of the lingual presentation of time mentioned above.

In accord with oppositional marking of the two temporal categories under analysis, we shall call the first of them the category of "prospective time", or contractedly prospect.

The category of primary time, as has just been stated, provides for the absolutive expression of the time of the process denoted by the verb, i.e. such an expression of it as given its evolution, in the long run, in reference to the moment of suffix –(e)d, nemic interchange of more or less individual

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specifications. The suffix marks the verbal form of the past time leaving the opposite is to be rendered by the formula "the past tense – the present tense", the latter member representing the non-fast tense according to the accepted oppositional interpretation.

The specific features of the category of primary time, that it divides all the tense forms of the English verb into two temporal planes: the plane of the present and the plane of the past, which affect also the future forms very important in this respect is the structural nature of the expression of the category: the category of primary time is the only verbal category of primary time is only the category of immanent order which is expressed by inflexional forms. These inflexion forms of the past and present coexist in the same verb+entry to speech with the other, analytical models of various categorical expression, including the futures; on the other hand, the future of the present, is prospected from the present; on the other hand, the future of by the speaker the meaning of the present with this connotation will be conveyed by such phrases at this very moment, or this instant, or exactly now, or some other phrase like that. But an utterance like "now while i’m speaking" breaks the notion of the zero time proper, since the speaking process is not a momentary but a durative element. Furthermore, the present will still be the present if we relate to such vast periods of time as this month, this year, in our epoch, in the present millennium, etc. The denoted stretch of time may be prolonged by a collocation like that beyond any definite limit. Still furthermore, in utterances of general truths as for instance, "Two plus two makes four" or "The sun is a star", the idea of time as such is almost suppressed the implication of constancy, unchangeability of the truth at all times being made prominent. The present tense as the verbal form of generalized meaning covers all these denotations, showing the present time in relation to the process as inclusive of the moment of speech incorporating this moment within its definite or indefinite stretch and opposed to the past time.

Thus, if we say, "Two plus two makes four", the linguistic implication of it is "always, and so at the moment of speech". If we say "I never take his advice", we mean linguistically "at no time in terms of the current state of my attitude towards him, and so at the present moment". If we say, "In our millennium social formations change quicker than in the previous periods of man’s history", the linguistic temporal content of it is "in our millennium, that is, in the millennium including the moment of speech". This meaning is the invariant of the present, developed from its categorical opposition to the past, and it penetrates the uses of the finite verb in all its forms, including the perfect, the future, and the continuous.

Indeed, if the radio carries the news, "The two suspected terrorists have been taken into custody by the police", the implication of the moment of speech refers to the direct influence or after-effects of the event announced. Similarly the statement "You will be informed about the decision later in the day" describes the event, which although it ahs not yet happened, is prospected into the future from the present, i.e. prospection itself incorporates the moment of speech. As for the present continuous its relevance for to present moment it self-evident.

This, the analyzed meaning of the verbal present arises as a result of its immediate contrast with the past form which shows the exclusion of the action from the plane of the present and so the action itself as capable of being perceived all the verbal forms of the past, including the perfect, the future and the continuous. Due to the marked character of the past verbal form, the said quality of its meaning does not require special demonstration.

Worthy of note, however, are utterances where the meaning of the past tense stands in contrast with the meaning of some adverbial phrase reffering the event to the present moment. Cf.: Today again I spoke to Mr. Jones on the matter, and again he failed to see the urgency of it.

The seeming linguistic paradox of such cases consists exactly in the fact that their two-typed indications of time, one verbal grammatical and one adverbial-lexical approach the same event from two

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of opposite analysis. But there is nothing irrational here. As a matter of fact, the utterances present instances of two-plane temporal evaluation of the event described: the verb-form shows the process as part and gone, i.e. physically disconnected from the resent as for the adverbial modifier, it presents the past eent as a particular happening, belonging to a more general time situation which is stretch out up to the present moment inclusive, and possibly past the present moment into the future.

A case directly opposite to the one shown above is seen in the transpositional use of the present tense of the verb with the past adverbials, either included in the utterance as such, or else expressed in its contextual environment. E.g.: Then he turned the corner and what do you think happens next? He faces nobody else than Mr. Greggs accompanied by his private secretary!

The stylistic purpose of this transposition, known under the name of the "historic present" is to create a vivid picture of the event reflected in the utterance. This is achieved in strict accord with the functional meaning of the verbal present, sharply contrasted against the general background of the plane of the utterance content.

The combination of the verbs shall and will with the infinitive have of late become subject of renewed discussion. The controversial point about them is wether these combinations really constitute, together with the forms of the past and present, the categorical expression of verbal tense, are jus modal phrases whose expression of the future time does not differ in essence from the general future orientation of other combinations of modal verbs with the infinitive. The view that shall and will retain their modal meanings in all their uses was defended by such a recognized authority on English grammar of the older generation of the twentieth century linguists as O.Jesperson. In our times, quite a few scholars, among them the successors of Descriptive linguistics, consider these verbs as part of the general set of modal verbs, "modal auxiliaries" expressing the meanings of capability, probability, permission, obligation, and the like.

A well grounded objection is against the inclusion of the construction will+Infinitive. In the tense system of the verb on the same basis as the forms of the present and the past has been advanced by L.S.Barhudarov. His objection consists in the demonstration of the double making of this would be tense form by one and the same category; the combinations in question can express at once both the future form time and past form time which hardly makes any sense in terms of a grammatical category. Indeed, the principle of the identification of any grammatical category demands that the forms of thecategory in normal use shoul be mutually exclusive. The category is constituted by the opposition of its forms, not by their co-opposition.

However, reconsidering the status of construction shall/will+Infinitive in the eight of oppositional approach, we see that, far from comparing with the past – present verbal forms as the third member – form of the category of primary time, it marks its own grammatical category, namely, that of prospective time. The meaningful contrast underlying the category of prospect time is between an after action and non- after-action. The after-action or the future having its shall/will – feature, constitutes the marked member of the opposition.

The category of prospect is also temporal, in so far as it is immediately connected with the expression of processual time, like the category of primary time. But the semantic basis of the category of prospect is different in principle from that of the category of primary time: while the primary time is absolutive, i.e. present – oriented the prospective time is purely relative; it means that the future form of the verb only shows that the denoted process id prospected as an after-action relative to some other action or state or event, the timing of which marks the zero-level for it. The two are presented, as it were, in prospective coordination: one is shown as prospected for the future, the future being relative to the primary time either present or past. As a result, the expression of the future receives the two mutually

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complementary manifestations: one manifestation for the present time – plane of the verb, the other manifestation for the past time – plane of the verb. In other words, the process of the verb is characterized by the category of prospect irrespective of its primary time characteristics, or rather as addition to this characteristic, and this is quite similar to all the other categories capable of entering the sphere of verbal time, e.g. the category of development (continuous in opposition), the category of retrospective coordination (perfect in opposition), the category of voice (passive in opposition): the respective forms of all these categories also have the past and present versions, to which in due course, are added the future and non0future versions. Consider the following examples: 1) I was making a road and all the coolest stunk. 2) None of us doubted in the least that Aunt Emma would soon be marveling again at Eustace’s challenging success. 3) The next thing she wrote she sent to a magazine, and for many weeks worried about what would happen to it. 4) She did not protest for she had given up the struggle. 5) Felix knew that they would have settled the dispute by the time he could be ready to have his say. 6) He was being watched chased by that despicable going of hirelings.

As we have already stated before, the future tenses reject the do-forms of the indefinite aspect, which are confined to the expression of the present and past verbal times only. This fact serves as a supplementary ground for the identification of the expression of protest as a separate grammatical category.

Of course, it would be an ill turn to grammar if one tried to introduce the above circumstational terminology with all its pedantic strings of "non’s" into the elementary teaching of language. The stringed categorical "non-terms" are apparently too redundant to be recommended for ordinary use even at an advaced level of linguistic training. What is achieved by this kind of terminology, however, is a comprehensive indication of the categorical status of verb-forms under analysis in a compact tense presentation. Thus whenever a presentation like that is called for, the terms will be quite in their place.

In analyzing the English future tenses the modal factor naturally should be through taken into consideration. A certain modal colouring of the meaning of the English future cannot be denied especially in the verbal form of the first person. But then, as is widely known, the expression of the future in other languages is not disconnect from modal semantics either and this is conditioned by the mere fact that the future action, as different from the present or past action, as different from the present or past action, cannot be looked upon as a genuine feature of reality. Indeed, it is only foreseen, or anticipated, or planned, or desired, or otherwise prospected for the time to come. In this quality, the Russian future tense does not differ in principle from the verbal future of other languages, including English, suffice it to give a couple of examples chosen at random:

Я буду рассказывать тебе интересные истории. Расскажу о страшных кометах, о битве воздушных кораблей, о гибели прекрасной страны по ту строну гор. Тебе не будет скучно любить меня (А.Толстой). Немедленно на берег.

The future of forms of the verbs in the future of the above Russian examples clearly expresses promise; those in the second examples render a command.

Moreover, in the system of the Russian tenses there is a specialized modal form of analytical future expressing intention (the combination of the verb стать with the imperfective infinitive). E.g. Что же вы теперь хотите делать? – Тебе это не касается что я стану делать. Я план обдумываю. (А.Толстой)

Within the framework of the universal meaningful feature of the verbal future, the future of the English verb is highly specific in so far as its auxiliaries in their very immediate etymology are words of obligation and tne survival of the respective connotations in them in backed by the inherent quality of the

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future as such. Still on the whole, the English categorical future of differs distinctly from the modal constructions with the same predicator verbs.

In the clear-out modal uses of the verbs shall and will the idea of the future either is not expressed at all or else is only rendered by way of textual connotation, the central semantic accent being laid on the expression of obligation, necessary, inevitability, promise, intention, desire. These meanings may be easily seen both on the examples of ready phraseological citation, and genuine everyday conversation exchanges.

The modal nature of the shall/will+Infinitive combinations in the cited examples can be shown by means of equivalent substitution:

He who does not work must not eat either… All right Mr. Crackenthorpe, I promise to have it cooked… None are so deaf those who do not want to hear… I intend not to allow a woman to come near the place.

A counting for the modal meanings of the combinations under analysis, traditional grammar gives the following rules: shall + Infinitive with the first person, will + Infinitve with the second and the third persons express modal meanings, the most typical of which are intention or desire part for I will and promise or command on the part of the speaker for you shall, he will. Both rules apply to refined British English. In American English with all the persons, shall as expressing modality.

However, the cited description, though distinguished by elegant simplicity, cannot be taken as fully agreeing with the existing lingual practice. The main feature of this description contradicted by practice is the British use of will the first person without distinctly pronounced modal connotations. Cf.:

I will call for you and your young man at seven o’clock. When we wake I will take him up and carry him back. I will let you know on Wednesday what expenses have been necessary. If you wait there on Thursday evening between seven and eight I will come if I can.

That the combinations of will with the infinitive in the above examples do express the future time, admits of no disputes. Furthermore, these combinations, seemingly, are charged with modal connotations in no higher degree than the corresponding combination of shall with the infinitive. Cf.:

Haven’t time, I shall miss my train. I shall be happy to carry it to the House of Lords, if necessary. You never kow what may happen I shan’t have a minute’s peace.

Granted our semantic institutions about the exemplified, uses are true, the question then arises what is the real difference if any, between the two British first person expressions of the future, on with shall the other one with will? Or are they actually just semantic doublets, i.e. units of complete synonymy, bound if by the paradigmatic relation of the alternation?

Observing combinations with will instylisticall neutral collocations the first step of our study we note the adverbial of time used with this construction. The environmental expressions, as well as implications, of future time do testify that from this point of view there is no difference between will and shall both of them eqully conveying the idea of the future action expressed by the adjoining infinitive.

As our next step of inferences, nothing the types of the infinitive environmental semantics of will in contrast to the contextual background of shall, we state that the first person will – future express an option does not at all imply that the speaker actually wishes to perform the action or else that he is determined to perform it, possibly in defiance of some contrary force. The exposition of the action shows it as being not bound or by any special influence except the speaker’s option; this is exhaustive

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characteristic. In keeping with this, the form of the will- future in question may be tentatively called in "voluntary future".

On other hand, comparing the environmental characteristics of shall with the corresponding environmental background of will it is easy to see that, as different from will the first person shall expresses of future process that will be realized without the will of the speaker, irrespective of his choice. Inform of the first person future should be referred to as the non-voluntary i.e. as the weak member of the corresponding opposition.

Further observation of the relevant textual data show that some verbs constituting a typical environment of the non-voluntary shall-future occur also with the voluntary will, but in a different meaning, namely in the meaning of an active action the performance of which is freely chosen by the speaker of. Your arrival cannot have been announced to his majesty. I will see about it.

At the final stage of our study the disclosed characteristics of the two first-person futures are checked on the lines of transformal analysis. The method will consist not in free structural manipulations with the analyzed constructions, but in the textual search for the respective changes of the auxiliaries depending on the changes in the infinitival environment.

Applying these procedures to the texts, we note that when the construction of the voluntary will – future is expanded a syntactic part re-modeling the whole collocation into one expressing an indunatary action, the auxiliary will is automatically replaced by shall. In particular, it happens when the expanding elements convey the meaning of supposition or uncertainty. Cf.:

Give me a goddess’s work to do, and I shall do it. I don’t know what shall do with Barbara. Oh, the only very well, very well. I will write another prescription. I shall perhaps write to your mother.

Thus, we conclude that within the system of the English future tense a peculiar minor category is expressed which affects only the forms of the first person. The category is constituted by the opposition of the forms will+Infintive and shall+Infinitive expressing respectively the voluntary future and the non-voluntary future.

The future in the second and third persons, formed by the indiscriminate auxiliary will does not express this category, which is dependent on the semantics of the persons: normally it would be irrelevant to indicate in an obligatory way the aspect of futurity option otherwise than with first person, i.e. the person of self.

This category is neutralized in the contracted form –‘ll, which is of necessity indifferent to the expression of the futurity opposition. As is known, the traditional analysis of the contracted future states that –‘ll stands for will, not for shall. However, this view is not supported by textual data. Indeed, bearing in mind the results of our study, it is easy to demonstrate that the contracted forms of the future may be traced both to will and to shall.

Form the evidence afforted by the historical studies of the language we know that the English contracted form of the future –ll has actually originated from the auxiliary will. So, in Modern English an interesting process of redistribution of the forms ha staken place, based apparently on the contamination will –‘ll –shall. As a result, the form –‘ll in the first person expresses not the same "pure" future as it the expresses by the indiscriminate will in the second and third persons.

The described system of the British future is by for more complicated than the expression of the future tense in the other notional variants of English in particular, in American English where the future form of the first person is functionally equal with the other persons. In British English a possible tendency

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to a similar leveled expression of the future is actively counteractions of the future auxiliarities in the negative form, i.e. shan’t and survival of shall in the first person against the leveled positive contraction –ll’. The second is the use of the future tense in interrogative sentences where the first person only shall is normally used. Indeed it is quite natural that a genuine question directed by the speaker to himself, i.e. a question directed by the speaker to himself, i.e. a question showing doubt or speculation, is to be asked about an action of non-wilful, involuntary order, and not otherwise. Cf.: what shall we be shown next? Shall I be able to master shorthand professionally? The question was, should I see Beatrice again before her departure.

The semantics of the first person futurity question is such that even the infinitives of essentially volution governed actions are transferred here to the plane of non-volution, subordinating themselves to the general implication of doubt, hesitation, and uncertainty.

Apart from shall/will+Infinitive construction, there is another construction in English which the framework of the general problem of the future tense. This is the combination of the predicator be going with the infinitive. Indeed, the high frequency occurrence of this construction in contexts conveying the idea of an immediate future action can’t but draw a vey close attention on the part of a linguistic observer.

The combination may denote a sheer intention to perform the action expressed by the infinitive thus entering into the vast set of "classical" modal constructions.

I’m going to ask you a few more questions about the mysterious disappearance of the document. Mr.Greff. he looked across at my desk and I thought for a moment he was going to give me the treatment too.

But these simple modal uses of be going are countered by cases the direct meaning of intention rendered by the predicator stands in contradiction with its environmental implications and is subdued by them. Cf.: You are trying to frighten me. But are not going to frighten me any more (L.Helman). I did not know now I was going to get out of the room (D.du.Mawren).

Moreover, the construction dispute its primary meaning of intention presupposing a human subject is not infrequently used with non-human subjects is not infrequently asked used with non0human subjects and even in impersonal sentences. Cf.: She knew what she was doing and she was sure going to be the worth doing (W.Sarayan). There is going to be a contest over Ezra Grolley’s estate (E.Gardener).

Because of these properties it would appear tempting to class the construction in question as a specific tense form, namely, the tense form of "immediate future", analogous to the French future immadiat (Le spectacle va carn mencer).

Still, on closer consideration, we notice that non-intention cases of the predicator be going are not indifferent stylistically. Far from being neutral, they more often than not display emotional coloring mixed with semantic connotations of oblique modality.

For instance, when the girl from the first of the above examples appreciates something as "going to be worth doing; she is expressing her assurance of its being so. When one labels the rain as "never going to stop" one clearly expresses one’s annoyance at the bad state of the weather. When a future event is introduced by the formula "there to be going to be", as is the case in the second of the cited examples, the speaker clearly implies his foresight of a like nature. Thus, on the whole, the non-intention uses of the construction be going+Infinitive cannot be rationally divided into modal and non-modal, on the analogy of the construction shall/will+Infinitive. It broader combinability is based on semantic transposition and can be likened to broader uses of the modal collocation be about, also of basically intention semantics.

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The oppositional basis of the category of perspective time is neutralized in certain uses, in keeping with the general regularities of oppositional reductions. The process of neutralization is connected with the shifting of the forms of primary time (present and past) from the sphere of absolute tenses into the sphere of relative tenses.

One of the typical cases of the neutralization in question consists in using a non-future temporal form to express a future action which is to take place according to some plan or arrangement. Cf.: The government meets in emergency session today over the question of continued violations of the cease-fire. I hear your sister is soon arriving from Paris? Naturally I would like to know when he’s coming, etc.

This case of oppositional reduction is oppositional; the equivalent reconstruction of the correlated member of the opposition is nearly always possible. Cf.: The government will meet in emergency session… Your sister will soon arrive from Paris? When will he be coming?

Another type of neutralization of the prospective time opposition is observed in modal verbs and modal word combinations. The basic peculiarity of these units bearing on the expression of time is, that the prospective implication is inherently in-built in their semantics, which reflects not the action expressed by the infinitive. For that reason, the present verb-form of these units actually renders the idea of the future. Cf.: There is no saying what may happen next. At any rate, the woman was sure to come later in the day. But do you have to present the report before Sunday, there’s no alternative.

Sometimes the explicit expression of the future is necessary even with modal collocations. To make up for the lacking categorical forms, special modal substitutes have been developed in language, some of which have received the status of suppletive units. Cf.: But do not make plans with David. You will not be able to carry them out. Things will have to go one way or the other.

Alongside of the above and very different from them, there is still another typical case of neutralization of the analyzed categorical opposition, which is strictly obligatory. It occurs in clauses of time and condition. Whose verb-predicate expresses a future action? Cf.: If things turn out as has been arranged, the triumph will be all ours. I repeated my request to notify me at once whenever the messenger arrived.

The latter type of neutralization is syntactically conditioned. In point of fact, the neutralization consists here in the primary tenses shifting from the sphere of absolutive time into the sphere of relative time, since they become dependent not on their immediate orientation towards the moment of speech, but on the relation to another time level, namely, the time level presented in the governing clause of corresponding complex sentence.

This kind of neutralizing relative use of absolutive tense forms occupies a restricted position in the integral tense system of English. In Russian, the syntactic relative use of tenses is, on the contrary, widely spread. In particular, this refers to the presentation of reported speech in the plane of past, where the Russian present tense is changed into the tense of similarity, the past tense is changed into the tense of priority, and the future tense is changed in the tense of prospected posteriority. Cf.: 1) Он сказал, что изучает немецкий язык. 2) Он сказал, что изучал немецкий язык. 3) Он сказал, что будет изучать немецкий язык.

In English, the primary tenses in similar syntactic condition retain their absolutive nature and are used in keeping with their direct, unchangeable meanings. Compare the respective translations of the examples cited above: 1) He said that he was learning German. 2) He said that he had learned German. 3) he said that he would learn German.

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It doesn’t follow from this that rule of sequence of tenses in English complex sentences formulated by traditional grammar should be rejected as false. Sequence of tenses is an important feature of all narration, for, depending in the continual consecutive course of actual events in reality; they are presented in the text in definite successions ordered against a common general background. However, what should be stressed here is that the tense-shift involved in the translation of the present-plane reported information into the present0plane reported information is not a formal, but essentially a meaningful procedure.

Literature.

1. Ахмедова О.С. Современные синтаксические теории. М., 1963 стр.2582. Бархударов Л.С. Структура простого предложения современного английского языка. М., 1966 стр.3213. Бархударов Л.С., Штелинг Д.А. Грамматика английского языка. М., 1973 стр.3264. Блох М.Я. Вопросы изучения грамматического строя языка. М., 1976 стр.3125. Блумфилд Л. Язык. М., 1968 стр.2436. Бурланова В.В. Осиновые структуры словосочетания в современном английском языке. Л., 1975 стр. 2647. Воронцова Г.Я. Очерки по грамматики английского языка. М., 19608. Гальперин И.Р. Текст как объект линвитического исследования. М., 1981. стр. 2799. Дольгова О.В. Семиотика неправильной речи. М., 1980 стр. 27210. Есперсон О. Философия грамматики. М, 1958 стр.35911. Жегадло В.Я. Иванова И.Я. Иофик Л.Л. Современный английский язык. М., 1956 стр.37612. Иванова ИЯ. Вид и время в современном английском языке Л. 1961 стр. 29613. Иванова ИЯ., Бурланова В.В. Теоретическая грамматика современного английского языка. М., 1981 стр. 32714. Кошева И.Г. Грамматический строй современного английского языка. М., 1978 стр. 21915. Корнева Е.А., Кабрина Я.Д. Гузаева К.А. Пособие по морфологии современного английского языка. М., 1978 стр. 21916. Лайонз. Дж. Введение в теоритескую лингвистику. М., 1978 стр.32017. Иртеньева Я.Ф. Грамматика современного английского языка (теоритический курс). М. 195618. Мухин А.М. Структура предложений и их моделиЛ.,1968. стр. 26019. Плоткин В.Я. Грамматические системы современного английского языка. К., 1975 стр.25220. Погепцев Г.Г Конструктивный анализ структуры предложения К. 1971 стр.22421. Слюсараева Я.А Проблемы функционального синтаксиса современного английского языка. М., 1981 стр.35722. Смиринцкий А.И. Синтаксис английского языка. М., стр.25223. Смиринцкий А.И Морфология английского языка М., 1959 стр 56

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GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, part 2.In the previous chapter, we introduced the distinction between lexical and grammatical morphemes, but apart from listing the inflectional affixes of English, we were — in our discussion of the processes of word formation — primarily concerned with lexical morphemes. We return now to grammatical morphemes, focusing on the diversity of their meanings and forms in English. You will recall that grammatical morphemes may be either free roots (function words) or bound affixes (inflectional suffixes). Semantically, grammatical morphemes express grammatical notions such as number or tense, what are called the grammatical categories. In this section, we will look in more detail at the different grammatical categories, the terms of each category (the distinctions made within each category), and the means by which they are expressed in English. In synthetic languages, such as Classical Latin or Greek, the grammatical categories are expressed almost exclusively by inflectional endings, whereas in analytic languages, such as Modern English or Modern French, the grammatical categories are expressed

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primarily by word order (the position of a word in a sentence) and by function words, as well as by a few inflections.1 A phrase containing a function word which is functionally equivalent to an inflection is called a periphrasis, or periphrastic form. For example, in English, we can express the possessive either by an inflection -’s (as in Alicia’s cat) or by a periphrasis with of (as in the leg of the table) Let us look first at the concept of a grammatical category, which is rather difficult to define. It is important to keep in mind that a grammatical category is a linguistic, not a real world category, and that there is not always a one-to-one correspondence between the two, though they are usually closely related. For example “tense” is a linguistic category, while “time” is a category of the world. While past tense usually expresses past time (as in I saw a movie last night), the past-tense auxiliary in the following expresses future time: I wish you would go. And the present-tense verb of I leave tomorrow expresses future time. Furthermore, grammatical categories can be either formal or notional categories. In the first case, they are identified by the formal distinctions made in a language solely by means of inflection. By these criteria, English, for example, would be said to have only two tense distinctions, past and present (as in work/worked). In the second case, however, there is assumed to be a universal set of grammatical categories and terms, which may or may not be expressed in a language by different means. For example, the universal tense distinctions might be considered to be past, present, and future. These are expressed in English by means of inflection and, in the case of the future, by periphrasis (as in will work). It is assumed that languages will express different sets of grammatical distinctions and will do so in different ways. Furthermore, we can differentiate between overt and covert categories. Overt categories have explicit or formal realization on the relevant part of speech, such as past tense in English verbs (the -ed inflection), while covert categories are expressed only implicitly by the cooccurrence of particular function words, such as future tense in English verbs (the will auxiliary occurring with the verb). Finally, we must decide whether a distinction is expressed systematically and regularly in a language, by regular grammatical marker, whether it is expressed idiosyncratically and lexically, by the meaning of content words. The distinction “dual” (the concept of ‘two’), which is expressed grammatically separately from plural in many languages, can be expressed in Modern English only with the lexical items both or two, not by an inflection or function word. However, in Old English, dual was expressed grammatically by special forms of the personal pronouns, that is, by wit ‘we two’ and git ‘you two’. The following inventory of grammatical categories proceeds through the nominal categories (number, gender, person, case, degree, definiteness) and then the verbal categories (tense, aspect, mood, and voice).

NumberThe first category, number, is relatively simple. There are two terms of this category in English: singular (the concept of ‘one’) and plural (the concept of ‘more than one’). Number is expressed by inflection, generally by -s: – in count nouns (dog/dogs)– in demonstratives (this/these, that/those)– in the 1st and 3rd p of personal pronouns (I/we), possessive determiners (my/our),possessive pronouns (mine/ours), and reflexive pronouns (myself/ourselves), but not in the 2nd p.Note that for historical reasons the idiosyncratic forms of the personal pronouns are considered “inflected forms”, though they do not always contain separable inflectional endings. Number is also expressed by distinct forms of certain pronouns and adjectives: – singular: every, each, someone, anybody, a/an– plural: all, many, few, several, mostNumber is also expressed in a limited way in verbs, by the singular -s of the 3rd p which occurs in the present but not in the past tense (he writes versus they write, he wrote). Number is expressed more fully in the inflected forms of the verb ‘to be’ (singular am, is, was, plural are, were), which because of its high frequency, tends to preserve inflections more fully than do other

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verbs. (Note: the history of the English language has involved a gradual loss of inflections in all parts of speech.) The concept of generic number,which incorporates both singular and plural and is used when one doesn’t want to specify number, is expressed in English in three ways: a. the definite article + singular noun (The tiger may be dangerous),b. the indefinite article + singular noun (A tiger may be dangerous), andc. O article + plural of count nouns or singular of mass nouns (Tigers may be dangerous or Gold is valuable).

GenderEnglish has a rather straightforward system of gender called natural gender, as opposed to the seemingly less motivated system called grammatical gender. Grammatical gender, the system found in German, French, or Italian, for example, as well as in an earlier stage of English, appears to be arbitrary; here, gender is not related to the sex of the object denoted but is really just a means of subclassifying nouns as masculine/feminine or masculine/feminine/ neuter, as in German das Mдdchen (n) ‘the girl’ or French le jour (m) ‘the day’ or Italian la vita (f) ‘the life’.2 In contrast, natural gender depends on the sex of the object in the real world. In this system, we distinguish masculine, feminine, common or dual (m or f), and neuter (sexless) genders.In English, gender is expressed by inflection only in personal pronouns, and only in the 3rd person, singular he, she, it; the 1st and 2nd person forms I, we, and you are common gender, while the 3rd person plural form they is either common gender or neuter (the people … they, the boats … they). Relative and interrogative pronouns and some other pronouns inflectionally express a related category of animacy (animate/inanimate): who, whom’s. what, which, somebody/one vs. something, anybody/one vs. anything. Distinctions of animacy are variable, but commonly speakers distinguish between human beings and higher animals (the {woman, dog} who…) and lower animals and inanimate things (the {ant, stone} which…). In nouns, gender is generally a covert category shown by the cooccurrence of relevant pronouns: the boy…he, the girl…she. Note that there is nothing about the morphological form of the nouns boy and girl which would indicate that they are masculine or feminine gender. (This is generally the case in languages with grammatical gender as well; it is the accompanying article, not the shape of the noun, which reveals its gender.) However, gender may also be expressed overtly on the English noun in a number of limited ways: 1. by derivational suYxes, such as the feminine suYxes -ine (hero/heroine), -ess (god/ goddess), -rix (aviator/aviatrix), and -ette (suVragist/suVragette) or the common gender suYxes -er (baker), -ist (artist), -ian (librarian), -ster (prankster), and -ard (drunkard); 2. by compounds, such as lady-, woman-, girl-, female-, -woman or boy-, male-, gentleman-, -man;3. by separate forms for masculine, feminine, and common genders, such as boy/girl/child or rooster/hen/chicken; and 4. by separate forms for masculine and feminine genders, such as uncle/aunt, horse/mare, bachelor/spinster and proper names such as Joseph/Josephine, Henry/Henrietta.You can see that none of these means is systematic. It is significant that the feminine is always derived from the masculine, except in the case of widow/widower, presumably because women outlive men. In the case of ballerina, there is no simple masculine form. Also, it is typical for the masculine form to double as the common gender form, as with horse, though in the case of goose/gander or drake/duck, the feminine form is the common gender form, presumably because the female is more important in the barnyard economy. The marked use of the feminine gender with ships, cars, countries, fortune, art, music, and nature in Modern English is sometimes considered a remnant of grammatical gender. But it is better seen either as a kind of personification or what George Curme calls “gender of animation”, by which the object is animated and an emotional attachment is expressed. The use of neuter gender with babies (What a cute baby. What’s its name?) or callers (A person is calling for you. Who is it?) is an expediency used when the gender is unknown.

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The lack of a common gender for the 3rd person singular, especially for use following a singular indefinite pronoun such as each or every, has long been a source of difficulty in English. Traditionally, the masculine form has been used for the generic (e.g., Every child should put on his coat), but this expediency is now out-of-favor. In fact, the use of the plural their, which is gender-neutral but which violates number agreement (e.g., Every child should put on their coat), is found very early, while forms such as his or her or his/her (e.g., Every child should put on his or her coat) are newer attempts to correct this deficiency.

PersonThe category of person is quite simple. Three terms are recognized:1st person: the speaker, person speaking;2nd person: the addressee/hearer, person spoken to; and3rd person: the person or thing spoken about.Person distinctions are expressed by the inflected forms of the pronouns, for example:– personal pronouns: I you he, they– personal possessive determiners: my your his, their– personal possessive pronouns: mine yours his, theirs– personal reflexive pronouns myself yourself himself, themselvesPerson is also expressed inflectionally in the singular, present tense, indicative of verbs by the -s inflection on the 3rd person: I write vs. she writes. It is also expressed more fully in the verb ‘to be’: I am/was, we are/were (1st person), you are/were (2nd person), he/she/it is/was, they are/were (3rd person). Nouns are all 3rd person, but this is shown only covertly by the cooccurrence of pronouns: the house…it (*I, *you), the houses…they (*we, *you).The form one expresses generic person (all persons) in English, but since it is often considered rather formal, we can also use the 1st p pl, 2nd p, or 3rd p pl forms in a generic sense:one: One doesn’t do that.we: We always hear too late.you: You never can tell.they: They’ll find a cure for cancer soon.The generic you is the most common in informal usage. Finally, a few apparently deviant uses of person are the following: 3rd p for 2nd p: your excellency, your honor3rd p for 1st p: present company, the writer, your teacher, Caesar (spoken by Caesar himself)1st p for 2nd p: we won’t do that anymore, will we (spoken by a parent to a child)

CaseCase is one of the more diYcult categories. It may be defined rather simply as an indication of the function of a noun phrase, or the relationship of a noun phrase to a verb or to other noun phrases in the sentence. Case is most fully expressed in the personal and interrogative/relative pronouns, which distinguish nominative case (the function of subject), genitive case (the function of possessor), and objective case (the function of object) by diVerent inflected forms:– nominative: I, we, you, he, she, it, they, who;– genitive: my/mine, our/ours, his, her/hers, its, their/theirs, whose; and– objective: me, us, you, him, her, it, them, whom.There is no distinction between the nominative and objective form of it, nor of you (though historically the nominative form was ye, as in the archaic expression Hear ye, hear ye). The genitive includes forms which function as determiners, such as my and our, as well as forms which function as pronouns, such as mine or ours.Nouns differentiate inflectionally between the nongenitive, or common, case and the genitive:cat, cats cat’s, cats’man, men man’s, men’sWhile orthographically there appear to be four distinct forms of nouns when singular and plural, common and genitive case are considered, you should keep in mind that the apostrophe is merely orthographic so that the forms cats, cat’s, and cats’ are phonologically indistinguishable.

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Only irregular plural such as the noun man actually distinguish four forms. Beyond this, nouns can be said to distinguish nominative and objective case only by word order, by placing the noun before or after the verb, respectively, in the usual positions for subject and object in an Subject–Verb–Object language such as English. Hence, in the sentence The ship struck the dock, “the ship” could be called nominative case and “the dock” objective case, though morphologically both are common case This ordering principle is so strong that it may even override grammatical principles. The sentence Who did you see? is more natural than the grammatically correct Whom did you see? because in this structure the object (who) precedes rather than follows the verb, so the nominative form who is preferred. Another case distinction which can be made is dative case (the function of indirect object); this is really a subcategory of the objective case. It is shown by periphrasis with to or for or by word order: He gave the book to Jane, He gave Jane the book.What I have just presented is a simplified picture of case usage. There are other traditional cases, such as the “instrumental” or “ablative”, which I have not mentioned because they are expressed only periphrastically in Modern English, for example, with the prepositions with or from. There are also many conventional uses of cases, such as use of the nominative case after the verb ‘to be’ (e.g., It is I). In addition, the case functions are semantically complex: the same function can be expressed by different cases, as in instances where the concept of possession is expressed by either the genitive or dative case (e.g., The book is mine, The book belongs to me), or one case can express several different functions or meanings. The genitive case is an excellent example of this latter situation. It does not simply express the notion of possessor, but it indicates a variety of other notions. The following types of genitives have been identified, based on the meaning relationship holding between the noun in the genitive and the head noun:possessive genitive: Felix’s carsubjective genitive: the Queen’s arrivalobjective genitive: the city’s destructiongenitive of origin: Shakespeare’s playsdescriptive genitive: person of integritygenitive of measure: an hour’s time, a stone’s throwpartitive genitive: a member of the crowdappositive genitive: the city of VancouverOnly the first, the possessive genitive, expresses the prototypical meaning of the genitive: Felix owns his car. In contrast, the “subjective genitive” expresses the same relation as a subject does to a verb (the Queen arrives), while the “objective genitive” expresses the same relation as a direct object does to a verb (X destroys the city); it is certainly not the case that the Queen owns her arrival or that the city owns its destruction. The phrase the shooting of the hunters is ambiguous between subjective and objective genitive readings because it can mean either ‘the hunters shoot X’ or ‘X shoots the hunters’. The child’s picture is likewise ambiguous—has the child drawn the picture or has someone taken the picture of the child? The “genitive of origin” expresses the source, person, or place from which something originates. An expression such as the woman’s book could be ambiguous between the possessive genitive and the genitive of origin — does the woman own the book or has she written the book? The “descriptive genitive” is usually expressed periphrastically; the genitive noun is often equivalent to a descriptive adjective, as in man of wisdom=‘wise man’. The “genitive of measure” expresses an extent of time or space, the “partitive genitive” the whole in relation to a part. Finally, the genitive noun of the “appositive genitive” renames the head noun.Although the genitive can be expressed inflectionally with ’s or periphrastically with of NP, it is not always possible to substitute one means of expression for the other. For example, while the Queen’s arrival = the arrival of the Queen, a person of integrity ≠ *an integrity’s person or a stone’s throw ≠ a throw of a stone. Certain types of genitives, such as the partitive, descriptive, or appositive, are typically expressed only periphrastically. Another complex aspect of the genitive is the double genitive, in which periphrastic and inflectional forms cooccur: a friend of Rosa’s, no fault of his. The double genitive is necessarily indefinite (*the friend of Rosa’s) and a

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human inflected genitive (*a leg of the table’s). It normally has a partitive sense (=‘one friend among all of Rosa’s friends), though it is also possible to use it when Rosa has only one friend. Contrast a portrait of the king’s (=‘one among all the portraits (of others) that the king owns’) and a portrait of the king (=‘a portrait which depicts the king’).

DegreeDegree, unlike the nominal categories that we have been discussing, is a category that relates to adjectives and adverbs. It has three terms, positive, comparative, and superlative. While positive degree expresses a quality, comparative degree expresses greater degree or intensity of the quality in one of two items, and superlative degree expresses greatest degree or intensity of the quality in one of three or more items. The positive degree is expressed by the root of the adjective (e.g., big, beautiful) or adverb (e.g., fast, quickly)—that is, it is null-realized—while the comparative and superlative degrees are expressed either by inflection or by periphrasis (using more, most):positive O big fast beautiful quicklycomparative -er, more bigger faster more beautiful more quicklysuperlative -est, most biggest fastest most beautiful most quicklyWhether the inflection or the periphrasis is used depends upon the phonological shape of the root: monosyllabic forms are inflected as are disyllabic form sending in -y (e.g., holier), -er (e.g., bitterer), -le (e.g., littler), -ow (e.g., narrower), and -some (e.g., handsomer); all other forms occur in the periphrasis, including adverbs ending in -ly (e.g., *quicklier). Lesser degree can be expressed periphrastically with less and least, as in less big, least beautiful. Sometimes, the three degrees of a particular word are expressed by different roots, as in bad/worse/worst or good/ better/best. This is called suppletion. The paradigm of the adjective old (older/elder, oldest/ eldest) shows irregularities but is not suppletive; the irregular forms elder/eldest are specialized semantically to refer to familial relations, while the regular forms older/oldest are used in all other functions. An interesting set of inflected forms is nigh, near, next; the positive form as been lost, the old comparative has become the positive, new comparative and superlative have developed (near/nearer/nearest), and the superlative form no longer exhibits degree.For semantic reasons, not all adjectives can be inflected for degree, such as perfect, unique, round, full, empty, married, and dead. These adjectives are incomparable because they express absolute qualities. Something is either ‘dead’ or not; it cannot be more or less dead. Superlatives such as most unique are thus logically impossible, though one frequently hears such forms, where either most can only be understood as an emphatic or unique can be understood as meaning ‘unusual’. Likewise, a form such as best time, rudest remark, or closest of friends often expresses a high degree rather than a true comparison, with the superlative equivalent to ‘very’. Finally, it is also common to hear the superlative used in the comparison of two items, as in put your best foot forward.

DefinitenessThe concepts of definiteness and indefiniteness are intuitively quite simple: definite denotes a referent (a thing in the real world denoted by a noun) which is known, familiar, or identified to the speaker and hearer, while indefinite denotes a referent which is novel, unfamiliar, or not known. If we consider nouns on their own, definiteness is a covert category, obvious only in the cooccurrence of an article with a noun, either the definite article the or the indefinite article a/an, though all proper nouns and most pronouns are intrinsically definite. In actual practice, definiteness can be quite confusing. First, it intersects with the category of specificity, specific denoting a particular entity in the world and nonspecific denoting no particular entity. Frequently, specificity coincides with definiteness (the car=‘a particular car known to the hearer’) and nonspecific coincides with indefiniteness (a car=‘no particular car, not known to the hearer’), though other combinations are possible.4 Second, article usage in English is complex and in many instances arbitrary. There are several different uses for each article, articles are often omitted, and there are dialectal differences in the use of articles. Thus, article usage can be an area of grammar which is very difficult for non-native speakers to master.

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In broad outline, the major uses of the are the following:1. for something previously mentioned: yesterday I read a book…the book was about space travel;2. for a unique or fixed referent: the Prime Minister, the Lord, the Times, the Suez Canal;3. for a generic referent: (I love) the piano, (We are concerned about) the unemployed;4. for somethingwhich is part of the immediate socio-physical context or generally known: the doorbell, the kettle, the sun, the weather; 5. for something identified by a modifying expression either preceding or following the noun: the gray horse, the house at the end of the block; and6. for converting a proper noun to a common noun: the England he knew, the Shakespeare of our times, the Hell I suffered.The first use listed above is known as the anaphoric, or ‘pointing back’, use of the definite article. Many times, however, the definite article is omitted, for example, with institutions (e.g., at school), with means of transportation (e.g., by car), with times of day (e.g., at noon), with meals (e.g., at breakfast), and with illnesses (e.g., have malaria), and it is not always possible to predict when such omissions will occur. The major uses of a/an are the following:1. for something mentioned for the first time (see above);2. for something which cannot or need not be identified: (I want) a friend;3. for a generic referent: (He is) a teacher;4. equivalent to ‘any’: a (any) good book;5. equivalent to ‘one’: a week or two; and6. for converting a proper noun to a common noun: a virtual Mozart, another China.

DeixisThough not traditionally recognized as a grammatical category, deixis might be added to the list. From the Greek word meaning ‘to point’, deixis denotes the marking of objects and events with respect to a certain reference point, which is usually the time and place of speaking (the speaker’s here and now). There are four different types of deixis: personal, spatial, temporal, and textual. Personal deixis is expressed in the personal pronouns: I vs. you vs. he. As I denotes the person speaking, the referent of I changes depending on who is speaking; the referent of I is always related to the specific speech situation. (This deictic use of personal pronouns contrasts with their anaphoric use in texts, as in the boy … he.) An interesting modification of personal deixis is for social purposes, to mark a person who is socially close to or remote from the speaker, such as the use of tu/vous in French or du/Sie in German. You may also be nondeictic in its generic use (see above). Spatial deixis is expressed in certain verb pairs, such as come/go or bring/take, denoting direction towards or away from the speaker, or in adverbs and demonstratives, such here/there/(yon) or this/that, denoting position near to or far from the speaker. Temporal deixis is expressed by various adverbs relating to the time of speaking: now, then, yesterday, today, tomorrow, this morning. It is also expressed by tense, as we shall see below. The final type of deixis, textual deixis, is expressed by the articles or demonstratives, as in the following: I rode the roller coaster. {This, the ride} was very exciting. Here this or the ride refers back in the text to the sentence preceding it. Self-Testing Exercise: Do Exercise 5.1 on nominal categories.

TenseWe turn now to categories that relate strictly to the verb. The first such category is tense, which, in simple terms, is the linguistic indication of the time of an action. In fact, tense establishes a relation: it indicates the time of an event in respect to the moment of speaking (or some other reference point). If we consider the time line below, for example, we see that a past-time statement, such as It rained, or a future-time statement, such as It will rain, denotes a situation that did hold before the present moment or will hold after the present moment, respectively Past Present Future.

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This relational aspect of tense makes it a deictic category, since whether a situation is past, present, or future depends upon the moment of speaking and changes as that moment changes. Before looking at tense more closely, we should remember that tense is not the only means of expressing time in language; adverbs are commonly used for this purpose. These temporal adverbs may be either deictic, expressing time in relation to the speaker and moment of speaking, such as yesterday/today/tomorrow (i.e., past, present, future), or nondeictic, expressing absolute time, either calendric, such as Tuesday, or clock, such as at 4:00. Tense, on the other hand, is always deictic. The only tense distinction expressed inflectionally in English is that between present and past, as in walk/walked or sing/sung, even though it is conventional to talk about a three-way distinction between past, present, and future tense. However, the future is expressed periphrastically and thus is not formally parallel to the past and present. Beginning with an examination of the uses of the present tense form in English, we find that it is not, in fact, used to denote actions which are actually going on at the present time. For this, the present progressive is used, as in I am reading at this moment, not *I read at this moment. Instead, the present is used for the expression of a number of other types of temporal as well as nontemporal situations; for this reason, the term nonpast is preferred to present: 1. habits: I walk to work everyday. She smokes. We eat dinner at 6:00. 2. states: She lives at home. I like chocolate. I believe you. I have lots of work to do. The dog seeswell. I feel sick.3. generic statements: Beavers build dams. Tigers are ferocious.4. timeless statements: The sun sets in the west. Summer begins on June 21st. Two plus two is four.5. gnomic (proverbial) statements: A stitch in time saves nine. Haste makes waste.6. future statements: We leave tomorrow. I see the doctor this afternoon.7. instantaneous commentary: He shoots; he scores. Now I beat in two eggs. He pulls a rabbit out of the hat.8. plot summary: Hamlet dies at the end of the play. Emma marries Mr. Knightley.9. narration in the present (the “historical present”): Then he says …10. information present: I hear/see that Manfred has been promoted.A habit indicates a series of events that are characteristic of a period. These events constitute a whole. For habits to exist, the event (of walking to work, smoking, etc.) need not actually be going on at the present moment. States include nondynamic situations such as emotional states (love), cognitive states (understand), perceptual states (feel), bodily sensations (ache), and expressions of having and being (own, resemble). A generic statement predicates something of a numerically generic subject. Note that the diVerence between a state such as I am happy and a generic statement such as Tigers are ferocious, in addition to the nongeneric/ generic subject, is that the state refers to a specific situation and can occur with adverbs such as still, already, not yet. Timeless statements express eternal truths and laws of nature. Gnomic statements express proverbs, which though similar to eternal truths, aren’t necessarily timeless. Futures expressed with the simple present generally refer to situations that are predetermined and fixed. Instantaneous commentary occurs in sports reporting, cooking demonstrations, and magic shows, though the progressive is also possible in these contexts. This is the only use of the nonpast formfor actions actually going on at the current moment. The present is used in summarizing works of literature and in talking about artists as artistic figures, though not as actual persons (Shakespeare is the greatest writer in English vs. Shakespeare was born in Stratford on Avon). The historical present is the use of present tense for narrating informal stories and jokes, though it is being used increasingly frequently in serious literature. Finally, the information present is the use of present tense with verbs of hearing or seeing where one might expect the past tense.The uses of the past are much more unified. Generally, it denotes an event or a state in past time, as in Haydn composed the symphony in 1758 or Handel lived in England for a number of years; note that this past time is divorced from, or distinct from, the present moment. The past tense is also the usual tense of narration (even for narratives set in the future!). The past tense may

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denote a past habit (when an appropriate time adverbial is used), though there is also a special past habitual form, used to, as in I drove to work last year, I used to drive to work. But the past tense may also be used nontemporally for politeness to denote the present or the future (e.g., I was hoping you would help) and in hypothetical statements to denote the future or the unreal (e.g., If you studied more, you would do better). These are “modal” uses of the past, as we will discuss more fully below. As noted above, the future tense is expressed noninflectionally by a variety of periphrases: 1. will/shall + infinitive: I will help you tomorrow.2. the simple present: The party begins at 4:00.3. the present progressive: We’re having guests for dinner.4. be going to, be about to + infinitive: The child is going to be sick. The boat is about to leave.5. shall/will + the progressive: I will be moving next week.All of the forms of the future carry subtle differences in meaning. For example, It’s going to rain today or It’s about to rain might be uttered while looking up at a threatening rain cloud, while It will rain today could only be the prediction of the meteorologist or a report of this person’s prediction, but *It rains today is distinctly odd because it denotes the future as fact, or predetermined, and as punctual, and the progressive It’s raining today could not function as a future in this instance either. It will be raining today (when you want to mow the lawn) is possible if it denotes a situation surrounding another event. Note that commands (e.g.,Wash the dishes!) always carry a future meaning as well since you cannot command someone to do something in the past nor to be doing something at the present moment. Despite the designation of future as a tense, however, it bears a closer relation to modality than to tense since it expresses what is not (yet) fact (see below).

AspectThe category of aspect is one more often applied to languages such as Russian or Hopi, but it is, in fact, equally applicable to English since the so-called “compound tenses”, the perfect and the progressive, are better treated as expressions of the aspect. Aspect (which translates the Russian term for ‘view’) can be defined as the view taken of an event, or the “aspect” under which it is considered, basically whether it is seen as complete and whole (perfective aspect) or as incomplete and ongoing (imperfective aspect). The simple past tense in English is perfective in aspect since it views events as complete and whole, e.g., Yesterday, I drove to town, ran some errands, and visited with my friends. The progressive periphrasis, consisting of be + the present participle, presents actions as in progress, ongoing, and incomplete (not yet ended). It thus expresses imperfective aspect. It is the usual way to express a situation happening at the very moment of speaking, which by definition is incomplete. However, depending upon the temporal nature of the situation expressed by the verb (a topic to be treated in more detail in the next chapter)—in essence, whether it is punctual or durative— the progressive may denote somewhat different situations:1. a continuous activity: She is swimming. They were cleaning the house when I called.2. a repeated activity (iterative aspect): He is bouncing the ball. The light was flashing when I entered the house. He is breaking dishes (*a dish). People (*a person) will be leaving early.3. a process leading up to an endpoint: The child is finishing the puzzle. She was solving the problem when she was interrupted.

VoiceThe category of voice, though usually considered a category of the verb, is actually relevant to the entire sentence. Voice is an indication of whether the subject is performing action of the verb or being something (active voice) or whether the subject is being aVected by the action or being acted upon (passive voice).While the active is expressed by the simple forms of the verb, the passive is expressed periphrastically:–by be + the past participle, as in The report was written (by the committee); or–by get + the past participle, as in The criminal got caught (by the police).

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The diVerence between the be-passive and the get-passive is that the former focuses on the resultant state (‘the report is in a written state’) while the latter focuses on the action bringing about the state. In the passive, the logical subject—the agent—moves out of the position of grammatical subject and is relegated to a by-phrase. However, it is common to delete the by-phrase in the passive, to omit mention altogether of the agent who performed the action. This is a manifestation of one of the rhetorical functions of the passive. Another distinction of voice is the middle voice, in which the action of the verb reflects back upon the subject; in English, the middle is generally expressed with a reflexive pronoun (a form in -self), which indicates the sameness of the subject and the object, as in Henry shaved (himself), Terry bathed (herself), Felicia cut herself. A form which is sometimes called a “middle” is what Otto Jespersen calls a notional passive; this is a sentence which is active in form but passive in meaning: for example, The shirt washes easily (=‘the shirt is easily washed’), these oranges peel easily (=‘these oranges are easily peeled’), the cake should cook slowly (=‘the cake should be slowly cooked’). Note that nearly all notional passives contain a manner adverb. They differ from regular passives in that, not only do they occur without explicit agents, there is never even an implicit agent (* these oranges peel easily by you). Another place where forms may be active in form but passive in meaning are some infinitives, such as these apples are ready to eat (=‘these apples are ready to be eaten’) or there are the dishes to do (=‘there are the dishes to be done’). A construction such as that movie is filming in Vancouver, which is also active in form but passive in meaning (=‘that movie is being filmed in Vancouver’) is a remnant or an earlier period when there was no progressive passive construction (as in the customers are being served) but instead a simple progressive was used (as in the customers are serving well).In conclusion, we can approach the categories from a different perspective by noting which different parts of speech each of the grammatical categories is relevant to:–nouns: number, gender, case, (person), and definiteness;–pronouns: number, gender, case, and person;–adjectives and some adverbs: degree; and–verbs: number, person, tense, aspect, mood, and voice.

Literature.Laurel J.Brinton The Structure of Modern English. A linguistic introduction, John Benjamin’s Publishing Company, Amsterdam/Philadelphia, 2000 – 335p.

GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, part 3.

§ 9. The category of person expresses the relation of the action and its doer to the speaker, showing whether the action is performed by the speaker (the 1st person), someone addressed by the speaker (the 2nd person) or someone/something other than the speaker or the person addressed (the 3rd person).

The category of number shows whether the action is performed by one or more than one persons or non-persons.

For the present indefinite tense of the verb to be there are three contrasting forms: the 1st person singular, the 3rd person singular and the form for all persons plural: (I) am - (he) is - (we, you, they) are.

In the past indefinite tense it is only the verb to be that has one of these categories - the category of number, formed by the opposition of the singular and the plural forms: (I, he) was - (we, you, they) were. All the other verbs have the same form for all the persons, both singular and plural.

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In the future and future in the past tenses there are two opposing forms: the 1st person singular and plural and the other persons: (I, we) shall go - (he, you, they) will go; (I, we) should come - (he, you, they) would come.

In colloquial style, however, no person distinctions are found either in the future or in the future in the past tenses. The only marker for the future tenses is ‘ll used with all persons, both singular and plural: I'll do it; He'll do it; We'll do it, etc. The marker for the future in the past tenses is ‘d, also used with all persons and numbers: I said I’d come; He said he’d come; We said we’d come, etc. Historically ‘ll is the shortened form of will, ‘d is the shortened form of would.

The categories of person and number, with the same restrictions, as those mentioned above, are naturally found in all analytical forms containing the present indefinite tense of the auxiliaries to be and to have, or the past indefinite tense of the auxiliary to be: (I) am reading - (he) is reading - (we, you, they) are reading; (I) am told - (he) is told - (we, you, they) are told; (he) has come - (I, we, you, they) have come; (he) has been told - (I, we, you, they) have been told; (he) has been reading - (I, we, you, they) have been reading.

A more regular way of expressing the categories of person and number is the use of personal pronouns. They are indispensable when the finite verb forms in the indicative as well as the subjunctive moods have no markers of person or number distinctions.

I stepped aside and they moved away.

They had been walking along, side by side, and she had been talking very earnestly.

If you were his own son, you could have all this.

If she were not a housemaid, she might not feel it so keenly.

The verb is always in the 3rd person singular if the subject of the predicate verb is expressed by a negative or indefinite pronoun, by an infinitive, a gerund or a clause:

Nothing has happened. Somebody has come.

To see him at last was a real pleasure. To shut that lid seems an easy task.

Seeing is believing. Visiting their house again seems out of the question.

What she has told me frightens me

The category of tense§ 10. The category of tense in English (as well as in Russian) expresses the relationship

between the time of the action and the time of speaking.

The time of speaking is designated as present time and is the starting point for the whole scale of time measuring. The time that follows the time of speaking is designated as future time; the time that precedes the time of speaking is designated as past time. Accordingly there are three tenses in English - the present tense, the future tense and the past tense which refer actions to present, future or past time.

Besides these three tenses there is one more tense in English, the so-called future in the past. The peculiarity of this tense lies in the fact that the future is looked upon not from the point of view of the moment of speaking (the present) but from the point of view of some moment in the

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past.Each tense is represented by four verb forms involving such categories as aspect and perfect.

Thus there are four present tense forms: the present indefinite, the present continuous, the present perfect, the present perfect continuous; four past tense forms: the past indefinite, the past continuous, the past perfect and the past perfect continuous; four future tense forms: the future indefinite, the future continuous, the future perfect and the future perfect continuous; and four future in the past tense forms: the future in the past indefinite, the future in the past continuous, the future in the past perfect, the future in the past perfect continuous.

The category of aspect§ 11. In general the category of aspect shows the way or manner in which an action is

performed, that is whether the action is perfective (совершенное), imperfective (несовершенное), momentary (мгновенное, однократное), iterative (многократное, повторяющееся), inchoative (зачинательное), durative (продолженное, длительное), etc.

In English the category of aspect is constituted by the opposition of the continuous aspect and the common aspect.

The opposition the continuous aspect <——> the common aspect is actualized in the following contrasting pairs of forms:

Continuous Common

is speaking

was speaking

will be speaking

has been speaking

speaks

spoke

will speak

has spoken

The forms in the left-hand column (whether taken in context, or treated by themselves) have a definite meaning: they describe an action as a concrete process going on continuously at a definite moment of time, or characteristic of a definite period of time (hence its name - the continuous aspect). The forms in the right-hand column, if treated by themselves, are devoid of any specific aspectual meaning. They denote the action as such, in a most general way, and can acquire a definite and more specified aspective meaning due to the lexical meaning of the verb and specific elements of the context in which they are used. Thus, for example, the verb form sang, when regarded out of context, has no specific aspectual characteristics, conveying only the idea of the action of singing with reference to the past. However when the same form is used in the context, it acquires the aspectual meaning conferred on it by that context. Compare the following sentences:

When he was young he sang beautifully (пел = умел петь).

He went over to the piano and sang two folk-songs (спел).

He went over to the piano and sang (запел).

While everybody was busy lighting a camp fire, he sang folk-songs (пел).

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The fact that these forms may express different aspectual meanings according to the context, accounts for the term - the common aspect.

The category of perfect§ 13. The category of perfect is as fundamental to the English verb as the categories of tense

and aspect, whereas it is quite alien to the Russian verb.

The category of perfect is constituted by the opposition of the perfect to the non-perfect.

The perfect forms denote action preceding certain moments of time in the present, past or future. The non-perfect forms denote actions belonging to certain moments of time in the present, past or future.

To see the difference between the two categories compare the following pairs of sentences containing non-perfect and perfect forms:

Perfect Non-perfect

I have seen the film, and I think it is dull.

At last you are here! I’ve been waiting for you so long!She had left by the 2nd of September.

She had been sleeping for half an hour when the telephone woke her up.

I shall have returned before you get the supper ready.

I see you are tired.

Whom are you waiting for?

She left on the 2nd of September.

When the fire began, everybody was sleeping.

I shall return at 10.

§ 14. The perfect forms belong either to the continuous or to the common aspect and as such they have specific semantic characteristics of either one or of the other. Thus the perfect continuous forms denote continuous actions taking place during a definite period of time preceding the present moment or some moment of time in the past or future. The moment of time in question may be either e x c l u d e d or i n c l u d e d in the period of time of the action, as in the following:

Don’t wake her up, she has only been sleeping for half an hour. (She is still sleeping at the moment of speaking.)

I’ve woken her up, she has been sleeping ever since dinner. (She is not sleeping at the moment of speaking.)

She had been living in St.-Petersburg for 10 years when we met. (She was still living there at that moment of past time.)

They had been living in St.-Petersburg for 10 years when they moved to N. (They were not living in St.- Petersburg any longer at that moment of past time.)

He will have been working here for 20 years next autumn. (He will still be working here at that moment of the future.)

He will have been working there for 5 years before he returns to our institute. (He will not already be working there any longer at that moment of the future.)

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The perfect forms of the common aspect are devoid of any specific aspect characteristics and acquire them only from the lexical meaning of the verb or out of the context in which they are used. Thus terminative verbs in the perfect forms of the common aspect express completeness of the action:

She had shut the window and was going to sleep.

The completed actions expressed by such forms may be momentary or iterative, as in:

He had stumbled and fallen down before I could support him.

He had stumbled and fallen down on his knees several times before he reached the bushes.

Non-terminative verbs may express both completed and incompleted actions:

She had spoken to all of them before she came to any conclusion.(поговорила)

I have known him all my life. (знаю)

They may also express iterative or durative actions:

He had lived in many little towns before he settled in St.-Petersburg.

She had lived here since the war.

Thus the difference between the perfect and the perfect continuous forms is similar to the difference between the indefinite and the continuous non-perfect forms.

Before passing on to a thorough study of all verb forms in detail it should be clearly understood that every one of them is a bearer of three grammatical categories, those of tense, perfect, and aspect, that is every form shows whether the action refers to the present, the past, the future or the future viewed from the past; whether it belongs to a certain moment of time within each of these time-divisions or precedes that moment, and whether it is treated as continuous or not.

The category of voice§ 64. Voice is the grammatical category of the verb denoting the relationship between the

action expressed by the verb and the person or non-person denoted by the subject of the sentence. There are two main voices in English: the active voice and the passive voice. There are also other voices which embrace a very limited number of verbs: reflexive (wash oneself), reciprocal (embrace one another), medial (the book reads well).

The active voice indicates that the action is directed from the subject or issues from the subject, thus the subject denotes the doer (agent) of the action:

We help our friends. - Мы помогаем нашим друзьям.

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The passive voice indicates that the action is directed towards the subject. Here the subject expresses a person or non-person who or which is the receiver of the action. It does not act, but is acted upon and therefore affected by the action of the verb.

We were helped by our friends in our work. В работе нам помогли наши друзья.

The contrast between the two voices can be seen from the following examples:

I had asked no questions, of course; but then, on the other hand, I had been asked none.

They saw but were not seen.

Я не задавал вопросов, но, с другой стороны, и мне не задавали вопросов.

Они видели, но их не видели.

The difference in the meaning of the forms helped - were helped, had asked - had been asked, saw - was seen illustrates the morphological contrast between the active and the passive voice.

A sentence containing a verb in the passive voice is called a passive construction, and a sentence containing a verb in the active voice is called an active construction, especially when opposed to the passive construction.

The subject of an active construction denotes the agent (doer) of the action, which may be a living being, or any source of the action (a thing, a natural phenomenon, an abstract notion).

The subject of a passive construction has the meaning of the receiver of the action, that is a person or non-person affected by the action.

The object of an active construction denotes the receiver of the action, whereas the object of the passive construction is the agent of the action. The latter is introduced by the preposition by. If it is not the agent but the instrument, it is introduced by the preposition with.

The cup was broken by Jim.

It was broken with a hammer.

The category of mood§ 73. The meaning of this category is the attitude of the speaker or writer towards the content

of the sentence, whether the speaker considers the action real, unreal, desirable, necessary, etc. It is expressed in the form of the verb.

There are three moods in English - the indicative mood, the imperative mood and the subjunctive mood.

Literature.

1. Н. А. Кобрина, Е. А. Корнеева, М. И. Оссовская, К. А. Гузеева Грамматика английского языка: Морфология. Синтаксис. Учебное пособие для студентов педагогических институтов и университетов по специальности «Иностранные языки», СПб, СОЮЗ, 1999.-496с.

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WAYS OF TRANSLATION OF PASSIVE CONSTRUCTIONSEnglish and Russian passive forms are different both in type of form constructions and in frequency. English passive voice is used more frequently due to the various types of construction it occurs in. Whereas Russian passive voice construction is formed only by transitive verbs requiring a direct object when used as an active voice structure, English passive is classified into four types of construction: a) direct passive: A book was given to him. It has a corresponding Russian passive voice form: Книга была дана ему. b) indirect passive: He was given the book. This form is translated by the corresponding Russian active voice verb in the impersonal sentence: Ему дали эту книгу. c) prepositional passive: The article was not referred to. – На эту статью не ссылались. The corresponding Russian impersonal sentence is also with the active verb. d) adverbial passive: The room hasn’t been lived in. When translated into Russian, the passive construction is substituted by an active one, sometimes a subject of the sentence is introduced: В комнате никто не жил/не живет. Thus, only one type of English passive construction has a direct correspondence in Russian. But not all English direct passive constructions can be transformed into Russian passive, since the verb transitivity in English and Russian does not coincide. Cf. to enter the room – войти в комнату, to join the party – вступить в партию, to follow somebody – следовать за кем-то, to attend the meeting – присутствовать на собрании, to influence somebody – влиять на кого-то: The next morning this event was reported by all the papers. – На следующее утро об этом событии сообщили все газеты.Care should be taken when translating English parallel passive verbs, since they may correspond in Russian to the verbs of different cases: He was trusted and respected. – Ему доверяли и его уважали. In this case the Russian sentence requires repetition of the pronominal object (ему – его); otherwise, the sentence would sound grammatically incorrect (*Ему доверяли и уважали).As for passive forms, there are two types in English: be-passive and get-passive. The latter is mostly used to indicate the starting point of the action: They got married. – Они поженились. The get-passive is also used to express negative connotation, when the object of the action undergoes something unpleasant or dangerous: He got hurt. – Он ушибся. (Он обиделся.) He got injured in a road accident. – Он получил травму во время дорожной аварии. In Russian there are also two passive verb forms. They derive from the parallel synthetic and analytical forms: строился – был построен. The difference between the forms is either semantic or stylistic. As for their meanings, the analytical form denotes a state, whereas the synthetic form expresses a process: Дом был построен этой бригадой. – Дом строился этой бригадой. In English this difference is rendered by the Simple and the Progressive forms, respectively: The house was built by this team. – The house was being built by this team. When no agent of the action is mentioned, the Russian synthetic verb form can be substituted in English by the prepositional noun predicative: Мост строится с прошлого года. – The bridge has been under construction since last year. Or the difference between the forms can be stylistic: while the analytical form is used in literary or academic works, the synthetic form in colloquial speech can also denote a fact, not a process, thus corresponding to the English The house was built by this team.As for the synonymy of the indefinite personal active and passive forms in Russian, the difference lies in style: the passive form is more formal: George was invited to spend the month of August in Crome. – Cf. 1) Джордж был приглашен провести август в Кроуме. 2) Джорджа пригласили провести август в Кроуме. One challenge of translating is the English “double passive”. It takes place when the main predicate is used in the passive voice and the following infinitive is also passive: The treaty is reported to have been signed by both parties. In translation, the predicate can be substituted by the active verb: Сообщают, что договор уже подписан обеими сторонами. The principal

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clause can also be substituted by a parenthetical one: Как сообщают, договор уже подписан обеими сторонами. Or the passive infinitive can be substituted for the active one, so that the sentence subject turns into the sentence object: The prisoners were ordered to be shot. – Было приказано расстрелять пленников. Finally, there might be a substitution by the noun: The music is intended to be played on the piano. – Музыка предназначена для игры на фортепьяно.

Literature.1. Прошина З.Г. ТЕОРИЯ ПЕРЕВОДА (с английского языка на русский и с русского языка на английский): Уч. на англ. яз. – Владивосток: Изд-во Дальневост. ун-та, 2008 (3-е изд., перераб.), 2002 (2-е изд., испр. и перераб.), 1999 (1-е изд.). ISBN 5-7444-0957-2

RECENT ACHIEVEMENTS IN SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY        Technology is an important part of our lives. We use computers and other

electric equipment at work and in the home. However, some people believe we rely too much on machines, and that the more technology improves, the lazier and weaker humans will become.Technological advances are changing our lives very rapidly. Nowadays we can't do without such gadgets as mobile phones, PCs, digital tape recorders, air conditioners, fax machines and so on. Many people feel ill at ease without their laptop computers or GPS navigation systems.In my opinion, technology facilitates our lives and saves our time. Computers help us do the most difficult sums and investigate complicated data. People do business, communicate and do the shopping via the Internet. It is much easier to do housework nowadays, thanks to electric equipment such as microwave ovens, washing machines and so on.However, many people say that technology makes us lazier and weaker. For example, such technological developments as the telephone and the Internet have made communication much easier, but they can cause the loss of social interaction. A lot of people prefer communicating through a keyboard than face to face. That is why people don't meet as often as they did in the past. A lot of people are fond of watching TV and playing computer games. They spend hours in front of the screen. They have no time to read books or to communicate with their friends. They move less, speak less and they even think less. Of course, such way of life does much harm to their health.To sum up, people should continue to develop technology, but they must do it wisely. Otherwise we may regret in the future.

 Some people say that technical devices do more harm than good. However, others think that it is impossible to live without computers or mobile phones nowadays.Nowadays people can't imagine their lives without different technical devices. Every day we use computers, laptops, mobile phones, i-Pods, digital tape recorders and so on.I have always wondered if our lives could be better without these technical devices. Personally, I can't do without my computer as it helps me study. For example, it helps me prepare reports and create beautiful presentations. Besides, the computer is a great source of entertainment. I often play computer games, watch films or listen to music. The Internet helps me learn the latest news, access useful information, communicate with my friends and what not. A mobile phone is a vital part of my daily life. It gives me an opportunity to be reachable everywhere and to keep in touch with my friends.However, many people say that technical devices enslave those who use them. Besides, they do much harm to our health. For example, if people spend much time in front of the screen, they have problems with their eyesight and sleep. They don't go out or exercise, they feel exhausted and depressed. Computer games can cause addiction and make people aggressive. As for mobile phones, they use electromagnetic radiation which can influence our health in a negative way.

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To conclude, I would prefer a technological way of life to a natural one, though it has a number of disadvantages. In my opinion, modern society can't do without progress and technology. People can avoid the risk to human life and health if they use technological devices wisely.

 Mobile telephones have become very popular nowadays. However, some people say that their use should be restricted.

Mobile phones have changed people's lives. They give us an opportunity to stay in touch and to be reachable everywhere. It is very comfortable, especially for the busy modern lifestyle. So, the mobile phone has become a vital part of our daily lives and it is difficult to imagine how people lived without mobile phones in the past.In my opinion, the mobile phone is a very useful device. Thanks to it, I can access people I need to speak to and I can never miss anything important. If I need some help, I just call my friends and they rush to rescue me. If I have a meeting and I'm late, I can send an SMS with my excuses. It is very fast and convenient. What is more, with the help of my mobile phone I can access the Internet, send and receive photos and video, play games, listen to music and what not.However, mobile phones have some disadvantages. Firstly, they deprive people of privacy and it is almost impossible to relax with your mobile phone on. Secondly, many people are worried about the harmful influence of mobile phones on their health. Mobile phones use electromagnetic radiation. Scientists say that there is no significant health effect from mobile phone radiation. But still it is better not to use your mobile phone too often.To sum up, a mobile phone is very useful because it gives us the freedom of movement. It has made communication much easier. But we shouldn't forget that a face-to-face conversation is much better than just a telephone talk.

 Most people are used to sending e-mails and SMS messages. But others still prefer traditional paper letters or phone calls.

Nowadays more and more people are sending e-mails and SMS messages, while others say that it may lead to the loss of social interaction.Personally, I communicate with my friends through e-mails and SMS messages. To my mind, they have a number of advantages. Firstly, both e-mails and SMS messages are rather cheap and quick. Secondly, they are non-intrusive. In comparison with a call, they do not interrupt a person if he or she is in the middle of a meeting and can't answer you right now. Besides, there are no standard rules for writing e-mails and SMS messages, and a lot of words can be shortened. Their objective is to convey a comprehensible message as quickly as possible. That is why traditional rules of grammar, spelling and punctuation are largely ignored.However, a lot of people say that sending an e-mail or SMS message is not the same as writing a letter. Paper letters are usually intimate and long. They give you an opportunity to tell your friends or relatives all the latest news and to express your feelings. As for e-mails and SMS messages, they are often short and impersonal. You can't see the sender's handwriting, you can't feel the crisp paper and you are not likely to re-read these messages. But I still believe that sending e-mails and SMS messages is more effective than writing letters.To conclude, when we are short of time, e-mails and SMS messages are the best way of communication. But if we want to give or learn more detailed information, letters or phone calls are better.

 The Internet has revolutionized the way people live and work. However, some people think it has more drawbacks than advantages.

The Internet is a great source of information and entertainment for many people. It has made possible new forms of social interaction and has become a major source of leisure.Personally, I can't imagine my life without the Internet. Thanks to it, I have an opportunity to access news, documents, images, sounds, video, games and sports reports, to make friends, to book tickets and to purchase different things online. There are a lot of different sites for

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pupils, students, gardeners, engineers, bankers, people who are fond of music, cinema, sports and even for disabled people. What is more, the Internet has revolutionized the way people communicate. Sending electronic text messages is much faster and easier than writing letters. People use e-mail to stay in touch with friends worldwide.However, there are still a lot of people who think that the Internet has too many disadvantages. Internet-addiction is a topical problem nowadays. Spending much time in front of the screen becomes a kind of obsession for many people. The symptoms of Internet addiction include sleep deprivation, decreased physical activity and social interaction with others. People who spend most of their time in the virtual world forget about the real one. They neglect their relatives and ruin their families. Besides, there is a lot of rubbish online and you can't always trust what you read on the web.To sum up, the Internet becomes dangerous when it is misused. But if it is used wisely and moderately, it helps you work, study or entertain and saves plenty of time.

 Internet dating is becoming more and more popular. However, many people say that meeting people online is dangerous.

Nowadays a lot of young people feel that meeting people online is just the same as meeting in a bar. Many of them make friends online and even fall in love with their virtual interlocutors.To my mind, it is silly to trust a person you have never seen. You can never be sure that you communicate with the individual whose personal information and photos you see. For example, a "young" boy may turn out to be a 50-year-old man. Besides, it is very dangerous to give detailed personal information to complete strangers. Your online friend may be a swindler or even a murderer. So meeting such a person in real life may be extremely risky.On the other hand, some people say that internet dating has many advantages. Firstly, it is easier for shy people to chat through a keyboard than face to face. Secondly, you can search the Internet when you are not busy. Besides, you can talk to lots of people at the same time and you can have several online boyfriends or girlfriends. One can list all his or her romantic requirements and then find exactly what he or she wants. But I still believe that face-to-face dating is much better.To sum up, internet dating may help you find love. If you don't meet someone in real life, it seems a great alternative. But Internet daters must be cautious because you never know what you are going to get from online romance.

 Various social networks have aroused great interest among Internet users. However, some people say that they have a lot of drawbacks.

Social networks are very popular among users of different ages and professions. But many people are concerned about the influence of social networks on their lives.Personally, I think that social networks have a lot of benefits. Firstly, they link together users of the Internet who have common interests and give people an opportunity to look for old and new friends, to build communities, to send messages and to share news and pictures. There are other sites which allow classmates from school or university to keep in contact with each other. Secondly, many people use social networks to communicate and exchange personal information for dating purposes. Thirdly, social networks are being used by teachers and students. Teachers often help pupils with homework and post assignments, tests or quizzes. Social networks also serve to foster teacher-parent communication. Parents can ask questions without having to meet teachers face to face. Finally, some people search for job opportunities with the help of social networks.However, some users are worried about data theft and viruses. The problem is that many people give out too much personal information that may be passed to third parties for different purposes. To protect user privacy, social networks allow users to choose who can view their profile or contact them. This prevents unauthorized users from accessing, adding, changing, or removing personal information and pictures.To conclude, the popularity of social networks continues growing because more and more

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people find it easier to communicate digitally. What is more, millions of people use them for fun as well as for business and educational purposes.

 Artificial intelligence performs quite a lot of jobs nowadays. However, many people are worried about computers doing the same things that people can do.In the 90s and early 21st century artificial intelligence achieved its greatest success. Today clever machines are taught to think and make decisions. But is it safe that artificial intelligence is invading the world?To my mind, computers and robots are very helpful. There are more and more jobs which humans leave to robots such as exploring another planet, defusing bombs or just doing boring household chores like cleaning. Computers can perform a lot of functions: they can control cars and planes, give us the news or compose music. Many factory jobs are performed by industrial robots nowadays. It has led to cheaper production of various goods, including automobiles and electronics. Artificial intelligence has successfully been used in a wide range of fields including medical diagnosis, stock trading, robot control, law, scientific discovery and toys.However, there are some reasons to worry about robots. Firstly, the use of robots in industry leads to unemployment as many jobs are performed by machines. Secondly, industrial robots can be dangerous and cause harm to human workers. Besides, many people fear that highly intelligent robots may take over and destroy the human race. There are a lot of books and films about people losing control over clever machines that begin to kill their creators. But I believe that it is early to worry because robots are still clumsy and not very intelligent.To conclude, artificial intelligence serves to help people and make their lives easier. That is why I think that we should promote research in artificial intelligence. But people must be careful and pay more attention to security.

 People have different attitude to cloning. Some of them think that cloning opens new possibilities, while others are convinced that it is morally unacceptable.Scientists have always dreamed of reproducing exact copies of animals and even human beings. They have already succeeded in this field and created Dolly, the first cloned sheep, and many other animals. But the question of cloning, especially human one, still remains controversial.Personally, I think that cloning plants and animals is rather interesting and exciting. Cloned animals may be strong and healthy and they may produce more wool, meat or milk. Besides, cloning will help us preserve species that are on the brink of extinction. Moreover, cloning gives people new medical possibilities. Owing to it, scientists can create organs for transplantation and save people who need a new heart, liver or kidneys.However, quite a lot of people are against cloning. They say that people must not interfere in the process of creating a new life because it is the duty of nature. What is more, scientists don't know for sure how clones will behave and what diseases they may transmit. As for human cloning, it seems to be dangerous and morally unacceptable.To conclude, I think that science must develop in order to improve our lives. But people should be more careful when they use new technologies and investigate new phenomena. So to my mind, cloning must be used only when it is necessary to save lives and to solve important problems.

 The Large Hadron Collider (LHC), the world's largest particle accelerator, is expected to advance humanity's understanding of the deepest laws of nature. However, a lot of people are worried about its existence.

The Large Hadron Collider has gained considerable attention of the scientific community, the mass media and the general public. Experts say that it could change physics and our understanding of the world. But why do many people worry that the LHC would be a problem?Personally, I'm amazed by all the interesting theories surrounding the LHC. Scientists hope that the Large Hadron Collider will help us answer many of the most fundamental questions

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concerning the structure of space and time, extra dimensions, the nature of the dark matter and many others. There hasn't been any advance in fundamental physics for many years, but the LHC may help us understand how the universe works and discover new facts about it.However, many people are against the LHC. The project costs much money and the LHC is considered to be one of the most expensive scientific instruments ever built. Moreover, people fear that the experiments at the Large Hadron Collider may be extremely dangerous and that it may swallow Switzerland or even destroy the planet. In his famous novel "Angels & Demons" Dan Brown describes antimatter created at the LHC which is used in a weapon against the Vatican. But according to scientists, the LHC presents no danger and there is no reason for concern. I strongly feel that the experiments at the LHC should continue because they are extremely interesting and nobody knows what is going to be found.To conclude, I believe that the LHC may change the face of physics forever and help answer the questions that people have been asking since the beginning of time.

 The use of polygraph still remains controversial. Some people think that this device helps detect a lie, while others are convinced that polygraph evidence is unreliable.It is well-known that lying causes bodily changes. A polygraph, or a lie detector, measures the physiological stress a person endures while he or she gives statements or answers questions. The device measures the suspect's heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rate and respiration. If there is increased activity in these areas, the suspect might be lying. However, the accuracy of the polygraph has been contested almost since the introduction of the device.Personally, I think that a polygraph is a very useful invention. If people believe that it can detect lies, they try to answer truthfully. In some countries polygraphs are used to interrogate suspects and screen new employees. Polygraph examinations sometimes help extract confessions from a defendant.But experts say that the accuracy of this method is questionable. According to them, if you go into the test rested and relaxed, if you are cooperative and try to remain calm, you are likely to pass polygraph tests. There were some cases when polygraph failed to trap known spies. Conversely, innocent people have been known to fail polygraph tests. That is why polygraph results are not admissible as court evidence.To conclude, I believe that no device or expert can detect a lie with 100% accuracy. To my mind, polygraph can make some people be honest, but it can also be deceived.

 Some people think that science plays the most important role in the development of our civilization; others believe that our world would be impossible without poetry.What does science have in common with poetry? Science is a product of people's intellect. Poetry is a product of their imagination and inspiration. Science deals with bacteria, atoms, electricity, magnetic fields and so on. Poetry deals with human feelings such as love, jealousy, hatred and others.I believe that the world wouldn't develop without science. The aims of science are making discoveries and increasing human knowledge and understanding. Science deals with such areas as the theory of evolution, the method of creation of the universe and the Earth, the origins of life and many others. Science has already helped people answer a lot of complicated questions. With the help of the latest achievements of science and engineering we can solve many problems and make our lives better.However, many people are not sure that all we need is science. Some of them are convinced that our lives would be dull without poetry. People's feelings are so intense, that they want to express them using beautiful language. Poetry serves to stir our imagination and to evoke emotional or sensual responses. While reading poetry we forget about our problems and experience the poet's deepest dreams and fears. A good poem often makes us laugh or cry. It also makes us think about other people's feelings.In conclusion, I'd like to say that it's rather difficult to live both without science and poetry. Science helps develop technology and solve many problems. Poetry helps make our lives

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more colourful and romantic. Besides, it helps us not to forget about human feelings, values and beliefs.

 Some people think that science has nothing in common with religion, while others are convinced that it is not so.There seems to be an eternal conflict between science and religion. Religious people have disagreed or are still disagreeing with scientists in different areas. Does it mean that there is a great gap between science and religion?To my mind, science and religion have little in common. Science is a product of people's intellect. Religion is a product of the mystical sense and it requires some unquestioned faith. Science is based on observation, research and experiment. Religious knowledge is gained from religious leaders, scriptures and personal revelation. Scientists are convinced that there must be explanations for all mysterious phenomena. It has already answered some complicated questions about bacteria, atoms, electricity, magnetic fields and many others. Religion deals with questions which science has not answered yet. What is the purpose of our life? Is there life after death? What happens to the soul?However, many people say that science and religion are not as different as it seems to be. Many scientists dedicate their lives to solving the riddle of existence. But the more they learn about the world, the more complex and harder to grasp it seems to be. Many scientists such as Albert Einstein or Isaac Newton were devoutly religious individuals and worked to harmonize science and religion. What scientists call the Energy is called God by religious people. Besides, more and more scientists are becoming religious and they are beginning to use words like "God", "soul" or "spirituality".To conclude, one day people may realize that science and religion have a common ground and that spiritual power is as important as scientific power.

Literature.1. Юнева С.А. Открывая мир с английском языком. 150 эссе для ЕГЭ. – Москва: «Интеллект-Центр», 2011. – 88с.

Theme 3. Non-finite forms of the verb: The characteristic traits of the verbals. Gerund and Complex Gerund Construction, their structure and peculiarities of translation into Russian.

NON-FINITE FORMS OF THE VERB (VERBALS)There are four non-finite forms of the verb in English: the infinitive (to take), the gerund

(taking), participle I (taking), participle II (taken). These forms possess some verbal and some non-verbal features. The main verbal feature of the infinitive and participles I and II is that it can be used as part of analytical verbal forms (is standing, is built, have come, will do, etc.)

Lexically non-finites do not differ from finite forms. Grammatically the difference between the two types of forms lies in the fact that non-finites may denote a secondary action or a process related to that expressed by the finite verb.

Non-finites possess the verb categories of voice, perfect, and aspect. They lack the categories of person, number, mood, and tense.

None of the forms have morphological features of non-verbal parts of speech, neither nominal, adjectival or adverbial. In the sphere of syntax, however, non-finites possess both verbal and non-verbal features. Their non-verbal character reveals itself in their syntactical functions. Thus, the infinitive and the gerund perform the main syntactical functions of the noun, which are those of subject, object and predicative. Participle I functions as attribute, predicative and adverbial modifier; participle II as attribute and predicative. They cannot form a predicate by

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themselves, although unlike non-verbal parts of speech they can function as part of a compound verbal predicate.

Syntactically the verbal character of non-finites is manifested mainly in their combinability. Similarly to finite forms they may combine with nouns functioning as direct, indirect, or prepositional objects, with adverbs and prepositional phrases used as adverbial modifiers, and with subordinate clauses.

Non-finites may also work as link verbs, combining with nouns, adjectives or statives as predicatives, as in: to be/being a doctor (young, afraid). They may also act as modal verb semantic equivalents when combined with an infinitive: to have/having to wait, to be able/being able to stay. So the structure of a non-finite verb group resembles the structure of any verb phrase.

All non-finite verb forms may participate in the so-called predicative constructions, that is, two-component syntactical units where a noun or a pronoun and a non-finite verb form are in predicative relations similar to those of the subiect and the predicate: I heard Jane singing; We waited for the train to pass; I saw him run, etc.

The gerundThe gerund is a non-finite form of the verb with some noun features. It is formed by adding

the suffix -ing to the stem of the verb.

The grammatical meaning of the gerund is that of a process. Thus to some extent it competes with nouns of verbal origin, e.g. translating -translation, describing - description, arriving - arrival, perceiving - perception, helping - help. Nouns, however, tend to convey the fact or the result of an action, which in certain circumstances may be something material, whereas gerunds convey the idea of action or process itself.

Show me your translation: it is neatly done, and there, are no mistakes in it.

You will enrich your vocabulary by translating from English into Russian and vice versa.

If the meaning of the gerund is nearly the same as that of the noun, the former emphasizes the process, and the latter - the fact:

Thank you for helping me.

Thank you for your help.

It is natural that the verbal character of the gerund is more prominent in transitive verbs, owing to their combinability and their passive forms.

Morphologically the verbal character of the gerund is manifested in the categories of voice and perfect (see table V) and syntactically in its combinability. Thus the gerund may combine: a) with a noun or pronoun as direct, indirect or prepositional object, depending on the verb it is formed from; b) with an adjective or a noun as a predicative; c) with an infinitive.

Gerunds can be modified by adverbs and prepositional phrases functioning as adverbial modifiers.

The nominal character of the gerund reveals itself syntactically, mainly in its syntactical function, partly in its combinability.

Like a noun, it can function as subject, object, or predicative.54

Seeing you is always a pleasure. (subject)

I remember seeing you somewhere. (object)

I am thinking of seeing the film again. (prepositional object)

Peter’s hobby is seeing all new films. (predicative)

When it is an attribute or an adverbial modifier, a gerund, like a noun is preceded by a preposition.

There is a chance of catching the train.

Don’t forget to call me up before leaving London.

I reached my goal in spite of there being every reason against it.

The fact that the gerund can associate with a preposition is a sure sign of noun features.

Like a noun, but unlike the other non-finites, it can combine with a possessive pronoun and a noun in the genitive case denoting the doer of the action expressed by the gerund.

Excuse my interrupting you.

I insist on John’s staying with us.

It combines with the negative pronoun no in the idiomatic construction of the type: There is no getting out of it.

The grammatical categories of the gerundAs already stated the gerund has only two grammatical categories, those of voice and perfect.

Table V

The Grammatical Categories of the Gerund

Voice

Perfect

Active Passive

Non-Perfect running

taking

-

being taken

Perfect having ran

having taken

-

having been taken

The category of perfectThe category of perfect finds its expression, as with other verb forms, in the contrast of non-

perfect (indefinite) and perfect forms.

The non-perfect gerund denotes an action simultaneous with that expressed by the finite verb.

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Students improve their pronunciation

John improved his pronunciation

You will improve your pronunciation

by listening to tape recordings.

The perfect gerund denotes an action prior to the action denoted by the finite verb.

I regret

I regretted

I will always regret

having uttered these words.

The perfect gerund is invariable in indicating priority, whereas the meaning of the non-perfect gerund is vaguer and more flexible and may easily be modified by the context. Thus according to the context the action denoted by the non-perfect gerund may precede or follow the action denoted by the finite verb. The non-perfect gerund may denote a prior action thanks to the lexical meaning of the verb or the preposition suggesting priority, so the non-perfect gerund is generally used after verbs of recollection, gratitude, blame, reproach, punishment and reward.

I shall never forget taking this exam.

I remember talking to him once.

Thank you for helping me.

The non-perfect gerund is to be found in gerundial phrases introduced by the prepositions on and after. The preposition on suggests immediate priority and an instantaneous action.

On reaching the end of the street we turned towards the river.

Tom, after reflecting a little, gave a long sigh.

The lexical meaning of the above-mentioned verbs and prepositions makes the use of the perfect form redundant. It is used, however, when the priority is emphasized, as in following examples:

And all of a sudden David remembered having heard the name before.

He came back after having been away for about ten years.

The non-perfect gerund expresses a succeeding action after verbs, adjectives and prepositions implying reference to a future event (such as to intend, to insist, to object, to suggest, to look forward to) and after the preposition before:

I insist on your staying with us.We are looking forward to visiting new places.

Ann suggested going to the cinema.I’m not keen on getting myself into trouble.

We met once more before parting.

The same form occurs after nouns suggesting futurity such as plan, intention, hope, prospect:

There is some hope of catching the last train.

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The category of voiceThe gerund of transitive verbs possesses voice distinctions. Like other verb forms, the active

gerund points out that the action is directed from the subject (whether expressed or implied), whereas the passive gerund indicates that the action is directed towards the subject.

Active gerund Passive gerund

I hate interrupting people.

I am not used to talking in that way.

On telling me the time, he turned away.

He entered without having knocked at the door.

- I hate being interrupted.

- I am not used to being talked to in that way.

- On being told some impossible hour, he turned away.

- The door opened without having been knocked on.

The perfect passive gerund is very rarely used.There are some verbs (to need, to want, to require, to deserve) and the adjective worth which

are followed by an active gerund with passive meaning.

Your hair needs cutting.This house wants painting.

Your suggestion is worth talking over.

Syntactical Functions of the GerundThe gerund can perform any syntactical function typical of a noun, although in each case it

has peculiarities of its own. It may function (a) alone, without modifiers, or (b) as the headword of a gerundial phrase, or (c) as part of a gerundial predicative construction. Since the functions of gerundial constructions are identical with those of single gerunds or gerundial phrases, we shall treat them together. The gerundial constructions are usually translated by clauses.

a) I like driving.

b) I like playing the piano.

c) I like John’s (his) playing the piano.A gerundial phrase consists of a gerund as headword and one or more words depending on it.

A gerundial construction contains some nominal element denoting the doer of the action expressed by the gerund and the gerund itself with or without some other words depending on it. The nominal element can be a noun in the genitive case or a possessive pronoun (if it denotes a living being), or a noun in the common case (if it does not denote a living being).

I remember John’s telling me that story once.

I remember the weather being extremely fine that summer.

We are absolutely against grown-up children being treated as babies.

There is a growing tendency, especially in informal speech, to use the pronoun in the objective case and a noun in the common case to denote the doer of the action expressed by the gerund with reference to living beings too.

They were all in favour of Tommy playing the main part.

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The gerund as subjectAs a rule the gerund as subject stands in front position.

John(‘s) coming tomorrow will make all the difference.

Growing roses, collecting postage stamps or old swords are hobbies.

The subject stands in postposition in sentences opening with an introductory it, which happens when the meaning of the subject is accentuated and the predicate is a phrase such as to be (of) no use (no good, useless), to make all the (no) difference.

If you want me to help, it’s no good beating about the bush. It will make no difference your being quiet.

In American English the pattern There is no use in doing it is preferable to It is no use doing it. In sentences with the introductory there the gerund is preceded by the negative pronoun no. Such sentences are usually emphatic.

Well, there’s no avoiding him now. There is no accounting for his strange behaviour.

The gerund as part of the predicateThe gerund is used in compound predicates of both types - verbal and nominal.

The gerund as part of the compound nominal predicate (predicative)

As predicative the gerund expresses either characterization or identity. In the latter case the predicate reveals the meaning of the subject.

John’s hobby is collecting all sorts of bugs and butterflies.

The gerund as part of the compound verbal predicateIn combination with phasal verbs the gerund forms a compound verbal phasal predicate. The

finite phasal verb denotes a phase of the action expressed by the gerund. The most common phasal verbs followed by the gerund are: to begin*,* to burst out, to start*, to cease, to continue*, to give up, to go on, to finish, to keep on, to leave off, to stop.

* The verbs marked by an asterisk may also be followed by the infinitive.

Again you start arguing.On hearing the joke everybody burst out laughing.

They kept on arguing.

Your health will improve as soon as you give up smoking.

This is the only function of the gerund that is not characteristic of the noun, for it is caused by the verbal character of the gerund.

A gerundial predicative construction cannot form part of a compound verbal predicate.

The gerund as objectThe gerund can be used as a direct or a prepositional object. As a direct object it follows a

number of monotransitive verbs, some of which take only the gerund, while others may be followed either by the gerund or by the infinitive. The gerund is also used after the adjective worth.

The following verbs are followed only by the gerund:58

to admit

to appreciate

to avoid

to deny

to detest

to enjoy

to excuse

to fancy

to imagine

to mention

to mind

to miss

to postpone

to practise

to put off

to recollect

to resent

to resist

to risk

to suggest

to understand

can’t help

can’t stand

We all appreciate your helping us.

Avoid using very long sentences.

Fancy us (our) having to walk a mile in a wind like this!I’m sorry that I missed seeing you!

Do you mind Ann’s joining us?

Practise listening to tape recordings. It’s good practice! I find the book worth reading.

Verbs followed by either the gerund or the infinitive.

to have

to forget

to intend

to like (dislike)

to plan

to prefer

to remember

to regret

can’t bear

can’t afford*

* On the difference between the use of the gerund and the infinitive with some verbs see § 127.

I can’t bear your (you) being so sad.

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We can’t afford going to the cinema too often now, we are revising for our exams.

I prefer walking home (to taking a bus).

After verbs taking an object and an objective predicative the gerund, or rather a gerundial phrase or construction, is preceded by an introductory object it.

I find it strange our going without you.

I think it no use your (you) arguing about trifles.

As a prepositional object the gerund may follow (a) monotransitive prepositional verbs, (b) ditransitive verbs taking a direct and a prepositional object, (c) adjectives and statives and (d) participle II, generally when used as a predicative.

a) to agree

to object

to look forward

to

to count

to depend

to rely

on

to hear

to learn

to think

of

to persist

to consist

to succeed

in

We all agree to your opening the discussion. Happiness consists largely in having true friends. All depends on the doctor being sent for in time. They are thinking of doing something for him.

b) to accuse

to suspect

of to thank

to blame to praise to punish

to sentence

forto prevent

to stop

from

to assist

to help in

to have no difficulty

in

to congratulate smb. on

Roy accused me of disliking him.

What prevented you from becoming a professional actor?

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Who will help me in hanging these pictures?You should blame yourself for getting such a low mark.I had no difficulty in getting the tickets for the concert.

c) to be afraid

to be aware

to be conscious

to be capable

to be fond

of

to be ignorant

to be proud

to be sure

of

to be responsible for

to be sorry about

to be keen on

I don’t have the TV too loud, because I’m afraid of disturbing the neighbours.

We are all proud of our citizen’s getting the first prize.

Ned will be responsible for arranging the farewell party.Don’t be sorry about missing the first scene, it was rather dull.

d) to be accustomed

to be used

to to be (dis)pleased with (at)

to be surprised at

to be tired ofto be absorbed

to be engrossed

in

I’m not used to being talked to in that rude way.The teacher was displeased with the boys being noisy.

We were surprised at your leaving the party.

A teacher shouldn’t get tired of explaining things to his pupils.

The gerund as attributeWhen used as an attribute, the gerund modifies nouns, mainly abstract nouns. It is always

preceded by a preposition, in the vast majority of cases by of, as in the following combinations: the art of teaching, the habit of speaking, a certain way of walking, a chance of seeing somebody, a hope of getting a ticket, an idea of going to the cinema, an intention of learning another foreign language, etc.

There is a chance of catching the train.

Professor N spoke about new methods of teaching English to foreign students.

The idea of him being in Paris was not a pleasant one.Lucy had the impression of being carried upstairs.Isn’t there any hope of your being able to go with us at all?

In some cases the choice of the preposition depends on the requirements of the modified noun, as in surprise at, experience in, skill in, apology (excuse) for, objection to.

The boy showed his skill in building model boats.

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Imagine his surprise at seeing me.

When a gerund modifies a concrete noun it is preceded by the preposition for and the whole gerundial phrase as attribute expresses the purpose or destination of the thing mentioned.

The barometer is an instrument for measuring the pressure of the air.

A gerund as attribute may precede the noun it modifies in phrases bordering on a compound noun. A premodifying attribute is used without a preposition, as in a dancing master, a diving suit, a reading lamp, a spending habit, a working method, a writing career, a swimming pool, a walking stick, etc.*

* See §132.

The gerund as adverbial modifierOwing to the variety of prepositions which may precede the gerund in the function of an

adverbial modifier, a gerund may have different meanings.

1) As an adverbial modifier of time it may characterize the main verb from the viewpoint of priority, simultaneity, or posteriority. It may also indicate the starting point of the action. The prepositions used are on, after, in, before, since.

One day, on returning to his hotel, he found a note in his room.

At first he couldn’t understand. After thinking it over he hit upon the explanation.

And I’ll wash the dishes and clean up before coming to bed.

I had had a lot of thoughts since leaving the office.

2) As an adverbial modifier of reason it is introduced by the prepositions because of, for, from, for fear of, on account of, through.

So you see I couldn’t sleep for worrying.

We lost ourselves through not knowing the way.

He (Jolyon) took care not to face the future for fear of breaking up his untroubled manner.

3) As an adverbial modifier of manner the gerund generally occurs with the prepositions by or without.

You will achieve a lot by felling the truth. She dressed without making a sound.

4) As an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances it requires the preposition without.

They danced without speaking. (= They danced and didn’t speak)

The door opened without having been knocked on.

5) As an adverbial modifier of concession it is preceded by the preposition in spite of:I don’t ask any questions in spite of there being a lot of questions to ask.

6) As an adverbial modifier of condition it takes the prepositions without, but for, in case of.

You won’t enrich your vocabulary without making use of an English dictionary. (= if you 62

don’t make use of...)But for meeting John, I shouldn’t have become an English teacher.

7) As an adverbial modifier of purpose it is introduced by the preposition for, though this pattern is rather rare.

They took her to the station for questioning.The gerund and the infinitive compared

The gerund and the infinitive have much in common since they both have some nominal and some verbal features. However, in the infinitive the verbal nature is more prominent, whereas in the gerund the nominal one.

The basic difference in their meaning is that the gerund is more general, whereas the infinitive is more specific and more bound to some particular occasion. When they combine with the same verb the difference in their meaning and use should be fully realized.

1. With the verbs to like, to hate, to prefer the gerund expresses a more general or a habitual action, the infinitive a specific single action:

I like swimming (I am fond of swimming).

I hate interrupting people.

They prefer staying indoors when the weather is cold.

I shouldn’t like to swim in this lake.

I hate to interrupt you, but I have to.

I’d prefer to stay at home in this cold weather.

2. With the verbs to begin and to start either form may generally be used, but again the gerund is preferable when the action is more general.She began singing when a child. She went over to the piano and began to sing.

No gerund is used:a) when the finite verb is in the continuous form.

He is beginning to study French.

It’s beginning to rain.

b) with the verbs to understand and to see (meaning to understand).

He began to understand how it was done.c) when the subject denotes a thing, not a living being.

The doors began to creak.

The clock began to strike.

3. The verb to remember is followed by a gerund when it means a prior action (to recall, to keep in one’s memory some past event), and by an infinitive when it means a simultaneous action (the working of one’s memory).

I remembered posting the letters.

(Я помнил, что опустил письмо).

I remembered to post the letters. =

I remembered and posted.

(Я не забыл опустить письмо).

The same refers to the verb to forget.

I shall never forget hearing him sing Don’t forget to post the letters!

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(Я никогда не забуду как он пел). (Не забудь опустить письма).

I didn’t forget to post the letters.

(Я не забыл опустить письма).

4. The verb to regret is followed by the gerund to suggest priority, whereas the infinitive suggests a simultaneous action.

5. a) after to stop the gerund is used when it suggests the end of the action denoted by the gerund, whereas the infinitive is used as an adverbial of purpose.

b) The phrasal verb to go on with a gerund suggests the continuation of the action, denoted by the gerund and forms part of a compound verbal predicate; an infinitive points out a new stage in the sequence of actions.

6. The verb to allow is used with a gerund when it is not followed by an indirect object.

They don’t allow smoking here.

(Здесь курить запрещено).

They allowed us to smoke.

(Они разрешили нам курить).

The gerund and the verbal noun comparedAlthough formed in the same way as the gerund, the verbal noun is another part of speech and

has no verbal features at all. The following table shows the main differences between the gerund and the verbal noun.

Table VI

The characteristics of the gerund and the verbal noun

Forms

Grammatical

characteristics

The gerund The verbal noun

M

o

r

Voice and perfect being done, having done -

f

o

l

o

g

y

The plural form - sufferings, comings and goings

Direct object I like doing morning exercises. -

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S

y

n

t

a

x

Of-phrase and

adjectival attributes

- The doing of morning

Exercises was very good for me.

The regular doing of morning exercises

Adverbs as a modifier Doing morning exercises regularly

will improve your health.

-

Articles - The doing of morning exercises.

The acting was perfect.

From the table we can see that the distinctive features of the gerund are its verbal categories in the sphere of morphology and its verbal combinability. The distinctive features of the verbal noun are its nominal category of number and its noun combinability. It must be taken into consideration that a verbal noun is an abstract noun, and the use of the article and the plural form is determined by the requirements of the meaning and context.

It is more difficult to discriminate between a gerund and a verbal noun in cases where the verbal characteristics of the gerund are not apparent. This happens mainly when an -ing form is used as a single word without any modifiers or with such modifiers as occur with both the gerund and the verbal noun (His coming was unexpected. Her acting was perfect). In such cases the meaning of the form should be taken into account. Thus a gerund suggests a process, an activity, whereas a verbal noun denotes kinds of occupation (skating as compared to hockey), an art form (acting, painting), a branch of knowledge (engineering, spelling as opposed to pronunciation and as a synonym for orthography).

It goes without saying that an -ing form is a pure noun when it denotes an object, often the result of activity (a building - a house; a drawing, a painting - a picture). In such cases a noun unlike a gerund, may also combine with numerals, as in two drawings, four buildings, etc.

Literature.

1. Н. А. Кобрина, Е. А. Корнеева, М. И. Оссовская, К. А. Гузеева Грамматика английского языка: Морфология. Синтаксис. Учебное пособие для студентов педагогических институтов и университетов по специальности «Иностранные языки», СПб, СОЮЗ, 1999.-496с.

Theme 4. The bases of lexicography. Theoretical and Practical Lexicography. Types of dictionaries. Infinitive and Infinitive Constructions. Gerund or Infinitive. Syntactical constructions: “Object + Infinitive”, “Subject + Infinitive”

LEXICOGRAPHY AS A SCIENCEThe theory and practice of compiling dictionaries is called lexicography. In other words it is the art and craft of writing dictionaries.

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The Erya, from the early 3rd century BC, was the first Chinese language dictionary. The book organized Chinese characters by semantic groups. The intention of this dictionary was to explain the true meaning and interpretation of words in the context of older ancient texts.One of the earliest dictionaries known, and which is still extant today in an abridged form, was written in Latin during the reign of the emperor Augustus. It is known by the title De Significatu Verborum ("On the meaning of words") and was originally compiled by Verrius Flaccus. It was twice abridged in succeeding centuries, first by Sextus Pompeius Festus, and then by Paul the Deacon. Verrius Flaccus' dictionary was an abridged list of difficult or antiquated words, whose usage was illustrated by quotations from early Roman authors. The word "dictionary" comes from neoclassical Latin, dictio, meaning simply "word".The history of compiling dictionaries for English comes as far back as The Old English period, where we can find glosses of religious books. Regular bilingual dictionaries began to appear in the 15th century. These dictionaries were Anglo-Latin, Anglo-German, Anglo-French. The first true English dictionary was Robert Cawdrey's Table Alphabetical of 1604, although it only included 3,000 words and the definitions it contained were little more than synonyms. The first one to be at all comprehensive was Thomas Blount's dictionary Glossographia of 1656.In 1721 an English scientist and writer Nathaniel Bailey published the 1st etymological dictionary which explained the origin of English words. It was called Universal Etymological English Dictionary. Bailey’s entries are fuller, compared with the glosses in the hard-word books, and there’re more of them (as many as 60, 000 in the 1736 edition), but his definitions lack illustrative support, and he gives little guidance about usage.The history of lexicography is dominated by the names of 3 figures: Samuel Johnson, Noah Webster and James A. H. Murray. The role played by the first two in the Early Modern English period of the language was very significant. Their influence continues today – directly, in the case of Webster, through the series of dictionaries which bear his name; and indirectly, in the case of Johnson, through the tradition which led the Philological Society to sponsor a «new» English dictionary.In 1755 an English scientist Samuel Johnson compiled a famous explanatory dictionary which was called A Dictionary of the English language. Over a seven-year period, Johnson wrote the definitions of 40,000 words, illustrating their use from the best authors since the time of the Elizabethans. Although Johnson was fewer entries than Bailey, his selection is more wide-ranging, and his lexicological treatment is far more discriminating and sophisticated.The book, according to his biographer Boswell, «conferred stability» on the language – and at least with respect to spelling (where most of Johnson’s choices are found in modern practice).The alphabetical section of Johnson’s Dictionary is preceded by a famous Preface in which he outlines his aims and procedures:When I took the 1st survey of my undertaking, I found our speech copious without order, and energetic without rules: wherever I turned my view, there was perplexity to be disentangled, and confusion to be regulated… Having therefore no assistance but from general grammar, I applied myself to the perusal of our writers; and noting whatever might be of use to ascertain or illustrate any word or phrase, accumulated in time the materials of a dictionary, which, by degrees, I reduced to method…The preliminaries also include a short history of the language, with long extracts from earlier authors, and a grammar, much influenced by the work of John Wallis, with sections on orthography and prosody. But it is in the Preface, often anthologized as an independent text, that we find an unprecedented statement of the theoretical basis of a dictionary project. The statement is notable for its awareness of the realities of the lexicographer’s task, and also for its descriptive intention – an interesting change of opinion from the prescriptive attitudes Johnson expressed in his 1747 Dictionary plan. There he had written: «The chief intent is to preserve the purity and ascertain the meaning of our English idiom». The Preface, by contrast, stresses that his aim is «not form, but register the language»; and it is this principle which introduces a new era in Lexicography.

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The Johnsonian Method.This page illustrates several features of the approach Johnson outlines in his Preface:1. Most of the definitions are appropriate and consistent between entries;2. He plays special attention to the different senses of a word – five, in the case of eternal;3. There’s a copious use of quotations to support a definition – 116,000 in all;4. He routinely identifies parts of speech;5. He shows the most strongly stressed syllable in a headword by an accent;6. There’s an openness of approach;7. He includes topical explanations of some words;8. A wide range of ordinary words are included alongside technical terms;9. It includes, in the «hard-words» tradition, many cumbersome Latinate forms, such as cubicula, estuation, whose status within English was doubtful;10. His creations are highly selective, chosen more for their literary or moral value than for their linguistic clarity;11. Several of his definitions use difficult words, such as reciprocates in estuary;12. Several of his definitions have become famous for their subjectivity.Some Johnsonian Definitions.There’re not many truly idiosyncratic definitions in the Dictionary, but some have become famous. LEXICOGRAPHER – a writer of dictionary, a harmless drudge, that busies himself in tracing the original, and detailing the signification of words.EXCISE – a hateful tax levied upon commodities, and adjudged not by the common judges of property, but wretches hired by those to whom excise is paid.OATS – a grain, which in England is generally given to horses, but in Scotland supports the people.PATRON – one, who countenances, supports or protects.PENSION – an allowance made to anyone without an equivalent. In England it’s generally understood to mean pay given to a state hireling for treason to his country. His definitions sometimes got him into trouble. He was threatened with libel over excise, and much lampooned over pension.So Johnson’s Dictionary was the first attempt at a truly principled lexicography. It portrayed the complexity of the lexicon and of English usage more accurately than ever before; and his quotations initiated a practice which has informed English dictionaries ever since. The dictionary influenced normalization of the English vocabulary but at the same time it helped to preserve the English spelling in its conservative form.In 1857 the Philological Society of Great Britain, noting the inadequacies of the English dictionaries then available, adopted the decision to compile a dictionary including all the words existing in the language from Anglo-Saxon times. Twenty six years later in 1884 the first volume was published; it contained words ginning with A and B. The editor of this dictionary was James A. H. Murray. The aim was to produce a 4-volume work in a period of 10 years; but after 5 years, Murray and his colleagues had managed to complete only the section A-ANT; it was 352 pages, and sold for 62 ½ p in modern money. It was evident that the dictionary was a much greater work than had been envisaged. Additional editors were appointed and the last volume was published in 1928, the dictionary was called NED (New English Dictionary). It contained 12 volumes, comprising 15,487 pages and covering 414,825 lexical items. In 1933 the dictionary was republished under the title «The Oxford English Dictionary» because the work on this dictionary was conducted at Oxford. The dictionary contained 13 volumes. Work on the dictionary recommended in1957, with the appointment of R.W. Burchfield to edit a new supplement. This appeared in 4 volumes between 1972 and 1986, and included the content of the 1933 work: it added 5,732 pages to the dictionary, and nearly 70,000 further lexical items.

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As it was large and very expensive scientists continued their work and made shorter editions of the dictionary. The shorter Oxford dictionary contained the same number of entries but far less examples from literature. They also compiled a Concise Oxford Dictionary. It contained only one volume and no examples at all. American lexicography began to develop much later at the end of the 18 th century. The most famous American dictionary was compiled by Noah Webster. In 1828 he published a two volume dictionary (70,000 words), which was called American Dictionary of the English language. He tried to simplify English spelling and transcription. The work greatly improved the coverage of scientific and technical terms, as well as terms to do with American culture and institutions and added a great deal of encyclopedic information. A new feature was the introduction of Webster’s own etymologies – though the speculative nature of many of these was an early source of unwelcome criticism. The spellings were somewhat more conservative than those used in the 1806 book. Its pronunciations were generally provincial in character – those of Webster’s own New England. The label «American» in the title is more a reflection of the works of American authors referred to than of its uniquely American lexicon. Indeed, at one point Webster observed that «there were not 50 words in all which were used in America and not in England». On the other hand, nearly half of the words he did include are not to be found in Johnson’s Dictionary, which added considerable force to his claim that he was giving lexicography a fresh direction. Despite its weaknesses and its critics, the American Dictionary made Webster a household name in the USA. It was fiercely attacked in Britain for its Americanism especially in matters of spelling and usage; but the work was crucial in giving to US English an identity and status comparable to that given to the British English lexicon by Dr Johnson. Indeed, it’s difficult to appreciate today the impact which Webster’s Dictionary made at the time, and just how authoritative the book was perceived to be. After Webster’s death (1843), the rights were purchased by George and Charles Merriam, and later editions have appeared under the name of Merriam-Webster. A revision in 1847 was edited by Webster’s son-in-law, Chauncey A. Goodrich. Several dictionaries within this tradition appeared in the following decades, via the Webster’s International Dictionary of 1890 to the Webster’s New International Dictionary of 1909, with a second edition in 1934. The 3rd edition appeared in 1961, edited by Philip B. Gove, based on a collection of over 6 million citations of usage, and dealing with over 450,000 words. This edition prepared over a 10-year period, took up 757 editor-years, and proved to be highly controversial. Three supplements later appeared – of 6,000 words (1976), 89,000 words (1983), and 12,000 words (1986), and a CD is also available. Outside of this tradition, many other publishers have come to use the «Webster» name for their dictionaries and word-books. The largest dictionary in the world is "het Woordenboek der Nederlansche Taal (WNT)" (the Dictionary of the Dutch language). It took 134 years to create the dictionary (1864 - 1998). It consists of approximately 400,000 words on 45805 pages in 92000 columns.

Literature. 1. David Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language (Second Edition) - Cambridge University Press, 2003.2. Weiner E.S.C., The Oxford Miniguide to English Usage – OUP, 1987.3. Lyons J., New Horizons in Linguistics – Lnd., 1970. 4. Longman Essential Activator, 1997.5. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 1996.6. Arnold I.V., English Word – Moscow, 1973.7. Benson M, Benson E, The BBI Combinatory Dictionary of English Language – Amsterdam, 1986.8. Borisova L.M., Fomenko O.V., Introduction to English Philology – Kolomna, 2004.

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TYPES OF DICTIONARIES

Lexicography, that is the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries, is an important branch of applied linguistics. The fundamental paper in lexicographic theory was written by L.V. Shcherba as far back as 1940. A complete bibliography of the subject may be found in L.P. Stupin’s works. Lexicography has a common object of study with lexicology, both describe the vocabulary of a language. The essential difference between the two lies in the degree of systematisation and completeness each of them is able to achieve. Lexicology aims at systematisation revealing characteristic features of words. It cannot, however, claim any completeness as regards the units themselves, because the number of these units being very great, systematisation and completeness could not be achieved simultaneously. The province of lexicography, on the other hand, is the semantic, formal, and functional description of all individual words. Dictionaries aim at a more or less complete description, but in so doing cannot attain systematic treatment, so that every dictionary entry presents, as it were, an independent problem. Lexicologists sort and present their material in a sequence depending upon their views concerning the vocabulary system, whereas lexicographers have to arrange it most often according to a purely external characteristic, namely alphabetically. It goes without saying that neither of these branches of linguistics could develop successfully without the other, their relationship being essentially that of theory and practice dealing with the same objects of reality. The term dictionary is used to denote a book listing words of a language with their meanings and often with data regarding pronunciation, usage and/or origin. There are also dictionaries that concentrate their attention upon only one of these aspects: pronouncing (phonetical) dictionaries (by Daniel Jones) and etymological dictionaries (by Walter Skeat, by Erik Partridge, “The Oxford English Dictionary"). For dictionaries in which the words and their definitions belong to the same language the term unilingual or explanatory is used, whereas bilingual or translation dictionaries are those that explain words by giving their equivalents in another language. Multilingual or polyglot dictionaries are not numerous, they serve chiefly the purpose of comparing synonyms and terminology in various languages.Unilingual dictionaries are further subdivided with regard to the time. Diachronic dictionaries, of which “The Oxford English Dictionary” is the main example, reflect the development of the English vocabulary by recording the history of form and meaning for every word registered. They may be contrasted to synchronic or descriptive dictionaries of current English concerned with present-day meaning and usage of words. The boundary between the two is, however, not very rigid: that is to say, few dictionaries are consistently synchronic, chiefly, perhaps, because their methodology is not developed as yet, so that in many cases the two principles are blended. Some synchronic dictionaries are at the same time historical when they represent the state of vocabulary at some past stage of its development. Both bilingual and unilingual dictionaries can be general and special. General dictionaries represent the vocabulary as a whole with a degree of completeness depending upon the scope and bulk of the book in question. The group includes the thirteen volumes of “The Oxford English Dictionary” alongside with any miniature pocket dictionary. Some general dictionaries may have very specific aims and still be considered general due to their coverage. They include, for instance, frequency dictionaries, i.e. lists of words, each of which is followed by a record of its frequency of occurrence in one or several sets of reading matter. 5 A rhyming dictionary is also a general dictionary, though arranged in inverse order, and so is a thesaurus in spite of its unusual arrangement. General dictionaries are contrasted to special dictionaries whose stated aim is to cover only a certain specific part of the vocabulary.Special dictionaries may be further subdivided depending on whether the words are chosen according to the sphere of human activity in which they are used (technical dictionaries), the type of the units themselves (e. g. phraseological dictionaries) or the relationships existing between them (e. g. dictionaries of synonyms).

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The first subgroup embraces highly specialised dictionaries of limited scope which may appeal to a particular kind of reader. They register and explain technical terms for various branches of knowledge, art and trade: linguistic, medical, technical, economical terms, etc. Unilingual books of this type giving definitions of terms are called glossaries. They are often prepared by boards or commissions specially appointed for the task of improving technical terminology and nomenclature.The second subgroup deals with specific language units, i.e. with phraseology, abbreviations, neologisms, borrowings, surnames, toponyms, proverbs and. sayings, etc.The third subgroup contains a formidable array of synonymic dictionaries that have been mentioned in the chapter on synonyms. Dictionaries recording the complete vocabulary of some author are called concordances, they should be distinguished from those that deal only with difficult words, i.e. glossaries. Taking up territorial considerations one comes across dialect dictionaries and dictionaries of Americanisms. The main types of dictionaries are classified in the accompanying table.Types of dictionaries

Unilingual Bilingual or multilingualGeneral Explanatory dictionaries

irrespective of their bulkEnglish-Russian, Russian-English, etc. and multilingual dictionaries

Etymological, frequency, phonetical, rhyming and thesaurus type dictionaries

Concentrated on one of the distinctive features of the word

Special Glossaries of scientific and other special terms; concordances1

Dictionaries of abbreviations, antonyms, borrowings, new words, proverbs, synonyms, surnames, toponyms, etc.

Dictionaries of scientific and other special terms1

Dictionaries of abbreviations, phraseology, proverbs, synonyms, etc.

Dictionaries of American English, dialect and slang dictionaries

Dictionaries of Old English and Middle English with explanations in Modern English

Finally, dictionaries may be classified into linguistic and non-linguistic. The latter are dictionaries giving information on all branches of knowledge, the encyclopaedias. They deal not with words, but with facts and concepts. The best known encyclopaedias of the English-speaking world are “The Encyclopaedia Britannica” and “The Encyclopaedia Americana”. There exist also biographical dictionaries and many minor encyclopaedias.English lexicography is probably the richest in the world with respect to variety and scope of the dictionaries published. The demand for dictionaries is very great. One of the duties of school teachers of native language is to instil in their pupils the “dictionary habit”. Boys and girls are required by their teachers to obtain a dictionary and regularly consult it. There is a great variety of unilingual dictionaries for children. They help children to learn the meaning, spelling and pronunciation of words. An interesting example is the Thorndike dictionary. Its basic principle is that the words and meanings included should be only those which schoolchildren are likely to hear or to encounter in reading. The selection of words is therefore determined statistically by counts of the actual occurrence of words in reading matter of importance to boys and girls between 10 and 15. Definitions are also made specially to meet the needs of readers of that age, and this accounts for the ample use of illustrative sentences and pictures as well as for the encyclopaedic bias of the book.A dictionary is the most widely used reference book in English homes and business offices. Correct pronunciation and correct spelling are of great social importance, because they are necessary for efficient communication.

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A bilingual dictionary is useful to several kinds of people: to those who study foreign languages, to specialists reading foreign literature, to translators, to travellers, and to linguists. It may have two principal purposes: reference for translation and guidance for expression. It must provide an adequate translation in the target language of every word and expression in the source language. It is also supposed to contain all the inflectional, derivational, semantic and syntactic information that its reader might ever need, and also information on spelling and pronunciation. Data on the levels of usage are also considered necessary, including special warnings about the word being rare or poetical or slangy and unfit to be used in the presence of “one’s betters”. The number of special bilingual dictionaries for various branches of knowledge and engineering is ever increasing. A completely new type are the machine translation dictionaries which present their own specific problems, naturally differing from those presented by bilingual dictionaries for human translation. It is highly probable, however, that their development will eventually lead to improving dictionaries for general use.The entries of a dictionary are usually arranged in alphabetical order, except that derivatives and compounds are given under the same head-word. In the ideographic dictionaries the main body is arranged according to a logical classification of notions expressed. But dictionaries of this type always have an alphabetical index attached to facilitate the search for the necessary word.The ideographic type of dictionary is in a way the converse of the usual type: the purpose of the latter is to explain the meaning when the word is given. The Thesaurus, on the contrary, supplies the word or words by which a given idea may be expressed. Sometimes the grouping is in parallel columns with the opposite notions. The book is meant only for readers (either native or foreign) having a good knowledge of English, and enables them to pick up an adequate expression and avoid overuse of the same words. The Latin word thesaurus means ‘treasury’. P. Roget’s book gave the word a new figurative meaning, namely, ‘a store of knowledge’, and hence ‘a dictionary containing all the words of a language’. A consistent classification of notions presents almost insuperable difficulties. Only relatively few “semantic fields", such as kinship terms, colour terms, names for parts of human body and some others fit into a neat scheme. For the most part, however, there is no one-to-one correlation between notions and words, and the classification of notions, even if it were feasible, is a very poor help for classification of meanings and their systematic presentation. The system of meanings stands in a very complex relationship to the system of notions because of the polysemantic character of most words. The semantic structure of words and the semantic system of vocabulary depend on many linguistic, historical and cultural factors.

THE INFINITIVE, part 1.

The infinitive is the non-finite form of the verb which combines the properties of the verb with those of the noun, serving as the verbal name of a process. By virtue of its general process-naming function, the infinitive should be considered as the head-form of the whole paradigm of the verb. In this quality it can be likened to the nominative case of the noun in languages having a normally developed noun declension, as, for instance, Russian. It is not by chance that A. A. Shakhmatov called the infinitive the "verbal nominative". With the English infinitive, its role of the verbal paradigmatic head-form is supported by the fact that, as has been stated before, it represents the actual derivation base for all the forms of regular verbs.

The infinitive is used in three fundamentally different types of functions: first, as a notional, self-positional syntactic part of the sentence; second, as the notional constituent of a complex verbal predicate built up around a predicator verb; third, as the notional constituent of a finite conjugation form of the verb. The first use is grammatically "free", the second is grammatically "half-free", the third is grammatically "bound".

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The dual verbal-nominal meaning of the infinitive is expressed in full measure in its free, independent use. It is in this use that the infinitive denotes the corresponding process in an abstract, substance-like presentation. This can easily be tested by question-transformations. Cf.:

Do you really mean to go away and leave me here alone? → What do you really mean? It made her proud sometimes to toy with the idea. → What made her proud sometimes?

The combinability of the infinitive also reflects its dual semantic nature, in accord with which we distinguish between its verb-type and noun-type connections. The verb-type combinability of the infinitive is displayed in its combining, first, with nouns expressing the object of the action; second, with nouns expressing the subject of the action; third, with modifying adverbs; fourth, with predicator verbs of semi-functional nature forming a verbal predicate; fifth, with auxiliary finite verbs (word-morphemes) in the analytical forms of the verb. The noun-type combinability of the infinitive is displayed in its combining, first, with finite notional verbs as the object of the action; second, with finite notional verbs as the subject of the action.

The self-positional infinitive, in due syntactic arrangements, performs the functions of all types of notional sentence-parts, i. e. the subject, the object, the predicative, the attribute, the adverbial modifier. Cf.: To meet the head of the administration and not to speak to him about your predicament was unwise, to say the least of it. (Infinitive subject position) The chief arranged to receive the foreign delegation in the afternoon. (Infinitive object position) The parents' wish had always been to see their eldest son the continuator of their joint scientific work. (Infinitive predicative position) Here again we are faced with a plot to overthrow the legitimately elected government of the republic. (Infinitive attributive position) Helen was far too worried to listen to the remonstrances. (Infinitive adverbial position)

If the infinitive in free use has its own subject, different from that of the governing construction, it is introduced by the preposition-particle for. The whole infinitive construction of this type is traditionally called the "for-to infinitive phrase". Cf.: For that shy-looking young man to have stated his purpose so boldly — incredible!

The prepositional introduction of the inner subject in the English infinitive phrase is analogous to the prepositional-casal introduction of the same in the Russian infinitive phrase (i.e. either with the help of the genitive-governing preposition для, or with the help of the dative case of the noun). Cf.: Для нас очень важно понять природу подобных соответствий.

With some transitive verbs (of physical perceptions, mental activity, declaration, compulsion, permission, etc.) the infinitive is used in the semi-predicative constructions of the complex object and complex subject, the latter being the passive counterparts of the former. Cf.:

We have never heard Charlie play his violin. → Charlie has never been heard to plan his violin. The members of the committee expected him to speak against the suggested resolution. → He was expected by the members of the committee to speak against the suggested resolution.

Due to the intersecting character of joining with the governing predicative construction, the subject of the infinitive in such complexes, naturally, has no introductory preposition-particle.

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The English infinitive exists in two presentation forms. One of them, characteristic of the free uses of the infinitive, is distinguished by the pre-positional marker to. This form is called traditionally the "to-infinitive", or in more recent linguistic works, the "marked infinitive". The other form, characteristic of the bound uses of the infinitive, does not employ the marker to, thereby presenting the infinitive in the shape of the pure verb stem, which in modern interpretation is understood as the zero-suffixed form. This form is called traditionally the "bare infinitive", or in more recent linguistic works, respectively, the "unmarked infinitive".

The infinitive marker to is a word-morpheme, i.e. a special formal particle analogous, mutatis mutandis, to other auxiliary elements in the English grammatical structure. Its only function is to build up and identify the infinitive form as such. As is the case with the other analytical markers, the particle to can be used in an isolated position to represent the whole corresponding construction syntagmatically zeroed in the text. Cf.: You are welcome to acquaint yourself with any of the documents if you want to.

Like other analytical markers, it can also be separated from its notional, i.e. infinitive part by a word or a phrase, usually of adverbial nature, forming the so-called "split infinitive". Cf.: My task is not to accuse or acquit; my task it to thoroughly investigate, to clearly define, and to consistently systematise the facts.

Thus, the marked infinitive presents just another case of an analytical grammatical form. The use or non-use of the infinitive marker depends on the verbal environment of the infinitive. Namely, the unmarked infinitive is used, besides the various analytical forms, with modal verbs (except the modals ought and used), with verbs of physical perceptions, with the verbs let, bid, make, help (with the latter — optionally), with the verb know in the sense of "experience", with a few verbal phrases of modal nature (had better, would rather, would have, etc.), with the relative-inducive why. All these uses are detailed in practical grammar books.

The infinitive is a categorially changeable form. It distinguishes the three grammatical categories sharing them with the finite verb, namely, the aspective category of development (continuous in opposition), the aspective category of retrospective coordination (perfect in opposition), the category of voice (passive in opposition). Consequently, the categorial paradigm of the infinitive of the objective verb includes eight forms: the indefinite active, the continuous active, the perfect active, the perfect continuous active; the indefinite passive, the continuous passive, the perfect passive, the perfect continuous passive. E.g.: to take — to be taking

— to have taken — to have been taking; to be taken —to be being taken — to have been taken — to have been being taken.

The infinitive paradigm of the non-objective verb, correspondingly, includes four forms. E.g.: to go —to be going

— to have gone — to have been going.

The continuous and perfect continuous passive can only be used occasionally, with a strong stylistic colouring. But they underlie the corresponding finite verb forms. It is the indefinite infinitive that constitues the head-form of the verbal paradigm.

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Literature.

1. Блох М. Я. Теоретическая грамматика английского языка: Учебник. Для студентов филол. фак. ун-тов и фак. англ. яз. педвузов. — М.: Высш. школа, 1983.— с. 383.

THE INFINITIVE, part 2.The infinitive is a non-finite form of the verb which names a process in a most general way.

As such, it is naturally treated as the initial form of the verb, which represents the verb in dictionaries (much in the same way as the common case singular represents the noun).

In all its forms and functions the infinitive has a special marker, the particle to. The particle to is generally used with the infinitive stem and is so closely connected with it that does not commonly allow any words to be put between itself and the stem. Occasionally, however, an adverb or particle may be inserted between them:

She doesn’t want to even see me once more.

The infinitive thus used is called the split infinitive, and is acceptable only to give special emphasis to the verb.

Although the particle to is very closely connected with the infinitive, sometimes the bare infinitive stem is used. The cases where the infinitive loses its marker are very few in number.

Like other non-finite forms of the verb the infinitive has a double nature: it combines verbal features with those of the noun.

The verbal features of the infinitive are of two kinds: morphological and syntactical.

1) M o r p h o l o g i c a l : the infinitive has the verb categories of voice, perfect and aspect:The evening is the time to praise the day. (active)To be praised for what one has not done was bad enough. (passive)

She did not intend to keep me long, she said. (non-perfect)

I am so distressed to have kept you waiting, (perfect)

She promised to bring the picture down in the course of ten minutes. (common)

At that time I happened to be bringing him some of the books borrowed from him two days before, (continuous)

2) S y n t a c t i c a l : the infinitive possesses the verb combinability:

a) it takes an object in the same way as the corresponding finite verbs do;

b)it takes a predicative if it happens to be a link verb;

c) it is modified by adverbials in the same way as finite verbs:

Infinitive Finite verb

a) To tell him about it the same night was out of the question. She did not mean to depend on her father.

She told me about it only yesterday.

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b) She wanted to be a teacher. I don’t want to look pale tonight.

c) To draw his attention I had to speak very loudly.

You see, I depend on his word only.

He was a teacher of French.

She looked pale and haggard.

He spoke loudly, turning his head from side to side.

The nominal features of the infinitive are revealed only in its function:To understand is to forgive. (subject, predicative)That’s what I wanted to know. (object)

I saw the chance to escape into the garden. (attribute)

I merely came back to water the roses, (adverbial modifier of purpose)

The Grammatical Categories of the InfinitiveAs has already been stated the infinitive has three grammatical categories, those of perfect,

voice, and aspect.

The system of grammatical categories of the infinitive is shown in the table below.Table IV

Perfect Voice Active Passive

Aspect

Non-Perfect Common to go

to take

-

to be taken

Continuous to be going

to be taking

-

(to be being taken)

Perfect Common to have gone

to have taken

-

to have been taken

Continuous to have been going

to have been taking

-

-

It is seen from the table, that the passive voice is found only with transitive verbs and there are no perfect continuous forms in the passive voice. As for the non-perfect continuous passive, forms similar to the one in brackets, do sometimes occur, although they are exceptionally rare.

The category of perfectThe category of perfect finds its expression, as with other verb forms, in the opposition of

non-perfect and perfect forms.

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The non-perfect infinitive denotes an action simultaneous with that of the finite verb (I am glad to take part in it, I am glad to be invited there),

The perfect infinitive always denotes an action prior to that of the finite verb - the predicate of the sentences. The meaning of priority is invariable with the perfect and perfect continuous infinitive.

I am glad

I was glad

I shall be glad

to have seen you again.

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3) When used as an object of a verb of inducement:

He ordered the man to come at three.

She always asks me to help her when she is busy.

He will make you obey.The category of aspectThe category of aspect finds its expression in contrasting forms of the common aspect and the

continuous aspect. The difference between the category of aspect in finite verb forms and in the infinitive is that in the infinitive it is consistently expressed only in the active voice:

to speak

to have spoken

- to be speaking

- to have been speaking

The passive voice has practically no aspect oppositions. (See Table IV). The semantics of the category of aspect in the infinitive is the same as in the finite verb: the continuous aspect forms denote an action in progress at some moment of time in the present, past, or future; the meaning of the common aspect forms is flexible and is easily modified by the context.

The two aspects differ in their frequency and functioning; the continuous aspect forms are very seldom used and cannot perform all the functions in which the common aspect forms are used. They can function only as:

1) subject (To be staying with them was a real pleasure.);

2) object (I was glad to be waking.)

3) part of a compound verbal predicate (Now they must be getting back; The leaves begin to be growing yellowish.)

The continuous aspect forms do not occur in the function of adverbial - modifiers and attributes.

The category of voiceThe infinitive of transitive verbs has the category of voice, similar to all other verb forms:

to say

to have said

- to be said- to have been said

The active infinitive points out that the action is directed from the subject (either expressed or implied), the passive infinitive indicates that the action is directed to the subject:

Active Passive

He expected to find them very soon. They expected to be found by night fall.

However, there are cases where the active form of the non-perfect infinitive denotes an action directed towards the subject, that is although active in form it is passive in meaning:

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His to blame.

The house is to let.

The active infinitive thus used is called retroactive.

The retroactive infinitive is rather productive although in nearly all cases it can be replaced by the corresponding passive form:

He is to blame —> He is to be blamed.

There was only one thing to do ——> There was only one thing to be done.

Syntactical functions of the infinitiveThe infinitive performs almost all syntactical functions characteristic of the noun, although in

each of them it has certain peculiarities of its own. In all syntactical functions the infinitive may be used:

1) alone, that is, without any words depending on it:

She would like to dance.2) as the headword of an infinitive phrase, that is, with one or more words depending on it:

She would like to dance with him tonight.

3) as part of an infinitive predicative construction, that is, as a logical predicate to some nominal element denoting the logical subject of the infinitive:

She would like him to dance with her. She waited for him to dance first.

As to the functioning of single infinitives and infinitive phrases, they are identical in this respect and therefore will be used without distinction in illustrations. However it should be noted that in fact the infinitive phrase is much more common than the single infinitive.

The infinitive as subjectThe infinitive functioning as subject may either precede the predicate or follow it. In the latter

case it is introduced by the so-called introductory it, which is placed at the beginning of the sentence:

To be good is to be in harmony with oneself.

It’s so silly to be fussy and jealous.

The second of these structural patterns is more common than the first, and the subject in this pattern is more accentuated (compare for example: It’s impossible to do it and To do it is impossible). The other difference is that in the second case the sentence can be both declarative and interrogative, while in the first one the sentence can only be declarative:

D e c l a r a t i v e s e n t e n c e s

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It’s nice to see you again.

It was not a good idea to bring her here

To find him still at home was a relief.

To see her again did not give him the usual pleasure.

I n t e r r o g a t i v e s e n t e n c e s

Is it bad to love one so dearly?

Wasn’t it a waste of time to sit there?

The infinitive subject in both structural patterns is a “to” - infinitive. If there are two or more homogeneous infinitive subjects in a sentence, all of them keep the particle to:

To be alone, to be free from the daily interests and cruelty would be happiness to Asako.

It was awfully difficult to do or even to say nothing at all.

The function of the subject can be performed by the infinitive of any voice, aspect and perfect form, although the common aspect non-perfect active forms are naturally far more frequent.

To expect too much is a dangerous thing.

To be walking through the fields all alone seemed an almost impossible pleasure.

To have seen her was even a more painful experience.

To be recognized, to be greeted by some local personage afforded her a joy which was very great.

To have been interrogated in such a way was a real shock to him.

The predicate of the subject expressed by an infinitive always takes the form of the 3rd person singular. As to its type, it is usually a compound nominal predicate with the link verb to be, although other link verbs may also occur, as well as a verbal predicate.

To acquire knowledge and to acquire it unceasingly is the first duty of the artist.

To understand is to forgive.To talk to him bored me.

To see the struggle frightened him terribly.

To write a really good book requires more time than I have.

The infinitive as part of the predicateThe infinitive is used in predicates of several types, both nominal and verbal.

The infinitive as predicativeIn the function of a predicative the “to”-infinitive is used in compound nominal predicates

after the link verb to be:

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His dearest wish was to have a son.

With homogeneous predicatives the use of the particle to varies. If the infinitives are not linked by conjunctions, the particle is generally used with all of them:

My intention was to see her as soon as possible, to talk to her, to calm her.

If they are linked by the conjunctions and or or the particle to is generally used with the first infinitive only:

Your duty will be to teach him French and play with him.

His plan was to ring her up at once, or even call on her.

The use of the infinitive as a predicative has some peculiarities.

1) In sentences with an infinitive subject the predicative infinitive denotes an action that follows, or results from, the action of the subject infinitive.

To see her was to admire her.

To come there at this hour was to risk one’s life.

Sentences in which both the infinitives are used without any modifiers are usually of aphoristic meaning:

To hear is to obey.

To see is to believe.

To define is to limit.

The predicative function is generally performed by the common non-perfect active forms of the infinitive. Still passive forms sometimes occur:

To be born in poverty was to be doomed to humiliation.

2) The set of nouns that can function as the subject of a compound nominal predicate with an infinitive predicative is very limited. It includes about 50 nouns describing situations:

action

advice

aim

ambition

attempt

business

consequence

custom

desire

function

habit

happiness

hope

idea

ideal

instruction

intention

job

order

plan

principle

problem

purpose

reason

risk

role

rule

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difficulty

duty

experience

method

need

object

task

thing

wish, etc.

A predicative infinitive phrase may be introduced by the conjunctive, adverbs and pronouns how, when, where, what, whom, the choice depending on the lexical meaning of the noun:

Now the question was what to tell him.

The problem was how to begin.

3) The function of the subject may be also performed by the pronoun all or the substantivized superlatives the most and the least with an attributive clause attached to them:

All he wanted was to be left alone.

The least I can expect is to have this day all to myself.

In such cases the predicative infinitive can lose its marker to:

All I can do is get you out of here.4) Occasionally the function of the subject can be performed by a gerund or a what-clause:

Living with hemophilia was to live off balance all the time.

“What we want to do,“ said Brady, “is to fight a world.”

The infinitive as simple nominal predicateThe infinitive as simple nominal predicate may be used in exclamatory sentences expressing

the speaker’s rejection of the idea that the person to whom the action of the infinitive is ascribed is likely to perform this action, or belong to such sort of people*, as in:

* For details see Syntax § 41.

You - of all men - to say such a thing! Me - to be your lover!

As a rule the infinitive in exclamatory sentences is used with the particle to, although it occasionally occurs without it:

Me - marry him! Never!

The infinitive may be also used as predicate in interrogative infinitive why-sentences, both affirmative and negative, where it expresses a suggestion:

Why let him sleep so long?

Why not go away?

In such sentences the infinitive is always used without the particle to.

The infinitive as part of a compound verbal predicateThe infinitive is used in compound verbal predicates of three types.

I. In a compound verbal modal predicate after the modal verbs can, may, might, ought, must, shall, should, will, would, need, dare, to be, to have, and expressions with modal meaning had better, would rather.

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I can tell you nothing at all about him. She ought to have told me before.

II. In a compound verbal phasal predicate after verbs denoting various stages of the action, such as its beginning, continuation, or end. These verbs (to begin, to come, to start, to continue, to go on, to cease, etc.) followed by a “to”-infinitive form a compound verbal phasal predicate.

Now I begin to understand you.

Then she came to realize what it all meant.They continued to whisper.

The verbs to begin, to continue and to start can also be followed by a gerund, although with a certain difference in meaning. Thus the verb to stop followed by a gerund means to put an end to an action, to interrupt, whereas followed by an infinitive means to pause in order to do something. So the infinitive after the verb to stop is used in the function of an adverbial modifier of purpose.

He stopped to see what it was.

Он остановился, чтобы посмотреть, что это такое.

He stopped seeing her.

Он перестал с ней встречаться.

III. The compound verbal predicate of double orientation* has no analogy in Russian. The three subtypes of this predicate can be distinguished according to the expression of the first part:

* For details see Syntax § 53.

1. The first part is expressed by one of the following intransitive verbs in the active voice: to seem - казаться; to appear - оказаться, казаться; to prove, to turn out - оказаться; to happen, to chance - случаться. After the verbs to prove and to turn out the infinitive is mostly nominal, that is presented by to be + noun or adjective. After the verbs to seem, to appear, to happen all types and forms of the infinitive are possible.

Simple sentences with this type of predicate are synonymous with complex sentences of a certain pattern:

He seems to be smiling.

She appeared to have said all.

It seems that he is smiling.

It appeared that she had said all.

Sentences with compound verbal predicates of double orientation are translated into Russian in different ways depending on the meaning of the first verbal element:The strange little man seemed to read my thoughts.

The man seemed to have come from far off.

Nothing appeared to be happening there.

Не appeared to have been running all the way.

Странный человечек, казалось, читал мои мысли.

Казалось, этот человек приехал откуда-то издалека.

Казалось, что здесь ничего не происходит.

Казалось, что он пробежал всю дорогу бегом.

Он оказался здоровым ребенком.

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Не proved to be a healthy child.

The night turned out to be cold.

Don’t you happen to know her?

Ночь оказалась холодной.

Ты ее случайно не знаешь?

2. The first part of the predicate is expressed by the passive voice forms of certain transitive verbs. They are:

a) verbs of saying: to announce, to declare, to report, to say, to state, etc.

She was announced to be the winner.

Не is said to have returned at last.

Было объявлено, что победила она.

Говорят, что он наконец вернулся.

b) verbs of mental activity: to believe, to consider, to expect, to find, to known, to mean, to presume, to regard, to suppose, to think, to understand, etc.

He’s supposed to be leaving tonight.

She is believed to be a clever girl.

Her father was thought to have died long ago.

Предполагают (предполагается), что он уезжает сегодня вечером.

Ее считают умной девушкой. (Считается, что она умная девушка.)

Считалось (считали, думали, полагали), что ее отец давным-давно умер.

c) verbs of sense perception: to feel, to hear, to see, to watch.Soon he was heard to open the front door.

She was often seen to walk all alone.

Вскоре услышали, как он открыл парадную дверь.

Часто видели, как она гуляет совсем одна.

d) the verb to make.

He was made to keep silent. Его заставили молчать.

3. The first part is expressed by the phrases: to be likely, to be unlikely, to be sure, to be certain. In this case only the non-perfect forms of the infinitive are used, with future reference.

She is likely to be late.

He is sure to become your friend.

They are sure to be wanted as evidence.

In all these three subtypes the “to” - infinitive is always used.

The infinitive as objectThe infinitive can have the function of object after verbs, adjectives, adjectivized participles

and statives.

After verbs the infinitive may be either the only object of a verb or one of two objects.83

1. Verbs that take only one object are: to agree, to arrange, to attempt, to care (to like), to choose, to claim, to consent, to decide, to deserve, to determine, to expect, to fail, to fear, to forget, to hesitate, to hope, to intend, to learn, to like, to long, to love, to manage, to mean, to neglect, to omit, to plan, to prefer, to pretend, to refuse, to regret, to remember, to swear, to tend, etc.

She agreed to come at ten.

He planned to spend the day in town.

You’ll soon learn to read, sonny.

Among these verbs two groups can be distinguished:

a) the verbs to claim, to fail, to forget, to hate, to like, to omit, to regret, to remember, to swear, with which the perfect infinitive denotes actions prior to those of the finite verbs. It can be accounted for by the fact that semantically these verbs denote an action or state following or resulting from that of the infinitive (you can regret only what was or has been done).

I regret to have said it to her.

I remembered to have met him once.

She claims to have seen him before.

b) The verbs to attempt, to expect, to hope, to intend, to mean, to plan, to try, when followed by the perfect infinitive imply that the action of the infinitive was not fulfilled.

I hoped to have found him at home.

He intended to have reached the coast long before.

In this case the finite verb can be used only in the past tense.

Besides the above-mentioned verbs there are also some rather common phrases used with the infinitive-object. They are the phrases can afford, can bear in the negative or interrogative and such phrases as to make sure, to make up one’s mind, to take care, to take the trouble.

Can you afford to buy it yourself?

I can’t bear to hear of it again.

At last he made up his mind to answer Sibyl’s letter.

2. Verbs that take two objects, the first of which is a noun or a pronoun and the second an infinitive. These are the verbs of inducement; they all have the general meaning to persuade, to cause to do something.

to advise

to allow

to ask

to beg

to cause

to direct

to encourage

to forbid

to force

to have

to induce

to instruct

to invite

to leave

to let

to permit

to persuade

to recommend

to request

to require

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to command

to compel

to impel

to implore

to make

to order

to tell

to urge

Tell him to hurry.He asked her to keep an eye on the clock.

What would you recommend me to do?

With all these verbs, except to have, to let and to make, a “to”- infinitive is used. After the verbs to have, to let and to make it loses the particle “to”.

She’ll have you do it at once.

Don’t let it bother you.Soon she made me see where I was wrong.

The object, which is a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the objective case, denotes a person (or, very seldom, a non-person) who is to perform the required action expressed by the infinitive.

The verb to help can be used either with one or with two objects:

She helped to pack.

She helped me to make up my mind.

In either case a “to”- infinitive or a bare infinitive can be used.

And she actually helped find it.

I’ll help you do it.

With some verbs the function of object may be performed by a conjunctive infinitive phrase. These verbs are very few in number and fall into two groups:

a) Verbs that can take either an infinitive or a conjunctive infinitive phrase as their object. These are: to advise, to decide, to forget, to learn, to remember.

They advised me to go on.

He decided to begin at once.

I forgot to tell you about the last incident.

He advised me at last how to settle the matter.

He could not decide whether to come at all.

I forgot how to do it.

b) Verbs that can take only a conjunctive infinitive phrase as their object: to know, to show, to wonder.

She did not know what to say.

I know well enough where to stop.

Will you show me how to do it?

The infinitive can have the function of object after certain adjectives (adjectivized participles), mostly used as predicatives. Semantically and structurally these fall into two groups.

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1. The most frequent adjectives of the first group are: anxious, apt, bound, careful, curious, determined, difficult, eager, easy, entitled, fit, free, hard, impatient, inclined, interested, keen, liable, powerless, prepared, quick, ready, reluctant, resolved, set, slow, worthy.

She’s determined to go on.I am powerless to do anything.

He’s fully prepared to meet them any time they choose.

I was so impatient to start.

When used with these adjectives, the infinitive denotes actions either simultaneous with, or posterior to, the states expressed by the predicates, and cannot therefore be used in perfect forms.

2. The most frequent adjectives (adjectivized participles) of the second group are: amused, annoyed, astonished, delighted, distressed, frightened, furious, glad, grateful, happy, horrified, pleased, proud, puzzled, relieved, scared, sorry, surprised, thankful, touched.

He was amused to hear it.

I’m delighted to see you again, darling.

She is proud to have grown such a son.

Mother was furious to see them together again.These adjectives and participles express certain psychological states which are the result of

the action expressed by the infinitive object, so the latter therefore always denotes an action slightly preceding the state expressed by the predicate, and can have both non-perfect and perfect forms. The non-perfect forms are used to express immediate priority, that is, an action immediately preceding the state:

I’m glad to see you (I see you and that is why I am glad).

The perfect forms are used to show that there is a gap between the action and the resulting state.

I am glad to have seen you (I saw/have seen you and that is why I am glad).

3. After certain statives denoting psychological states, such as afraid, agog, ashamed:

He was ashamed to tell us this.

In such cases the infinitive points out the source of the state expressed by the stative.

The infinitive as attributeThe English infinitive functioning as an attribute is far more frequent than the Russian

infinitive. This is because in Russian the infinitive attribute can combine with abstract nouns only, while in English it is used with a much wider range of words. In this function the infinitive always denotes a not yet fulfilled action, which is regarded as desirable, possible, advisable, necessary, etc. The modal meaning of the infinitive attribute is generally rendered in Russian by modal verbs or expressions, as is shown by the translations below.

The infinitive attribute can modify:

1 . n o u n s , b o t h a b s t r a c t a n d c o n c r e t e :Because of his quarrel with his family he was in no position to get the news. (... не мог получить известий)

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2 . i n d e f i n i t e , n e g a t i v e a n d u n i v e r s a l p r o n o u n s i n - b o d y , -t h i n g , - o n e ( o n e ) :

Have you anything to offer me? (Вы можете мне что-нибудь предложить?)

Occasionally the infinitive can have the function of an attribute to personal negative and reflexive pronouns or pronominal adverbs:

I’ve only you to look to.

3 . s u b s t a n t i v i z e d o r d i n a l n u m e r a l s (especially first), s u b s t a n t i v i z e d a d j e c t i v e s (next and last).

Jack was the first to come. 4 . s u b s t a n t i v i z e d q u a n t i t a t i v e a d j e c t i v e s much, little, (no) more,

(no) less, little more, enough:

A man in your position has so much to lose.

5 . t h e n o u n - s u b s t i t u t e o n e :

I am not the one to run about and discuss my affairs with other people. (... кто может ...)

The infinitive as adverbial modifierThe infinitive can be used as an adverbial modifier of: purpose, subsequent events,

consequence, attendant circumstances, comparison, condition, exception, time, cause, or motivation. In all these functions but that of the adverbial modifier of exception, a “to”- infinitive is used.

1. The adverbial modifier of purpose. In this function the action denoted by the infinitive is always a hypothetical one following the action denoted by the predicate. As such it can be expressed only by non-perfect common aspect forms of the infinitive (both active and passive):

I think I will go to England to improve my English.We stood in the rain and were taken out one at a time to be questioned and shot.

In this function a “to”- infinitive is used, but if there are two or more homogeneous adverbials of purpose joined by and, usually, though not necessarily, only the first of them has the particle to. Compare the following sentences:

Mary, looking pale and worried, left him to go down to the kitchen and start breakfast.

Then I went upstairs to say how-do-you-do to Emily, and into the kitchen to shake hands with Mary-Ann, and out into the garden to see the gardener.

The position of the infinitive used as an adverbial modifier of purpose varies. It usually stands after the predicate, though the position at the beginning of the sentence is also possible:

To occupy her mind, however, she took the job given her.

In both positions the infinitive may be preceded by the conjunction in order, so as or by limiting particle (just, only):

I keep a diary in order to enter the wonderful secrets of my life.

2. The adverbial modifier of subsequent events. In this function the infinitive denotes an action that follows the one denoted by the predicate. The position of this adverbial in the

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sentence is fixed - it always follows the predicate. The only forms of the infinitive occurring in this function are those of the non-perfect common aspect, usually active.

He arrived at three o’clock to hear that Fleur had gone out with the car at ten. (He arrived and heard ...)

In this function the infinitive may be preceded by the particles only, merely, simply, which change the meaning of the whole sentence: the action denoted by the infinitive preceded by these particles makes the action denoted by the predicate pointless or irrelevant.

She returned to London in a few days, only to learn that Bess had gone to the continent. (She returned ..., and learnt...)

3. As an adverbial modifier of consequence the infinitive depends on a) adjectives and adverbs modified by too; b) adjectives, adverbs and nouns modified by enough; c) adjectives modified by so, and nouns modified by such. In the last two cases the infinitive is introduced by as:

a) Не was too tired to argue. (= He was so fired, that is why he couldn’t arque)b) He’s old enough to learn this. (= He is old enough, so he can learn this)

c) She was so kind as to accept my proposal. (= She was so kind, therefore she accepted my proposal)

In all these cases the infinitive denotes an action, which would become or became possible (enough, so, such) or impossible (too) due to the degree of quality or quantity expressed in the words it refers to.

The position of the infinitive is fixed, it always follows the words it modifies. The form of the infinitive is non-perfect, common aspect, usually active. .

4. The infinitive used as an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances shows what other actions take place at the same time as the action of the predicate.

He left the house never to come back.

I am sorry to have raised your expectations only to disappoint you.

The infinitive thus used always follows the predicate verb it modifies. As to its form, it is a non-perfect, common aspect, active voice form.

5. The infinitive used as an adverbial modifier of comparison refers to predicate groups including adjectives or adverbs in the comparative degree. The infinitive itself is introduced by than:

To give is more blessed than to receive.

Soon she realized, that it was much more pleasant to give than to be given.

Although the infinitive of comparison is generally used with to, it may also occur without it:

I was more inclined to see her safely married than go on watching over her.

6. The infinitive used as an adverbial modifier of condition denotes an action which pre-conditions the action expressed by the predicate.

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To look at Montmorency you would imagine that he was an angel sent upon earth ... (If you looked ..., you would imagine ...)

The position of this infinitive as can be seen from the examples above varies; it may either precede or follow the predicate verb it modifies. The only possible form of the infinitive is the non-perfect, common aspect, active voice form.

7. The infinitive used as an adverbial modifier of exception denotes the action which is the only possible one in the situation. The infinitive is generally used without to and is introduced by the prepositions but and except. It is found in negative and interrogative sentences:

I had nothing to do but wait.

8. The infinitive used as an adverbial modifier of time denotes an action which marks out the moment of time up to which or at which the action of the predicate is performed. Very often it has a secondary meaning of condition.

His father lived to be ninety. (lived till he was ...)

The position of the infinitive is fixed, it always follows the predicate it modifies. Its form is non-perfect, common aspect, active.

9. The infinitive used as an adverbial modifier of cause or motivation refers to a compound nominal predicate with the predicative expressed by an adjective, a noun, or a prepositional phrase denoting someone's qualities (intellectual qualities, morals, etc.)

The infinitive denotes an action which serves as a cause or a motivation on which this or that charaterisation is based.

What an idiot I was not to have thought of it before! (I had not thought of it before, therefore I can justly be called an idiot.)

The infinitive in this function follows the predicate. All the forms of the infinitive are possible.

The infinitive as parenthesisThe infinitive used as parenthesis is usually part of a collocation, as in: to begin with, to be

(quite) frank, to be sure, to make matters worse, to put it mildly, to say the least, to tell the truth, needless to say, strange to say, so to speak, to make a long story short, to crown all, to be more precise, to say nothing of ..., etc.

To begin with, you have been lying to me all the time.To be quite frank, I don’t like him at all.

He was, strange to say, just an ordinary little chap.

Predicative constructions with the infinitiveThe infinitive is used in predicative constructions of three types: the objective with the

infinitive construction, and the so-called for-to-infinitive construction*. Traditionally they are called the complex subject, the complex object, and the for-to-infinitive complex.

* It is possible, however, to distinguish one more infinitive construction generally called the subjective infinitive construction or the nominative infinitive construction. (See § 123 on the Subjective predicative construction).

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In all these constructions the infinitive denotes an action ascribed to the person or non-person, though grammatically this relationship is not expressed in form: the doer of the action may be represented by a noun in the common case, a pronoun in the objective case (I saw him cross the street, it is for him to decide this) and the verbal element which is not in a finite form. Still, due to their semantics and because of the attached position the nominal and the verbal elements are understood as forming a complex with subject-predicate relationship.The for-to-infinitive construction

In the for-to-infinitive construction the infinitive (usually an infinitive phrase) is in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the objective case introduced by the preposition for. The construction is used where the doer of the action (or the bearer of the state), expressed by the infinitive, is different from that of the finite verb (the predicate):

The doer of the action of the finite verb and of the infinitive is the same:

The doer of the action of the finite verb and of the infinitive is not the same:

He longed to see the truth. -

Он очень хотел узнать правду.

All I want is to get out of here for good. - Единственное, чего я хочу, - это навсегда уехать отсюда.

He longed for me to see the truth.-

Он очень хотел, чтобы я узнал правду.

All I want is for Jack to get out of here for good. - Единственное, чего я хочу, - это чтобы Джек навсегда уехал отсюда.

The for-to-infinitive construction has the same functions as a single infinitive, though with some restrictions.

1. Subject. The for-to-infinitive construction in the function of the subject usually occurs in sentences with the introductory it, though it is occasionally placed at the head of the sentence:

It was difficult for him to do anything else.

For me to hear him was disturbing.

2. Predicative. In this function the construction is mostly used with the link verb to be:

The best thing is for you to do it now.3. Object. The construction functions as object of both verbs and adjectives:

a) She watched for the door to open.

b) His family were anxious for him to do something.

4. Attribute:

There was no need for him to be economical.

5. Adverbial modifier of purpose and consequence:

She paused for him to continue.

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The objective with the infinitive constructionIn the objective with the infinitive construction the infinitive (usually an infinitive phrase) is

in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the objective case (hence the name of the construction). The whole construction forms a complex object of some verbs. It is rendered in Russian by an object clause.

The objective with the infinitive construction is used in the following cases:

1. After verbs of sense perception (to see, to hear, to feel, to watch, to observe, to notice and some others). In this case t h e o n l y p o s s i b l e f o r m o f t h e i n f i n i t i v e i s t h e n o n - p e r f e c t c o m m o n a s p e c t a c t i v e v o i c e f o r m , used without the particle to:

No one has ever heard her cry.

I paused a moment and watched the tram-car stop.

The verb to listen to, though not a verb of sense perception, is used in the same way, with a bare infinitive:

He was listening attentively to the chairman speak.If the verb to see or to notice is used with the meaning to realize, or the verb to hear with the

meaning to learn, the objective with the infinitive construction cannot be used.

2. After verbs of mental activity (to think, to believe, to consider, to expect, to understand, to suppose, to find and some others). Here the infinitive is used in any form, though the non-perfect forms are the most frequent (always with the particle to).

I know him to be an honest man.3. After verbs of emotion (to like, to love, to hate, to dislike and some others). Here non-

perfect, common aspect forms of the “to”- infinitive are the most usual.

I always liked him to sing.

4. After verbs of wish and intention (to want, to wish, to desire, to intend, to mean and some others). After these verbs only non-perfect common aspect forms of the infinitive with the particle to are used:

He only wished you to be near him. I don’t want him to be punished.

5. After verbs of declaring (to declare, to pronounce):

I declare you to be out of your mind.

He reported the boat to have been seen not far away.

6. After verbs of inducement (to have, to make, to get, to order, to tell, to ask, etc.) of which the first two take a bare infinitive. In the construction some of them acquire a different meaning: make - заставить, get - добиться, have - заставить (сказать, чтобы ...)

I can’t get him to do it properly. She made me obey her.

7. The objective with the infinitive construction also occurs after certain verbs requiring a prepositional object, for example to count (up)on, to rely (up) on, to look for, to listen to, to wait for:

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I rely on you to come in time. Can’t I count upon you to help me?

Literature.

1. Н. А. Кобрина, Е. А. Корнеева, М. И. Оссовская, К. А. Гузеева Грамматика английского языка: Морфология. Синтаксис. Учебное пособие для студентов педагогических институтов и университетов по специальности «Иностранные языки», СПб, СОЮЗ, 1999.-496с.

POLITICAL STRUCTURE OF GREAT BRITAINThe British monarchy clearly has great powers of survival; it is certainly the oldest

institution of government in the United Kingdom. It existed some four hundred years before Parliament and three centuries before the first courts of law, and an almost unbroken line of kings and queens can be traced back for over a thousand years. Queen Elizabeth II herself is descended from the Saxon monarchs who united England in the ninth century and from William the Conqueror, whose victory at the Battle of Hastings brought the Normans to power in 1066. She has reigned for over forty years, epitomizing the role of a constitutional monarch in an age of republics and presidents. The only break in the continuity of the monarchy occurred over three hundred years ago, when in 1649, the defeat of Charles I at the swords and guns of Oliver Cromwell's parliamentary army led to Britain becoming a republic. In 1660 Charles's son, Charles II, was restored to the throne and Britain has remained a monarchy ever since.

Not, however, that it has remained unchanged, the late sixteen hundreds saw the establishment of a limited constitutional monarchy and though considerable executive power continued to be wielded through much of the eighteenth century, the next one hundred years, including the hugely influential reign of Queen Victoria, saw the monarch's active role in politics reduced to the point where it can accurately be said "The Queen reigns but she does not rule". The development of the royal style and the titles reflects the union of the kingdoms of England and Scotland in 1707, the union with Ireland in 1801 and, in the second half of the twentieth century, the transformation of the old British Empire into today's Commonwealth.The Queen's title in the United Kingdom is: "Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and North Ireland and of Her other Realms and Territories Queen, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith."

Parliament is the legislature and the supreme authority. It consists оf three elements — the Monarch, the House of Lords and the House of Commons. These meet together only on occasions of ceremonial significance. The House of Commons consists of 650 MPs, who are directly elected by voters in each of Britain's 650 parliamentary constituencies. The House of Lords consists of hereditary peers and peeresses — men and women who hold titles of nobility which can be passed on to their sons and, in some cases, daughters; life peers and peeresses — distinguished citizens who are given peerages and who hold their titles only during their own lifetimes; and two archbishops and 24 senior bishops of the Church of England.Parliament has the following functions: — passing, or abolishing, laws;— voting on taxation, in order to provide the means for carrying on government;— debating government policy and administration and any other major issues.

The House of Lords cannot normally prevent proposed legislation from becoming law if the House of Commons insists on it, and it has little influence over legislation involving taxation or expenditure. The limitations on the power of the Lords reflect the convention that nowadays the main legislative function of the non-elected House is to act as a chamber of revision which does not seek to rival the elected House of Commons.

Although in law the executive is headed by the Queen, she reigns today a constitutional monarch. She is Britain's head of State but has few absolute powers. Instead, according to well-established conventions, the Queen acts on the advice of government ministers. As members of

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the legislature, government ministers are answerable to Parliament for the activities of their departments and for the general conduct оf national policies. They take part in debates in Parliament and can be questioned by MPs. The executive also includes elected local authorities which administer many local services.

The Judiciary determines common law and interprets Acts of Parliament. It is independent of the legislature and the executive. The House of Lords is the final court of appeal, but in practice appeals are heard by peers who are senior judges or who have held high judicial office. Other peers do not take part in the judicial work of the Lords.

For over 150 years Britain's system of parliamentary democracy has been based on organised political parties competing to form governments. Political parties are neither registered nor formally recognized in law, but the system depends on the existence of at least two parties in the House of Commons, each of which is capable of forming a government. Most candidates in elections and almost all winning candidates belong to one of the main political parties. Candidates who are members of smaller political parties or groups, or who do not belong to any party, may also stand. Since the Second World War (1939-45) the great majority of MPs have belonged to either the Conservative or the Labour party.

Elections to the House of Commons, known as parliamentary elections, (term the basis of Britain's democratic system. Unlike heads of Government in Мине countries, the Prime Minister is not directly elected by voters, although he or she is an elected Member of Parliament — an MP. Instead, the Prime Minister depends on the support of a majority of his or her fellow elected representatives in the House of Commons. These MPs back the Government because they are members of the party which the Prime Minister leads, although on some occasions governments have been made up of coalitions of more than one party. Most government ministers are MPs who belong to the governing party; the remainders are members of the same party in the House of Lords. MPs who belong to the other political parties are usually opposed to the Government of the day. The leader of the party which wins most seats at a general election, or which has the support of a majority in the new House of Commons, is by convention invited by the Monarch to form a government. He or she becomes Prime Minister and chooses the ministers who will together form the Government.

Literature.1. Алимов Вячеслав Вячеславович, Артемьева Юлия Вячеславовна Общественно-политический перевод: Практический курс переводa: Учебное пособие. Изд. 3-е. — М.: Книжный дом ≪ЛИБРОКОМ≫, 2009. — 272 с.

Theme 5. Annotation and Review Methods. Participle and Participle Constructions. Tense and voice distinctions. Predicative constructions with the participle.

THE PARTICIPLE, part 1.

The present participle is the non-finite form of the verb which combines the properties of the verb with those of the adjective and adverb, serving as the qualifying-processual name. In its outer form the present participle is wholly homonymous with the gerund, ending in the suffix -ing and distinguishing the same grammatical categories of retrospective coordination and voice.

Like all the verbids, the present participle has no categorial time distinctions, and the attribute "present" in its conventional name is not immediately explanatory; it is used in this book from force of tradition. Still, both terms "present participle" and "past participle" are not

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altogether devoid of elucidative signification, if not in the categorial sense, then in the derivational-etymological sense, and are none the worse in their quality than their doublet-substitutes "participle I" and "participle II".

The present participle has its own place in the general paradigm of the verb, different from that of the past participle, being distinguished by the corresponding set of characterisation features.

Since it possesses some traits both of adjective and adverb, the present participle is not only dual, but triple by its lexico-grammatical properties, which is displayed in its combinability, as well as in its syntactic functions.

The verb-type combinability of the present participle is revealed, first, in its being combined, in various uses, with nouns expressing the object of the action; second, with nouns expressing the subject of the action (in semi-predicative complexes); third, with modifying adverbs; fourth, with auxiliary finite verbs (word-morphemes) in the analytical forms of the verb. The adjective-type combinability of the present participle is revealed in its association with the modified nouns, as well as with some modifying adverbs, such as adverbs of degree. The adverb-type combinability of the present participle is revealed in its association with the modified verbs.

The self-positional present participle, in the proper syntactic arrangements, performs the functions of the predicative (occasional use, and not with the pure link be), the attribute, the adverbial modifier of various types. Cf.: The questions became more and more irritating. (Present participle predicative position) She had thrust the crucifix on to the surviving baby. (Present participle attributive front-position) Norman stood on the pavement like a man watching his loved one go aboard an ocean liner. (Present participle attributive back-position) He was no longer the cocky, pugnacious boy, always squaring up for a fight. (Present participle attributive back-position, detached) She went up the steps, swinging her hips and tossing her fur with bravado. (Present participle manner adverbial back-position) And having read in the papers about truth drugs, of course Gladys would believe it absolutely. (Present participle cause adverbial front-position)

The present participle, similar to the infinitive, can build up semi-predicative complexes of objective and subjective types. The two groups of complexes, i.e. infinitival and present participial, may exist in parallel (e.g. when used with some verbs of physical perceptions), the difference between them lying in the aspective presentation of the process. Cf.: Nobody noticed the scouts approach the enemy trench. — Nobody noticed the scouts approaching the enemy trench with slow, cautious, expertly calculated movements. Suddenly a telephone was heard to buzz, breaking the spell. — The telephone was heard vainly buzzing in the study.

A peculiar use of the present participle is seen in the absolute participial constructions of various types, forming complexes of detached semi-predication. Cf.: The messenger waiting in the hall, we had only a couple of minutes to make a decision. The dean sat at his desk, with an electric fire glowing warmly behind the fender at the opposite wall.

These complexes of descriptive and narrative stylistic nature seem to be gaining ground in present-day English.

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The past participle is the non-finite form of the verb which combines the properties of the verb with those of the adjective, serving as the qualifying-processual name. The past participle is a single form, having no paradigm of its own. By way of the paradigmatic correlation with the present participle, it conveys implicitly the categorial meaning of the perfect and the passive. As different from the present participle, it has no distinct combinability features or syntactic function features specially characteristic of the adverb. Thus, the main self-positional functions of the past participle in the sentence are those of the attribute and the predicative. Cf.: Moyra's softened look gave him a new hope. (Past participle attributive front-position) The cleverly chosen timing of the attack determined the outcome of the battle. (Past participle attributive front-position) It is a face devastated by passion. (Past participle attributive back-position) His was a victory gained against all rules and predictions. (Past participle attributive back-position) Looked upon in this light, the wording of the will didn't appear so odious. (Past participle attributive detached position) The light is bright and inconveniently placed for reading. (Past participle predicative position)

The past participle is included in the structural formation of the present participle (perfect, passive), which, together with the other differential properties, vindicates the treatment of this form as a separate verbid.

In the attributive use, the past participial meanings of the perfect and the passive are expressed in dynamic correlation with the aspective lexico-grammatical character of the verb. As a result of this correlation, the attributive past participle of limitive verbs in a neutral context expresses priority, while the past participle of unlimitive verbs expresses simultaneity. E.g.: A tree broken by the storm blocked the narrow passage between the cliffs and the water. (Priority in the passive; the implication is "a tree that had been broken by the storm") I saw that the picture admired by the general public hardly had a fair chance with the judges. (Simultaneity in the passive; the implication is "the picture which was being admired by the public")

Like the present participle, the past participle is capable of making up semi-predicative constructions of complex object, complex subject, as well as of absolute complex.

The past participial complex object is specifically characteristic with verbs of wish and oblique causality (have, get). Cf.: I want the document prepared for signing by 4 p.m. Will you have my coat brushed up, please?

Compare the use of the past; participial complex object and the complex subject as its passive transform with a perception verb:

We could hear a shot or two fired from a field mortar. → Л shot or two could be heard fired from a field mortar.

The complex subject of this type, whose participle is included in the double predicate of the sentence, is used but occasionally. A more common type of the participial complex subject can be seen with notional links of motion and position. Cf.: We sank down and for a while lay there stretched out and exhausted.

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The absolute past participial complex as a rule expresses priority in the correlation of two events. Cf.: The preliminary talks completed, it became possible to concentrate on the central point of the agenda.

The past participles of non-objective verbs are rarely used in independent sentence-part positions; they are mostly included in phraseological or cliche combinations like faded photographs, fallen leaves, a retired officer, a withered flower, dream come true, etc. In these and similar cases the idea of pure quality rather than that of processual quality is expressed, the modifying participles showing the features of adjectivisation.

As is known, the past participle is traditionally interpreted as being capable of adverbial-related use (like the present participle), notably in detached syntactical positions, after the introductory subordinative conjunctions. Cf.: Called up by the conservative minority, the convention failed to pass a satisfactory resolution. Though welcomed heartily by his host, Frederick felt at once that something was wrong.

Approached from the paradigmatic point of view in the constructional sense, this interpretation is to be re-considered. As a matter of fact, past participial constructions of the type in question display clear cases of syntactic compression. The true categorial nature of the participial forms employed by them is exposed by the corresponding transformational correlations ("back transformations") as being not of adverbial, but of definitely adjectival relation. Cf.: ...→ The convention, which was called up by the conservative minority, failed to pass a satisfactory resolution. ...→ Though he was welcomed heartily by his host, Frederick felt at once that something was wrong.

Cf. a more radical diagnostic transformational change of the latter construction: ...→ Frederick, who was welcomed heartily by his host, nevertheless felt at once that something was wrong.

As is seen from the analysis, the adjectival relation of the past participle in the quoted examples is proved by the near-predicative function of the participle in the derived transforms, be it even within the composition of the finite passive verb form. The adverbial uses of the present participle react to similar tests in a different way. Cf.: Passing on to the library, he found Mabel entertaining her guests. → As he passed on to the library, he found Mabel entertaining her guests.

The adverbial force of the present participle in constructions like that is shown simply as resulting from the absence of obligatory mediation of be between the participle and its subject (in the derivationally underlying units).

As an additional proof of our point, we may take an adjectival construction for a similar diagnostic testing. Cf.: Though red in the face, the boy kept denying his guilt. → Though he was red in the face, the boy kept denying his guilt.

As we see, the word red, being used in the diagnostic concessive clause of complete composition, does not change its adjectival quality for an adverbial quality. Being red in the face would again present another categorial case. Being, as a present participial form, is in the observed syntactic conditions neither solely adjectival-related, nor solely adverbial-related; it is

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by nature adjectival-adverbial, the whole composite unity in question automatically belonging to the same categorial class, i.e. the class of present participial constructions of different subtypes.

Literature.

1. Блох М. Я. Теоретическая грамматика английского языка: Учебник. Для студентов филол. фак. ун-тов и фак. англ. яз. педвузов. — М.: Высш. школа, 1983.— с. 383 :

THE PARTICIPLE, part 2.The participle is a non-finite form of the verb. There are two forms of the participle -

participle I and participle II.

Participle IParticiple I is a non-finite form of the verb with some adjectival and adverbial features. It is

formed by adding the suffix -ing to the stem of the verb.*

* For rules of spelling and pronunciation see § 7. 138

The verbal character of participle I is manifested morphologically in the categories of voice and perfect (see table VII) and syntactically in its combinability. Thus, like the other non-finites, it may combine: a) with a noun or a pronoun as direct, indirect or prepositional object; b) with an adverb or a prepositional phrase as an adverbial modifier; c) with a noun or adjective as a predicative.

a) Seeing Jane, I rushed to greet her.

We didn’t utter a word while listening to the story.

b) Rising early, you’ll make your days longer.

Do you know the man sitting in the middle of the first row?

c) Being absent-minded, he went into the wrong room.

Participle I is used as a pure verb form in the formation of the continuous aspect forms.

The adjectival and adverbial features of participle I are manitested in its syntactical functions as an attribute and an adverbial modifier.

Arriving at the station, she saw him at once, leaning agains the railing. (adverbial modifier of time, detached attribute).

Non-perfect participle I active has synonymous adjectives formed from the same verb stem, such as resulting - resultant, convulsing - convulsive, abounding - abundant, deceiving - deceptive. Some participles border on adjectives when used as attributes or predicatives, and have qualitative adjectives as synonyms; for example amusing - funny, boring - dull, deafening - (very) loud. There are even some deverbal adjectives that have completely lost their verbal meaning, for example interesting, charming.

When they lose their verbal character, participles may be modified by adverbs of degree used with adjectives, such as very, so, too, as in very (greatly, exceedingly, etc.) amusing, too boring, most exciting.

My job is with one of the ministers - too boring and distasteful to discuss.

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Like an adjective, participle I forms adverbs with the suffix -ly: laughingly, jokingly, surprisingly, admiringly, appealingly, feelingly.

You surprise me, she said feelingly.

The grammatical categories of participle ITable VII

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The category of perfectThe category of perfect in participle I finds its expression in the contrast of the non-perfect

and perfect forms.

The non-perfect form suggests that the action denoted by participle I is simultaneous with that of the finite verb. Thus the time-reference of the action expressed by participle I can be understood only from the context, that is it is not absolute, but relative.

Learning foreign languages

you know your native tongue better.

I used to begin my day with repeating new words.

you will learn a lot about your native tongue.

The perfect form of participle I indicates that the action denoted by the participle is prior to that denoted by the finite verb.

Having learnt the elements

of English

I shall start upon French.

our students start upon French or German.

we started upon French.

The meaning of priority may be accompanied by the notion of completion or duration, depending on whether the meaning of the verb is terminative or durative.

Dinny took the little packet, and having brought no bag, slipped it down her dress.

Like that of the other non-finites, the perfect form of participle I invariably expresses priority, whereas non-perfect participle I varies in its meaning according to the context, expressing either a prior or a simultaneous or a posterior action.

Non-perfect participle I regularly expresses immediate priority and denotes an instantaneous action if it is formed from terminative verbs, such as verbs of motion (to come, to enter, to arrive, to turn, to leave), of sense perception (to see, to hear, to find) and verbs of certain specific actions associated with motion (to put, to put on, to take, to take off, to seize, to grasp, to open).

Leaving the house, Andrew continued his round.

Taking off our shoes, we tiptoed into the nursery.

The perfect participle of the same verbs is used when there is a lapse of time between the two actions, or when the action denoted by the participle is durative. Compare the following examples:

Seeing Jane, I rushed to greet her. But: Having seen tine girl only once, I didn’t recognize her.

Not having seen her for a long time, I didn’t recognize her.

Sometimes the perfect participle is used to emphasize priority. Compare these examples:

Her husband, finding the right key, fits it into the lock of the bureau.

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Having found the place he sought, Bateman sent in his card to the manager.

Non-perfect participle I may denote a posterior action, immediately following the first action, forming its part or being its result, as in:

Lizzy left the room, banging the door shut.

John fell, hurting his knee.

There may be a lapse of time between the first and the second (posterior) action. This is evident from the context.

I then hired a car and went home, arriving just before twelve о'clock.

We left at dawn, returning late.

As seen from the above examples non-perfect participle I denoting a prior action usually precedes the predicate verb. When it denotes a posterior action, it stands always after the predicate verb. In both cases it corresponds to the Russian perfective adverbial participle (деепричастие) (приехав, повернув, услышав, сняв, поднявшись, найдя, хлопнув, вернувшись).

The category of voiceParticiple I of transitive verbs, both non-perfect and perfect, has voice distinctions, which are

realized in the contrast of active and passive forms:

Translating from English into Russian, she should know well both languages.

Having translated the text into Russian, we handed it to the teacher.

Being translated into many languages, the novel is known all over the world.

Having been translated long ago, the novel is likely to be re-translated.

Participle I active denotes an action directed from the doer of the action, while participle I passive denotes an action directed towards it.

The carrier of the action may coincide with the subject of the sentence, as in the above examples. It may also be a noun modified by participle I used attributively, in whatever function the noun is used:

Do you know the students translating the text?

Have you read the text being translated by the students?

The doer of the action may be expressed by the nominal element of a predicative construction:

I heard someone mentioning your name.

I heard your name being mentioned at the conference.

Non-perfect participle I active of transitive verbs can be contrasted not only with participle I passive, but also with participle II:

takingmentioning

- being taken - taken

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teachingholding

- being mentioned

- being taught

- being held

- mentioned

- taught

- held

According to the syntactical function of participle I and the aspectual character of the verb, non-perfect participle I passive may denote process, as in:

Have you heard anything of the conference being held at the University? (of the conference which is being held at the University)

The phrase The conference held at the University is ambiguous, because it might be understood as The conference that has been held or -was held or is being held.

Syntactical functions of participle IParticiple I performs the syntactical functions characteristic of the adjective and the adverb,

and can therefore be used as attribute, predicative, or as adverbial modifier.It may be used (a) alone or (b) as headword of a participial phrase, or else (c) as part of a

predicative construction:

a) Let sleeping dogs lie.

b) There are some other people waiting for you.

c) We found him working in the garden.

Participle I as attributeThis function is peculiar to non-perfect participle I in its main sense, that of a process

simultaneous with the action denoted by the main verb or with the moment of speech. It corresponds to the Russian imperfective participle, usually active: leading - ведущий, asking - спрашивающий, sleeping - спящий. The passive participle I corresponds to the Russian imperfective passive participle: being asked - спрашиваемый, being translated -переводимый, being built - строящийся.

When a participial phrase is used as attribute it follows the modified noun. Its verbal character is evident from its verbal combinability and sometimes from the passive form itself. A participial phrase may be (a) non-detached or (b) detached:

a) We went along the street leading to the seashore.

b) Once a month Tommy, arriving separately, came in for a brief drink.

A detached participial phrase is set off from the modified noun by a comma (or commas) in writing and by a pause (or pauses) in speech.

When a single participle is used as attribute, it generally functions as a premodifier. Here we usually find only participle I active of intransitive verbs. Its verbal character is clear from the processual meaning of the verb itself: living people, a sleeping dog.

Participle I as a premodifying attribute differs from the gerund in the same function. The noun serves as the subject of the action expressed by the participle, as in a living man = a man who lives, a burning house = a house that is burning, a dancing girl == a girl who is dancing (or dances). The gerund suggests the destination of the object or a person’s occupation, as in writing paper =paper for writing, dancing hall = a hall for dancing, a singing teacher = a teacher of

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singing. Note also the difference in stress patterns. There are two stresses in the pattern with the participle (a 'burning 'house), the second being the main stress, while in the pattern with the gerund only the first (gerundial) element is stressed (a ' dancing hall); if there are two stresses, the first component has the main stress, as in a 'speaking 'habit, a 'writing 'career.

When a prior action is meant no participle I can be used as attribute, only an attributive clause is used. Thus when we translate sentences with the Russian perfective participle active with the suffix-вш into English we must use an attributive clause: спросивший - who has asked, переводивший (ранее) - who has translated or who has (had) been translating, уехавший -who has gone, вернувшийся - who has (had) returned or who returned, depending on the context or situation:

Я разговаривал со студентами, вернувшимися с практики. – I’ve just talked to the students who have come back from their teaching practice.

Я разговаривал со студентами, вернувшимися с практики на прошлой неделе. – I’ve talked to the students who came back from their school practice last week. .

Participle I as adverbial modifierAll the four forms of participle I can function as adverbial modifiers of different semantic

types (time, reason, manner, attendant circumstances, and sometimes condition, concession, comparison).

The semantic type of the adverbial modifier is clear from the context and the predicate group, as in:

Being a newcomer, he felt ill at case. (adverbial modifier of reason)

In some cases, however, the functional meaning is not so obvious. For example, there may be a combination of causal and temporal meaning as in:

Seeing her, he stopped (he stopped because he saw her, or when he saw her).

or of causal and conditional meaning:Living alone, one becomes self-centred (as one lives alone, or if one lives alone).

Very often to make the semantical relationship clearer, certain conjunctions are employed, such as: when, while, though, as if, as though, if.

1) Participle I as adverbial modifier of time may denote a simultaneous or a prior action. Here it corresponds to the Russian adverbial participle (деепричастие).

Non-perfect participle I active, when used as an adverbial modifier of time, usually conveys the meaning of the motion or state. Most often it is a participle of the verbs of motion (come, walk, go), or position in space (sit, lie, stand).

Walking along the track, Bowen burst into song.

The notion of simultaneity may be expressed more explicitly by the conjunctions when and while.

He felt horrible while saying this.

Participle I passive in this function usually denotes priority.He enquired hurriedly whether Mrs. Forsyte was at home and being informed that she was

not, heaved a sigh of relief.

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Perfect participle I as adverbial modifier of time, always denotes a prior action.

They wrote because they had to, and having written, thought only of what they were going to write next.

2) Participle I as adverbial modifier of reason can be expressed by all the four forms. The most frequently used non-perfect participles I are those of verbs denoting mental perception and emotions, for example, knowing, realizing, remembering, expecting, hoping, fearing; also the participles being and having.

Hoping to catch the train, we took a taxi.

He’s very conceited, you know, having parades and things all the time.

Having decided on this course of action some time ago, I was unable to stay at home.

Another characteristic feature of participles functioning as adverbials of reason consists in their combinability with negation (no matter what it is expressed by).

I turned back, not knowing where to go.

Even then he hadn’t been able to watch her, not having eyes in the back of his head.

3) The adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances is one of the most characteristic of participle I - it is considered to be the main grammatical meaning of non-perfect participle I. In this case participle I denotes some action or event parallel to the action or state denoted by the finite verb.

Deb was silent, fidgeting with the spoon in her saucer.

I laughed, and still laughing turned away eastward.

4) Participle I as an adverbial modifier of manner is akin to an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances. The difference consists in the fact that an adverbial modifier of manner characterizes the action of the finite verb, whereas that of attendant circumstances denotes a parallel action or event.

He came in carrying a big parcel.5) Occasionally participle I occurs as an adverbial modifier of comparison, concession or

condition.

As an adverbial of comparison the participle is always preceded by the conjunction as if, as though:

As if obeying him, I turned and stared into his face.

When participle I is used as an adverbial modifier of concession the conjunction is not obligatory and then the idea of concession may be understood from the context. However the conjunction though will make the semantic relationship clearer.

Somebody was waiting: a man who, though moving irregularly, was making quite a speed in my direction.

In the same way participle I as an adverbial modifier of condition is recognized by its syntactical surroundings. It is either the subjunctive mood or the future tense form which allows a participial phrase to function as an adverbial modifier of condition:

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She ought to be there and her absence might be resented, but being there she wouldn’t know what to say (но, если бы она была там ... , ... но будучи там ...).

Well, we’ll be in Scotland afore we know where we are, going at this speed (... если будем двигаться с такой скоростью).

Participle I as part of the compound verbal predicateNon-perfect participle I can be part of a compound verbal predicate of double orientation.

Within this type of predicate participle I follows verbs of sense perception, such as to see, to hear, to feel, to find, to catch, also some causative verbs, such as to keep, to leave in the passive voice.

Jane was heard playing the piano.

I was kept waiting an hour or so. In this type of predicate participle I active is generally used, though occasionally non-perfect

participle I passive is to be found.

He flicks the switch and “Roll Out the Barrel” is heard being whistled.

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The predicate of double orientation consists of two parts: the first is oriented on somebody implied, and the second refers semantically to the doer of the action expressed by the subject. Thus the first example means that somebody heard that Jane was playing the piano.* Therefore sentences with this type of predicate are translated into Russian by indefinite personal or impersonal sentences, complex or simple, depending on the verb in the passive voice.

* See p. II Syntax, § 53 The compound verbal predicate of double orientation; also § 123 Predicative complexes (the subjective predicative construction).

Слышали (слышно было), как Джейн играет на рояле.

Меня заставили ждать почти целый час.

Participle I as predicativeIn the position of predicative only non-perfect participle I active occurs, its adjectival

character being predominant. Although keeping the form of the participle, it is treated as an adjective, or a deverbal adjective.

The participle in this position gives the qualitative characterization to the person or thing used as subject (or object, in the case of the objective predicative).

The story is amusing.

Your answer is surprising.

We found him dying

- I find the story amusing.

- I consider your answer surprising.

- We found that he was dying.

Participle I as predicative may be used with other linkverbs, in which case it may keep its verbal character, as in:

Isadora remained standing.

Participle I as independent element (parenthesis)Participle I as parenthesis forms the headword of a participial phrase, the meaning of which is

a comment upon the contents of the whole sentence or sometimes part of it. The comment may take the form of a logical restriction or personal attitude. Here we find such participial phrases as generally (properly, roughly, legally, strictly) speaking, putting it mildly, judging by (from), allowing for, taking everything into consideration, etc.

Judging from what you say, he ought to succeed.

Strictly speaking, this is illegal.

Predicative constructions with participle IParticiple I may function as part of a predicative construction, entering into a predicative

relationship with some nominal element and forming a syntactical unit with it.

The objective participial constructionThe objective participial construction consists of a noun in the common case or a pronoun in

the objective case and participle I forming a syntactical complex, the two main components of which are in predicative relationship. Since the construction always follows transitive verbs, its syntactical function is that of a complex object.* Thus in its meaning it corresponds to a subordinate clause and is usually translated into Russian by a subordinate object clause:

* For details see p. II Syntax. The Predicative Constructions (The Complex Object).

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I saw John playing tennis

I saw him playing tennis

We heard them singing

- Я видел, как Джон играет в теннис.

- Я видел, как он играет в теннис.

- Мы слышали, как они поют.

In many cases, however, the translation depends on the verb it reters to and on the requirements of the Russian usage.

The nominal element usually refers to a person or a thing different from that denoted by the subject of the sentence. If it refers to the same person as the subject, a reflexive pronoun is to be used, as in:

He heard himself uttering the words.

The construction is generally used with non-perfect participle I active, and occasionally it occurs with participle I passive:

I could see the books being taken away.

Some of the verbs followed by the objective participial construction occur also with the objective infinitive construction (such as to see, to watch, to hear, to feel). The difference between these two constructions concerns the meaning suggested by an infinitive or participle I; the former emphasizes the fact of an action being completed, the latter its processual character, as in:

I saw the car stop at the gate.

I saw the car stopping.

- Я видел, что машина, остановилась у ворот.

- Я видел, как машина остановилась (останавливалась) у ворот.

If the homogeneous infinitives are used, they denote two actions in succession. If two participles I are homogeneous, they suggest two simultaneous actions.

I heard him leave the room and lock the door.

Soames saw Bosinney watching her and smiling to himself.

- Я слышал, как он вышел из комнаты и запер ее.

- Соме увидел, что Босинни наблюдал за ней и улыбался сам себе.

The objective participial construction is used:a) with verbs of sense perception,

b)with various verbs of causative meaning, or inducement.

c) occasionally with verbs expressing wish.

a) to see

to hear

to feel

to watch

to notice

to observe

to perceive

to smell

to find

to catch

to discover

to look (at)

to listen (to)

b) to have to leave

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to get

to keep to start

to set

c) to want, to like

The nominative absolute participial construction.

This construction consists of two interdependent elements, nominal and verbal, which are in a predicative relation. The nominal element is a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the nominative case. The verbal element is participle I in any of its forms. The nominal and the verbal elements make a syntactical complex functioning as a detached adverbial modifier. Unlike the objective participial construction it does not depend on a verb:

John having left the room to ring for a taxi as arranged, Mary sat down again to wait for him.

The difference between a participial phrase and a nominative absolute participial construction may be illustrated as follows:

Having read the novel Jane (she) put it aside.

The novel having been read, Jane (she) put it aside.

In a participial phrase the subject of the sentence is as a rule related both to the predicate verb and to the participle. In a sentence with a nominative absolute participial construction the subject of the sentence is related only to the predicate verb, and the nominal element is related to the participle.

The nominative absolute participial construction functions syntactically as an adverbial modifier: an adverbial modifier of a) attendant circumstances, b) reason, c) occasionally time.

a) Llewellyn looked through the window, his glance travelling towards the bridge.

A nominative absolute participial construction as an adverbial of attendant circumstances usually stands in postposition, and is widely used in literature.

It is translated into Russian by a coordinate clause: Мы оба стояли у камина; она любовалась веером из промокательной бумаги, а я глядел на нее.

b) But I was a little on edge, there being something to report.

c) The work being finished, the two girls went into the shop.

Sentences with a nominative absolute participial construction as an adverbial of reason or time are translated by complex sentences with the corresponding subordinate clauses: Я нервничал, так как было о чем сообщить... Когда работа была закончена, девушки вошли в мастерскую.

As well as in sentences with participial phrases causal and temporal meanings may be combined, as in:

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Ice having thus been broken, the two former rivals grew still more affectionate.

Prepositional absolute participial construction with participle IA prepositional absolute construction differs from a non-prepositional participial construction

in that it is introduced by the preposition with. Its nominal part is usually a noun in the common case, or very rarely a personal pronoun in the objective case. It is not necessarily set off by a comma:

Andrew went into the house with his heart beating fast.

The main syntactical function of the construction is an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances, as in:

The officer sat with his long fine hands lying on the table perfectly still.

The meaning of attendant circumstances may be combined with temporal or causal ones:

I won’t speak with him staring at me like that.

The construction is usually translated into Russian by a coordinate or a subordinate clause, and sometimes by means of a prepositional phrase, or an adverbial participle (деепричастие).

(Когда) Эндрю вошел в дом, сердце его сильно билось (с бьющимся сердцем).

Participle I and the gerund compared

Participle I and the gerund are alike in their verbal characteristics, both morphological (the categories of voice and perfect) and syntactical (verbal combinability).

The difference between the two lies in their non-verbal characteristics, that is in their syntactical functions and non-verbal combinability. Participle I, unless substantivized, cannot be used as subject or object, whereas such use is typical of the noun and therefore of the gerund. When used as adverbial modifier or attribute, participle I like an adjective or an adverb is never preceded by a preposition. On the other hand when the gerund is used as attribute or adverbial modifier it is preceded by a preposition like a noun in these functions.

The difference between the two is also to be found in the nominal tendencies of the gerund and the adjectival tendencies of participle I. This is most evident in their function of a predicative and an attribute.

As predicative participle I gives qualitative characteristics to the subject, thus tending towards an adjective, as in:

The sound of the thunder was deafening.

The gerund does not qualify the subject, it rather identifies the subject by revealing its meaning, as in:

His favourite occupation is collecting stamps (or playing football or just football).

When a gerund or a participle is used as an attribute, the difference between them does not lie only in the absence, or presence of the preposition, but also in their relationship to the modified noun. (For details see § 132 on premodifying attributes). Participle I denotes an action that the person or thing performs or experiences:

What is the name of the man talking with your sister?

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Thus the modified noun denotes the doer of the action expressed by the participle.

The gerund usually reveals the meaning of the modified noun, which never denotes the performer of the action.

What the use of crying so?

That was my last chance of seeing him.

When used as an adverbial modifier, the gerund is more varied in its application than the participle because it is used with different prepositions.

The participle and the gerund are interchangeable when used as adverbials of time characterizing the verb through simultaneous or prior events:

Discussing the plan

In discussing the plan we heard a lot of helpfull suggestions.

Entering the room

On entering the room he closed the door.

After discussing the plan

Having discussed the plan we started carring it out.

Only the gerund is possible when the starting or the final point of the action is meant, as in:He has never been at his native town since leaving it in 1964.

Yet there are a number of cases, especially among predicative constructions, where the -ing form may be treated either as a participle or a gerund, the difference between them being neutralized, as in:

I don’t count on him scaring easily.

Then he was aware of Toscato shaking the door of the box.

Participle IIParticiple II is a non-finite form of the verb with verbal and adjectival features. Participle II

stands apart from the other non-finites in that it does not possess their morphological categories. Nevertheless, being a verb form, it possesses the potential verbal meaning of voice, aspect and correlation, which depend upon the meaning of the verb it is formed from and which are realized in the context.

The main meanings of participle II are those of a state as a result of some action or an action itself. One of the most essential characteristics of participle II is that when it is used as part of the sentence, participle II of a transitive verb is passive in meaning, participle II of an intransitive verb is active.

Thus the participles invited, told, taken are semantically passive and correspond to the Russian passive participles приглашенный, рассказанный, взятый. The participles arrived, gone, risen are semantically active and correspond to the Russian active participles прибывший, ушедший, поднявшийся (взошедший).

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The adjectival nature of participle II manifests itself in its function in the sentence, which is usually that of either attribute or predicative. It may combine with adverbs of degree typical of adjectives, such as very, too, slightly, so, much, more, as in:

I am very pleased with you.Instead of the negation not, which we find with the other non-finites, participle II is often

negated with the prefix un-, as in unfinished, unanswered.

Participle II may turn into adjectives with qualitative meaning synonymous with other adjectives, as in celebrated - famous, tired - weary.

Similar to adjectives and participle I, participle II may form adverbs with the help of the suffix -ly: fixedly, unhurriedly, admittedly.

The adjectival nature of participle II is traced in adjectivized participles with a form different from the verbal participle II. These forms occur as attributes in such phrases as on bended knees, a drunken man, a lighted match (candle, torch), molten lava (lead, steel), roast meat, a rotten apple, a shaven head, a well-shaven man, sodden clothes, sunken eyes, a swollen river. Some forms are used predicatively: to be well-stricken in years, to be panic-stricken, poverty-stricken (but thunder-struck, theatre-struck).

The verbal character of participle II is manifested in its combinability. Thus participle II of transitive verbs easily combines with a by-object denoting the doer of the action as in Jane entered the room followed by her brother.

Participles II of phrasal verbs retain their composite structure: a boy brought up in a teacher’s family.

Participles II of prepositional transitive verbs are followed by the appropriate prepositions: a book often asked for, the article referred to, a man much spoken of.

Ditransitive verbs keep their second object as in: That was the main question asked her at the wedding.

Participle II may be accompanied by an adverbial modifier expressed by adverbs or phrases combining with verbs: a house built two years before, man hidden in the bush, a play well acted, a story long forgotten.

One of the main verbal features of participle II is revealed in its functioning as part of the compound verb forms of the passive voice and the perfect.

Voice peculiarities of participle IIParticiple II of t r a n s i t i v e verbs, when it is not part of a perfect form, is always passive

in meaning. Depending on the verb and the context it may correspond to any passive participle in Russian: built -построенный, строившийся, строящийся; begun - начатый, начинаемый, начинающийся; translated - переводящийся, переводившийся, переводимый, переведенный.

Having a passive meaning participle II of transitive verbs is opposed to participle I active: asking - asked, loving - loved, seeing - seen, writing -written, teaching - taught, watching - watched, etc.

The doer of the action or state denoted by participle II is to be found in the subject or object of the sentence, in the noun or pronoun modified by participle II, in the first (nominal) element of a predicative construction.

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The passive meaning of participle II may be of three types:1) denoting an action directed towards the person or non-person expressed by the subject or

object. This is peculiar to durative (non-terminative) transitive verbs, such as to accompany, to follow, to watch, to carry, to teach, to listen (to), to laugh (at), to look (at, for, on), to speak (of, to), to love, to hate, as in:

Spanish is one of the foreign languages taught at our Institute.

I won’t have my friend laughed at.

2) denoting a state, which is the result of an action. This is typical of terminative transitive verbs, such as to bring, to catch, to do, to find, to make, to put, to solve, to build, to realise, to open, to close, etc.

The problem is solved. The door is shut.Occasionally, in a certain context, participle II of the above-mentioned verbs may denote

action, as in: Brightman’s place was an old English farm-house, built two years before.

3) denoting a pure state. This is the case with verbs denoting psycological states and emotions, such as to amuse, to annoy, to offend, to surprise, to please, to excite.

I felt annoyed when he refused to help me.

I’m very (much) pleased with what he has done.

Participle II of i n t r a n s i t i v e verbs is always active in meaning. The use of these participles is restricted. Only participles II of verbs denoting motion or change of state can be used as attributes. These are participles II of the verbs to arrive, to fall, to go, to rise, to depart, to decease, to retire, to fade, to wither, to vanish, to decay and some others. Participles II of these verbs correspond to the Russian active participle of the perfective aspect: arrived - прибывший, vanished - исчезнувший, faded - увядший, decayed - сгнивший, as in arrived guests, the risen moon, the vanisned civilisation, the fallen leaves, the retired president.

Among these participles we find some which can be used either transitively or intransitively, such as hidden, increased, diminished, returned. They correspond to the Russian perfective active participles with the suffix -ся (спрятавшийся, увеличившийся, вернувшийся): the man hidden behind the tree, an increased population, a returned traveller.

The aspectual meaning of participle II and perfectThe original aspectual meaning of participle II is perfectivity. It is evident in terminative

verbs and verbs of double aspectual meaning.

I n t r a n s i t i v e t e r m i n a t i v e verbs the passive meaning of participle II is combined with perfectivity. Thus participle II can be opposed to participle I in their aspectual meanings of perfectivity/imperfectivity: taking - taken, asking - asked, writing - written, telling - told (берущий - взятый, спрашивающий - спрошенный, etc.).

The original meaning may be modified by the context, as can be seen by comparing the following sentences: The story told by the hostess amused everybody (история, рассказанная хозяйкой...). Why don’t we believe stories told by hunters and fishermen? (истории, рассказываемые охотниками, т. е. которые рассказывают охотники)

There is a growing tendency in present-day English to use participle I passive as an attribute to emphasize the processual character of the action. Thus we may paraphrase the last sentence, saying, “Why don't we believe stories being told by hunters?”

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Participle II of intransitive verbs or verbs used intransitively is always perfective in meaning and can be opposed to non-perfect participle I: rising - risen, decaying - decayed, going - gone, arriving - arrived, retiring -retired, as in: the rising moon - the risen moon, the retiring director— the retired director. The same in the auctioneer’s formula: Going! Going! Gone! (Продается! Продается! Продано!)

The meaning of perfectivity/imperfectivity results in the potential meaning of perfect. The idea of priority and simultaneity is suggested by the aspectual character of the verb and is realized in the given context.

In many cases, however, the ideas of priority and simultaneity become fused, since the action is prior to, and the resulting state is simultaneous with, the action of the finite verb or the moment of speech. Thus in the sentence First of all she went to the bombed building the action of “bombing” is prior to the action of the finite verb “went”, but the resulting state of the action is simultaneous with it.

Syntactical functions of participle IIAs part of the sentence participle II may stand alone or be the headword of a participial

phrase. It may function as an attribute (close or detached), predicative, or as an adverbial modifier.

Participle II as attributeParticiple II usually functions either as premodifier when it stands alone or forms a very short

participial phrase containing an adverb. The verbal character of the participle in the first case is made clear only by its lexical meaning:

First of all she went to the bombed building.

Sometimes the preposition is kept:

The room even had a faint perfume about it which gave it a lived-in air.

As a postmodifier participle II manifests its verbal character more explicitly, even when it stands alone. It may be accompanied by a preposition, by an agentive by-object, an adverb and prepositional phrases as adverbial modifiers.

Things seen are mightier than things heard.

When participle II or a participial phrase is detached, its position is not fixed. It may occupy the initial position, the mid-position or the final position in the sentence. Detached attributes are separated from the noun by a comma (or commas) in writing and by a pause in speech. They are confined to literary style only.

Greatly excited, the children followed her into the garden.

Participle II as predicativeIn this function participle II denotes a state, as in:

The Fada road is finished, the great idea is realized.You seem surprized.

Occasionally we come across a participle II with an active meaning used predicatively:

The sun is not risen.

Everybody is gone.

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Participle II as adverbial modifierThe adverbial function and meaning of participle II can be seen only from the general

meaning of the sentence. In the vast majority of cases, when used adverbially, participle II is preceded by a conjunction, which explicitly indicates the semantic type of the adverbial modifier.

Participle II may serve as an adverbial modifier of:time, usually with the conjunction when or until:

He is very affable when spoken to, but naturally silent.

He won’t stop arguing until interrupted.

reason:

Deprived of his wife and son by the Spanish adventure, Jolyon found the solitude at Robin Hill intolerable.

condition, mostly with the conjunction if or unless:

I shall certainly give evidence on your behalf, if required.

concession, with the conjunction though or although:

Though asked in disarming sociability, Haldone’s question was loaded.

comparison, with the conjunction as if or as though:“I get off the train,” he repeated as if hypnotized. Predicative constructions with participle IIParticiple II forms the second (verbal) element of the objective with the participle

construction and of the absolute participial construction in two variants: non-prepositional and prepositional.

The objective participial construction with participle II.

The objective participial construction with participle II consists of a noun in the common case or a personal pronoun in the objective case and participle II forming a syntactical complex, in which the two components are in a preducative relationship.

The construction functions as a complex object to transitive verbs, mainly verbs (a) of causative meaning, (b) of physical perception, (c) of wish:

a) to have, to get, to make

Besides the causative meaning suggesting inducement, sentences the verb to have may occasionally express experience or possess participle II emphasizing the resulting state, as in:

The patient has an arm broken.

I have my task done.

If the action is emphasized, the perfect form is preferable:

The patient has broken an arm.

I have done my task.

Notice the difference in translation:

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У больного сломана рука. Больной сломал руку.

Мое задание выполнено. Я выполнил задание.

b) to see, to hear, to feel, to find

c) to wish, to want, to like, to prefer

Sentences with causative verbs are usually translated into Russian by simple sentences, the causative meaning being evident from the context or the situation. In other cases a complex sentence with an object clause is preferable.

The nominative absolute participial construction with participle II.

The construction consists of the nominal element (a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the nominative case) and participle II which form a syntactical complex, the nominal element and the participle being in subject-predicate relation. The preparation completed, we started off.

The nominative absolute participial construction with participle being has the syntactical function of a detached adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances (a), manner (b), time (c), reason (d), condition (e).

a) The next day I observed you - myself unseen - for half an hour.

b) He sat on the sofa, his legs crossed.

c) The duster refolded and restored, he threw his legs across the saddle. “Give it to Harriet, please,” was then the direction, “and she can put it away.” This said, he turned and fixed his eyes on Mrs. Bretton.

d) We began to talk, but my attention distracted by my surroundings, I took small notice of him.

e) He was a gentleman, but he was passionate, the cup once sipped, would he consent to put it down?

The prepositional absolute construction with participle II.

This construction differs from the discussed above in that it is introduced by the preposition with and its nominal element is hardly ever presented by a pronoun; it is more closely related to the predicate verb and is seldom set off by a comma.

She went on reading with her eyes fixed on the pages of the book.

The main syntactical function of the construction is that of an adverbial modifier of manner or attendant circumstances.

An additional idea of time, reason, or condition may be prompted by the context, as in: I can’t walk with my leg broken (reason).

Literature.

1. Н. А. Кобрина, Е. А. Корнеева, М. И. Оссовская, К. А. Гузеева Грамматика английского языка: Морфология. Синтаксис. Учебное пособие для студентов педагогических институтов и университетов по специальности «Иностранные языки», СПб, СОЮЗ, 1999.-496с.

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Theme 6. Phraseology and idiomaticity of English language. The peculiarities of translation of phrasal verbs. Modal verbs and their equivalents. Modals in questions and negatives. Modals in past tense.

PHRASEOLOGY AS A SUBSYSTEM OF LANGUAGEPhraseology means the branch of linguistics dealing with stable word- combinations

characterized by certain transference of meaning.Despite differences of opinion, most authors agree upon some points concerning the

distinctive features of phraseological units, such as:Integrity (or transference) of meaning means that none of the idiom components is

separately associated with any referents of objective reality, and the meaning of the whole unit cannot be deduced from the meanings of its components;

Stability (lexical and grammatical) means that no lexical substitution is possible in an idiom in comparison with free or variable word-combinations (with an exception of some cases when such substitutions are made by the author intentionally). The experiments conducted in the 1990s showed that, the meaning of an idiom is not exactly identical to its literal paraphrase given in the dictionary entry. That is why we may speak about lexical flexibility of many units if they are used in a creative manner. Lexical stability is usually accompanied by grammatical stability which prohibits any grammatical changes;

Separability means that the structure of an idiom is not something indivisible, certain modifications are possible within certain boundaries. Here we meet with the so-called lexical and grammatical variants. For examples: "as hungry as a wolf (as a hunter)", "as safe as a house (houses)" in English, «как (будто, словно, точно) в воду опушенный», «оседлать своего (любимого) конька», «раскидывать умом (мозгами) Раскинуть (пораскинуть) умом (мозгами)» in Russian.

Expressivity and emotiveness means that idioms are also characterized by stylistic colouring. In other words, they evoke emotions or add expressiveness.

On the whole phraseological units, even if they present a certain pattern, do not generate new phrases. They are unique.

Interlanguage comparison, the aim of which is the exposure of phraseological conformities, forms the basis of a number of theoretical and applied trends of modern linguistic research, including the theory and practice of phraseography. But the question of determining the factors of interlanguage phraseological conformities as the main concept and the criterion of choosing phraseological equivalents and analogues as the aspect concepts is still at issue.

The analysis of special literature during the last decades shows that the majority of linguists consider the coincidence of semantic structure, grammatical (or syntactical) organization and componential (lexeme) structure the main criteria in defining the types of interlanguage phraseological conformities/disparities with the undoubted primacy of semantic structure.

Comparing the three approaches discussed above (semantic, functional, and contextual) we have ample ground to conclude that have very much in common as, the main criteria of phraseological units appear to be essentially the same, i.e. stability and idiomaticity or lack of motivation. It should be noted however that these criteria as elaborated in the three approaches are sufficient mainly to single out extreme cases: highly idiomatic non-variable and free (or variable) word- groups.

Thus red tape, mare's nest, etc. According to the semantic approach belong to phraseology and are described as fusions as they are completely non-motivated. According to the functional approach they are also regarded as phraseological units because of their grammatical (syntactic) inseparability and because they function, in speech as word-equivalents. According to the contextual approach red tape, mare's nest, etc. make up a group of phraseological units referred to as idioms because of the impossibility of any change in the 'fixed context' and their semantic inseparability.

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The status of the bulk of word-groups however cannot be decided with certainty with the help of these criteria because as a rule we have to deal not with соmplete idiomaticity and stability but with a certain degree of these distinguishing features of phraseological units. No objective criteria of the degree of idiomaticity and stability have as yet been suggested. Thus, e.g., to win a victory according to the semantic approach is a phraseological combination because it is almost completely motivated and allows of certain variability to win, to gain, a victory. According to the functional approach it is not a phraseological unit as the degree of semantic and grammatical inseparability is insufficient for the word-group to function as a word-equivalent. Small hours according to the contextual approach it is literal meaning. If however we classify it proceeding from the functional approach is a word-groups which are partially motivated is decided differently depending on which of the criteria of phraseological units is applied.

There is still another approach to the problem of phraseology in which an attempt is made to overcome the shortcoming of the phraseological theories discussed above. The main features of this new approach which is now more or less universally accepted by Soviet linguists are as follows:

1. Phraseology is regarded as a self-contained branch of linguistics and, not as a part of lexicology.

2. Phraseology deals with a phraseological subsystem of language and not with isolated phraseological units.

3. Phraseology is concerned with all types of set expressions.4. Set expressions are divided into three classes: phraseological units (e.g. red tape,

mare's nest, etc.), phraseomatic units (e.g. win a victory, launch a campaign, etc.) and borderline cases belonging to the mixed class. The main distinction between the first and the second classes is semantic: phraseological units have fully or partially transferred meanings while components of, phraseomatic units are used in their literal meanings.

Phraseological and phraseomatic units are not regarded as word- equivalents but some of them are treated as word correlates.

Phraseological and phraseomatic units are set expressions and their phraseological stability distinguishes them from free phrases and compound words.

Phraseological and phraseomatic units are made up of words of different degree of wordness depending on the type of set expressions they are used in. (cf. e.g. small hours and red tape). Their structural separateness, an important factor of their stability, distinguishes them from compound words (E.g. comparing blackbird and black market).

Stability of use means that set expressions are reproduced ready-made and not created in speech. They are not elements of individual style of speech but language units.

Lexical stability means that the components of set expressions are either irreplaceable (e.g. red tape, mare's nest) or party replaceable within the bounds of phraseological or phraseomatic variance: lexical (e.g. a skeleton in the cupboard – a skeleton in the closet); grammatical (e.g. to be in deep water – to be in deep waters); positional (e.g. head over ears – over head and ears), quantitative (e.g. to lead somebody a dance- to lead somebody a pretty dance), mixed variants (e.g. raise (stir up) a hornets' nest about one's ears- arouse (stir up) the nest of hornets).

Semantic stability is based on the lexical stability of set expressions. Even when occasional changes are introduced the meaning of set expression is preserved. It may only be specified, made more precise, weakened or strengthened. In other words in spite of all occasional phraseological and phraseomatic units, as distinguished from free phrases, remain semantically invariant or are destroyed. For example, the substitution of the verbal component in the free phrase to raise a question by the verb to settle (to settle a question) changes the meaning of the phrase, no such change occurs in to raise (stir up) a hornets' nest about one's ears.

An integral part of this approach is a method of phraseological identification which helps to single out set expressions in Modern English.

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The diachronic aspect of phraseology has scarcely been investigated. Just a few points of interest may be briefly reviewed in connection with the origin of phraseology has scarcely been investigated. Just a few points of interest may be briefly reviewed in connection with the origin of phraseological units and the ways they appear in language. It is assumed that almost all phrases can be traced back to free word-groups which in the course of the historical development of the English language have acquired semantic and grammatical process of grammaticalization or lexicalization.

Cases of grammaticalization may be illustrated by the transformation of free word-groups composed of the verb have, a noun (pronoun) and Participle II of some other verb into the grammatical form- the Present Perfect in Modern English. The degree of semantic and grammatical inseparability in this analytical word-form is so high that the component has seems to possess no lexical meaning of its own.

The term lexicalization implies that the word-group under discussion develops into a word-equivalent, i.e. a phraseological unit or a compound word. These two parallel lines of lexicalization of free word-groups can be illustrated by the diachronic analysis of, e.g., the compound word instead and the phraseological unit in spite (of). Both of them can be traced back to structurally identical free phrases.

There are some grounds to suppose that there exists a kind of interdependence between these two ways of lexicalization of free word-groups which makes them mutually exclusive. It is observed, for example, that compounds are more abundant in certain parts of speech, whereas phraseological units are numerically predominant in others. Thus, e.g., phraseological units are found in great numbers as verb-equivalents whereas compound verbs are comparatively few. This leads us to assume that lexicalization of free word-groups and their transformation into words or phraseological units is governed by the fewer phraseological units we are likely to encounter in this class of words.

Very little is known of the factors active in the process of lexicalization of free word-groups which results in the appearance of phraseological units. This problem may be viewed in terms of the degree of motivation. We may safely assume that a free word-group is transformed into a phraseological unit when it acquires semantic inseparability and becomes synchronically non-motivated.

The following may be perceived as the main causes accounting for the less' of motivation of free word-groups:

When one of the components of a word-group becomes archaic or drops out of the language altogether the whole word-group may become completely or partially non-motivated. For example, lack of motivation in the word-group kith and kin may be accounted for by the fact that the member-word kith dropped out of the language altogether except as the component of the phraseological unit under discussion. This is also observed in the phraseological unit under discussion.

When as a result of a change in the semantic structure of a polysemantic word some of its meanings disappear and can be found only in certain collocations. The noun mind, e.g., once meant 'purpose' or 'intention' and this meaning survives in the phrases to have a mind to do something, to change one's mind, etc.

When a free word-group used in professional speech penetrates into general literary usage, it is often felt as non-motivated. To pull (the) strings (wires), e.g., was originally used as a free word-group in its direct meaning by professional actors in puppet shows. In Modern English, however, it has lost all connection with puppet-shows and therefore cannot also be observed in the' phraseological unit to stick to one's guns, which can be traced back to military English, etc.

Sometimes extra-linguistic factors may account for the loss of motivation, to show the white feather - 'to act as a coward', e.g., can be traced back to the days when cock-fighting was popular. A white feather in a gamecock's plumage denoted bad breeding and was regarded as a sign of cowardice. Now that cock-fighting is no longer a popular sport, the phrase is felt as non-

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motivated.1 As a matter of fact, a person who attended a university where Gamecock was the athletic symbol of the school did not know this phrase, therefore use of this phrase would only confuse the hearers, not convey proper communication.

d) When a word-group making up part of a proverb or saying begins to be used a self-contained unit it may gradually become non-motivated if its connection with the corresponding proverb or saying is not clearly perceived. A new broom, e.g., originates as a component of the saying new brooms sweep clean. New broom as a phraseological unit may be viewed as non-motivated because the meaning of the whole is not deducible from the meaning of the components. Moreover, it seems grammatically and functionally self-contained and inseparable too. In the saying quoted above the noun broom is always used in the plural; as a member-word of the phraseological unit it mostly used in the singular. The phraseological unit a new broom is characterized by functional inseparability. In the saying new brooms sweep clean the adjective new functions as an attribute to the noun brooms, in the phraseological unit a new broom (e.g. Well he is a new broom!) the whole word-group is functionally inseparable.

e) When part of a quotation from literary sources, mythology or the Bible begin to be used as a self-contained unit, it may also lose all connection with the original context and as a result of this become non-motivated. The phraseological unit the green-eyed monster (jealousy) can be easily found as a part of the quotation from Shakespeare "It is the green-eyed monster which doth mock the meat it feeds on" (Othello, II, i. 165). In Modern English, however, it functions as a non-motivated self-contained phraseological unit and is also used to denote the T.V. set. Achilles heel - 'the weak spot in a man's circumstances or character' can be traced back to mythology, but it seems that in Modern English this word-group functions as a phraseological unit largely because most English speakers do not connect it with the myth from which it was extracted.

1. The final criterion in the semantic approach is idiomaticity whereas in the functional approach syntactic inseparability is viewed as the final test, and in the contextual approach it is stability of context combined with idiomaticity of word-groups.

The concept of idiomaticity is not strictly defined. The judgments as to idiomaticity are passed sometimes within the framework of the English language and sometimes from the outside - from the point of view of the mother tongue of the investigator.

It is suggested here that the term idiomaticity should be interpreted as an interlingual notion and also that the degree of idiomaticity should be taken into consideration since between the extreme of complete motivation and lack of motivation there are numerous intermediate group.

Each of the three approaches has its merits and demerits. The traditional semantic approach points out the essential features of all kinds of idiomatic phrases as opposed to completely motivated free word-groups. The functional approach puts forward an objective criterion for singling out a small group of word-equivalents possessing all the basic features of words as lexical items. The contextual approach makes the criterion of stability more exact.

All the three approaches are sufficient to single out the extreme cases: highly idiomatic phraseological units and free word-groups. The status of the bulk of word-groups possessing different degrees of idiomaticity cannot be decided with certainty by applying the criteria available in linguistic science.

The distinguishing feature of the new approach is that phraseology is regarded as a self-contained branch of linguistics and not as a part of lexicology.

Literature.

1. Smith L. «Words and Idioms».19282. Smith L. «Words and Idioms». 1976

1

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3. Collins V. «А Book of English Idioms» 19814. Смирницкий А. «Лексикология английского языка» М.,19965. Arnold I.V. The English Word . M. 1986.6. Кунин А.В.Англо-русский фразеологический словарь, М., 19567. Смирницкий А.И. Лексикология английского языка. М., 1956.8. Виноградов В.В. Лексикология и лексикография: Избр. Тр. - М.: Наука, 1986.9. Hornby A. The Advanced Learner's Dictionary. Lnd. 1974.10. Англо-русский фразеологический словарь. М., 195511. Aмосова Н. Н. Основы английской фразеологии Л. 1963.12.www.bohemika.com – Phraseological combinations and fusions.13.www.schwabe.ch – Phraseological Units. 14.www.corpus.bham.ac.uk – the Determination of Phraseological Units. 15. http://www.ranez.ru/article

SOME WAYS OF TRANSLATING ENGLISH PHRASAL VERBS INTO RUSSIAN

Though not pretending completeness, I hope the readers will find this article helpful in understanding the essence of some semantic correspondences in the English and Russian verbal systems. It is common knowledge that in order to provide an adequate translation, the translator must be able to sense nuances in the semantics of both the source-language and target-language texts. English phrasal verbs (e.g. give up, break in, fall out) are of great interest to me in this respect because they possess quite a number of semantic, grammatical and stylistic peculiarities, sometimes making their accurate translation into Russian difficult. Of course, in dealing with the translation of such lexical units into his or her native language, the translator can consult the appropriate bilingual dictionary, but what about the profound comprehension of why this or that phrasal verb is translated only this and not any other way? To get a good idea of English phrasal verbs' semantic nuances, let us first look at their conceptual features. In theory, phrasal verbs are generally considered to be idiomatic combinations of a verb and an adverbial particle. The exact status of the latter is still being debated, scholars being divided on whether it is an adverb, prepositional adverb, postpositional prefix, special part of speech, etc. However, here we are interested only in the features of adverbial particles. In general, the main function of phrasal verbs is conceptual categorization of reality in the speaker's mind. They denote not only actions or states as "ordinary" verbs do, but also specify their spatial, temporal or other characteristics. This ability to describe actions or states more precisely, vividly and emotionally is determined by the adverbial components of phrasal verbs. By combining with these elements, verbs of broader meaning are subjected to a regular and systematic multiplication of their semantic functions. While the English verb has no consistent structural representation of aspect, adverbial particles either impart an additional aspective meaning to the base verb (e.g. the durative verb sit merges with the particle down into the terminative phrasal verb sit down) or introduce a lexical modification to its fundamental semantics. In most cases adverbial elements denote the general spatial direction of the action or express its qualitative or quantitative characteristics, like beginning (set out), duration (bum along), completion (think out), intensity (hurry up), and so on. Obviously, such semantic peculiarities of English phrasal verbs must influence the process of their translation into the Russian language, which has a highly developed system of verbal prefixes. In addition to their function that is analogous to that of English prefixes, Russian verbal prefixes resemble English adverbial particles in their semantic functions, also indicating various qualities of actions and states. Like adverbial particles in English, Russian prefixes are lexically strong. For example, the Russian prefix "раз-" denotes 1) division into parts (раскрошить); 2) distribution, direction of action in different directions (разъехаться); 3) action in reverse (разминировать); 4) termination of action or state (разлюбить); 5) intensification of action

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(расплясаться) [The Oxford Russian Dictionary]. Thus, in translation from English into Russian, the meaning of the English adverbial component of the phrasal verb is mostly conveyed by using the Russian prefix that reflects the character of the described action or state most accurately. To a greater degree, this refers rather to nuances of semantics than grammar. When dealing with translation of English phrasal verbs or pre-analysis of their adverbial elements' meaning, one should always keep in mind their astounding polysemy, which sometimes borders on homonymy. Compare the following: take in 4 (to receive sb in one's home with welcome, as a guest) and take in 12 (to deceive sb) (Longman Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs). It holds true for Russian prefixes as well, the same ones rendering different shades of meaning in different uses (see examples above). That is why it seems almost impossible to create a consistent rigid system of lexical correspondences between English adverbial particles and Russian prefixes, without encountering numerous debatable problems. Strictly speaking, proper translation of English phrasal verbs to a high degree depends on the context in which they are used, which suggests the appropriate interpretation of the described action. Having stated the specific characteristics of the action denoted by a certain phrasal verb, one can seek a Russian counterpart prefix, which is the closest in rendering the same idea and meets the lexical and grammatical requirements of translation into the target language. For example, the sentence "The attack had gone across the field, been held up by machine-gun fire from sunken road, encountered no resistance in the town, and reached the bank of the river" [E. Hemingway, A Way You'll Never Be] should be translated as «Атака развертывалась на лугу и была приостановлена пулеметным огнем с дорожной выемки, не встретила отпора в городе и закончилась на берегу реки». According to the Longman Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs, in the above context the phrasal verb hold up has the following meaning: 2. to delay (sth or sb). The Russian prefix "при-" adequately renders the idea that the attack was delayed just for a while. The sentences "There was a little fire there. Nancy built it up, when it was already hot inside" [W. Faulkner, That Evening Sun] have the following translation: «В очаге еще были горячие угли, она их раздула, и пламя вспыхнуло". The adverbial particle up in the phrasal verb build up imparts the idea of increasing the size of the fire and shows the intensification of the action. According to the definition given in the Oxford Russian Dictionary, the most appropriate Russian prefix should be "раз-", indicating the intensification of action. For the sentence "Three or four times while I was going through their envelopes, I was tempted to get up and make a formal protest to M.Yoshoto" [J. D. Salinger, De Daumier-Smith's Blue Period] the best translation would be "И когда я просматривал их работы, меня не раз так и подмывало вскочить и обратиться с официальным протестом к мосье Йошото", as there is a proper semantic correspondence between the adverbial element through in the phrasal verb going through and the Russian prefix "про-" in the verb "просматривал", both denoting exhaustive action. English phrasal verbs can be highly idiomatic, their meanings being unpredictable from the sum of their constituents' meanings (e.g. take in (to deceive), lay down (to build), let on (to tell a secret). In such cases, where the context or professional experience fail to reveal the sense of a phrasal verb, a good explanatory or bilingual dictionary can be of great help to the translator. For example, for a person who is not a native speaker of English, in the sentence "He liked to break in his assistants slowly" neither the context, nor the adverbial element of the phrasal verb hint at the real meaning of the combination break in. According to the Longman Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs, the phrasal verb break in has the following "unexpected" meaning: 4. to help (smb) to become accustomed (to work, etc.) . The Russian edition of this very dictionary (Английские фразовые глаголы. Англо-русский словарь, Russkiy Yazyk Publishers, Moscow, 1997) treats this meaning in the same way: 4. вводить (кого-л.) в курс (новой работы и т.п.). I think that a thorough study and consequent understanding of semantic correspondences in the English and Russian verbal systems can be quite a powerful tool in the translator's arsenal.

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MODAL VERBSModal verbs, unlike other verbs, do not denote actions to states, but only show the attitude of

the speaker towards the action expressed by the infinitive in combination with which they form compound modal predicates. Thus modal verbs may show that the action (or state, or process, or quality) is viewed by the speaker as possible, obligatory, doubtful, certain, permissible, advisable, requested, prohibited, ordered, etc. Modal verbs occur only with the infinitive. This or that meaning is to a great degree determined by the comminicative type of the sentence and the form of the infinitive.

There are 12 modal verbs in English. They are: can, may, must, should ought, shall, will, would, need, dare, to be, to have (to have got). The latter two are modal only in one of their meanings.

Ten of them (that is, all but to be and to have) are also called defective or anomalous verbs as they lack some features characteristic of other verbs, that is:

1) they do not take -s in the third person singular;

2) they have no verbals, so they have no analytical forms;

3) they have (except for can and may) only one form and no past tense;

4) they are followed (except for ought) by a bare infinitive (that is by the infinitive without the particle to);

5) they need no auxiliary to build up the interrogative and negative forms.All modal verbs have 2 negative forms, full and contracted.

full form

may not

must not

would not

should not

need not

contracted form

mayn’t

mustn’t

wouldn’t

shouldn’t

needn’t

CanThis modal verb has two forms: can - for the present tense and could - for the past tense and

for the subjunctive mood.

I can’t dance now but I could when I was young.

I wish I could go with you.

I. Can followed by the non-perfect common aspect infinitive expresses:

1. Physical and mental ability or capacity.The notion of ability is also expressed by “to be able to”.

Mary can speak English quite well but she can’t write it at all (can = to be able, to know how to...).

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The meaning of ability is expressed only by “to be able to” when the reference is to the future, as can, having no infinitive, has no future tense form.

Soon he will be able to speak English quite fluently.

Can is interchangeable with to be able to when it denotes mere capacity,

I couldn’t/was not able to do that new job; it was too difficult. But only to be able to is used to express attainment or achievement of something through

some capacity. Thus to be able to often combines the idea of “ability” and “achievement”. In this case was able to means “managed to” or “succeeded in”, and could is impossible.

The fire brigade was able (succeeded in putting, managed) to put out the fire before it destroyed the other buildings. Пожарные сумели, им удалось ...

2. Possibility.a) possibility due to circumstances:

Anybody can make a mistake. Ошибаться может каждый.

b) possibility due to the existing rules of laws:

In old days a man could be sentenced to death for a small crime. В старые времена можно было приговорить человека к смерти за небольшое преступление.

c) possibility of the idea (the so-called “theoretical” possibility):

The railways can be improved. (It is possible for the railways to be improved, as they are not yet perfect.)

In general statements of possibility can has roughly the same meaning as “sometimes”.

The sea can be rough. = The sea is sometimes rough. Mope иногда бывает бурным.

Can is generally used in questions about possibility and in statements about impossibility.

Can this be true? (Is it possible that this is true?) Неужели это правда?

3. Permission.

Can we go home, Miss? Можно идти домой, мисс?

Can is now more common than may (or might) to express the idea permission.

4. Prohibition (it is found only with the negative form of the modal verb, as prohibition may be understood as the negation of permission - not to be allowed to...). It corresponds to the Russian нельзя, не надо.

You can’t cross the street here. Здесь нельзя переходить улицу.

5. Request.

Can you hold on a minute, please?

Could suggests a greater degree of politeness:Could you come again tomorrow?

II. Can followed by any form of the infinitive may express:

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1. Strong doubt, improbability, incredulity. This meaning occurs only with the negative form of the modal verb + perfect infinitive, continuous infinitive, or be.

Could is used instead of can to express greater doubt. Thus the difference between can and could is in the degree of expressiveness, could showing a greater degree of doubt or incredulity. The time-reference is indicated not by the form of the verb but by that of the infinitive.

He Can’t

Couldn’t

be so old. - He может быть, что он так стар.

Не Can’t

Couldn’t

be telling the truth. - не может быть, что он говорит правду.

He Can’t

Couldn’t

have told the truth. - не может быть, чтобы он сказал правду.

2. Surprise, when can/could is used in questions. It corresponds to the Russian неужели ...

Can it be so late as all that? Неужели уже так поздно?

То refer the action to the past a perfect infinitive is used.

Could he have known her before? Неужели он знал ее раньше?

The verb can expressing surprise is not used in the negative form.

Therefore the Russian negative questions of the type - нeyжeли он не ... is translated into English in different ways:

a) by complex sentences: Can if be that you haven’t seen him? Неужели вы не видели его?

b) by different lexical means: Can you have failed to see him? Неужели вы не видели его?

3. Reproach, implying that a person should have done something, or behaved in a certain way, but didn’t do it. This meaning is found only with the form could.

You could at least have met me at the station, couldn’t you?

In this sense could is interchangeable with might.4. Purpose. This meaning occurs only with the form could in clauses of purpose.

I wrote down the telephone number so that I could remember it.Note some set expressions with the modal verb can:Cannot/can’t help doing smth. - He могу не делать что-то

When I saw him I couldn’t help laughing. - Когда я увидел его, я не мог не засмеяться.

Cannot/can’t but do smth. - не могу не ...

I cannot but suggest... - Я не могу не предложить ...

One cannot but wonder - нельзя не задуматься

as can be - an intensifying expression

They are as pleased as can be. - Они очень (страшно) довольны.123

MayThis modal verb has two forms: may for the present tense and might for the past and as the

subjunctive mood form. Thus the form might is used:

a) in indirect speech according to the rules of the sequence of tenses (though the verb could is preferable in this case).

He told me that I might go.

b) in some syntactical patterns requiring the subjunctive mood forms:

However hard he might (or may) try, he will never manage to do the same.

I. May followed by the non-perfect common infinitive expresses:

1. Permission. In this usage it expresses the meaning to have permission to, to be allowed to, to be permitted to.

You may go now (you are allowed to go).Can is now more common than may or might to express informally the idea of permission, but

may is often used when talking of ourselves.May/might I help you?

When the action was permitted and performed the expression was allowed to is preferable.

When translating the story we were allowed to use a dictionary, so I took a Longman new dictionary.

2. Possibility of the fact (the so-called “factual possibility”).This meaning occurs only in affirmative sentences.

You may find all the books you want in the National Library. (It is possible that you will find...)

3. Prohibition (only with the negative form of the modal verb).You may not enter the room until I say so. - He смей...

The contracted form mayn’t is also very rare.

There are other ways of expressing the idea of prohibition which are more common. They are mustn’t, can’t, and don’t. Mustn’t and can’t are often found in negative answers to express prohibition instead of may not.

II. May (might) followed by any form of the infinitive denotes:1. Supposition, uncertainty. May in this sense is synonymous with perhaps or maybe, and

occurs in affirmative and negative statements.

This news is so strange that you may not believe it. (Perhaps you won’t believe it.)

The non-perfect infinitive indicates reference to the present or future, that is, it expresses supposition or uncertainty about a present or future action.

They may arrive tonight or tomorrow.

The perfect infinitive indicates reference to the past.

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May (might) in the sense of supposition or uncertainty is not used in questions, instead some other means are used: Is it (he) likely ... ? or Do you think ... ?

Is Mary likely to arrive tonight?

Can + negation in these sentences denotes doubt, incredulity on the part of the speaker, whereas may expresses uncertainty about a negation of some fact.

2. Reproach. This meaning is found only in positive statements and only with the form might as it is a reproach made about something that has not been done and thus implies some unfulfilled action.

You might at least offer to help.

In combination with the perfect infinitive it renders irritation (annoyance) that the action was not carried out.

You might have opened the door for me.

3. May/might partly loses its meaning when used in certain sentence patterns and is in such cases a quasi-subjunctive auxiliary (see § 80):

a) in clauses of purpose: Sit here so that I may see your face more clearly. b) in clauses of concession: Try as he may he will never be top of his class. c) in object, predicative and appositive clauses after verbs or nouns expressing hope,

wish, fear: The doctor has fears that she may not live much longer.

Here are some expressions with the modal verb may/might:

I may/might as well + infinitive — is a very mild and unemphatic way of expressing an intention.

I may as well take you with me.It can be used with other persons to suggest or recommend an action.

You may as well give him the letter.

Might just as well means “it would be equally good to” and is used to suggest alternative actions. Though the meaning is basically the same as in three previous sentences, “just” makes the sentence more emphatic.

- I’ll go on Monday by a slow train.

- You might just as well wait till Tuesday and go by the fast one.

MustThe modal verb must has only one form for the present tense. It may also be used in reported

speech, after the verb in the past tense in the principal clause.

I knew I must go there too.I. Must followed by the non-perfect common infinitive may express:

1. Immediate obligation or necessity, or an obligation referring to the future. This meaning occurs in positive statements and questions.

We must begin before five, or we shan’t finish in time for our supper.

In this sense the verb must corresponds to the Russian надо, нужно, должен.

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Do it if you must (если нужно, делайте).

Must expresses obligation or compulsion from the speaker’s viewpoint (unlike ‘have to’, which involves some other authority than the speaker, such as official regulations, etc.).

You must be back at 2 o’clock. I want you to do some cooking.

Obligations expressed by must refer to the present or future, in reported speech they may refer to the past.

James said we must invite the Stewarts to dinner.Future obligations can be made more precise with the future indefinite of the verb have to.

I’ll have to read it again. Since the negative form of must denotes a negative obligation or sometimes prohibition (sec

item 2), it cannot express absence of necessity which is expressed by needn’t.

- Must I go? - No, you needn’t, if you don’t want to.

Must is used interchangeably with to be to for instructions, notices, or orders.

Passangers must cross the lines by the footbridge (the railway company instructs them to).

With a 2nd person subject must expresses an obligation which has the same effect as a command.

You must do as you are told.

2. Prohibition. Such sentences are sometimes negative commands, corresponding to the Russian sentences with нельзя, не разрешается.

3. Invitations.You must come and see me sometime. - Вы обязательно должны навестить меня как-

нибудь.

II. When combined with any form of the infinitive must expresses probability, near certainty. It has the same meaning as the modal words probably, evidently. In this sense must occurs only in positive statements and corresponds to the Russian modal words вероятно, должно быть.

He must be mad (it seems certain that he is mad). With verbs which admit of the continuous aspect, the continuous infinitive should be used for

reference to the present.

Where’s Nell? She must be sightseeing now (she is probably sightseeing). The perfect infinitive indicates a past action.

Did you always live with your father? You must have led quite a busy social life (evidently you led...).

The perfect continuous infinitive indicates the duration of the past action, a process in the past.

It must have been raining when you left (evidently it was raining when you left).

Must expressing probability is not used:

a) with reference to the future. Instead of the modal verb the adverbs probably and evidently are used.

He will probably feel lonely.126

b) in negative and interrogative forms. There are several ways of expressing the negative meaning of probability in such sentences: by negative affixes, or negative pronouns, or lexically.

1. You must have misunderstood me.

Besides the above mentioned shades of meaning, sometimes accompanied by emphasis, the modal verb must may be used solely for the sake of emphasis. In this case must is not translated into Russian, it merely emphasises some action or idea.

Just when we were ready to go away for the holidays, the baby must catch measles (ребенок вдруг заболел корью, ребенок возьми и заболей корью).

To have to, have got toAs a modal verb to have to differs from the others in that it is not defective. It can have the

category of person and number and all tense-aspect forms, as well as verbals. It is followed by a to-infinitive and combines only with the non-perfect form of it.

As there is no through train to our town we have to change in Moscow.Have to builds up its interrogative and negative forms with the help of the auxiliary verb to

do.

Do you have to work so hard?He doesn’t have to be here before Friday.

The modal verb to have to expresses:

I. Obligation or necessity arising out of circumstances. It is similar in its meaning to must (1). It corresponds to the Russian приходится, вынужден.

She is usually short of time so she has to go by air (ей приходится лететь, она вынуждена лететь).

In the past tense have to indicates a fulfilled obligation.

We had to do a lot of things during the week we stayed in the country (were obliged and did it).Have to replaces must where must cannot be used: a) to express past necessity or obligation,

b) to express absence of necessity (in the sense of needn’t), since must not means prohibition, and c) to express a future obligation, since the future tense of the verb have to makes the obligation more precise.

a) We had to do it again.

b) You don’t have to make another copy of the document, Miss Black; this copy will be quite satisfactory.

c) You’ll have to take a taxi if you mean to catch the train.

Have got to has the same basic meaning as have to. The difference lies in that have to usually denotes a habitual action and have got to denotes a particular action.

Do you have to get up early every morning? To be to

To be to as a modal verb is used in the present and past indefinite tenses.

To be to expresses:

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1. An obligation arising out of an arrangement or plan. It is found in statements and questions.

We are to complete this work by tomorrow. (Somebody expects it.)

The last two sentences in which to be is in the past indefinite do not indicate whether the action did or did not take place.

On the other hand this form is the only way to indicate a fulfilled action in the past.

I was to meet Mother at 11 (and I did).

To emphasize that the action did not take place the perfect infinitive is used after the past indefinite of the verb to be to.

She was to have graduated in June, but unfortunately fell ill.

The present indefinite may signify an arrangement (especially official) for the future, or referring to no particular time.

The German Chancellor is to visit France.

2. A strict order or an instruction given either by the speaker or (more usually) by some official authority.

He is to return to Liverpool tomorrow (he has been given orders to return to Liverpool).

3. Strict prohibition (only in the negative form).

You are not to do that.

4. Something that is destined to happen or is unavoidable. It corresponds to the Russian суждено, предстоит.

I didn’t know at the time that she was to be my wife (что ей суждено было стать моей женой).

5. Impossibility. In negative sentences or in sentences containing words with negative meaning the verb to be to implies impossibility. In this case the passive form of the non-perfect infinitive is used, unless it is a question beginning with the interrogative adverbs how, where.

They are not to be trusted.

Nothing was to be done under the circumstances.

This meaning is similar to the meaning of can and may.

NeedThe modal verb need may be either a defective or a regular verb. As a defective verb need has

only one form and combines with a bare infinitive. In reported speech it remains unchanged. As a regular verb it has the past indefinite form needed and regular negative and interrogative forms.

There is a slight difference in the usage of regular and irregular forms. The regular form is used mainly when the following infinitive denotes habitual action. The defective form is more common when one particular occasion is referred to:

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Need I do it?

You needn’t do it just now.

The defective form is mainly restricted to negative and interrogative sentences, whereas the regular verb can be used in all types of sentences and is therefore more common.

Need expresses necessity. It is mainly used in questions and negative statements, where it is a replacement for must or for have (got) to.

The negation is not always combined with the verb, but may be expressed by other parts of the sentence.

I don't think we need mention him at all.

In questions need is used when there is a strong element of negation or doubt or when the speaker expects a negative answer.

Need she go there? (hoping for a negative answer)

In negative statements need followed by a perfect infinitive indicates that the action expressed by the infinitive was performed but was not necessary. It implies a waste of time or effort, and is therefore translated by зря, незачем, не к чему было.

You needn’t have spent all the money. Now we've got nothing left. Зря ты потратил все деньги, не к чему было тратить ... .

The difference between the two forms of need in negative sentences is as follows: the regular verb indicates that the action was not done because it was unnecessary, whereas the defective verb shows that the action, although unnecessary, was carried out. Compare the following examples:

Didn’t need to do smth = It wasn’t necessary, so probably not done.

Needn’t have done smth. = It was not necessary, but done nonetheless.

Ought toThe modal verb ought has only one form. It is not changed in reported speech.

Ought combines with the to-infinitive. When followed by the non-perfect or continuous infinitive it indicates reference to the present or future. In indirect speech it may also refer the action to the past.

You ought to be ashamed of yourself.

Ought expresses:

1. Moral duty, moral obligation (which is not always fulfilled). It corresponds to the Russian следует.

You ought to look after your children better (you don’t always do it). Вам следует больше заботиться о детях.

When used with the perfect infinitive ought means that something right has not been done, a desirable action has not been carried out, and it, therefore, implies reproach.

You ought to have helped him (but you didn’t). Вам следовало бы ему помочь.

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Ought not + perfect infinitive means that something wrong has been done and it is now too late to change it. It may also be viewed as a reproach.

She told him he ought not to have done it (but he had done it).

The opposite to ought to is needn’t used to mean that the action is unnecessary.

We ought to wash the dishes, but we needn’t dry them, because they will dry themselves.

2. Advisability (which is sometimes understood as desirability).

You ought to see a doctor.

3. Probability, something that can be naturally expected. It corresponds to the Russian должно быть, наверное.

You ought to be hungry by now (you probably are, but I’m not certain). Вы, наверное, уже проголодались.

Ought to + infinitive is used when describing something exciting, funny or beautiful in the meaning of I wish you could.

You ought to hear the way he plays the piano!

ShouldHistorically should was the past form of shall and both the forms expressed obligation. But in

present-day English they have developed different meanings and are treated as two different verbs.

Should followed by the non-perfect infinitive may be used with reference to the present and future and is not changed in reported speech.

You should be more careful. Вам следует быть внимательнее.

Should is nearly always interchangeable with ought to, as their meanings coincide.

It expresses:

1. Moral obligation, moral duty, which may not be fulfilled. Should is found in this sense in all kinds of sentences. However ought to is preferable in this sense:

All students should submit their work by present date (but some of them don’t). Студенты должны сдать работу к сегодняшнему дню.

When used in the negative form should denotes a weakened prohibition, more like negative advice.

He shouldn’t be so impatient.

When combined with the perfect infinitive should denotes criticism, faultfinding; the statement indicates that something desirable has not been done.

Your shoes are wet. You should have stayed at home.

A negative statement indicates that something wrong has been done.You shouldn’t have done that. It was stupid. (Вам не следовало это делать).

2. Advice, desirability. This meaning is more common with ought to than with should.130

You should stay in bed. Вам нужно (следует) лежать в постели.

As is seen from the above examples, it is sometimes difficult to discriminate between the first and the second meaning.

3. Probability, something naturally expected (only with reference to the present or future).

The effect of the tax should be felt in high prices (will probably be felt).

ShallIn present-day English shall is not a purely modal verb. It always combines its modal

meaning of obligation with the function of an auxiliary verb in the future tense.

As a modal verb shall is not translated into Russian, usually its meaning is rendered by emphatic intonation.

Shall combined with only a non-perfect infinitive expresses:

1. Promise, oath, or strong intention. In this meaning shall is used with the 2nd or 3rd person with a weak stress.

It shall be done as you wish.

2. Threat or warning (shall is used in this meaning in the 2nd and 3rd person).

That day shall come.

3. A suggestion or offer

It is used in questions (and offers) in the 1st person singular and plural. Such sentences are translated into Russian by the infinitive.

“Shall I get you a chair?” – “Yes, please.” Принести вам стул? - Пожалуйста.

WillLike shall, will is not a purely modal verb. It almost always combines its modal meaning with

its functioning as an auxiliary verb expressing futurity. Will has two forms: will for the present tense and would for the past tense. Thus will and would are looked upon as forms of the same verb, although in a few cases their meanings differ.

I. Will combined with the non-perfect infinitive expresses:

1. Willingness, intention, determination. It is often rendered into Russian by непременно, обязательно, охотно. Would in this meaning shows reference to the past.

I will write as soon as I can. (Я непременно напишу, как только смогу.)

2. A polite request or an offer. This meaning occurs only in questions.

Will you pass the salt, please?

In comparison with will the form would renders a greater degree of politeness.

Would you please pass the salt?

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It is still more polite to use the combinations: Would you mind (+ -ing form), Would you be so kind as to...

Would you be so kind as to lend me your book?

3. A command (in military contexts it is a strict command).

Officers will report for duty at 06.00.

An impatient command can begin with will you.

Will you be quiet! - Замолчишь, ли ты наконец?

Will you in the tag after a negative command can tone down the command (and is pronounced with the falling tone).

Don’t be late, will you?

But after a positive command will you has a rising intonation and expresses impatience.

Sit down, will you?

Would is never used in this meaning.

4. Insistence, resistence. Will and would are stressed when used in this sense.

He will try to mend it himself (he insists on mending it himself).

With reference to inanimate objects will and would show that a thing fails to perform its function. It occurs in negative statements and corresponds to the Russian никак не.

The door will not open.

The orange won’t peel.

The engine wouldn’t start.

The wound wouldn’t heal.

- Дверь никак не открывается.

- Апельсин никак не очистить.

- Мотор никак не заводился

- Рана никак не заживала.

5. Inevitability, characteristic behaviour, quality, or something naturally expected.

What will be will be.

Accidents will happen.

Boys will be boys.

Truth will out.

- Чему быть, того не миновать.

- Несчастные случаи неизбежны (несчастный случай может произойти с каждым).

- Мальчишки всегда остаются мальчишками.

- Истины не утаишь.

This sort of inevitability or prediction often occurs in sentences with conditional clauses.

If people study they will learn. (If people study they learn)

This meaning cannot be rendered in Russian by any analogous modal verb.

Oil will float on water.132

6. Disapproval of something expected. In this meaning only would is used. It is found mainly in responses. It corresponds to the Russian этого и следовало ожидать, на него похоже.

“I know she attended the place.” “Oh, yes, she would.” - Конечно, что еще можно ожидать.

II. Will/would combined with different forms of the infinitive can express prediction, a certainty about the present or the future (in a similar way as must).

This will be just what she wants.

That will be my wife.

This will be our train.

That would be he!

John will have arrived by now (by tomorrow).

- Это, очевидно, то, чего она хочет.

- Это, конечно, моя жена.

- Это, наверное, наш поезд.

- Это, наверное, он.

- Джон наверняка уже приедет к этому времени (к завтрашнему дню).

In the latter case must is impossible as with a perfect infinitive it has a reference to the past.

That would be in 1910, I think.

Why are you asking him?

Не wouldn’t know anything about it.

Who is the man? You wouldn’t know him.

- Я думаю, это, наверное, было в 1910 году.- Зачем вы его спрашиваете?- Вряд ли он что-либо об этом знает.- Вряд ли вы его знаете.

DareThe modal verb dare may be defective or regular.

As a defective verb dare has two forms: dare for the present tense and dared for the past tense. It is used chiefly in interrogative and negative sentences. It has the meaning - to have the courage or independence to do something, to venture.

How dare he speak to you like that? (I wonder at such impudence.)

As a regular verb dare has a limited paradigm of finite forms and no verbals. It may have two meanings:

1. To venture, to have the courage or impudence (like the defective dare). In this sense it is used mainly in negative statements.

He didn’t dare to stop me (he didn’t have the courage).

2. To challenge, to defy.

I dared him to jump (I challenged him to do it).

Note the following combinations with the modal verb dare.

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I dare say — I suppose, no doubt.

I dare say you are right. - Очень возможно, что вы правы.

I dare say he will come later. - Полагаю (пожалуй), он придет позже.

Literature.

1. Н. А. Кобрина, Е. А. Корнеева, М. И. Оссовская, К. А. Гузеева Грамматика английского языка: Морфология. Синтаксис. Учебное пособие для студентов педагогических институтов и университетов по специальности «Иностранные языки», СПб, СОЮЗ, 1999.-496с.

MODAL VERBSThere is a great variety of different modal verbs expressing the speaker's attitude towards the action in the sentence. We find the following modal verbs in English: can, may, must, to have to, to be to, ought to, should, need.A modal verb in combination with the infinitive forms a compound modal predicate. Modal verbs lack many forms characteristic of regular verbs: they have no -s in the third person singular in the Simple Present, and no verbals, some of them lack the form of the past tense.Modal verbs have the following peculiarities:1. they are followed by the infinitive without the particle to (with the exception of ought to, to have to and to be to);2. their interrogative and negative forms are built up without the auxiliary verb (except the verb to have to);3. most of the modal verbs have more than one meaning. They all show that a certain action is represented as necessary, possible, desirable, doubtful, obligatory from the point of view of the speaker.

Modal verb can I. The Modal verb can has two tense forms: can (the Simple Present) — could (the Simple Past).II. Can is used to express:1. ability (mental or physical).Ex. He can read a little French.I can walk very fast.This meaning can also be expressed by the modal equivalent to be able to... . The phrase can be used in all tense forms.Ex. Don't worry! I am quite able to take care of myself.I am happy I was able to help you.No doubt they will be able to support us.2. objective possibility due to circumstances (or absence of it).Ex. You can get this dictionary from the library.You can't cross the street here.3. permission, request in affirmative and interrogative sentences. If it is negative sentences it expresses prohibition.Ex. — Can I go out? — Yes, you can go out if you like.You can't go out. It is late.Could expresses a more polite request.Ex. Could you give us a clue?Note: Remember the following set-phrases with the verb can:Ex. He couldn't help laughing, (не мог удержаться чтобы)I can't but ask him about it. (мне ничего не остается, как)I can't possibly do it. (просто не могу сделать это)

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Modal verb may I. The modal verb may has two tense forms: may (the Simple Present) — might (the Simple Past).II. May can express the following meanings:1. possibility due to circumstances (only in affirmative sentences with an indefinite infinitive).Ex. You may order a ticket by telephone.2. permission, request (more formal than can).Ex. You may take the exam now.— May I stay here? — No, you mustn't.3. supposition implying uncertainty.Ex. They may be at home. It may be true.In this meaning may can be followed by different forms of the infinitive, depending on the time reference expressed in the sentence.Ex. He may be working.She may have fallen ill.He may have been waiting for us for an hour.

Modal verb must I. The modal verb must has only one tense form — the Simple Present. It is used to refer an action to the present or future and in combination with the perfect infinitive it refers an action to the past.Ex. You must do it tomorrow.He must be still working.He must have done it ages ago.II. Must can express the following meanings:1. obligation, duty, necessity.Ex. You must do this work.Must he do it himself?2. prohibition (in negative sentences).Ex. You must not come so late.Note: Absence of necessity is expressed by other verbs (need or have to):Ex. They needn't hurry. There is a lot of time.You don't have to finish the work right now. It can wait.3. emphatic advice.Ex. You mustn't be so touchy. You must stop crying.You really must have your hair cut.4. supposition.Ex. He must be thirty.They must have missed the bus.

Modal verb to have to The verb to have to serves to express obligation or necessity imposed by circumstances. It is found in present, past and future tense contexts and is combined only with the simple infinitive. The interrogative and negative forms of the modal verb to have to are built up with the help of the auxiliary verb to do.Ex. Do I have to do this? Did he have to do it?You don't have to explain.They didn't have to tell me what had happened.Have you had to walk all that distance?

Modal verb to be to I. The main meaning of this modal verb is that of pre-arranged necessity or mutual arrangement. It is used in the present and past, never in the future (to have to is used in this case).Ex. He is to come at exactly five.She was to phone after dinner.

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They'll have to meet in court.Note: A perfect infinitive after the verb to be to shows that the action had been planned but wasn't carried out.Ex. He was to have come at seven and now it's already nine. (He didn't come)Compare:Ex. She was to do it. (Maybe she did it)She was to have done it. (But she didn't do it)II. To be to can also express a command.Ex. You are to report to the Captain.III. In negative sentences it expresses prohibition.Ex. You are not to mix with these people under any circumstances.IV. In questions to be to means asking for instructions.Ex. What are we to do? Am I to follow you?V. To be to can express something doomed, inevitable.Ex. It was to happen.She was to become his wife.

Modal verb should It may be either auxiliary or modal.I. When should is used as tense or mood auxiliary it is not translated since it has no lexical meaning of its own.Ex. She said we. should go there next year, (tense auxiliary)It's necessary you should control yourself, (mood auxiliary)If I had such a chance I should take it. (mood auxiliary)II. As a modal verb should expresses duty, obligation often weakened to the meaning of advice, reproach, rebuke.Ex. You should cross the road here, (duty)You should help him. (advice, recommendation)You should do your best, (obligation, duty)You should have given up this idea long ago. (reproach, rebuke)Note: In emotional speech should can express indignation, astonishment, regret after the words why, what, how, who(m), I'm sorry:Ex. Why should I go there?How should I know? (с какой стати?)Different infinitives can follow.Ex. You should be friendly to people. (the reference is made to the present, future or to no particular time)You should be working now, not polishing your nails! (the reference is made to the present moment)You should have done it. (but you didn't do it in the past)The positive construction with a perfect infinitive after should shows that the action was desirable but wasn't carried out.Ex. You should have come, (but you didn't)The negative construction with the perfect infinitive shows that the action which took place in the past was not desirable.Ex. You shouldn't have come, (but you did)

Modal verb ought to It comes originally from the verb owe, and still carries the idea that we owe some moral obligation to other people and to ourselves.Ex. I really ought to go and have my eyes tested. (I owe it to myself, I haven't done my duty)Ben really ought to see his parents more often, (he rarely sees them)They ought to ban smoking in public places, (the obligation comes from outside)

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I. It has only one form for the present tense and unlike all other modals is always followed by the infinitive with the particle to. Time reference is expressed through the form of the infinitive.Ex. You ought to do it. (present tense)You ought to have done it. (past action which was desirable but wasn't carried out)II. Like the modal verb should ought to expresses advice, social and moral responsibility.Ex. You ought to see a doctor.You ought not to smoke so much.She ought to look after her children better.You ought to ask for your money back.III. Should and ought to are very close in meaning. Unlike must/have to, which express obligation where you have no choice, should and ought to describe a sort of obligation where you have a choice:Ex. You shouldn't carry a lot of money with you.You oughtn't to leave your bag unattended.You should help old people.You ought to take up a sport.In the above illustrations, we are free to do or not to do what we are advised. Still there is some very slight difference between them-. Should suggests an obligation more moral and binding than ought to and therefore offers stronger advice and conveys greater certainty in prediction. Ought to often suggests that the action is unlikely to be fulfilled.Compare:Ex. You should go. (this is absolutely necessary)You ought to go. (but I know you don't want to)

Literature.

1. Английская грамматика = English Grammar / Е. А. Истомина, А. С. Саакян. — 5-е изд., испр. и доп. — М.: Айрис-пресс, 2007. — 272 с. — (Высшее образование).

MODULE 2.THEME 7. The basic principles of translation of coherent text, free and set expressions in its structure. The general principles of terms translation. The formation of terms in Modern English language. The Subjunctive Mood. Ways of rendering the Subjunctive Mood in Russian.

TRANSLATION(S) AND TEXTWe are aware that Venuti's call for resistive translation refers primarily to certain literary and cultural texts. We apologize for using his argument as a foil for our own. Venuti is correct in his analysis of the potential for harm in translation, and he focuses, as we do, on the effects of the translation process on textual form. Too many theorists focus on the translation process alone. They act as if process could be separated from text. The text is the central defining issue in translation. Texts and their situations define the translation process. We cannot generalize about translation without speaking of specific texts embedded in specific situations.There is no single translation process. There are many translation processes. Translation is an intersection of situation, translator competence, source text, and target text-to-be. There are translation situations where the destructive impact of translation on cultural values is not important. There are other situations where it may be the central issue. Some translation is critical and interpretive; it is not pragmatic. This kind of translation is driven by different motivating factors. The messages and forms of the texts are more closely connected. Other texts participate in practical communication. They exchange primarily value-free technical, scientific, and commercial information. The foreignness of the source text is not a benefit in these

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translations. Because most practical texts have a user orientation, the foreignness of the source text is an obstacle to overcome.The translation situation always determines the set of translation strategies to be used. Translation appears to be a single process, but it actually refers to a set of situation-specific processes. Here we have another paradox of translation.Venuti makes the case himself when he says "as conceptual fields in which a translation is produced, fluency and resistancy . . . are determined by the particular conjuncture where they are developed and used, and their ideological significance is not only defined in relation to that conjuncture, but influenced by the ideology of the source-language text that they process" (Venuti 1986, 191).There are common features which all the possible translation processes share. There are also differences which distinguish them. Some differences are related to variations in the translation situation. Others are caused by the diverse information contents of source texts. Authors may have different intentions and readers can have different needs. There are always cultural differences in linguistic and conceptual systems. Finally, there are differences in what people expect translations to look like. One of the goals of translation studies should be to describe the varieties of translation that result from real combinations of these translation variables. Translation scholars need to look at real translation practice.Translation reality is rarely studied. Instead, we have studied armchair conceptualizations of translation. What translation scholars need to do, and have started to do over the past decade, is focus on the varieties of translation that actually exist. They need to look at what happens to source texts during translation and describe the influence of cultural, linguistic, and textual factors on the processes and results of translation.Translation studies today is a cluster of overlapping perspectives. There is no unified way of approaching the study of translation. Practitioners and scholars stake out certain territories and construct their own isolated understandings of translation reality. Many of these perspectives are non-empirical. They are derived from disparate sources. Some come from models in other disciplines. Others come from metaphors and introspection. Each perspective emphasizes a different aspect of translation. Translation invites and recommends a variety of theoretical and methodological responses.For instance, a scholar may focus on the source text in its sociocultural setting. This source-centered perspective will focus on the domestication of the source text by the target language. The translator plays the role of linguistic lion tamer. From this perspective, resistive translation makes sense. The utility of resistive translation dissipates when the perspective shifts. Resistant translation cannot be proposed as a universal strategy, but there are translation situations and translation needs which call for it. The utility of resistive translation rests primarily on text-ideological considerations, not pragmatic ones. The use of the technique is situation dependent. It requires a translation situation which places social concerns (gender, class, ethnicity) and awareness of the other (opacity of the text) above other concerns (readability, acceptability, informativity). A major problem with resistive translation is that by denying fluency and, by extension, the textuality of the target, the resistive translator runs the risk of producing non-texts which can seem very much like bad translations. How do we tell the difference? One possible answer is that resistive translation produces "something that cannot be confused with either the source-language text or a text written originally in the target language." The translation contains a "use of language that resists easy reading according to contemporary standardsthat will make visible the intervention of the translator . . . " (Venuti 1986, 190). Venuti's idea of a discrete "use of language" implies that even resistive translation produces a systematic textual effect. It produces an ''unnatural," but usable, text for a trained and attentive reader.We must understand what a text is before we can think about translating one. The way we translate must proceed from a consideration of the source text and the translation situation. Because there are many texts and many potential reasons to translate them, there are many ways to translate. This volume is called Translation as Text because translation does not pre-exist.

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Translation is not brought to the text and then applied to it. It is a textual process that starts with the source text and is managed by the translator to produce a target text. The translator manages translation as a textual process meant to induce one text from another. In most cases of technical and commercial translation, the text that is induced should be a fluent text in a target language.In other cases, it may be an opaque resistive text, induced as a special response to a particular conjuncture of translation variables. Translation variables are primarily textual variables. The translator must learn to account for these variables in the process of translation. In the third chapter of this volume we turn to a detailed explanation of the textual variables that influence translation. Thus, unnaturalness and necessity, loss and gain, destruction and harmony, integration and difference, are all properties of translation. They define its essential paradoxes. The study of translation should include an account of how these seemingly incompatible and divergent properties are mediated in the target text. Because translation is simultaneously a process and a result, there is a product whose success or failure can be evaluated. We can judge how the translator has responded to the demands of the translation situation. The translator always has choices to make. He or she has to cope with cultural difference and linguistic incompatibility. Translators have to master the difficulties of navigating messages to a foreign linguistic shore. The history of translation is full of examples of great triumph and shameful failure in this endeavor.

Literature.1. Neubert, Albrecht.; Shreve, Gregory M. Translation As Text Translation Studies, Kent State University Press, 1992 – 171p.

THE GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF TERM TRANSLATION§1. Translation factors A term is a word or expression denoting a concept in a particular activity, job, or profession. Terms are frequently associated with professionalisms.Terms can be single words: psychology, function, equity; or they may consist of several words: computer aided design system – система автоматического проектирования.Terms are considered to have one meaning in one field. Therefore, they are context-free words, whose meaning does not depend on the context: cod – треска, herring – сельдь, squid – кальмар in any context. Contrary to this belief, terms may have more than one meaning, since they can be understood differently in various schools and varies technologies: e.g., the grammatical term verb is considered to belong to morphology in the Russian school of linguistics, so it is translated as глагол. In the American school of linguistics it is often understood as a syntactical concept expressing a part of the sentence; therefore, in this case it corresponds to the Russian сказуемое. This gives rise to the problem of term unification. A translator must be very careful about terms expressing the same notion in different languages. One notion should be designated by a single term throughout the whole text. Different fields of knowledge ascribe different meanings to one and the same term. For example, лист in the publishing field corresponds to the term sheet (author’s sheet); in biology, it is a leaf; in technique, it is a plate; in geology, it is lamina. Similarly, the term drive is equivalent to different Russian terms, since it has different meanings in various fields: привод (in mechanics), органы управления (in the automobile), сплав (in forestry), горизонтальная горная выработка (in mining), дисковод (in the computer), etc. Term homonymy is sometimes due to the fact that words of general stock assume a technical meaning, thus becoming terms: for instance, memory – память, cell – ячейка памяти, driver – драйвер, управляющая программа (in computers). Also, terms of one field are borrowed by other fields, like variant and invariant were borrowed into linguistics from mathematics.

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Such term homonymy challenges translation. A translator must know the exact meaning of term in this or that field, as well as its combinability, for the nearby attribute or another word may specify the term and affect its translation: антикоррозийное покрытие – corrosion-resistant coating, дерновое покрытие – sod-matting, дорожное покрытие – road pavement, покрытие крыши –roofing, маскировочное покрытие – camouflage cover, пенное покрытие – foam blanket. To do accurate translation, it is necessary not only to know the meaning of the terms but also to link them with other words in speech. Erroneous word combination can cause difficulties in understanding the text. For example, the word combination прозвонить цепь cannot be rendered by its calque *to ring through the line. Its equivalent is to test the line. Therefore, translators always put high value on dictionaries containing word equivalents along with phrases and illustrating sentences.Terms in dictionaries are usually arranged in alphabetical and keyword order. To find a word combination, it is necessary to look up a keyword, which is usually a noun. For example, to translate a compound term barking machine, it is necessary to look up the term machine. Its vocabulary entry will give the attributive group corresponding to корообдирочный станок, корообдирка. Term translation may also depend on the regional character of the language. For example, антенна corresponds to aerial in British English, to antenna in American English; ветровое стекло (автомобиля) – windscreen (British English), windshield (American English); багажник (автомобиля) – boot (British), trunk (American). Term form depends on the people using it. P. Newmark suggests three levels of term usage: 1) Academic. This includes transferred Latin and Greek words used in academic papers (phlegmasia alba dolens); 2) Professional. Formal terms used by experts (epidemic parotitis, scarlatina); 3) Popular. Layman vocabulary, which includes familiar alternative terms (mumps, scarlet fever).In science, terms are neutral, non-expressive. Medical students feel no particular ways, whatever terms they use. But when a term is transferred to another register, it takes on a stylistic and emotional coloring. In common everyday situations, people feel abhorrence for pox, in Russian called дурная болезнь, and other things. Term translation depends on the register it is used in. In science, translators tend to translate as precisely as possible. Absolute equivalence of terms is a requirement in scientific translation. In other registers, term translation depends on the receptors background, and on the function the term plays in the text. §2. TRANSLATION TECHNIQUE The main ways of translating terms are as follows: 1. Transcription (for loan terms): display – дисплей, algorythm – алгоритм, phenomenon - феномен. Care should be taken not to overuse this technique. Terms may not survive in the borrowed form, as happened with the computer term hardware whose loan equivalent хардвер is no longer used in computer science, but has given way to its explanatory substitution: электромеханическое оборудование, техническое обеспечение. 2. Transliteration: carbide – карбид, function – функция. Normally, terms are transliterated or transcribed when a target language lacks a certain notion and borrows it a short foreign form. Many international loan terms are of Greek or Latin origin. This facilitates mutual understanding among specialists: arthrogryposis – артрогрипоз, osteodystrophy – остеодистрофия, hematoma – гематома. However, when using this technique a translator should be aware of ‘false friends’, that is words similar in form but different in meaning, for example: benzene in chemistry is equal to бензол, not бензин, the latter corresponding to benzine, gasoline. Likewise, мутиляция = отторжение части тела или органа - rejection, mutilation – увечье, калечащее повреждение;

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hemeralopia – дневная слепота (ухудшение зрения при дневном свете), гемералопия = ночная (куриная) слепота – nyctalopia.A translator of science texts must use only standard terms, avoiding slang or colloquial words. For instance, brown coal – бурый уголь (not *коричневый уголь); natural gas – природный газ (not *натуральный газ); airplane – самолет (not аэроплан); машинное масло – engine oil (not *machine oil). 3. Calque, half-calque: this technique is often applied to translating compound terms or term phrases: preanalysis – преданализ; structural system analysis – структурный системный анализ; address field – поле адреса; one-dimensional – одномерный. This translation technique, even more than transcription or transliteration, may be detrimental to the correctness of the meaning, for it can lead to “false friends”: letter-of-credit is not письмо доверия but аккредитив; песочные часы – not *sand clock but hour-glass; цветные металлы – not *colored metals but non-ferrous metals. Transparent inner form of the word can cause no less trouble with translation equivalents: gooseberry – крыжовник (not гусиная ягода), quicksilver – ртуть (not быстрое серебро), bear’s onion – черемша (not медвежий лук). 4. Translating a word and using it as the term: mouse – мышь, net – сеть, memory – память. Gradually, specialists get accustomed to these terms and use them widely in speech. 5. Explicatory (descriptive) translation and expansion. This technique is used for verbalizing new objects, not existing in the target language, for example, open housing – жилищная политика равных возможностей, tripos – экзамен для получения отличия в Кембридже. It is desirable that a translator avoid translating a descriptive by a transliterated (technical) term for the purpose of “showing off” knowledge. However, the descriptive technique is justified by the lack of an appropriate technical term in the source language. In English-to-Russian translation, a more explicit character of the Russian language can necessitate the descriptive technique: radarproof – защищенный от радиолокационного обнаружения, conflict of interest – злоупотребление служебным положением. 6. Reduction takes place when one word or a smaller number of words verbalizes a notion: computer engineer – электроник, счет прибылей и убытков компании - earnings report. To make sure that the term is standard, it is necessary to consult the dictionary as often as possible. 7. Analogue substitution: cold cereal – сухой завтрак, play school – детские ясли. This technique is used for a receptor’s convenience when corresponding similar standard terms exist in the target language. §3. TERMS IN FICTION AND MAGAZINES Analogue translation is given preference in a more popular text, such as one in literary or magazine register. When it comes to the selection between a loan form and its analog, authors would prefer a form clearer to the receptor. For example, whereas medical professionals would use the word летальный, journalists and writers would rather write смертельный to render lethal. Similarly, the equivalents to the term hemostasis would be split for two registers: гемостаз used in medicine, and остановка кровотечения used for a common receptor. To comment on the meaning of a new or unknown term, a translator must explain it: runaways – предприятия, переведенные на другую территорию или за границу. In fiction, terms and professionalisms can function as the speech record of a character showing his or her vocation, education, breeding, environment and sometimes even psychology. For example, in A. Hailey’s The Final Diagnosis, medical terms in the speech of the heroes characterize their profession, some of their traits as well as their experience and sometimes sufferings: “Goleman spoke carefully. ‘The nurse student – the one who had her leg amputated. I dissected the limb this morning. You were right. I was wrong. It was malignant. Osteogenic sarcoma without a doubt.’ ” Russian literature is famous for A. Checkov’s speech portraits, the example being noncom Prishibeyev’s self-portrait: “Я не мужик, я унтер-офицер, отставной каптенармус, в Варшаве служил, в штабе-с, а после того, изволите знать, как в чистую вышел, был в пожарных-с, а после того по слабости болезни ушел из пожарных и два года в мужской классической прогимназии в швейцарах служил…”

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Another function of the term in fiction is to create a technical overtone, showing the surroundings in which the plot develops. For instance, in his novel Wheels, A. Hailey depicts a large automobile plant. J. Grisham in his A Time to Kill describes the court of law. Use of the appropriate mechanical and law terms facilitates this. To preserve this function it is not necessary to translate each term by its precise technical equivalent. What is important is to keep the professional overtone of the text, so that it is possible to translate some terms and reduce those that are irrelevant to the content. A well-considered substitution of the term may be required if the term is unknown to both the translator and the receptor. An extract from Ilf and Petrov’s Двенадцать стульев can illustrate the idea: Елена Станиславовна имела о плашках в 3/8-х дюйма такое же представление, какое имеет о сельском хозяйстве слушательница хореографических курсов им. Леонардо да Винчи. The word плашки denotes a rare plumbing tool, not normally known to a non-expert. So it can be substituted with another name. In this case the translator uses the transformation called differentiation. If used in its connotative poetic meaning, the term may be substituted with a word associated with another poetic image. For instance, in a lyrical text about spring the Russian черемуха can be translated into Japanese by sakura, into English by cherry-tree. If the term is used in fiction to create a contrast between a neutral and colloquial vocabulary, the translator’s aim is to preserve the contrast: Вот сделаю тракцию и начну зуб тянуть. (Чехов) I’ll do the traction and will start pulling out the tooth.

Literature.1. Прошина З.Г. ТЕОРИЯ ПЕРЕВОДА (с английского языка на русский и с русского языка на английский): Уч. на англ. яз. – Владивосток: Изд-во Дальневост. ун-та, 2008 (3-е изд., перераб.), 2002 (2-е изд., испр. и перераб.), 1999 (1-е изд.) ISBN 5-7444-0957-2

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

§ 1. The Subjunctive Mood shows that the action or state expressed by the verb is presented as a non-fact, as something imaginary or desired. The Subjunctive Mood is also used to express an emotional attitude of the speaker, to real facts. (A detailed treatment of this use of the Subjunctive Mood is given in § 16.)

In Modern English the Subjunctive Mood has synthetic and analytical forms.

“I wish I were ten years older,” I said. (Braine)

«Хотел бы я быть на десять лет старше», — сказал я.

I wish you would speak rationally. (E. Bronte)

Я хотел бы, чтобы вы говорили разумно.

§ 2. The synthetic forms of the Subjunctive Mood can be traced to the Old English period when the Subjunctive Mood was chiefly expressed by synthetic, forms. In Old English the Subjunctive Mood had a special set of inflections, different from those of the Indicative.

In course of time most of the inflections were lost and the difference between the forms of the Subjunctive and those of the Indicative has almost disappeared. However, in Modern English there are a few synthetic forms of the Subjunctive which have survived; they are as follows: the Present Subjunctive of all the verbs and the Past Subjunctive only of the verb to be.

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The Present Subjunctive

to be to have, to know, to speak, etc.

I be

he, she, it be

we be

you be

they be

I have, know, speak

he, she, it have, know, speak

we have, know, speak

you have, know, speak

they have, know, speak

The Past Subjunctive

to be to have, to know, to speak, etc.

I were

he, she, it were

we were

you were

they were

_

I. T h e P r e s e n t S u b j u n c t i v e. In the Present Subjunctive the verb to be has the form be for all the persons singular and plural, which differs from the corresponding forms of the. Indicative Mood (the Present Indefinite). In all other verbs the forms of the Present Subjunctive differ from the corresponding forms of the Indicative Mood only in the third person singular, which in the Present Subjunctive has no ending -s.

The Present Subjunctive denotes an action referring to the present or future. This form is seldom used in Modern English. It may be found in poetry and in elevated prose, where these forms are archaisms used with a certain stylistic aim. It is also used in scientific language and in the language of official documents, where it is a living form.

Wretched is the infant’s lot,

Born within the straw-roof’d cot;

Be he generous, wise or brave,143

He must only be a slave. (Southey)

Печальна судьба ребенка,

Родившегося в хижине с соломенной крышей;

Как бы великодушен, умен и храбр он ни был,

Он все равно будет рабом.

Though all the world be false, still will I be true. (Trollope)

Даже если весь мир будет лживым, все же я буду правдива.

The Present Subjunctive also occurs in some set expressions.

Be it so!

Пусть будет так! Да будет так!

Suffice it to say that he soon came back.

Достаточно сказать, что он скоро вернулся.

God forbid!

Боже упаси! Сохрани бог!

Far be it from me to contradict you.

У меня и в мыслях не было противоречить вам.

In American English the Present Subjunctive is used not only in the above mentioned cases but also in colloquial language.

Yates called the hospital and insisted that one of the doctors come to the phone. (Heym)

Йейтс позвонил в госпиталь и потребовал, чтобы кто-нибудь из врачей подошел к телефону.

II. T h e P a s t S u b j u n c t i v e. In the Past Subjunctive the verb to be has the form were for all the persons singular and plural, which in the singular differs from the corresponding form of the Indicative Mood (the Past Indefinite).

I know I am affectionate. I wouldn’t say it, if I wasn’t certain that I am. (Dickens)

The Past Subjunctive is widely used in Modern English and occurs not only in literature but also in colloquial language.

The term ‘Past Subjunctive’ is merely traditional as in Modern English it does not necessarily express a past action. In adverbial clauses of condition it denotes an unreal condition referring to the present or future. In other types of subordinate clauses it denotes an action

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simultaneous with the action expressed in the principal clause; thus it may refer to the present and to the past.

If I were ill I should like to be nursed by you. (Bennett)

Если бы я был болен, я бы хотел, чтобы за мной ухаживали вы.

I want to go everywhere, I wish I were a gipsy. (Galsworthy)

Мне хочется всюду побывать. Я хотела бы быть цыганкой.

I wished he were less remote. (Du Maurler)

Я хотела бы, чтобы он не был таким отчужденным.

§ 3. The analytical forms of the Subjunctive Mood consist of the mood auxiliaries should, would, may (might) or shall (which is seldom used) and the infinitive of the notional verb.

Mr. Barkis... proposed that my pocket-handkerchief should be spread upon the horse’s back to dry. (Dickens)

Мистер Баркис предложил положить мой носовой платок на спину лошади, чтобы он просох.

Yates wished Bing would stop thanking him, but Bing went on. (Heym)

Йейтсу хотелось, чтобы Бинг перестал благодарить его, но Бинг все благодарил.

Whoever you may be, Sir, I am deeply grateful to you. (Dickens)

Кто бы вы ни были, сэр, я вам глубоко признателен.

She lowered the blind and closed the shutters that he might not see the sun set. (Voynich)

Она спустила шторы и закрыла ставни, чтобы он не видел, как заходит солнце.

I propose that you shall come along with me. (Dickens)

Я предлагаю вам пойти со мной.

Mood auxiliaries have developed from modal verbs, which have lost their modality and serve to form the analytical Subjunctive. Still there are cases when mood auxiliaries retain a shade of modality, for instance the verb might in adverbial clauses of purpose.

Lizzie stood upon the causeway that her father might see her. (Dickens)

Лиззи стояла на дамбе, чтобы отец увидел ее (мог увидеть ее).

§ 4. In modern English the same meaning as is expressed by the Subjunctive Mood may also be rendered by the forms of the Indicative Mood — the Past Indefinite, the Past Perfect and occasionally the Past Continuous and the Past Perfect Continuous.

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In adverbial clauses of condition the Past Indefinite denotes an unreal condition referring to the present or future; the Past Perfect denotes an unreal condition referring to the past.

The room is so low that the head of the tallest of the visitors would touch the blackened ceiling if he stood upright. (Dickens)

Комната такая низкая, что голова самого высокого из посетителей коснулась бы закопченного потолка, если бы он выпрямился.

The noise about her was frightful, so deafening that if she had shouted aloud she would not have heard her own voice. (Cronin)

Шум вокруг нее был ужасный, такой оглушительный, что если бы она громко закричала, она не услышала бы своего собственного голоса.

In other types of subordinate clauses the Past Indefinite denotes an action simultaneous with the action expressed in the principal clause; the Past Perfect denotes an action prior to that of the principal clause.

He (Mr. Barkis) sat looking at the horse’s ears as if he saw something new there. (Dickens)

Мистер Варкие сидел, глядя на уши лошади, как будто он видел там что-то новое.

I felt as if the visit had diminished the separation between Ada and me. (Dickens)

У меня было такое чувство, как будто этот визит сблизил нас с Адой.

The Past Continuous and the Past Perfect Continuous are less frequently used.

They looked as if they were fighting for their life. (Eliot)

Они выглядели так, как будто они боролись за свою жизнь.

The mother’s delicate eyelids were pink, as if she had been crying half the night. (Eliot)

Нежные веки матери покраснели, как будто бы она проплакала половину ночи.

THE USE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

I. SIMPLE SENTENCES

§ 5. In simple sentences the synthetic forms of the Subjunctive Mood are more trequent than the analytical forms.

In simple sentences the Subjunctive Mood is used:

(1) to express wish (пожелание):

Long live the Soviet Army!

Да здравствует Советская Армия!

Success attend you!

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Да сопутствует вам успех!

То express wish the analytical subjunctive with the mood auxiliary may is also used.

May success attend you!

Да сопутствует вам успех!

May you live long and die happy!

Желаю вам долго жить и быть счастливым до конца своих дней.

(2) to express an unreal wish:

If only he were free! (Galsworthy)

Если бы только он был свободен!

(3) in oaths and imprecations:

Manners be hanged!

К черту всякие церемонии!

Confound these flies!

Будь они прокляты, эти мухи!

(4) in some expressions:

Suffice it to say that...

Be it so!

God forbid!

Far be it from me.

(See the translation of these examples, § 2.)

The Subjunctive Mood in simple sentences is characteristic of literary style, except in oaths and imprecations, which belong to low colloquial style.

II. COMPLEX SENTENCES

§ 6. The Subjunctive Mood is, used in conditional sentences to express an unreal condition (in the subordinate clause) and an unreal consequence (in the principal clause).

In sentences of unreal condition referring to the present or future the Past Subjunctive of the verb to be is used in the subordinate clause; with other verbs the same meaning is expressed by the Past Indefinite of the Indicative Mood. In the principal clause we find the analytical subjunctive consisting of the mood auxiliary should or would and the Indefinite Infinitive. Should is used with the first person singular and plural, would is used with the second and third persons singular and plural.

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The world would be healthier if every chemist’s shop in England were demolished. (Shaw)

Человечество было бы здоровее, если бы все аптеки в Англии были уничтожены.

I should kill myself today if I didn’t believe that tyranny and injustice must end. (Galsworthy)

Я бы сегодня же покончила с собой, если бы не верила, что тирании и несправедливости придет конец.

An unreal condition referring to the future can also be expressed by the Past Subjunctive of the verb to be + Infinitive of the notional verb or the analytical Subjunctive with the mood auxiliary should for all the persons. Such sentences are often translated by means of ‘Если бы случилось так...’, ‘Случись так...’.

If I were to offer my home... my station... my affections... to any one among the young women engaged in my calling, they would probably be accepted. Even readily accepted. (Dickens)

Если бы случилось так, что я предложил бы свой дом, свое положение в обществе, свою любовь любой молодой женщине моей профессии, все это, вероятно, было бы принято. Даже охотно принято.

Well, Major, if you should send me to a difficult spot — with this man alone, I’d feel secure. (Heym)

Знаете, майор, если бы случилось так, что вы послали бы меня в опасное место только с одним этим человеком, я бы чувствовал себя в безопасности.

If in the subordinate clause the mood auxiliary should is used, we often find the Indicative or Imperative Mood in the principal clause.

If any of your family should come to my house, I shall be delighted to welcome them... (Trollope)

Если кому-нибудь из членов вашей семьи случится прийти в мой дом, я буду рад принять его.

If he should come, ask him to wait.

В случае, если он придет, попросите его подождать.

In sentences of unreal condition referring to the past the Past Perfect of the Indicative Mood is used in the subordinate clause; in the principal clause we find the analytical subjunctive consisting of the mood auxiliary should (with the first person) or would (with the second and third persons) and the Perfect Infinitive.

If I had consulted my own interests, I should never have come here. (Galsworthy)

Если бы я думал только о себе, я бы никогда сюда не пришел.

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There are two mixed types of sentences of unreal condition. In the first of these the condition refers to the past and the consequence refers to the present or future.

If you had taken your medicine yesterday, you would be well now.

Если бы вы вчера приняли лекарство, теперь вы были бы здоровы.

No, by my word and truth, I never despised you; if I had I should not love you now! (Hardy)

Нет, клянусь вам, я вас никогда не презирал; если бы я вас когда-нибудь презирал, я не любил бы вас теперь.

In the second type the condition refers to no particular time and the consequence to the past.

If he were not so absent-minded, he would not have mistaken you for your sister.

Если бы он не был такой рассеянный, он не принял бы вас за вашу сестру.

Still Beatrice had taken the trouble to go up to London and to buy the books for me. She would not have done that if she disliked me. (Du Marnier)

Все-таки Беатриса взяла на себя труд съездить в Лондон и купить мне эти книги. Она бы этого не сделала, если бы не любила меня.

N o t e. — Unreal conditions may also be expressed in the following ways:

(a) But for the rain, we should go down to the country.

Если бы не дождь, мы бы поехали за город.

His fleshless face would have looked like the face of a mummy, but for the restless brightness of his little black eyes. (Collins)

Его изможденное лицо было бы похоже на лицо мумии, если бы не беспокойный блеск маленьких черных глаз.

(b) If it were not for your help, I should not be able to finish my work in time.

Если бы не ваша помощь, я не смог бы вовремя закончить работу.

If it hadn’t been for me, his own brother would have shut him up for life. If it hadn’t been for me, his own brother would have shut him up for life. (Dickens)

Если бы не я, его собственный брат засадил бы его (в сумасшедший дом) на всю жизнь.

In sentences of unreal condition the modal verbs might and could are often used; they fully retain their modal meaning and therefore they do not form the analytical subjunctive.

Here we have the group ‘modal verb + Infinitive’ which forms a compound verbal modal predicate, whereas the analytical subjunctive forms a simple predicate.

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If she were still waiting, she might be restless, feverish, but surely she would not look like this. (Galsworthy)

Если бы она все еще ждала, она, возможно, нервничала бы, но, безусловно, она не выглядела бы так.

I could have done very well if I had been without the Murdstones. (Dickens)

Я мог бы очень хорошо учиться, если бы не Мердстоны.

Would, when used in the subordinate clause of a sentence of unreal condition, is also a modal verb forming with the infinitive a compound verbal modal predicate.

If you would come and see us... mother would be as proud of your company as I should be. (Dickens)

Если бы вы пожелали навестить нас... моя матушка была бы так же польщена этим, как и я.

N o t e. — In conditional sentences of real condition naturally the Indicative and not the Subjunctive Mood is used. Such sentences can refer to the present, future or past.

But I can bear anything gladly if you are happy. (Eliot)

If you make this disgusting match, you will never see Hector again. (Shaw)

The whole thing was on his conscience — for if Jon had anything, he had a conscience. (Galsworthy)

The conjunctions introducing adverbial clauses of condition are: if, in case, provided, suppose, unless and some others. If is the most common conjunction used in sentences of real and unreal condition.

In case and provided are chiefly used in sentences of real condition.

In case I don’t find her at home, I shall leave her a note.

В случае, если я не застану ее дома, я оставлю ей записку.

I shall go there provided you consent to accompany me. (Ch. Bronte)

Я пойду туда при условии, что вы согласитесь пойти со мной.

Suppose is more common in sentences of unreal condition.

Suppose he wrote to you, would you answer?

Предположим, он написал бы вам, вы бы ответили?

Unless is used in sentences of real and unreal condition.

I shall come in time unless I am detained at the Institute.

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Я приду вовремя, если меня не задержат в институте. .

Isabel would not have engaged herself to Mr. Hardyman unless she had been fond of him. (Collins)

Изабелла не согласилась бы выйти за мистера Хардимена, если бы не любила его.

N o t e. — Unless has a negative meaning; it corresponds to the Russian если не. There are cases, however, when the Russian если не cannot be rendered in English by unless; only if not is possible.

Осторожно переходите улицу, если не хотите попасть под машину.

Cross the street carefully if you don’t want to be run over.

In this sentence unless would sound ironically (разве что тебе захочется попасть под машину).

Adverbial clauses of condition containing the verbs had, were, could and should are often introduced without any conjunction. In these cases we find inversion.

Had the wanderer remained awake for another half-hour, a strange sight would have met his eyes. (Conan Doyle)

Если бы путешественник продолжал бодрствовать еще в течение получаса, его глазам представилось бы странное зрелище.

I should be myself were I once again among the heather in those hills. (E. Bronte)

Я стала бы такой, как прежде, если бы вновь очутилась на этих холмах, поросших вереском.

Mary would indeed have been grateful, to Miss Dunstable, could she have known all that lady did for her. (Trollope)

Мэри и в самом деле была бы очень благодарна мисс Данстэбл, если бы она могла знать все, что эта дама для нее сделала.

Should he come this way, I will speak to him. (Ch. Bronte)

Если ему случится быть здесь, я поговорю с ним.

The Subjunctive Mood is used in sentences expressing what may be understood as an unreal consequence, the condition of which is not expressed as such.

I suppose you are a stranger in these parts, or you would have heard what happened last autumn. (Ch. Bronte)

Наверно, вы приезжая, иначе вы бы знали о том, что случилось здесь осенью.

There was no piano... because it would have taken up much room. (Galsworthy)151

Рояля не было... так как он занял бы много места.

§ 7. The Subjunctive Mood is used in adverbial clauses of purpose. When a clause of purpose is introduced by the conjunctions that, so that, in order that, we find the analytical subjunctive with the mood auxiliary may (might) if the principal clause refers to the present or future; if the principal clause refers to the past, only the form might is used.

As has already been, stated (see § 3), the mood auxiliary may (might) retains in this case a shade of modality.

She opens (will open) the window that she may (might) get a breath of fresh air.

She opened the window that she might get a breath of fresh air.

Order a conveyance to be at the door to-morrow evening, rather earlier than is absolutely necessary, in order that we may be in good time. (Dickens)

Прикажите подать экипаж завтра вечером пораньше, чтобы мы приехали заблаговременно (чтобы мы могли приехать заблаговременно).

Mr. Micawber impressed the names of streets upon me that I might find my way back easily. (Dickens)

Мистер Микобер заставил меня запомнить названия улиц, чтобы я легко нашел дорогу обратно (чтобы я мог легко найти дорогу обратно).

Не got up, cautiously, so that he might not wake the sleeping boy. (Cronin)

Он тихо поднялся, чтобы не разбудить спящего мальчика.

Occasionally the mood auxiliary should is used.

I made shorthand notes of all that she said, however, so that there should be no possibility of a mistake. (Conan Doyle)

Я сделал стенографическую запись всего, что она говорила, чтобы исключить возможность ошибки.

If a clause of purpose is introduced by lest the mood auxiliary should (for all persons) is generally used.

Lest has a negative meaning (чтобы не).

She opens (opened, will open) the window lest it should be stuffy in the room.

She... looked steadily at her coffee lest she also should begin to cry, as Anna was doing already. (Eliot)

Она не поднимала глаз от чашки кофе, чтобы не заплакать, как уже плакала Анна.

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§ 8. The Subjunctive Mood is used in adverbial clauses of concession. Adverbial clauses of concession are introduced by the conjunctions and connectives though, although, however, no matter, whatever, whoever, etc. The analytical subjunctive with the mood auxiliary may (might) is generally used.

Though he may (might) be tired

Tired though he may (might) be

No matter how tired he may (might) be

However tired he may (might) be } he will go to the concert.

Как бы он ни был утомлен, он пойдет на концерт.

Whatever obstacles may arise, we shall not give in.

Какие бы препятствия ни, встали на нашем пути, они нас не остановят.

You’re my daughter, Alice. Although you may never admit it, you’re like me. (Gow and D’Usseau)

Ты моя дочь, Алиса. Хотя бы ты с этим и не соглашалась, ты похожа на меня.

Remember, the truth, however ashamed of it you may be, is better than any lie. (Dreiser)

Помните, что правда, как бы вы ни, стыдились ее, лучше, чем любая ложь.

I must return to the city, no matter what dangers may lurk there. (Dreiser)

Я должен вернуться в город, какие бы опасности ни поджидали меня там.

...I should like to do some good to you and your husband, whoever he may be. (Hardy)

Я хотел бы быть полезным вам и вашему мужу, кто бы он ни был.

If the action of the subordinate clause is prior to, that, of, the principal clause the Perfect Infinitive is generally used.

However badly he may have behaved to you in the past he is still your brother. (Wilde)

Как бы плохо он ни вел себя по отношению к вам в прошлом, он все же ваш брат.

N o t e. — The Indicative Mood is used in adverbial clauses of concession when the action or state is considered as an actual fact and not as something supposed.

C o m p a r e:

Cold though it may be, we shall go to the skating-rink (Subjunctive Mood).

Как бы ни было холодно, мы пойдем на каток.

Cold as it is, we shall go to the skating-rink (Indicative Mood).

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Как ни холодно, мы пойдем на каток.

§ 9. The Subjunctive Mood is used in adverbial clauses of time and place after the conjunctions whenever and wherever; in these cases the clauses have an additional concessive meaning.

Whenever you may (might) come, you are welcome.

Когда бы вы ни пришли, мы вам всегда рады.

Wherever she may (might) live, she will always find friends.

Где бы она ни жила, она всегда найдет друзей.

Of course, I shall come for your marriage, whenever that may be fixed. (Trollope)

Конечно, я приеду на вашу свадьбу, когда бы ее ни назначили.

§ 10. The Subjunctive Mood is used in adverbial clauses of comparison (or manner) introduced by the conjunctions as if and as though (the latter is more literary).

If the action of the subordinate clause is simultaneous with that of the principal clause the Past Subjunctive of the verb to be is used; with other verbs the same meaning is expressed by the Past Indefinite of the Indicative Mood.

She speaks (spoke) about him as if she knew him well.

Она говорит (говорила) о нем так, как будто она его хорошо знает (знала).

She greeted him as if he were her brother. (Galsworthy)

Она поздоровалась с ним так, как будто он был ее братом. Не speaks as if he knew you! (Collins)

Он говорит так, как будто он вас знает!

Rex got from his seat, as if he held the conference to be at an end. (Eliot)

Рекс поднялся с места, как будто он считал совещание оконченным.

If the action of the subordinate clause is prior to that of the principal clause the Past Perfect of the Indicative Mood is used.

She speaks (spoke) about him as if she had known him for years.

Она говорит (говорила) о нем так, как будто знает (знала) его много лет.

She flushes as though he had struck her. (Shaw)

Она заливается краской, как будто он ее ударил.

She shook hands with him as though they had known each other all their lives... (Trollope)

Они пожали друг другу руки, как будто были знакомы всю жизнь.

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§ 11. The Subjunctive Mood is used in predicative clauses:

(a) introduced by the conjunctions, as if, as though, when we find the link verbs to be, to feel, to look, to seem, etc. in the principal clause.

If the action of the subordinate clause is simultaneous with that of the principal clause the Past Subjunctive of the verb to be is used; with other verbs the same meaning is expressed by the Past Indefinite of the Indicative Mood.

If the action of the subordinate, clause is prior to that of the principal clause the Past Perfect of the Indicative Mood is used.

I feel as if we were back seven years, Jon. (Galsworthy)

У меня такое чувство, как будто мы вернулись на семь лет назад, Джон.

...now I feel as if you had never been away. (Shaw)

Теперь у меня такое чувство, как будто вы и не уезжали.

Не looked as if he knew it to be true. (Austen)

У него был такой вид, точно он знал, что это правда.

The house looked as though it had been deserted for weeks. (Wells)

У дома был такой вид, точно в нем уже много недель никто не жил.

It was as if she were angry with him. (Lawrence).

Похоже было, что она сердится на него.

Karel felt a bitter taste in his mouth. It was as if he had done something wrong. (Heym)

Карел почувствовал неприятный вкус во рту. У него было такое чувство, точно он сделал что-то дурное.

(b) when the subject of the principal clause is expressed by an abstract noun such as wish, suggestion, aim, idea, etc. In this case the analytical subjunctive with the mood auxiliary should (for all persons) is used:

Mary’s wish was that... our mother should come and live with her. (A. Bronte)

Мэри хотелось, чтобы наша мать переехала к ней жить.

...his arrangement with them had been that they should meet him at Plymouth. (Hardy)

Он условился с ними, что они встретят его в Плимуте.

One of the conditions was that I should go abroad. (Swinnerton)

Одно из условий заключалось в том, чтобы я поехал за границу.

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§ 12. The Subjunctive Mood is used in subject clauses after a principal clause of the type It is necessary, It is important, etc. The analytical subjunctive with the mood auxiliary should is used for all persons.

It is (was) necessary

It is (was) important

It is (was) right

It is (was) requested

It is (was) recommended

It is (was) obligatory

It is (was) better (best)

It is (was) desirable

It is (was) of vital importance } that he should come

It was necessary that the child’s history should be known to none. (Trollope)

Надо было, чтобы историю этого ребенка никто не узнал.

It was desirable that she... should marry this earnest, well-to-do and respectable man. (Hardy)

Было желательно, чтобы она вышла замуж за этого серьезного, состоятельного и солидного человека.

It is better for these young men... that they should not remain here. (Dickens)

Для этих молодых людей... лучше, чтобы они не оставались здесь.

It was imperative that she should go home. (Hardy)

Было совершенно необходимо, чтобы она поехала домой.

§ 13. The Subjunctive Mood is used in object clauses:

(a) When the predicate of the principal clause is expressed by the verb to wish. If the action expressed in the object clause is simultaneous with that of the principal clause the Past Subjunctive of the verb to be is used; with other verbs the same meaning is expressed by the Past Indefinite of the Indicative Mood.

I wish I were a girl again. (E. Bronte)

Я хотела бы быть снова девочкой.

She wished she were free and could follow them. (Ch. Bronte)

Она жалела, что не свободна и не может поехать с ними.156

I wish she felt as I do. (E. Bronte)

Я бы хотела, чтобы она чувствовала то же, что и я.

Не wished he had someone to talk to... (Wilson)

Он хотел, чтобы у него был кто-нибудь, с кем можно было бы поговорить.

If the action expressed in the object clause is prior to that of the principal clause the Past Perfect of the Indicative Mood is used.

Auntie, I wish I had not done it. (Twain)

Тетя, мне очень жаль, что, я это сделал.

The moment Aileen had said this she wished she had not. (Dreiser)

Как только Эйлин это сказала, она пожалела об этом.

The above examples show that such sentences are often translated by means of как жаль, мне жаль.

The analytical subjunctive with the mood auxiliary would (for all persons) is also used in object clauses after the verb to wish. This form is used only in sentences referring to the present or future; it is possible only if the subject of the principal clause is not the same as the subject of the object clause. It is chiefly used in sentences expressing request or annoyance.

I wish you would stay with me for a while. (Voynich)

Я бы хотел, чтобы вы побыли немного со мной.

I wish the honourable district attorney would mind his own business. (Dreiser)

Я бы хотел, чтобы почтенный адвокат не вмешивался в чужие дела.

With the verb to be this form is hardly ever used.

(b) The Subjunctive Mood is used in object clauses introduced by the conjunction lest if in the principal clause the predicate is expressed by a verb denoting fear.

The mood auxiliary should is used for all persons.

She fears (feared) lest she should be blamed.

Она боится (боялась), как бы ее не осудили.

Не trembled lest his secret should be discovered.

Он дрожал при мысли, что его тайна будет раскрыта.

I dreaded lest any stranger should notice me and speak to me. (Eliot)

Я боялась, что какой-нибудь незнакомый человек заметит меня и заговорит со мной.

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After verbs denoting fear object clauses are often introduced by the conjunction that, in which case the Indicative Mood is used, often with the modal verb may (might).

She fears (feared) that she will (would) be blamed.

She fears (feared) that she may (might) be blamed.

(c) The Subjunctive Mood is used in object clauses when we find verbs and word-groups denoting order, suggestion, advice, desire, etc. fn the principal clause. The analytical subjunctive with the mood auxiliary should (for all persons) is used.

He orders (ordered)

He suggests (suggested)

He proposes (proposed)

He demands (demanded)

He desires (desired)

He insists (insisted)

He is anxious (was anxious)

He will see (he saw) to it } that everything should be ready by 5.

Mrs. Linton insisted that Isabella should go to bed. (E. Bronte)

Миссис Линтон настаивала на том, чтобы Изабелла легла спать.

She (Agnes) proposed to my aunt that we should go upstairs and see my room. (Dickens)

Она предложила моей тетушке, чтобы мы пошли наверх и посмотрели мою комнату.

Mr. Micawber was very anxious that I should stay to dinner. (Dickens)

Мистеру Микоберу очень хотелось, чтобы я остался обедать.

In American English we often find the Present Subjunctive in this case.

...she insisted that they open a bottle of wine and toast his success. (Stone)

Она настаивала, чтобы они откупорили бутылку вина и выпили за его успех.

The people demand that the resignation be accepted. (Heym)

Народ требует, чтобы отставка была принята.

§ 14. The Subjunctive Mood is used in attributive appositive clauses modifying the nouns wish, suggestion, aim, idea, etc. The analytical subjunctive with the mood auxiliary should (for all persons) is used.

His wish (suggestion) that everybody should take part in the work was reasonable.

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She had been enormously flattered by his request that she should temporarily keep his house. (Bennett)

Она была чрезвычайно польщена его просьбой временно вести его хозяйство.

§ 15. The Subjunctive Mood is also used in attributive clauses modifying the noun time in the principal clause It is time, It is high time. In this case the Past Subjunctive of the verb to be is used; with other verbs the same meaning is expressed by the Past Indefinite of the Indicative Mood.

It is time we went home.

Нам пора идти домой.

It is high time we went home.

Нам давно пора идти домой.

It is time we were off.

Нам пора идти.

It’s time you learned you’re in the army. (Heym)

Вам пора усвоить, что вы в армии.

Now then, children. It’s high time you were washed and dressed. (Mansfield)

Ну, дети, давно пора умываться и одеваться.

The analytical subjunctive with the mood auxiliary should is also possible, though less common.

It is time we should go home.

It was indeed high time that some one... should come to the aid of the old

farmer and his adopted daughter. (Conan Doyle)

Уже давно было пора кому-нибудь прийти на помощь старому фермеру и его приемной дочери.

§ 16. As has already been stated the Subjunctive Mood may be used to express an emotional attitude of the speaker to real facts (see § 1). Here we always find the analytical subjunctive with the mood auxiliary should, which in this case is often called the ‘emotional should’. If priority is expressed the Perfect Infinitive is used.

In this case the Subjunctive Mood is rendered in Russian by the Indicative Mood.

The emotional should occurs in different kinds of subordinate clauses; the principal clause in such cases contains:

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(a) An adjective expressing astonishment, incredulity, regret, joy, such as strange, wonderful, unnatural, impossible, fortunate, unfortunate, etc.

It is strange I should never have heard him even mention your name. (Austen)

Странно, что я никогда даже не слышала, чтобы он упоминал ваше имя.

It is impossible that she should have said it.

He может быть (невозможно), чтобы она это сказала (не могла она это сказать).

(b) A noun with the same meaning: wonder, pity, shame, etc.

He is such a charming man that it is quite a pity he should be so grave and so dull. (Austen)

Он такой чудесный человек; как жаль, что он такой серьезный и скучный.

(c) The principal clause may be of the following type: I am sorry, glad, pleased, vexed, etc.

I am sorry you should take such needless trouble. (Ch. Bronte)

Мне очень жаль, что вы берете на себя такие ненужные заботы.

Against my will I felt pleased that he should have considered my remark interesting... (Bralne)

Невольно я обрадовался тому, что он нашел мое замечание интересным.

I am so vexed... that such a thing should have been discussed before that child. (Reade)

Мне так досадно, что подобный вопрос обсуждался при ребенке.

I forgive you; but I am so grieved, Davy, that you should have such bad passions in your heart. (Dickens)

Я тебя прощаю, но я так огорчена, Дэви, что в твоем сердце гнездится столько дурного.

The Subjunctive Mood with the emotional should may also occur in such sentences as:

Why should you and I talk about it? (Dickens)

К чему нам с вами говорить об этом?

То think this should have come upon us in our old age! (Hardy)

Подумать только, что на старости лет с нами случилось такое!

I was still busy, when who should come in but Caddy! (Dickens)

Я была еще занята, как вдруг вошла — кто бы вы думали? — Кэдди!

In sentences of this kind the Indicative Mood is also possible.

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Oh! It is strange he never mentioned to me that he had a ward. (Wilde)

It is only wonderful we have seen no living creature there before. (Collins)

...to think that I have been so blind! (Dickens)

§ 17. Ways of rendering the Subjunctive Mood in Russian.

The Subjunctive Mood in English often corresponds to the same mood in Russian.

I wish you’d come oftener to see us. (Dreiser)

Я хотела бы, чтобы вы почаще заходили к нам.

I wonder sometimes, when I think of it, what they would have done, if I had been taken with an illness. (Dickens)

Я иногда думаю о том, как бы они поступили, если бы я заболел.

However, this is not the only way of rendering the Subjunctive Mood in Russian: it is often rendered by the Indicative Mood; sometimes the infinitive is used.

Barsiny received them as if he had known them for years. (Heytn)

Барсини принял их так, как будто он знал их много лет.

In the first place, he showed him Mary’s letter. “If your heart be not made of stone it will be softened by that,” he said. (Trollope)

Прежде всего он показал ему письмо Мэри. «Если у вас сердце не каменное, это письмо тронет вас», — сказал он.

I regret extremely Mr. Helstone should have thought it necessary to trouble you. (Ch. Bronte)

Я очень сожалею, что мистер Хелстоун счел необходимым побеспокоить вас.

I proposed to Ada, that morning, that we should go and see Richard. (Dickens)

Утром я предложила Аде пойти навестить Ричарда.

And he again took her hand that he might encourage her. (Trollope)

И он опять взял ее за руку, чтобы подбодрить.

Literature.

1. В. Л. КАУШАНСКАЯ, Р. Л. КОВНЕР, О. Н. КОЖЕВНИКОВА,Е. В. ПРОКОФЬЕВА, 3. М. РАЙНЕС, С. Е. СКВИРСКАЯ, Ф. Я. ЦЫРЛИНА ГРАММАТИКА АНГЛИЙСКОГО ЯЗЫКА, ПОСОБИЕ ДЛЯ СТУДЕНТОВ ПЕДАГОГИЧЕСКИХ ИНСТИТУТОВ, ГОСУДАРСТВЕННОЕ УЧЕБНО-ПЕДАГОГИЧЕСКОЕ ИЗДАТЕЛЬСТВО МИНИСТЕРСТВА ПРОСВЕЩЕНИЯ РСФСР ЛЕНИНГРАДСКОЕ ОТДЕЛЕНИЕ, Ленинград 1963

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THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD§ 76. The subjunctive mood is the category of the verb which is used to express non-facts:

unreal or hypothetical actions or states. A hypothetical action or state may be viewed upon as desired, necessary, possible, supposed, imaginary, or contradicting reality.

Different forms of the verb are employed for this purpose.

The synthetic forms§ 77. In Old English the subjunctive mood was expressed by a special system of forms with a

special set of inflections, different from those of the indicative. In the course of time, however, most of the inflections were lost, and the difference between the forms of the subjunctive and those of the indicative has almost disappeared. In Modern English there remain only two synthetic forms of the old regular system of the subjunctive, which differ from the forms of the indicative. Although their meaning and use have changed considerably, they are often called by their old names: the present subjunctive and the past subjunctive.

I. The present subjunctive coincides with the plain verb stem (be, go, see) for all persons in both the singular and the plural. It denotes a hypothetical action referring to the present or future. Of these surviving forms only be is always distinct from the indicative forms and is therefore rather current.

I

he

she

itwe

you

they

be, take, resent, etc.

He required that all be kept secret.

Other verbs are rarely used in the subjunctive in informal style, because their subjunctive forms coincide with the indicative except in the 3rd person singular. They are confined mainly to formal style and formulaic expressions - prayers, wishes, which should be memorized as wholes.

It is natural enough the enemy resent it.

Heaven forbid! The devil take him!

Long live freedom! God save the king!

II. The past subjunctive is even more restricted in its usage; it exists in Modern English only in the form were, which is used for all persons both in the singular and plural. It refers the hypothetical action to the present or future and shows that it contradicts reality.

If I were you! If you were there! If it were true!

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The modem tendency, however, is to use was and were in accordance with the rules of agreement (he was, they were).

The subjunctive mood and the tense category§ 80. The category of tense in the subjunctive mood is different from that in the indicative

mood: unlike the indicative mood system in which there are three distinct time-spheres (past, present, future), time-reference in the subjunctive mood is closely connected with the idea of unreality and is based on the following opposition in meaning:

Imagined, but still possible

(referring to the present or future indiscriminately)

imagined, no longer possible

(referring to the past)

The difference in meaning is expressed by means of the following contrasting forms:

1) The common or continuous non-perfect infinitive as contrasted with the perfect common or continuous infinitive in the analytical forms with should, would, and quasi-subjunctive forms with may (might).

Referring to the Present or Future

I fear lest he should escape.

He would phone you.I suppose he should be working in the library.

Referring to the Past

I fear lest he should have escaped.

He would have phoned you.

I suppose he should have been working in the library.

2) The forms of the non-factual past indefinite and past continuous contrast with the forms of the non-factual past perfect and past perfect continuous in time reference:Referring to the Present or Future

If I knew.

I wish I were warned when the time-table is changed.

Referring to the Past

If I had known.

I wish I had been warned.

In case these forms are used in subordinate clauses (as is usually the case) their time-reference is always relative. The non-factual past indefinite and past continuous indicate that the hypothetical action is regarded as simultaneous with the action expressed in the principal clause; the non-factual past perfect and past perfect continuous indicate actions prior to the action expressed in the principal clause.

We did things and talked to the people as if we were walking in our sleep.

His face was haggard as if he had been working the whole night.

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The opposition of the non-perfect continuous infinitive and the perfect continuous infinitive is less distinct, as these forms are not so common: an imaginary action is usually presented as devoid of any aspective characteristics.

The old synthetic forms (he be, he come, he were) have no corresponding oppositions in time-reference.

Structurally determined use of subjunctive mood forms§ 81. In Modern English the choice of the subjunctive mood form is determined by the

structure of the sentence or clause even more than by the attitude of the speaker or writer to what is said or written. There exist strict rules of the use of the forms in different patterns of sentences and clauses.

The subjunctive mood in subject clauses§ 82. 1. The use of the subjunctive mood forms in subject clauses in complex sentences of

the type It is necessary that you should come.

Subject clauses follow the principal clause, which is either formal or has no subject (exclamatory). The predicate of the principal clause expresses some kind of modality, estimate, or some motive for performing the action denoted by the predicate in the subordinate clause. This close connection between the two predicates accounts for the nature of the subordinate clause, which completes, or rather gives meaning to general situation described in the principal clause.

Should + infinitive or present subjunctive is generally used in this pattern in the subject clause.

It is (was) necessary

It is (was) important

It is (was) only right

It is (was) curious

It is (was) funny

It is (was) good (better, best)

It is (was) cruel

It is (was) shameful

It is (was) a happy coincidence

It is (was) considered strange

It is (was) recomended

It becomes (became) a custom

It seems (seemed) to me prophetic

How wonderful

What a shame

that he should say so.

(that he say so).

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How strange

etc.

It is sad that you should have heard of it on the day of your wedding.

It is a happy coincidence that we should meet here.

It shocked him that he should have been so blind.It was suggested that somebody should inform the police.

It was more important that he should care for her enough.

In American English the present subjunctive is predominant in this sentence pattern:

It is sad that you be here.

In exclamatory complex sentences:

How wonderful that she should have such a feeling for you!

What a scandal that Palmer and Antonia should go to the opera together!

If the principal clause expresses possibility (it is probable, possible, likely) may (might) + non-perfect infinitive is used, because the action is referred to the future (Возможно, что...; похоже, что...; видимо...)

It is likely the weather may change. It is possible the key may be lost.

In negative and interrogative sentences, however, should + infinitive is used:It is not possible that he should have guessed it.Is it possible that he should refuse to come?

Невероятно, чтобы...

Возможно ли, чтобы...

2. After the principal clause expressing time - it is time, it is high time -the past subjunctive or non-factual forms are used.

It is time you went to bed.It is high time he were more serious.It was hight time he had come to a decision.

The subjunctive mood in object clauses§ 83. The choice of the subjunctive mood form in object clauses depends on the meaning of

the verb standing before the object clause.

1. In object clauses after verbs expressing order (to order, to command, to give orders, to give instructions, to demand, to urge, to insist, to require), request (to request, to appeal, to beg), suggestion (to suggest, to recommend, to propose, to move, to advise) either should + infinitive or the present subjunctive is used, the first form being more common than the second.

We urged that in future these relations should be more friendly. Mr. Nupkins commanded that the lady should be shown in.

In American English the present subjunctive in this sentence pattern is predominant.

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People don’t demand that a thing be reasonable if their emotions are touched.

I suggested that she give up driving, but she looked too miserable.

The same form is used after the predicative adjectives sorry, glad, pleased, vexed, eager, anxious, determined, etc., if the action is regarded as an imagined one.

I am sorry she should take such needless trouble.His brother’s suggestion was absurd. He was vexed his relatives should interfere into his

private matters.

2. In object clauses after the verb wish and phrases expressing the same idea I had better, I would rather, or the contracted form I’d rather -different forms may be used, depending on the time-reference of the action in the object clause. If the action refers to the present or future, or is simultaneous with the action expressed in the principal clause, the non-factual past indefinite, past continuous, or past subjunctive is used. After I’d rather the present subjunctive is also possible.

I wish I knew something of veterinary medicine. There’s a feeling of helplessness with a sick animal.

I wish you came here more often. I hardly ever see you.

I would rather you went now.

I’d rather you didn’t help me, actually.If the action refers to the past or is prior to the moment it is desired the non-factual past

perfect or past perfect continuous is used, no matter in what tense the verb in the principal clause is. Thus in both the sentences I wish I hadn’t come and I wished I hadn’t come the non-factual past perfect denotes a prior imaginary action, contradicting reality.

We wished we hadn’t left everything to the last minute.

I wish I had been taught music in my childhood.

If the desired action refers to the future the following subjunctive forms may be used:

would + infinitive (only when the subject of the subordinate clause and that of the principal clause do not denote the same thing or person). It denotes a kind of request.

could + infinitive

may (might) + infinitive

The form would + infinitive is used when the fulfilment of the wish depends on the will of the person denoted by the subject of the subordinate clause. If the fulfilment of the wish depends more on the circumstances, the quasi-subjunctive form may (might) + infinitive is preferable, to show that the realization of the action is very unlikely.

I wish you would treat me better.I wish I could help you.I wish he might have helped me.

When rendering wish-clauses into Russian it is possible to use a clause with the opposite meaning, introduced by the impersonal «жаль», «как жаль», «какая жалость» or by the finite form of the verb «сожалеть».

I wish I knew it. - Жаль, что я этого не знаю.166

I wish I didn’t know it!

I wish I had known about it!

- Какая жалость, что я это знаю!

- Жаль, что я не знал об этом!

3. In object clauses after verbs expressing fear, apprehension, worry (to fear, to be afraid, to be terrified, to be anxious, to worry, to be fearful, to be troubled, to be in terror, to tremble, to dread, etc.) two forms are used, depending on the conjunction introducing the clause:

a) after the conjunction that or if the clause is joined asyndetically, the quasi-subjunctive may/might + infinitive is used. The choice of either may or might depends on the tense of the verb in the main clause.They trembled (that) they might be discovered.I fear (that) he may forget about it.

Они дрожали, что их могут обнаружить.

Боюсь, как бы он не забыл об этом.

b) after the conjunction lest the form should + infinitive is used.The passengers were terrified lest the ship

should catch fire.

Пассажиров охватил ужас, как бы корабль не загорелся.

The indicative forms are also possible in clauses of this type if the action is regarded as a real one:

She was afraid that he had changed his mind.

4. In object clauses after verbs and phrases expressing doubt (to doubt, to disbelieve, to have doubts, to greet with scepticism, etc.) and after some other verbs in the negative form the past subjunctive may be used. The subordinate clause is introduced by if or whether.

We had doubts if it were possible to cross the river at this time of the year.

I doubted she had even been there.

5. In object clauses referring to the formal it + objective predicative, expressing opinion of some situation, the choice of the form depends on the general meaning of the principal clause:

We found it strange that he should speak so calmly after the events (the principal clause expresses the idea of disbelief, hence the form should speak is used).

We regard it as highly probable that he may return soon (the principal clause expresses the idea of probability, hence the form may return is used).

The subjunctive mood in appositive and predicative clauses§ 84. The choice of the form in these clauses is determined by the lexical meaning of the

words these clauses follow or refer to.

The order that we should come surprised me. (appositive clause)

The order was that we should come. (predicative clause)His suggestion that we stop and have a look round the castle was rather sudden.

(appositive clause)His suggestion was that we stop and have a look round the castle. (predicative clause)

1. The forms should + infinitive or the present subjunctive are used after nouns expressing wish, advice, desire, proposal, doubt, hesitation, fear, apprehension, etc. After the last two

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nouns the conjunction lest is used.Mary’s wish was that we should stay at her place as long as possible. (predicative clause)Your advice that he wait till next week is reasonable. (appositive clause)Our fear lest he should give away our secret was great. (appositive clause)Our fear was lest we should get lost in the forest. (predicative clause)

2. In predicative clauses joined by the link verbs to be, to seem, to look, to feel, to taste, to smell, etc. the past subjunctive or non-factual tense forms are used. In this case the clause has a comparative meaning and is accordingly introduced by the comparative conjunctions as if, as though. If the action in the subordinate clause is simultaneous with the action in the principal clause the past subjunctive or non-factual past indefinite is used. If the action is prior to that in the principal clause, the non-factual past perfect is used.

He looked as if he were ill (his being ill is simultaneous with the time when his looks are commented upon).

He looked as if he had been ill (his being ill was prior to the time his looks are commented upon).

The house looked as if it had been deserted for years.

I felt as though I were talking to a child.

It was as if I were being attacked by an invisible enemy.The subjunctive mood in complex sentences with adverbial clauses of condition§ 85. Complex sentences may include conditional clauses expressing real condition and unreal

condition. In the first case the indicative mood is used, in the second the subjunctive. Both conditions may refer to the past, present or future.

In sentences with real condition any form of the indicative may be used.

If she heard it, she gave no sign.

Why did he send us matches, If he knew there was no gas?

If I have offended you, I am very sorry.

You may go away if it bothers you.

Now it was serious. If I had laughed about it before, I wasn’t laughing now.

If he was lying, he was a good actor.Since the majority of conditional clauses are introduced by if they are often called if-clauses.

Other conjunctions used to introduce conditional clauses are unless, in case, supposing (that), suppose (that), providing (that), provided (that), on condition (that). Each of them expresses a conditional relation with a certain shade of meaning, and their use is restricted either for semantic or stylistic reasons. Thus unless has a negative meaning, although it is not identical with if not. Clauses introduced by unless indicate the only condition which may prevent the realization of the action in the main clause. Unless can be rendered in Russian by 'если только не'.

He is ruined unless he can get a million to pay off his debts.

The Russian conjunction with negation «если не» cannot be rendered by unless if the negation refers only to the part of the compound predicate. In this case if not should be used.

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Оденься теплее, если не хочешь заболеть.

Put on a warm coat, if you don’t want to catch cold.

The conjunction in case has a specific shade of meaning, combining condition and purpose and may be translated into Russian as ‘на тот случай если'.

Take an umbrella in case if rains.

The conjunctions suppose (that) and supposing (that) retain their original meaning of supposition. The conjunctions provided (that) and providing (that) imply that the supposed condition is favourable or desirable.

Suppose you get lost in the city, what will you do?

Providing (that) there is no opposition we will hold the meeting here.

These conjunctions may also introduce clauses of unreal condition.

In complex sentences containing an unreal condition the subjunctive mood is used in both the conditional clause and in the principal clause, because the action expressed in the principal clause depends on the unreal condition and cannot be realized either. The choice of forms depends on the time-reference of the actions.

1. If the unreal actions in both the if-clause and the main clause refer to the present or future the non-factual past indefinite, or past continuous, or the past subjunctive is used in the subordinate clause and should/would + non-perfect common or continuous infinitive in the main clause.

If I were a young man now, you wouldn’t be looking for a porter.

You wouldn’t be talking that way unless you were hurt.

I shouldn’t speak to you unless I were determined.2. If both actions refer to the past and contradict reality the non-factual past perfect or past

perfect continuous is used in the if-clause and should/would + perfect or perfect continuous infinitive in the main clause.

If he had not insisted upon her going there, nothing would ever have happened.Unless he had been grinning happily at us, I should have sworn he was mortally wounded.

Clauses of unreal condition with the verb in the non-factual past perfect, past perfect continuous, past subjunctive (also should + infinitive and could + infinitive, see below) may be introduced asyndetically. In this case inversion serves as a means of subordination.

Had the world been watching, it would have been startled.

Were you in my place you would behave in the same way.

§ 86. The actions in the main and subordinate clauses may have different time-reference, if the sense of the clauses requires it. Sentences of this kind are said to have split condition. The unreal condition may refer to the past and the consequence - to the present or future.

If we hadn’t been such fools we should all still be together.How much better I should write now if in my youth I had had the advantage of sensible

advice!

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I shouldn’t be bothering you like this if they hadn’t told me downtown that he was coming up this way.

Split condition is possible for sentences with real condition as well:If you saw him yesterday you know all the news.

If you live in this part of the city you knew of the accident yesterday.

The condition may refer to no particular time, and the consequence may refer to the past.

She wouldn’t have told me her story if she disliked me.

John wouldn’t have lost the key unless he were so absent-minded.

§ 87. There are three more types of conditional clauses with reference to the future.

1. In the first type should + infinitive for all the persons is used in the conditional clause and the future indefinite indicative or the imperative mood in the principal clause.

If you should meet him, give him my best regards.

If you should find another way out, will you inform me?

Conditional clauses of this type are sometimes joined to the main clause asyndetically, by means of inversion.

Should he ask for references, tell him to apply to me.

Should anything change, you will return home.

In these sentences the action in the conditional clause is presented as possible, but very unlikely. Such clauses are called clauses of problematic condition. They may be rendered in Russian as «случись так, что... », «если случайно...», «если так случится, что...», «вдруг что-нибудь», etc.

2. In the second type would + infinitive for all the persons in the singular and plural is used in the conditional clause and should/would + infinitive or the indicative mood in the main clause. Would retains its original meaning of willingness or consent (если бы вы согласились, изъявили желание, захотели бы).

If you would only come to our place, we’ll be very glad (we should be very glad).

3. In the third type the past subjunctive of the modal verb to be + (to) infinitive is used in the conditional clause and should/would + infinitive or the imperative mood in the principal clause. Both actions have future or present time-reference.

If you were to undertake it, everything would be different (if by chance you undertook it).

If I were to tell you everything, you would be amazed. - Если бы мне пришлось рассказать вам все, вы бы удивились.

The form were + to implies greater remoteness and improbability of the action, but does not imply a rejection of it.

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The subjunctive mood in adverbial clauses of comparison§ 90. Several forms of subjunctive are used in clauses of comparison depending on the time-

reference.

1. If the action in the comparative clause is simultaneous with that in the main clause, the non-factual past indefinite or past subjunctive is used.

2. If the action in the comparative clause is prior to that in the main clause, the non-factual past perfect is used.

The usual conjunctions introducing comparative clauses are as if and as though.

His eyes wandered as if he were at a loss.

He paid no attention to us, as though we did not exist.Miss Handforth was holding a tea-pot as if it were a hand grenade.

3. If the action in the subordinate clause is presented as following the action in the main clause would + infinitive is used.

He was whistling gaily as if his heart would break for joy.

The subjunctive mood in adverbial clauses of purpose§ 91. In clauses of purpose the form used depends on the conjunction introducing the clause.

1. After the conjunctions that, so that, in order that, so the quasi-subjunctive forms may (might) + infinitive or can (could) + infinitive are used. Only might and could are used if the action in the subordinate clause, though following the action in the main clause, refers to the past. But when the action refers to the present or future, both forms of each verb are possible (may or might, can or could).

I tell you this so that you may understand the situation.She left the lamp on the window-sill, so that he might see it from afar.

She gave him the book that he might have something to read on the journey.2. After the negative conjunction lest (чтобы не) should + infinitive is generally used.

The girl whispered these words lest somebody should overhear her.

He was afraid to look behind lest he should see something there which ought not to be there.

The subjunctive mood in adverbial clauses of concession§ 92. Concessive clauses may either be joined to the main clause asyndetically, or else be

introduced by a connective (however, whoever, whatever, whenever), a conjunction (though, although, even if, even though); also by a phrase, such as no matter how, no matter when.

If the action refers to the present or future the quasi-subjunctive form may + infinitive or present subjunctive is used in the subordinate clause. If the action refers to the past may + perfect infinitive or perfect continuous infinitive, or might + infinitive is used. Forms with should + infinitive, would + infinitive, and non-factual tense forms are also possible, though less typical.

He can be right, no matter whether his arguments be convincing or not.Tired as he may be he will always help me.

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Though he might have been suspicious he gave no sign.No matter how he might try he couldn’t do it.Much as I would like to help, I didn’t dare to interfere.

When a concessive clause is joined asyndetically, there is usually inversion. The front position is occupied by the part, that states the circumstance despite which the action in the main clause is carried out. Thus it lends a concessive meaning to the clause. In the following sentences the concessive meaning is focused on the part of the predicate:

Come what may, we shall remain here.

Cost what it may, I’ll give you the sum you ask.

Tired as he might be, he continued his way.

- Чтобы ни случилось ...

- Сколько бы это ни стоило...

- Как бы он ни устал ...

The focus of the concessive meaning may fall on the nominal or adverbial part of the clause.

Whoever he may be, he has no right to be rude.

Whatever you may say, our decision remains unchanged.

Whichever of the two roads we may take, the distance is great.

Wherever we might go, we found the same gloomy sight.

Whenever I may ask him a question, he always has a ready answer. Не will not convince us however hard he should try.

- Кто бы он ни был ...

- Чтобы ты ни говорил ...

- По какой бы из двух дорог мы ни пошли ...

- Куда бы мы ни пошли ...

- Когда бы я ни задал ему вопрос ...

- ... как бы сильно он ни пытался.

Concessive clauses introduced by even if, even though are built up on the same pattern as conditional clauses and the same subjunctive mood forms are used in the subordinate clause.

Even if it were true, he couldn’t say so.

Even though he had proposed, nothing has changed since that day.

Concessive meaning may be rendered by the indicative mood in the same patterns of clauses, if the fact despite which the action is carried out is a real one.

Cold as it is, we shall go out. (it is really cold)

Tired as he was, he continued his work.

Though he was 36, he looked very old.

It was not meant to offend you, no matter how ironic it sounded.

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The subjunctive mood in simple sentences§ 93. Besides cases when the subjunctive mood forms are used in simple sentences to express

an unreal action as a consequence of an implied condition (see § 88), these forms are also used in simple sentences of the following kind:

1. In exclamatory sentences beginning with if only to express a wish. They follow the same pattern as conditional clauses, and would + infinitive, past subjunctive, non-factual tense forms are used.

If only it were true!If only I knew what to do!

If only I had listened to my parents!

If only it would stop raining!

If only we could have stopped him!

2. In exclamatory sentences to express an emotional attitude of the speaker to real facts (surprise and disbelief). Here should + infinitive is used.

And this should happen just on this day!

That it should be you of all people!

3. In questions expressing astonishment or indignation the analytical form should + infinitive is used:

Why should you and I talk about it?

How should I know?

Why should you suspect me? Why should you not do it?

The traditional use of the subjunctive mood in formulaic expressions§ 94. These forms remained as survivals of old usage and they are used as wholes, in which

no element of structure can be omitted or replaced.

Most of them have a religious origin and express a wish or a prayer: God bless you! (Bless you!) God save the king! Heaven forbid! The Devil take him!

In many cases, however, formulaic expressions may be expanded by variable elements (parts of the sentence or clauses), thus making productive patterns in Modern English. They vary in their meaning, although mostly express a wish. Among them are:

1. Forms used in slogans: Long live the Army! Long live patriotism! Long live the fighters for peace! Long live heroes!;

2. Forms used in oaths, curses, and imprecations: Manners be hanged! Confound your ideas! Confound the politics!

Far be it from me to spoil the fan!

Far be it from me to conceal the truth!

- Чтобы я хотел испортить вам настроение!

- Чтобы я скрывал правду!

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Far be it from me to argue with you!

Far be it from me to talk back!

- Чтобы я стал спорить!

- Чтобы я грубил!

Forms with may + infinitive, unlike modern forms with the same verb, retain the old word order:

May success attend you! May you be happy! May he win!

The subjunctive mood forms with had better, had best, would rather, would sooner are used in sentences denoting wish, admonition, preference, advice. Very often they are used in a contracted form: You’d better go at once. You had best take note of my direction if you wish to make sure of it.

Formulaic expressions with concessive meaning are used in complex sentences as concessive clauses:

Happen what may,

Come what will,

Come what may,

Cost what it may,

we shall not yield.

The formulaic expression as it were (так сказать) is used as parenthesis, emphasizing that the content of the sentence is highly figurative or non-real:

... there is, as it were, a transparent barrier between myself and strong emotion.

Literature.

1. Н. А. Кобрина, Е. А. Корнеева, М. И. Оссовская, К. А. Гузеева Грамматика английского языка: Морфология. Синтаксис. Учебное пособие для студентов педагогических институтов и университетов по специальности «Иностранные языки», СПб, СОЮЗ, 1999.-496с.

Theme 8. Translation as a means of realization of professional activity; the bases of comparative analysis. Direct and Indirect Speech.

INDIRECT SPEECH

§ 1. In contrast to direct speech, in which the exact words of the speaker are given, indirect speech is a form of utterance in which these words are reported.

§ 2. When direct speech is converted into indirect speech the following changes are introduced:

1. The quotation marks and the comma (or colon) are omitted.

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2. If the speaker reports somebody else’s words the pronouns of the 1st person are replaced by those of the 3rd person; the pronouns of the 2nd by those of the 1st or 3rd.

He said, “I am ready.”

He said he was ready.

If the speaker reports his or her own words, the pronouns are naturally not changed:

I said, “I am ready.”

I said I was ready.

3. If the verb in the principal clause is in the past tense, demonstrative pronouns and adverbials expressing nearness are replaced by words expressing distance:

Here is replaced by there.

This by that, these by those.

Now by then, at that time (moment), or no adverb is used at all.

To-day is replaced by that day.

Yesterday by the day before or on the previous day.

Ago by before.

A year ago by a year before.

Last night by the previous night.

DIRECT SPEECH INDIRECT SPEECH

She said, “We have been here for a week.” She said they had been there for a week.

She said, “I met them yesterday.” She said she had met them the day before.

She said, “We can’t settle anything now.” She said they could not settle anything at that moment (then).

If the speaker speaks in the same place and at the same time as the speaker whose words are reported, the demonstrative pronouns and adverbs are not changed.

An hour ago he said he would come here tonight.

I told him I wouldn’t give him an answer till tomorrow. (Wilde)

4. If the verb in the principal clause is in the past tense, the tenses are changed according to the rule of the sequence of tenses.

DIRECT SPEECH INDIRECT SPEECH

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The Present Indefinite is replaced by the Past Indefinite.

She said, “We often write letters.” She said they often wrote letters.

The Present Continuous is replaced by the Past Continuous.

She said, “We are writing a letter.” She said they were writing a letter.

The Present Perfect is replaced by the Past Perfect.

She said, “We have just written a letter.” She said they had just written a letter.

The Present Perfect Continuous is replaced by the Past Perfect Continuous.

She said, “We have been writing

for an hour.”

She said they had been writing

for an hour.

The Past Indefinite is replaced by the Past Perfect.

She said, “We wrote a letter last night.” She said they had written a letter on the previous night.

The Past Continuous generally remains unchanged, or is replaced by the Past Perfect Continuous.

She said, “I was writing at 5 o’clock.” She said she was (had been) writing at 5 o’clock.

The Past Perfect remains unchanged.

She said, “We had written the letter by 5 o’clock.”

She said they had written the letter by 5 o’clock.

The Past Perfect Continuous remains unchanged.

She said, “We had been writing for an hour by 5 o’clock.”

She said they had been writing for an hour by 5 o’clock.

The Future Indefinite is replaced by the Future Indefinite in the Past.

She said, “We’ll write a letter to-morrow.” She said they would write a letter the next day.

The Future Continuous is replaced by the Future Continuous in the Past.

She said, “We’ll be writing at 5 o’clock.” She said they would be writing at 5 o’clock.

The Future Perfect is replaced by the Future Perfect in the Past.

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She said, “We’ll have written the letter by 5 o’clock.”

She said they would have written the letter by 5 o’clock.

The Future Perfect Continuous is replaced by the Future Perfect Continuous in the Past.

She said, “We’ll have been writing for 2 hours by 5 o’clock.”

She said they would have been writing for 2 hours by 5 o’clock.

If the Past Indefinite in direct speech denotes an action taking place at a definite moment, it remains unchanged in indirect speech.

She said, “I had left home before the telegram came.”

She said she had left home before the telegram came.

The Past Indefinite after since generally remains unchanged.

She said, “I have been writing since I came.” She said she had been writing since she came.

5. When sentences containing the Subjunctive Mood are converted into indirect speech the form of the verb usually remains unchanged.

However, there is a case when, the rule of the sequence of tenses is observed: if we have the analytical subjunctive with the mood auxiliary may, may is changed into might if the verb in the principal clause stands in a past tense.

DIRECT SPEECH INDIRECT SPEECH

I should be discharged if I were seen speaking to you. (Shaw)

She said that she would be discharged if she were seen speaking to him.

It is true I drink, but I shouldn’t have taken to that if things had gone differently. (Maugham)

He admitted that he drank, but said he would not have taken to that if things had gone differently.

I think cheerfulness is a fortune in itself. I wish I had it. (Eliot)

She thought cheerfulness was a fortune in itself. She wished she had it.

Oh, how I wish I had never seen him! (Hardy) She said she wished she had never seen him.

The boys will think none the worse of you whatever you may have done. (Conan Doyle)

He said that the boys would think none the worse of him whatever he might have done.

6. The verb introducing direct speech is replaced by another verb which shows whether the indirect speech is a statement, a question, an order (request) or an exclamation.

She said, “I’ve never seen the like of it.” She declared she had never seen the like of it.

She said to him, “Do you know them?” She asked him if he knew them.

She said to him, “Come here at once!” She told him to come at once.

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She said, “Why, I never expected he would do such a thing.”

She exclaimed she had never expected he would do such a thing.

7. It should be borne in mind that there is a great difference between the style of direct and that of indirect speech.

Direct speech is characterized by a certain looseness of structure and is more emotional than indirect speech.

Indirect speech, on the contrary, is characterized by rigid logic of structure and terseness.

Accordingly, if, for instance, no conjunctions expressing causal relations are to be found in direct speech, they must be introduced into indirect speech.

She said, “I am so tired! I’ve been writing for five hours.”

She said she was very tired as she had been writing for five hours.

If certain words and phrases are repeated in direct speech, they must not be reproduced in indirect speech.

She said to him, “It’s very kind of you to offer to help me, very kind indeed.”

She said it was very kind of him to offer to help her.

So and such are replaced by very, exceedingly etc. in exclamatory sentences.

She said, “Jane plays the piano so well!” She said Jane played the piano very well.

She said, “Jane is such a good pianist!” She said Jane was an exceedingly (very) good pianist.

Interjections must be replaced by suitable adverbial modifiers.

She said, “Alas! I’ll never be happy again!” She exclaimed in despair she would never be happy again.

8. Must, as a rule, remains unchanged in indirect speech if it expresses advice (order) or a supposition bordering on assurance (должно быть).

She said to him, “You must be more careful.” (advice)

She told him he must be more careful.

She said, “You must be very fond of music if you go to concerts so often.” (supposition)

She said he must be very fond of music if he went to concerts so often.

She was informed that she must never again walk much. (Hardy)178

He said he was afraid you must think him ungrateful. (Marryat)

Mr. Brownlow smiled and said that Mr. Grimwig was an old friend of his and he must not mind his being a little rough in his manners. (Dickens)

Must is generally replaced by had to if it expresses necessity arising out of circumstances.

She said, “I must get up early every morning.” She said she had to get up early every morning.

Must is generally replaced by was to if it expresses arrangement or a kind of order.

She said, “I must ring him up at two o’clock.” She said she was to ring him up at two o’clock.

§ 3. Indirect statements.

Indirect statements are generally introduced by the verbs to say, to tell, to announce and in official style by the verb to inform.

With the verbs to tell and to inform the person addressed is always mentioned. With the verbs to say and to announce the person addressed may or may not be mentioned. If it is mentioned, the preposition to is used.

She said (to us), “There are interesting magazines in the reading-hall.”

She said (she told us) that there were interesting magazines in the reading-hall.

She said (to us), “I am leaving for good.” She announced to us that she was leaving for good.

The monitor said to us, “There will be a meeting to-night.”

The monitor informed us that there would be a meeting that night.

The verb to say is used to introduce both direct and indirect speech if the person addressed is not mentioned. If the person is mentioned, the verb to tell is preferable; if the verb to say is used, the preposition to is necessary.

She said, “I’ll be back directly.” She said she would be back directly.

You said that you would give me back my letter, didn’t you? (Wilde)

The Miller said to his wife that he would go down and see Little Hans. (Wilde)

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The verb to tell is used to introduce indirect speech only; the person addressed must be mentioned.

She said to us, “I’ve received an interesting letter.”

She told us she had received an interesting letter.

N o t e 1. — The verb to tell is used without the person addressed being mentioned in sentences as The book tells of the life of Negroes, also in the expressions to tell a lie, to tell the truth, to tell a story.

N o t e 2. — The verb to speak never introduces indirect speech because it is never followed by an object clause (it can only be followed by an object clause with a preposition). Therefore the sentence ‘Он говорил, что любит музыку’ should be rendered in the following way: He said he was fond of music.

N o t e 3. — It should be noted that the verb to speak cannot take a direct object, unless it is the name of a language or the noun truth in the expression to speak the truth. ‘Он говорил много интересного’ should be rendered in the following way: He said many interesting things.

An emphatic statement tinged with emotion is often introduced by the verb to declare.

She said, “It’s the dullest book I’ve ever read.” She declared it was the dullest book she had ever read.

Other verbs are also used to introduce statements. According to the character of the statement, the verbs to promise, to remark, to remind, to assure, to admit, to deny etc. are frequently used.

He said to me, “ I hope you have not forgotten that there will be a meeting to-night.”

He reminded me that there would be a meeting that night.

He said, “The text is rather difficult.” He remarked that the text was rather difficult.

He said, “I did speak to her about that.” He admitted having spoken to her about that.

He said, “I never spoke to her.” He denied having spoken to her.

The child said to his mother, “I’ll never disobey you again.”

The child promised his mother never to disobey her again.

She said to them, “I’ll certainly come in time.” She assured them that she would come in time.

§ 4. Indirect questions.

Word order in an indirect question is the same as in a statement. An indirect general question is introduced by the conjunction if or whether.

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I said to her, “Have you lived here long?” I asked her if she had lived there long.

An indirect special question is introduced by the same adverb or pronoun that introduces a direct question.

I said to her, “Where do you live?” I asked her where she lived.

If a direct question to the subject contains the link verb to be, the direct order of words is not always strictly observed.

He asked, “Who is that man?” He asked {who the man was

who was the man.

The direct question What is the matter? can be converted in two ways:

He asked what was the matter.

He asked what the matter was.

Indirect questions are generally introduced by the verb to ask. In more official style the verb to inquire is used.

She called at the office and said, “When does the secretary usually come?”

She called at the office and inquired when the secretary usually came.

If the person addressed is mentioned, the verb to inquire is used with the preposition of.

This occurs in bookish style only.

She said to him, “Where does Mrs. Brown live?”

She inquired of him where Mrs. Brown lived.

In rendering answers the verbs to answer and to reply are generally used.

Occasionally, answers are rendered in the following way: His reply (answer) was that.., He said in reply... This is not colloquial.

§ 5. Indirect orders and requests.

An order or a request in indirect speech is expressed by an infinitive:

She said to him, “Open the window (do not open the window).”

She told him to open the window (not to open the window).

She said to him, “Please, open the window (do not open the window).”

She asked him to open the window (not to open the window).

The choice of the verb is determined by the character of the order (request).

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The verb most commonly used to introduce indirect orders is the verb to tell; the verb to order is frequently used, occasionally also the verb to command.

The verb to tell corresponds to the Russian сказать, чтобы and велеть; to order and to command correspond to приказать.

Mr. Bumble said to Oliver, “Bow to the board.”

Mr. Bumble ordered Oliver to bow to the board.

The officer said to the soldiers, “Stop!” The officer commanded the soldiers to stop.

The verb to request is used in official style, chiefly in the Passive Voice. It is best rendered in Russian by предложить.

The verb to request introduces rather a veiled order than a request.

The ticket collector said to the passenger, “Produce your ticket.”

The ticket collector requested (предложил) the passenger to produce his ticket.

or:

The passenger was requested to produce his ticket.

Unemotional requests are usually introduced by the verb to ask.

He said to a passer-by, “Will you show me the way to the theatre?”

He asked a passer-by to show him the way to the theatre.

The verb to beg introduces a request somewhat more emotional.

The child said to his mother, “Do take me to the circus!”

The child begged his mother to take him to the circus.

Very often, however, it is used in the same meaning as the verb to ask, only it is more polite:

He said to the visitor, “Will you walk in?” He begged the visitor to walk in.

Emotional (emphatic) requests are introduced by the verbs to implore to entreat to beseech (умолять).

Eliza said to the stranger, “Do save my child!” Eliza implored the stranger to save her child.

The verb to urge introduces a request made with great insistence.

It corresponds to the Russian настаивать, уговаривать.

The mother said to her son, “Do take care of yourself!”

The mother urged her son to take care of himself.

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As is seen from the above examples, in converting requests beginning with the emphatic do, we use the verbs to implore, to entreat, to beseech, to urge.

§ 6. Indirect offers, suggestions, and advice.

When converting offers and suggestions into indirect speech, we use the verbs to offer and to suggest. There is a difference between these two verbs, though both are rendered in Russian by ‘предложить’: the person who makes an offer intends to do the action himself, and the action is an act of kindness. A suggestion may also be an act of kindness, but not necessarily; the person who makes a suggestion may or may not intend to do the action himself.

He said to her, “Shall I fetch you a glass of water?” She said, “Do, please.” (“No, don’t trouble.”)

He offered to fetch her a glass of water and she accepted the offer (declined the offer).

He said to her, “Suppose we go there together?” She said, “Very well.” (“No, I would rather you went alone.”)

He suggested that they should go there together and she consented (refused).

N o t e. — If the verb to suggest is followed by a subordinate clause. The predicate of the subordinate clause is expressed by a verb in the analytical form of the Subjunctive Mood with the auxiliary should.

Sentences expressing advice are converted into indirect speech by means of the verb to advise.

He said to them, “You had better take a taxi, you may be late.”

He advised them to take a taxi, as otherwise they might be late.

§ 7. Indirect exclamations.

When exclamations are converted into indirect speech, it is not so much the verb as the adverbial modifier which shows the character of the exclamation — whether it expresses joy, sorrow, surprise, etc.

She said, “How pleasant! Jane is going to spend a week with us!”

She cried joyfully (with joy, delightedly) that Jane was going to spend a week with them.

She said, “I am so sorry! Jane is leaving us!” She said sadly (with deep sadness, sorrowfully) that Jane was leaving them.

She said, “I am sure we’ll never meet again.” She said regretfully she was sure they would never meet again.

She said to them, “I’m sure you’ll soon forget me.”

She said with bitterness that she knew (was sure) they would soon forget her.

She said to him, “You are telling a lie!” She cried indignantly (with indignation) that he was telling a lie.

She said to him, “Do you mean to say you’ve She asked in surprise if he had really read all 183

already read all the books?” the books.

She said to him, “Excuse me for disturbing you.”

She apologized (to him) for disturbing him.

She said to him, “Beg your pardon, I’ve forgotten to bring you the book.”

She begged his pardon for having forgotten to bring the book.

She said to him, “Do forgive me for what I’ve done.”

She begged his forgiveness (implored him to forgive her) for what she had done.

She said to them, “Thank you for your help.” She thanked them (expressed her gratitude to them) for their help.

§ 8. Greetings and leave-taking in indirect speech.

When converting greetings and leave-taking into indirect speech, we use such verbs as to greet, to welcome, etc.

She said to them, “How do you do?” She greeted them.

He said to them, “Happy to see you at my place.”

He welcomed them.

He said to them, “Good-bye!” He bade them good-bye.

He said to them, “Good night!” He wished them good night.

Literature.

1. В. Л. КАУШАНСКАЯ, Р. Л. КОВНЕР, О. Н. КОЖЕВНИКОВА,Е. В. ПРОКОФЬЕВА, 3. М. РАЙНЕС, С. Е. СКВИРСКАЯ, Ф. Я. ЦЫРЛИНА ГРАММАТИКА АНГЛИЙСКОГО ЯЗЫКА, ПОСОБИЕ ДЛЯ СТУДЕНТОВ ПЕДАГОГИЧЕСКИХ ИНСТИТУТОВ, ГОСУДАРСТВЕННОЕ УЧЕБНО-ПЕДАГОГИЧЕСКОЕ ИЗДАТЕЛЬСТВО МИНИСТЕРСТВА ПРОСВЕЩЕНИЯ РСФСР ЛЕНИНГРАДСКОЕ ОТДЕЛЕНИЕ, Ленинград 1963

INDIRECT SPEECH Indirect speech does not reproduce the exact words of the speaker, but only reports them. The

grammatical form in which the speaker's words are reported is a subordinate object clause (for statements and questions) or an infinitive object (for orders and requests) dependent on a verb of saying or a verb or expression implying the idea of saying. The most frequent verbs of saying are the verbs to say and to tell for reported statements, to ask for reported questions, to tell and to ask for reported orders and requests. The subordinate clauses are joined to their principal ones by means of conjunctions, conjunctive pronouns or adverbs, or asyndetically.

The word order in these clauses is always direct, irrespective of the communicative type of the sentence in direct speech, that is, whether it is a declarative or an interrogative sentence (imperative sentences are reported by means of an infinitive object).

He says he has all the proof.184

He asks what you are going to do.

When direct speech is replaced by indirect speech, the forms of personal, possessive and reflexive pronouns may be changed or not, depending on the general sense, that is, on their actual correlation with the participants of the act of speaking and the situation described in that particular unit of speech, in the same way as in Russian.

“I don’t know anything about

him,” says the girl.

«Я ничего о нем не знаю», -

говорит девочка.

“I can do it myself,” say I.

«Я вполне могу сделать это

сам», - говорю я.

“What are you going to do about

my picture?” she asks.

«Что вы собираетесь делать с

моей картиной?” - спрашивает она.

The girl says that she does not

know anything about him

Девочка говорит, что она ничего

о нем не знает.

I say that I can do it myself.

Я говорю, что (я) вполне могу

сделать это сам.

She asks what I am going to do about

her picture.

Она спрашивает, что я собираюсь

делать с ее картиной.

The tense form of the predicate of the object clause with reported speech is predetermined by the general rules of sequence of tenses.

If the predicate of the object clause in which direct speech is reported is to be changed into one of the past tenses, the change may affect the use of certain adverbs and demonstrative pronouns. That is, depending on the actual correlation between the place and time of the act of speaking and those of the content of the direct speech, there may arise the necessity to replace the adverbs and demonstrative pronouns implying near reference in time or space by those denoting distant reference. In such cases the following changes take place:

this → that

these → those

here → there

now → then, at that time

today → that day

tonight → that night

tomorrow → the following day, (the) next day

yesterday → the day before, the previous day

ago → before

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last week (month, year) → the previous week (month, year)

“But I am really very busy today,”

said Hans.

“Well, there’s no use in standing

here arguing about it,” she said.

Hans said that he was really very

busy that day.

She said that there was no use in

standing there arguing about it.

If the sentence in direct speech is declarative, the object clause reporting it in indirect speech is joined to the principal clause by means of the conjunction that or asyndetically. The predicate of the principal clause is usually expressed by the verbs to say or to tell; to say is used when the person to whom the direct speech is addressed is not mentioned in the sentence with indirect speech, whereas to tell is used when the person is mentioned.

If the direct speech is a pronominal question, the object clause reporting it in indirect speech is joined to the principal clause by the same pronominal word (pronoun or adverb) as used in direct speech. In this case it is treated as a conjunctive word. The word order in the object clause becomes direct. The predicate of the principal clause is the verb to ask or one of its synonyms to want to know, to wonder, etc.

“Who is it?” she asked.

“Why didn’t he come?” said she.

She asked who it was.

She wanted to know why he had not come.

The person to whom the direct speech is addressed is usually mentioned either in the sentence itself, or in a broader context, or else is understood from the situation. In indirect speech it is expressed in the object to the verb introducing indirect speech.

“Where have you come from?” she asked the boy.

She began to put on her gloves.

“What are you going to do?” he asked.

She asked the boy where he had come from.

She began to put on her gloves.

He asked her what she was going to do.

If the direct speech is a general question, the object clause reporting it in indirect speech is joined to the principal clause by means of the conjunctions if or whether. The word order in the object clause is direct. The predicate of the principal clause is the verb to ask or one of its synonyms.

“Did you tell Frank?” he asked me.

“Won’t your husband forgive you?” he said after a while.

He asked me if (whether) I had told Frank.

After a while he asked (her) if (whether) her husband would not forgive her.

If direct speech is an imperative sentence, the following changes take place when reporting it in indirect speech: the predicate of the sentence takes the form of the infinitive and becomes an object to the verb introducing indirect speech; one more object, a noun or a pronoun denoting the person to whom the order or request is addressed, is supplied. Note that this object is an obligatory component of the sentence structure. If the person to whom the order or request is

186

addressed is not indicated in direct speech, it is to be supplied from the previous context or from the speech situation.

Orders, requests, etc., in indirect speech are introduced by the verbs of inducement to tell, to order, to ask, to beg, etc.

I said, “Say hello to the family for me, Mr. Hunt.”

“Get me out of here, baby. Get me out of here. Please.”

The tall boy did not stop. “Shut up, you fool,” cried she.

One of the boys turned away.

“Look me full in the face,” said the woman.

I asked Mr. Hunt to say hello to the family for me.

He begged me to get him out of there.

The tall boy did not stop, and she ordered him to shut up.

One of the boys turned away,

but the woman told him to look her full in the face.

If the predicate of the imperative sentence is negative, the negation not is placed before the infinitive in indirect speech.

“Don’t go,” said he.

“Don't stop!” cried he and ran after them.

He asked her not to go.

He ordered them not to stop and ran after them.

Literature.

1. Н. А. Кобрина, Е. А. Корнеева, М. И. Оссовская, К. А. Гузеева Грамматика английского языка: Морфология. Синтаксис. Учебное пособие для студентов педагогических институтов и университетов по специальности «Иностранные языки», СПб, СОЮЗ, 1999.-496с.

Theme 9. Lexical and grammatical transformations in translation. Emphatic constructions in the English language. The word order of emphatic constructions. Lexical and stylistic peculiarities of the language of scientific and business correspondence.

LEXICAL AND GRAMMATICAL TRANSFORMATIONA IN TRANSLATIONGrammar transformations are morphological or syntactical changes in translated units. They are subdivided into the following types: 1. Grammar substitution, when a grammar category of the translated unit is changed. Thus a passive construction can be translated by an active voice verb form: Martin Heidegger is generally regarded as one of the most influential founders of existentialism. – Мартина Хайдеггера обычно считают одним из самых значительных основоположников экзистенциализма. The reason for this transformation is stylistic: in English the passive voice is

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used much more often in neutral speech, whereas in Russian this category is more typical of the formal style. Or there may be substitution of the noun number category, the singular by the plural or vice versa: Her hair is fair and wavy. – У нее светлые волнистые волосы. This transformation is due to the structural difference between the English and Russian languages: in English the analyzed noun is Singularia Tantum, in Russian it is used in the plural. Parts of speech, along with the parts of the sentence, can be changed: He is a poor swimmer. – Он плохо плавает, where the noun is substituted by the verb, the adjective by the adverb; simultaneously the predicative is substituted by the simple verb predicate. The reason for this transformation can be accounted for by language usage preferences: English tends to the nominal expression of the state, Russian can denote the general state by means of the verb. 2. Word order change. Usually the reason for this transformation is that English and Russian sentences have different information structures, or functional sentence perspective.* For example, A new press conference was held in Washington yesterday is naturally equivalent to Вчера в Вашингтоне состоялась новая пресс-конференция, where the adverbial modifiers, subject and predicate are positioned in a mirrorlike fashion. 3. Sentence partitioning is the replacement of a simple sentence in the source text with a complex sentence (with some clauses), or a complex sentence with several independent sentences in the target text for structural, semantic or stylistic reasons: I want you to undestand this transformation. – Я хочу, чтобы вы поняли эту трансформацию. Моя машина не завелась, поэтому я не смогла заехать за вами. – My car wouldn’t start. Therefore, I couldn’t pick you up. 4. Sentence integration is a contrary transformation. It takes place when we make one sentence out of two or more, or convert a complex sentence into a simple one: If one knows languages, one can come out on top. – Зная языки, можно далеко пойти. In ancient Rome, garlic was believed to make people courageous. Roman soldiers, therefore, ate large quantities of it before a battle. – Перед боем римские воины съедали большое количество чеснока, поскольку в Древнем Риме полагали, что чеснок делает людей мужественными. 5.Grammar compensation is a deliberate change of the grammar category by some other grammar means. Compensation takes place when a grammar category or form does not exist in the target laguage and, therefore, cannot produce the same impact upon the target text receptor. This can be illustrated by translating a sentence with a mistaken pronoun form from English into Russian. Since a similar mistake in using the pronoun is impossible in Russian, it is compensated by a mistaken preposition: ''Take some of the conceit out of him,'' he gurgled. ''Out of who?'' asked Barbara, knowing perfectly well that she should have said 'whom' '' - «Поубавь немного у него тщеславия,» - буркнул он. «С кого?» – спросила Барбара, хорошо зная, что ей следовало сказать ‘у кого’». As a result, the translator showed the character's illiteracy.

Lexical transformations change the semantic core of a translated word. They can be classified into the following groups: 1.Lexical substitution, or putting one word in place of another. It often results from the different semantic structures of the source language and target language words. Thus the word молодой is not always translated as young; rather, it depends on its word combinability: молодой картофель is equal to new potatoes. This translation equivalent is predetermined by the word combination it is used in. This type of translation can hardly be called substitution, since it is a regular equivalent for this phrase. Deliberate substitution as a translation technique can be of several subtypes: a) Specification, or substituting words with a wider meaning with words of a narrower meaning: Will you do the room? – Ты уберешься в комнате? I’ll get the papers on the way home. – Я куплю газеты по дороге домой. The underlined English words have larger scopes of meaning than their Russian counterparts and their particular semantics is recognized from the context.

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b) Generalization, or substituting words of a narrower meaning with those of a wider meaning: People don’t like to be stared at. – Людям не нравится, когда на них смотрят. If we compare the semantic structure of the English and Russian verbs, we can see that the English stare specifies the action of seeing expressed by the Russian verb. The Russian смотреть can imply staring, facing, eyeing, etc. The specific meaning in the Russian sentence can be expressed by the adverb пристально. Another reason for generalization in translating can be that the particular meaning expressed by the source language word might be irrelevant for the translation receptor: She bought the Oolong tea on her way home. – По дороге домой она купила китайского чаю. Oolong is a sort of Chinese tea but for the receptor this information is not important; therefore, the translator can generalize. c) Differentiation is a rather rare technique of substitution. It takes place when we substitute a word by another one with parallel meaning, denoting a similar species: bamboo curtain – железный занавес. Both bamboo and железо (iron) are materials known for their hard nature. They are used figuratively to denote the barriers between the Western and Communist countries (bamboo curtain in reference to China, железный занавес in reference to other Comecon (Council for Mutual Economic Aid) states. There are no hyponymic relations between the notions of bamboo and iron (though the referential area of железный занавес is of course much wider than that of bamboo curtain.) d) Modulation is a logical development of the notion expressed by the word: But outside it was raining. -– Но на улице шел дождь. The primary equivalent of the word outside is снаружи. But it is impossible to say in Russian *Но снаружи шел дождь. By means of unsophisticated logical operation the translator finds another equivalent: на улице. Thus he takes into consideration a tradition of the word combination and acceptability of collocation. He is aided in this by the metonymical closeness of word meanings based on contiguity of the two notions. 2.Compensation is a deliberate introduction of some additional element in the target text to make up for the loss of a similar element in the source text. The main reason for this transformation is a vocabulary lacuna in the target language. For example, one of the Galsworthy’s characters was called a leopardess. But there is no one-word equivalent of the same stylistic coloring in Russian. Therefore, the translator compensated the word by using the word тигрица to characterize the lady. 3.Metaphoric transformations are based on transferring the meaning due to the similarity of notions. The target language can re-metaphorize a word or a phrase by using the same image (Don’t dirty your hands with that money! – Не марай рук этими деньгами!) or a different one (Он вернет нам деньги, когда рак свистнет. – He will pay us our money back when hell freezes over). The source language metaphor can be destroyed if there is no similar idiom in the target language: Весна уже на пороге. – Spring is coming very soon. Or, on the contrary, the target text is metaphorized either to compensate a stylistically marked word or phrase whose coloring was lost for some reason, or merely to express a source language lacuna: Он решил начать жить по-новому. – He decided to turn over a new life.

Literature.1. Прошина З.Г. ТЕОРИЯ ПЕРЕВОДА (с английского языка на русский и с русского языка на английский): Уч. на англ. яз. – Владивосток: Изд-во Дальневост. ун-та, 2008 (3-е изд., перераб.), 2002 (2-е изд., испр. и перераб.), 1999 (1-е изд.) ISBN 5-7444-0957-2

WORD ORDER IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. THE WORD ORDER OF EMPHATIC CONSTRUCTIONS.

The words in an English sentence are arranged in a certain order, which is fixed for every type of the sentence, and is therefore meaningful. We find several principles determining word order in a sentence, so that word order fulfils several functions - grammatical, emphatic, or

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communicative, and linking. These functions are manifested in different arrangements of the parts of the sentence.

The grammatical function of word orderThe main function of word order is t o e x p r e s s g r a m m a t i c a l r e l a t i o n s a n d

d e t e r m i n e t h e g r a m m a t i c a l s t a t u s o f a w o r d by fixing its position in the sentence. There exist two ways of arranging words - direct word order and inverted word order.

Direct word order

The most common pattern for the arrangement of the main parts in a declarative sentence is Subject - Predicate - (Object), which is called direct word order. Direct word order is also employed in pronominal questions to the subject or to its attribute.

Direct word order allows of only few variations in the fixed pattern, and then only for the secondary parts. Thus if there are two objects, the indirect one precedes the direct one, or the prepositional follows the direct one. Thus the pattern has the following form:

Subject - Predicate - Indirect object - Direct object

Direct object - Prepositional object

The birds have come.

Ann has seen this film.

As to other secondary parts of the sentence, such as attributes and adverbial modifiers, their position is less fixed. Usually those words that are closely connected tend to be placed together. Accordingly secondary parts referring to their headwords are placed close to them, or are incorporated into, or else frame them up. Thus attributes either premodify or postmodify or frame up their headwords: a bright morning, the problems involved, the scene familiar to us, the happiest man alive, the best skier in the world.

Adverbials and different form words seem to be the most movable parts in the sentence. Their mobility is partly accounted for by their varied reference to different parts of the sentence.

The place of adverbials

When referring to a verb adverbials may be placed in:

1.F r o n t p o s i t i o n .

Again he was late.

2. C o n t a c t p r e p o s i t i o n .

He often said it. He occasionally sees them.

3. I n t e r p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n t h e e l e m e n t s o f a c o m p o s i t e v e r b a l p a r t .

He has never seen her.

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The latter position is occupied mainly by adverbs of indefinite time and degree: already, always, sometimes, often, hardly, still, just.

In case the predicate includes more than one auxiliary or a modal verb and an auxiliary, the adverbial is usually placed after the first one, although it may also occur after the second one.

This principle must constantly be borne in mind.

Adverbials may sometimes separate the particle to from the infinitive. This construction is called the split infinitive.

I don’t expect you to thoroughly understand it.

4. C o n t a c t p o s t - p o s i t i o n .

They are never on time.

5. E n d p o s i t i o n .

Are you married yet?

Positions 1, 4 and 5 are usually occupied by adverbials of place, time (definite time adverbs) and attendant circumstances.

He left the stage amid thunderous applause.

When adverbials refer to adjectives, adverbs, nouns, numerals, or pronouns they are usually placed close to these words, generally preceding them.

He is quite a hero.

Mother was much upset about it.

For adverbials allowing of different reference (to a verb, to an adjective, etc.) any change of position may result in a change of meaning. Compare the following sentences:

Nearly all died. (They died with few exceptions.)

All nearly died. (Everybody was on the verge of dying.)

The place of prepositions

The usual place of a preposition is between the words the relation of which it denotes. However, in some cases it may be placed at the end of the sentence. These cases are:

1. W h e n t h e p r e p o s i t i o n a l o b j e c t ( a w o r d o r a c l a u s e ) i s i n f r o n t p o s i t i o n .

This I can dispense with.

2. W h e n t h e p r e p o s i t i o n a l o b j e c t i s m a d e t h e s u b j e c t o f a p a s s i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n .

He was much laughed at.

3. I n q u e s t i o n s a n d e x c l a m a t i o n s , w h e n t h e o b j e c t i s p l a c e d i n f r o n t p o s i t i o n .

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Who are you speaking to?

4. I n c o n t a c t a t t r i b u t i v e c l a u s e s i n w h i c h t h e o b j e c t t o t h e p r e d i c a t e b e l o n g s t o t h e m a i n c l a u s e o r i s o n l y i m p l i e d .

It is the very thing I've always dreamed of.

It appeared better than we dared to hope for.

Inverted word orderAnother common pattern of word order is the inverted one (or inversion). We distinguish

f u l l i n v e r s i o n (when the predicate precedes the subject, as in Here comes the lady of the house) and p a r t i a l i n v e r s i o n (when only part of the predicate precedes the subject, as in Happy may you be!). Some grammarians also distinguish d o u b l e i n v e r s i o n (when parts of the predicate are placed separately before the subject, as in Hanging on the wall was a picture).

In some cases inversion may be taken as a normal order of words in constructions with special communicative value, and is thus devoid of any special colouring. In other cases inversion is a sort of reordering for stylistic effect or for emphasis. First we enumerate those cases where inversion is a normal word order.

1. Inversion is used to distinguish between the communicative types of sentences. With this function it is employed in:

a) G e n e r a l q u e s t i o n s , p o l i t e r e q u e s t s a n d i n t a g q u e s t i o n s .

Is it really true?

Won’t you have a cup of tea?

b) P r o n o m i n a l q u e s t i o n s , e x c e p t q u e s t i o n s t o t h e s u b j e c t a n d i t s a t t r i b u t e , w h e r e d i r e c t w o r d o r d e r i s u s e d .

What are the police after?

c) T h e r e - s e n t e n c e s w i t h t h e i n t r o d u c t o r y n o n - l o c a l t h e r e , f o l l o w e d b y o n e o f t h e v e r b s d e n o t i n g e x i s t e n c e , m o v e m e n t , o r c h a n g e o f t h e s i t u a t i o n .

There has been an accident.

There is nothing in it.

d) E x c l a m a t o r y s e n t e n c e s e x p r e s s i n g wish, despair, indignation, or other strong emotions.

Long live the king!

Come what may!

e) E x c l a m a t o r y s e n t e n c e s w h i c h a r e n e g a t i v e i n f o r m b u t p o s i t i v e i n m e a n i n g .

Have I not watched them! (= I have watched them.)

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Wouldn’t that be fun! (= It would be fun.)

f) N e g a t i v e i m p e r a t i v e s e n t e n c e s .

Don’t you do it.

2. Inversion is used as a grammatical means of subordination in some complex sentences joined without connectors:

a) I n c o n d i t i o n a l c l a u s e s .

Were you sure of it, you wouldn’t hesitate.

b) I n c o n c e s s i v e c l a u s e s .

Proud as he was, he had to consent to our proposal.

c) I n t h e s e c o n d p a r t o f a s e n t e n c e o f p r o p o r t i o n a l a g r e e m e n t (although inversion is not obligatory in this case).

The more he thought of it, the less clear was the matter.

3. Inversion is used in sentences beginning with adverbs denoting place. This usage is traditional, going back to OE norms.

Here is another example.

There goes another bus (туда идет еще один автобус, еще автобус идет).

4. Inversion is used in stage directions, although this use is limited to certain verbs.

Enter the King, the Queen.

5. Inversion may be used in sentences indicating whose words or thoughts are given as direct or indirect speech. These sentences may introduce, interrupt, or follow the words in direct or indirect speech, or may be given in parenthesis.

“That’s him,” said Tom (Tom said).

Direct word order can also be used here.

6. Inversion is used in statements showing that the remark applies equally to someone or something else.

I am tired. - So am I.

He isn’t ready. - Neither is she.

The emphatic and communicative functions of word orderThe second function of word order is t o m a k e p r o m i n e n t o r e m p h a t i c that

part of the sentence which is more important or informative in the speaker’s opinion. These two functions (to express prominence or information focus, and emphasis) are different in their purpose, but in many cases they go together or overlap, and are difficult to differentiate.

Prominence and emphasis are achieved by placing the word in an unusual position: words normally placed at the beginning of the sentence (such as the subject) are placed towards the end,

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whereas words usually occupying positions closer to the end of the sentence (such as objects and predicatives) are shifted to the beginning.

End position is always emphatic for the subject. Very often this reordering results in the detachment of the subject.

Must have cost a pretty penny, this dress of yours!

Fronting of an object or a predicative is also often accompanied by detachment.

Horrible these women are, ugly, dirty.

If the object is prepositional, the preposition may be put after the verb or verb-group, or else after the whole sentence.

This nowadays one hears not of.

However, front position of an object does not always mean that this part is emphasized. In some cases this sort of reordering is employed to get the predicate (or what is left of it) emphasized. Talent Mr. Macowber has, capital Mr. Macowber has not.

Front position is emphatic for adverbials (of time, manner, degree) usually attached to the predicate. It is often accompanied by inversion.

Many a time has he given me good advice.

With words functioning now as adverbs, now as postpositions, front position reveals their adverbial nature most distinctly, as postpositions are never placed here. With this reordering the emphasis is thrown upon the predicate.

Up they rushed.

For attributes emphasis may be achieved by putting them after their headword. In this way the modifier becomes the focus and has the principal stress of the word-group.

The day following was to decide our fate.

However, the fixed patterns in English limit the opportunities to shift prominence or emphasis from one part of the sentence to another, especially for main parts. Therefore prominence and emphasis are generally achieved not by reordering, but by using special constructions. One such construction used for emphasizing the subject is the introductory non-local there + verb + noun, followed by an attributive clause.

There was a girl whom he loved.

Another device for shifting emphasis is the construction with the introductory it, the main information being supplied by the subordinate clause. By means of this construction emphasis may be thrown upon any part of the sentence, except the predicate. Such sentences are called cleft sentences. This can be illustrated by the following:

It was she who opened the door.

Special emphasis on words functioning as direct or indirect object may be achieved by the use of the passive construction, in which the words to be emphasized are moved either to front position or closer to the end.

Compare the sentences:

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The teacher gave the children an easy task.

The children were given an easy task by the teacher.

An easy task was given to the children by the teacher.

The linking function of word orderThe third function of word order is to e x p r e s s c o n t i n u i t y o f t h o u g h t in

sentences (or clauses) following one another. This continuity is often supported by demonstrative pronouns and adverbs.

They must sow their wild oats. Such was his theory.

Similarly, for purposes of enumeration, a word (or words) marking continuity is sometimes placed at the beginning of the sentence, with the verb immediately following.

Literature.1. Н. А. Кобрина, Е. А. Корнеева, М. И. Оссовская, К. А. Гузеева Грамматика английского языка: Морфология. Синтаксис. Учебное пособие для студентов педагогических институтов и университетов по специальности «Иностранные языки», СПб, СОЮЗ, 1999.-496с.

Theme 10. The words-substitutes for nouns (one/ones, the former… the latter) and verbs (the verb do, the first helping verb). Conditional sentences.

NON-FINITE VERBS (VERBIDS)

Verbids are the forms of the verb intermediary in many of their lexico-grammatical features between the verb and the non-processual parts of speech. The mixed features of these forms are revealed in the principal spheres of the part-of-speech characterisation, i.e. in their meaning, structural marking, combinability, and syntactic functions. The processual meaning is exposed by them in a substantive or adjectival-adverbial interpretation: they render processes as peculiar kinds of substances and properties. They are formed by special morphemic elements which do not express either grammatical time or mood (the most specific finite verb categories). They can be combined with verbs like non-processual lexemes (performing non-verbal functions in the sentence), and they can be combined with non-processual lexemes like verbs (performing verbal functions in the sentence).

From these characteristics, one might call in question the very justification of including the verbids in the system of the verb. As a matter of fact, one can ask oneself whether it wouldn't stand to reason to consider the verbids as a special lexemic class, a separate part of speech, rather than an inherent component of the class of verbs.

On closer consideration, however, we can't but see that such an approach would be utterly ungrounded. The verbids do betray intermediary features. Still, their fundamental grammatical meaning is processual (though modified in accord with the nature of the inter-class reference of each verbid). Their essential syntactic functions, directed by this relational semantics, unquestionably reveal the property which may be called, in a manner of explanation, "verbality", and the statement of which is corroborated by the peculiar combinability character of verbid collocations, namely, by the ability of verbids to take adjuncts expressing the immediate

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recipients, attendants, and addressees of the process inherently conveyed by each verbid denotation.

One might likewise ask oneself, granted the verbids are part of the system of the verb, whether they do not constitute within this system a special subsystem of purely lexemic nature, i.e. form some sort of a specific verbal subclass. This counter-approach, though, would evidently be devoid of any substantiality, since a subclass of a lexemic class, by definition, should share the essential categorial structure, as well as primary syntactic functions with other subclasses, and in case of verbids the situation is altogether different. In fact, it is every verb stem (except a few defective verbs) that by means of morphemic change takes both finite and non-finite forms, the functions of the two sets being strictly differentiated: while the finite forms serve in the sentence only one syntactic function, namely, that of the finite predicate, the non-finite forms serve various syntactic functions other than that of the finite predicate.

The strict, unintersecting division of functions (the functions themselves being of a fundamental nature in terms of the grammatical structure of language as a whole) clearly shows that the opposition between the finite and non-finite forms of the verb creates a special grammatical category. The differential feature of the opposition is constituted by the expression of verbal time and mood: while the time-mood grammatical signification characterises the finite verb in a way that it underlies its finite predicative function, the verbid has no immediate means of expressing time-mood categorial semantics and therefore presents the weak member of the opposition. The category expressed by this opposition can be called the category of "finitude" [Strang, 143; Бархударов, (2), 106]. The syntactic content of the category of finitude is the expression of predication (more precisely, the expression' of verbal predication).

As is known, the verbids, unable to express the predicative meanings of time and mood, still do express the so-called "secondary" or "potential" predication, forming syntactic complexes directly related to certain types of subordinate clauses. Cf.: Have you ever had anything caught in your head? Have you ever had anything that was caught in your head? — He said it half under his breath for the others not to hear it. — He said it half under his breath, so that the others couldn't hear it.

The verbid complexes anything caught in your head, or for the others not to hear it, or the like, while expressing secondary predication, are not self-dependent in a predicative sense. They normally exist only as part of sentences built up by genuine, primary predicative constructions that have a finite verb as their core. And it is through the reference to the finite verb-predicate that these complexes set up the situations denoted by them in the corresponding time and mood perspective.

In other words, we may say that the opposition of the finite verbs and the verbids is based on the expression of the functions of full predication and semi-predication. While the finite verbs express predication in its genuine and complete form, the function of the verbids is to express semi-predication, building up semi-predicative complexes within different sentence constructions. The English verbids include four forms distinctly differing from one another within the general verbid system: the infinitive, the gerund, the present participle, and the past participle. In compliance with this difference, the verbid semi-predicative complexes are

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distinguished by the corresponding differential properties both in form and in syntactic-contextual function.

The Gerund

The gerund is the non-finite form of the verb which, like the infinitive, combines the properties of the verb with those of the noun. Similar to the infinitive, the gerund serves as the verbal name of a process, but its substantive quality is more strongly pronounced than that of the infinitive. Namely, as different from the infinitive, and similar to the noun, the gerund can be modified by a noun in the possessive case or its pronominal equivalents (expressing the subject of the verbal process), and it can be used with prepositions.

Since the gerund, like the infinitive, is an abstract name of the process denoted by the verbal lexeme, a question might arise, why the infinitive, and not the gerund is taken as the head-form of the verbal lexeme as a whole, its accepted representative in the lexicon.

As a matter of fact, the gerund cannot perform the function of the paradigmatic verbal head-form for a number of reasons. In the first place, it is more detached from the finite verb than the infinitive semantically, tending to be a far more substantival unit categorially. Then, as different from the infinitive, it does not join in the conjugation of the finite verb. Unlike the infinitive, it is a suffixal form, which makes it less generalised than the infinitive in terms of the formal properties of the verbal lexeme (although it is more abstract in the purely semantic sense). Finally, it is less definite than the infinitive from the lexico-grammatical point of view, being subject to easy neutralisations in its opposition with the verbal noun in -ing, as well as with the present participle. Hence, the gerund is no rival of the infinitive in the paradigmatic head-form function.

The general combinability of the gerund, like that of the infinitive, is dual, sharing some features with the verb, and some features with the noun. The verb-type combinability of the gerund is displayed in its combining, first, with nouns expressing the object of the action; second, with modifying adverbs; third, with certain semi-functional predicator verbs, but other than modal. Of the noun-type is the combinability of the gerund, first, with finite notional verbs as the object of the action; second, with finite notional verbs as the prepositional adjunct of various functions; third, with finite notional verbs as the subject of the action; fourth, with nouns as the prepositional adjunct of various functions.

The gerund, in the corresponding positional patterns, performs the functions of all the types of notional sentence-parts, i.e. the subject, the object, the predicative, the attribute, the adverbial modifier. Cf.: Repeating your accusations over and over again doesn't make them more convincing. (Gerund subject position) No wonder he delayed breaking the news to Uncle Jim. (Gerund direct object position) She could not give her mind to pressing wild flowers in Pauline's botany book. (Gerund addressee object position) Joe felt annoyed at being shied by his roommates. (Gerund prepositional object position) You know what luck is? Luck is believing you're lucky. (Gerund predicative position) Fancy the pleasant prospect of listening to all the gossip they've in store for you! (Gerund attributive position) He could not push against the furniture without bringing the whole lot down. (Gerund adverbial of manner position)

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One of the specific gerund patterns is its combination with the noun in the possessive case or its possessive pronominal equivalent expressing the subject of the action. This gerundial construction is used in cases when the subject of the gerundial process differs from the subject of the governing sentence-situation, i.e. when the gerundial sentence-part has its own, separate subject. E.g.: Powell's being rude like that was disgusting. How can she know about the Morions' being connected with this unaccountable affair? Will he ever excuse our having interfered?

The possessive with the gerund displays one of the distinctive categorial properties of the gerund as such, establishing it in the English lexemic system as the form of the verb with nounal characteristics. As a matter of fact, from the point of view of the inner semantic relations, this combination is of a verbal type, while from the point of view of the formal categorial features, this combination is of a nounal type. It can be clearly demonstrated by the appropriate transformations, i.e. verb-related and noun-related re-constructions. Cf.: I can't stand his criticising artistic works that are beyond his competence. (T-verbal →He is criticising artistic works. T-nounal→ His criticism of artistic works.)

Besides combining with the possessive noun-subject, the verbal ing-form con also combine with the noun-subject in the common case or its objective pronominal equivalent. E.g.: I read in yesterday's paper about the hostages having been released.

This gerundial use as presenting very peculiar features of categorial mediality will be discussed after the treatment of the participle.

The formal sign of the gerund is wholly homonymous with that of the present participle: it is the suffix -ing added to its grammatically (categorially) leading element.

Like the infinitive, the gerund is a categorially changeable (variable, demutative) form; it distinguishes the two grammatical categories, sharing them with the finite verb and the present participle, namely, the aspective category of retrospective coordination (perfect in opposition), and the category of voice (passive in opposition). Consequently, the categorial paradigm of the gerund of the objective verb includes four forms: the simple active, the perfect active; the simple passive, the perfect passive. E.g.: taking — having taken — being taken — having been taken.

The gerundial paradigm of the non-objective verb, correspondingly, includes two forms. E.g.: going — having gone. The perfect forms of the gerund are used, as a rule, only in semantically strong positions, laying special emphasis on the meaningful categorial content of the form.

Litertaure.

1. Блох М. Я. Теоретическая грамматика английского языка: Учебник. Для студентов филол. фак. ун-тов и фак. англ. яз. педвузов. — М.: Высш. школа, 1983.— с. 383.

THE PASSIVE VOICE

§ 1. The formation of the Passive Voice.

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The Passive Voice is formed by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the required form and Participle II of the notional verb.

(a) The Present, Past and Future Indefinite Passive are formed by means of the Present, Past and Future Indefinite of the auxiliary verb to be and Participle II of the notional verb.

Present Indefinite

Passive

Past Indefinite

Passive

Future Indefinite

Passive

I am invited I was invited I shall be invited

He is invited He was invited He will be invited

She is invited She was invited She will be invited

We are invited We were invited We shall be invited

You are invited You were invited You will be invited

They are invited They were invited They will be invited

(b) The Present, Past and Future Perfect Passive are formed by means of the Present, Past and Future Perfect of the auxiliary verb to be and Participle II of the notional verb.

Present Perfect

Passive

Past Perfect

Passive

Future Perfect

Passive

I have been invited I had been invited I shall have been invited

He has been invited He had been invited He will have been invited

She has been invited She had been invited She will have been invited

We have been invited We had been invited We shall have been invited

You have been invited You had been invited You will have been invited

They have been invited They had been invited They will have been invited

(c) The Present Continuous and the Past Continuous Passive are formed by means of the Present Continuous and the Past Continuous of the auxiliary verb to be and Participle II of the notional verb.

Present Continuous Passive Past Continuous Passive

I am being invited I was being invited

He is being invited He was being invited

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She is being invited She was being invited

We are being invited We were being invited

You are being invited You were being invited

They are being invited They were being invited

The Future Continuous, the Present Perfect Continuous, the Past Perfect Continuous and the Future Perfect Continuous are not found in the Passive Voice.

§ 2. The use of the Passive Voice.

The Passive Voice can be used:

(a) without the doer of the action being mentioned (the usual case). In this case the doer is either unknown or unimportant.

In silence the soup was finished — excellent, if a little thick; and fish was brought. In silence it was handed. (Galsworthy)

Tom Tusher was sent off early, however, to a school in London. (Thackeray)

(b) with the doer of the action being mentioned. This occurs only when the doer of the action is to some extent emphasized.

The noun or pronoun denoting the doer of the action is introduced by the preposition by.

He was wrenched from his blank wretchedness by the sound of the door opening from his mother’s room. (Galsworthy)

They were thus introduced by Holly. (Galsworthy)

This room was dimly lighted from the ceiling by a single electric lamp. (Bennett)

§ 3. The use of tenses in the Passive Voice.

The uses of tenses in the Active and in the Passive Voice are the same.

INDEFINITE: Present New schools are built every year.

Past This school was built a month ago.

Future A new school will be built in our village in spring.

PERFECT: Present The school has been built this month.

Past The school had been built by the 1st of September.

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Future I am sure the school will have been built by the 1st of September.

CONTINUOUS: Present A new school is being built in our street.

Past When I returned to town, the school was still being built.

All Forsytes have shells... in other words, they are never seen, or if seen would not be recognized. (Galsworthy)

The news was brought that the little boy at the “Three Castles” was ill. (Thackeray)

Further meetings will be held tonight and tomorrow night. (Daily Worker)

You have been told three times this week that she is coming home for a year for her health. (Shaw)

I have been very unhappy since she died. I have been slighted and taught nothing, and thrown upon myself, and put to work not fit for me. (Dickens)

By 12 o’clock a jury reasonably satisfactory to both sides had been chosen. (Dreiser)

Don’t you disturb him. He is working at his wonderful poem. An immortal work of art is being created. (Marryat)

When Mills got to the stables, a horse was being saddled. (Eliot)

To express an action going on at a definite moment in the future only the Future Continuous Active is possible. Thus the Russian sentence ‘Когда вы придете в лабораторию, опыт уже будет производиться’ must be translated in the following way:

When you come to the laboratory, we shall already be making the experiment.

To denote an action which began before a definite moment in the present, past or future, and continued up to that moment, the Present, Past and Future Perfect Continuous Active are generally used.

Уже два часа как правят корректуру.

They have been reading the proofs for two hours.

Когда пришел главный редактор, корректуру правили уже два часа.

When the editor-in-chief came, they had been reading the proofs for two hours.

The Present Perfect Inclusive Passive and the Past Perfect Inclusive Passive are found with verbs not used in the Continuous form, in negative sentences and with some non-terminative verbs (see Chapter VII, Tenses, § 18, 21).

She has always been admired.

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The dictionary has not been used for months.

§ 4. Ways of translating the Passive Voice into Russian.

There are three ways of translating the Passive Voice into Russian:

(a) by the verb быть + краткая форма причастия страдательного залога. In the Present the verb быть is not used.

(b) by verbs in -ся.

(c) by means of indefinite-personal constructions (неопределенно-личные предложения).

The last way of translating is possible only if the doer of the action is not mentioned.

Houses are built of stone.

Дома строятся из камня.

Дома строят из камня.

The house was built in 1932.

Дом (был) построен в 1932 году.

Дом построили в 1932 году.

The experiment was made by a famous scientist.

Опыт был произведен знаменитым ученым.

Опыт производился знаменитым ученым.

§ 5. Uses of the Passive Voice peculiar to the English language.

There are cases when the use of the Passive Voice seems to Russian students very peculiar because we find no analogous constructions in Russian. These cases are as follows:

1. The verbs to accord, to advise, to allow, to ask, to award, to deny, to envy, to forbid (rare), to forgive, to give, to grant, to offer, to order, to pay, to prescribe, to promise, to refuse, to show, to teach, to tell are used in the Passive Voice. These verbs always take an object expressed by a noun or an infinitive. The action expressed by the Passive Predicate passes on to the subject and the object. The subject corresponds to the Russian indirect object.

He was granted a ten days’ leave.

Has he been, shown the documents?

The patient was prescribed a strict diet.

He was ordered a change of scene.

We were told to wait.

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N o t e. — These verbs admit of another type of passive construction if the object is expressed by a noun. Thus we can say not only I was given a book, He was shown a book, but also A book was given to me, A book was shown to him. The choice of the construction depends on the logical stress: in I was given a book, He was shown a book the thing given is emphasized, which occurs oftener; in The book was given to me, The book was shown to him the person is emphasized.

2. The Passive Voice is possible with intransitive verbs used with prepositions: to account for, to agree upon, to allude to, to arrive at (a conclusion, agreement, decision), to call for, to call upon, to comment upon, to count upon, to depend on (upon), to dispose of, to fire at, to hear of, to insist on (upon), to interfere with, to laugh at, to listen to, to look after, to look at, to look down upon (смотреть на кого-либо сверху вниз), to look up to (смотреть на кого-либо снизу вверх), to provide for, to put up at (остановиться), to put up with (примириться), to read to, to refer to, to rely on, to run over, to send for, to speak about (of), to stare at, to talk about (to, over).

At last an agreement was arrived at.

Her strange behaviour was largely commented upon.

He can be depended upon to keep strict silence.

This is certainly a great inconvenience, but it must be put up with.

The article is often referred to.

Steerforth was looked up to by all the boys.

The composite verb to do away with the preposition with can be used in the Passive Voice.

In our country illiteracy was done away with many years ago.

N o t e. — To send for can be used only in connection with people.

The doctor was sent for.

The secretary will be sent for.

‘Послать за лекарством (книгой)’ should be translated in the following way: to send somebody to fetch the medicine (the book). But we can say: A car (a cab, a taxi) was sent for.

3. The following verbal phraseological units can be used in the Passive Voice: to find fault with (придираться, находить недостатки), to lose sight of (терять из виду), to make fun of, to make use of (использовать), to pay attention to, to put an end to (положить конец), to set fire to, to take notice of, to take care of.

The poor child was always being found fault with.

Soon the boat was lost sight of.

He was exceedingly absent-minded and was always made fun of.203

His remarks were taken no notice of.

The discussion was put an end to by his sudden arrival.

4. Quite peculiar is the case when the subject of the passive predicate corresponds to the Russian adverbial modifier. This is the case with the intransitive verbs to live and to sleep with the preposition in.

The bed was not slept in.

The room is not lived in.

5. There are a number of transitive verbs in English which correspond to intransitive verbs in Russian. They are: to affect, to answer, to assist, to attend, to follow, to help, to influence, to join, to watch. These verbs naturally admit of the passive construction while their Russian equivalents cannot be used in the Passive Voice.

She was greatly affected by the scene.

The report was followed by a discussion.

Walter Scott’s poetry was strongly influenced by the popular ballads.

Such sentences are rendered in Russian by indefinite-personal sentences (неопределенно-личные предложения) unless the doer of the action is mentioned. In the latter case either the Active Voice is used, which occurs rather seldom, or the Passive Voice (consisting of the verb быть + краткая форма причастия страдательного залога).

Не was granted ten days’ leave.

Ему дали десятидневный отпуск.

At last an agreement was arrived at.

Наконец пришли к соглашению.

The bed was not slept in.

В постели не спали.

The poor child was always being found fault with.

К бедному ребенку всегда придирались.

Steerforth was looked up to by all the boys.

Все мальчики смотрели на Стирфорта снизу вверх.

§ 6. The verb to be + Participle II.

The combination to be + Participle II can denote an action, in which case it is a simple predicate expressed by a verb in the Passive Voice. It can also denote a state, then it is a compound nominal predicate consisting of a link’ verb and a predicative.

204

As the director was ill, the documents were signed by his assistant. (Were signed denotes an action.)

When I came, the papers were signed and lay on the secretary’s table. (Were signed denotes a state.)

The compound nominal predicate expressed by the verb to be and Participle II can be translated only by the verb быть + краткая форма причастия страдательного залога. In the Present the verb быть is not used.

The statue is broken.

Статуя разбита.

When I came, the papers were signed and lay on the secretary’s table.

Когда я пришел, документы были подписаны и лежали на столе у секретаря.

The use of tenses is closely connected with these meanings of the combination to be + Participle II.

When I came up to the gate, it was already locked.

Когда я подошел к воротам, они уже были заперты.

(The predicate indicates the state of the gate at a given moment.)

When I came up to the gate, it had already been locked.

Когда я подошел к воротам, их уже заперли.

(The predicate indicates an action completed before a definite moment in the past.)

Don’t try to open the gate. It is locked. (state)

He пытайтесь открыть ворота. Они заперты.

It has just been locked. (action)

Их только что заперли.

It is sometimes difficult to discriminate between the verb to be + Participle II as a simple predicate and as a compound nominal predicate.

1. We have the Passive Voice (simple predicate) in the following cases:

(a) when the doer of the action is indicated (as a rule).

They were thus introduced by Holly. (Galsworthy)

(b) when there is an adverbial modifier of place, frequency and, as a rule, of time.

Pravda is published in Moscow.

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Good books are quickly sold.

The documents were signed a few minutes ago.

(c) when the verb is used in the Continuous or in the Perfect form.

Some efforts were even then being made to cut this portion of the wreck away. (Dickens)

Ever since that, the cannon business has always been left to an adopted foundling named Andrew Undershaft. (Shaw)

2. We have a compound nominal predicate in the following cases:

(a) usually when the verb to be is in the Present or Past Perfect Inclusive and the notional verb admits of the Continuous form.

Why don’t you go and take the documents? They are ready. They have been typed these two hours.

Документы готовы. Уже два часа как они напечатаны.

Our things had been packed for two hours and we were impatiently pacing up and down the room when at last we heard the sound of wheels.

Вещи уже два часа как были упакованы, и мы в нетерпении ходили взад и вперед по комнате, когда наконец услышали стук колес.

(b) when Participle II denotes a state of mind. In this case the predicate is compound even if there is an object introduced by the preposition by. This object does not denote the doer of an action but the cause of the state.

He was frightened by the remark.

He was oppressed by a sense of loneliness.

When these criteria cannot be applied the context itself helps to decide whether the predicate is a simple or a compound nominal one.

Litertaure.

1. В. Л. КАУШАНСКАЯ, Р. Л. КОВНЕР, О. Н. КОЖЕВНИКОВА,Е. В. ПРОКОФЬЕВА, 3. М. РАЙНЕС, С. Е. СКВИРСКАЯ, Ф. Я. ЦЫРЛИНА ГРАММАТИКА АНГЛИЙСКОГО ЯЗЫКА, ПОСОБИЕ ДЛЯ СТУДЕНТОВ ПЕДАГОГИЧЕСКИХ ИНСТИТУТОВ, ГОСУДАРСТВЕННОЕ УЧЕБНО-ПЕДАГОГИЧЕСКОЕ ИЗДАТЕЛЬСТВО МИНИСТЕРСТВА ПРОСВЕЩЕНИЯ РСФСР ЛЕНИНГРАДСКОЕ ОТДЕЛЕНИЕ, Ленинград 1963.

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THE PASSIVE VOICE

Formation and the system of forms in the passive voice§ 65. The active voice has no special means of formation. It is recognized by contrast with the

passive voice, which is composed of the auxiliary verb to be and participle II. Thus the passive verb forms are analytical, the tense of the auxiliary verb to be varies according to the sense. The notional verb (participle II) remains unchanged and provides the whole analytical form with its passive meaning.

The category of voice applies to the whole system of English verb forms, both finite and non-finite.

Table II

The voice forms of the verbPerfect Tense The active voice The Passive Voice

Aspect Present Past Future Present Past Future

Non-perfect

Common takes took will take is taken was taken will be taken

Continuous is taking was taking will be taking is being taken

was being taken

-----------

Perfect

Common has taken had taken will have taken

has been taken

had been taken

will have been taken

Continuous has been taking

had been taking

will have been taking ------------- ----------- -----------

The use of tense, aspect and perfect forms in the passive voice§ 67. As seen from table II, verbs in the passive voice may acquire almost all the aspect, tense

and perfect forms that occur in the active voice, except for the future continuous and perfect continuous forms.

The examples below illustrate the use of the passive voice in different aspect, tense and perfect forms.

Common aspect, non-perfectStudents are examined twice a year.

They were examined in June.

They will be examined next Friday.

Continuous aspect, non-perfectDon’t be noisy! Students are being examined.

The students were being examined when the Professor came.

Common aspect, perfectOur students have already been examined.

They had been examined by 2 o’clock.

Everybody will have been examined by 3 o’clock.

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The passive voice of different verbs§ 68. The passive voice in English may be found with different types of verbs (mostly

transitive) in various verb phrases; monotransitive (non-prepositional and prepositional) and ditransitive. The subject of the passive construction may correspond to a direct, an indirect object, or to a prepositional object in the active construction. Accordingly we discriminate a direct passive construction, an indirect passive construction, and a prepositional passive construction.

Monotransitive verbs are numerous and almost all of them can form a direct passive construction. These are the verbs: to take, to do, to make, to build, to discuss, to translate, to hate, to love, to meet and a lot of others.

A new railway is being built near our town. “A Farewell to Arms” was published in 1929. You will be met at the station.

Phrasal transitive verbs, that is, such verbs as to blow up, to bring in, to bring up, to carry out, to put on, to see off, to turn down, etc. are also often used in the passive voice.

The plan was successfully carried out.

The boats are being brought in.

Originally intransitive verbs may form a direct passive construction, as in these examples:

This distance has never been run in five minutes before.

He thought of the lives, that had been lived here for nearly two centuries.

In the vast majority of cases, English transitive verb + object corresponds to the same type in Russian. There are a number of transitive verbs in English, however, which correspond to Russian verbs followed by an indirect or a prepositional object, or sometimes an adverbial modifier. These verbs are:

To answer

To approach

To assist

To address

To admire

To affect

To attend

To believe

To contradict

To enjoy

To enter

to follow

to help

to influence

to join

to need

to obey

to speak

to succeed

to threaten

to trust

to watch

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Sentences with these verbs are rendered in Russian by means of the indefinite personal constructions with the verb in the active voice, or if the doer of the action is mentioned of a personal construction with the verb in the active voice.

We are not trusted, David, but who cares if we are not innocent.

The British bicycle was much admired.

In the spring of 1925 Hemingway was approached by two Americans.

Нам не доверяют...

Этим английским велосипедом восхищались.

Весной 1925 года к Хемингуэю подошли два американца.

A direct passive construction is used in the sentences of the type:1. J. F. Kennedy was elected president in 1960.

The woman was called Brome. We were kept busy most of the time.

The walls were painted blue.

2. He is said (believed, known, reported) to be in town. He was seen to enter the museum.

He was seen leaving the museum.

3. The direct passive of verbs of speech, mental activity, and perception is used in complex sentences with the formal subject it.

It was suggested

It was reported

that he was still in town.

It was said

It was believed

It was known

It was settled

that we should meet once more.

Restrictions to the use of the passive voice1. Though in many cases there is an evident correspondence of the active and the passive

voice construction it is by no means a one-to-one correspondence. There is a certain group of monotransitive verbs which are never used in the passive voice at all, or in some of their meanings; they are: to have, to lack, to become, to fit, to suit, to resemble.

There are semantic reasons for this constraint, as these verbs denote not an action or process, but a state or relation.

209

John resembles his father. (John looks like his father.)

He lacks confidence. (There is no confidence in him.) Will this suit you? (Will it be suitable for you?)

The verb to hold can be used in the passive voice only with reference to human activity; for example: The conference was held in April. However, in a sentence like The auditorium holds 5000 people the verb does not denote human activity. The sentence means There can be 5000 people in this auditorium.

2. No passive construction is possible, if the object is a that-clause, an infinitive or a gerund.John said that everything was all right.

John enjoyed seeing his native town.

Passive constructions with ditransitive verbs§ 69. Ditransitive verbs take two objects, usually one indirect and one direct. Accordingly

they admit of two passive constructions.

The referee gave Mary the first prize .

Mary was given the first prize by the referee.

The first prize was given to Mary by the referee.

The subject of the first passive construction (Mary) corresponds to the indirect object of the active construction, and the construction is therefore called the indirect passive construction. The direct object (the first prize) is retained unchanged after the passive verb and therefore, is called the retained object.

The subject of the second passive construction corresponds to the direct object of the active construction. In this case the indirect object becomes a prepositional one. The preposition to may be omitted.

The agentive by-object corresponding to the subject of the active construction is very rarely used in either type of construction. Of the two passive constructions the indirect passive is by far the most common. As there is no indirect passive construction in Russian, sentences with this construction are translated into Russian by means of the indefinite personal construction with the indirect object in the front position.You will be given another ticket.

I was allowed an hour’s rest.

Вам дадут другой билет.

Мне разрешили отдохнуть один час.

The indirect passive construction gives greater prominence to the direct object, whereas the direct passive construction emphasizes the indirect object: The first prize was given to Mary implies that it was not given to anybody else. The construction may be translated in two ways, by an indefinite personal active construction or by a passive construction: Первую премию дали Мэри or Первая премия была дана (присуждена) Мэри.

The presence of the by-object makes it of great communicative value.

I was given this watch by my father. Часы эти мне подарил мои отец.

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The watch was given (to) me by mу father.

Ditransitive verbs used in the passive construction

I II

to allow

to give

to grant

to lend

to offer

to pay

to promise

to teach

to tell

to ask

to answer

to envy

to forgive

to refuse

Verbs in group I follow the usage explained in the previous part of this section. The same refers to group II with the difference that all the verbs of this group are followed by two direct objects, though in the passive the difference is not so distinct.

I was asked a lot of questions.

Restrictions on the use of the passive of ditransitive verbs1. The indirect passive is impossible with verbs of benefaction, when the action is performed

for the benefit of somebody.They bought me a dictionary.

The corresponding direct passive is:

They bought a dictionary for me.A dictionary was bought for me.

2. The same applies to the verbs with the obligatory to of the type to explain something to somebody (to describe, to dictate, to suggest, etc.). With these only the direct passive is possible:

The rule was explained to them once more.3. In verb-phrases containing a non-prepositional and a prepositional object only the non-

prepositional passive is possible.

I was told about their victory.

Oliver was accused of theft.

4. The infinitive cannot be used as the subject of the passive construction with a ditransitive verb.

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§ 70. Passive constructions with prepositional monotransitive verbs

Active:

Passive:

The man referred to this book.

This book was referred to by the man.

In the passive construction the subject of the prepositional passive construction corresponds to the object of the active construction and denotes the receiver of the action. The peculiarity of the construction is that the preposition sticks to the verb.

Most verbs of this type denote the process of speaking, mental and physical perception.

The prepositional passive construction has no equivalent in Russian and is translated by an indefinite personal active construction.

Caroline was also still being talked about.

Не had never been spoken to that way in his life.

He’s well spoken of as a man of science.

О Кэролайн тоже все еще продолжали говорить.

С ним так никогда в жизни не разговаривали.

О нем хорошо отзываются как об ученом.

When the prepositional passive construction contains a modal verb, an impersonal active construction is used in Russian.

These pictures must be looked at again and again with sustained attention before they completely reveal their beauty.

На эти картины надо смотреть снова и снова с неослабевающим вниманием, прежде чем полностью раскроется их красота.

Here are some of the most important prepositional monotransitive verbs:I II III

to account for

to agree upon

to appeal to

to call on

to comment on (upon)

to deal with

to decide on

to depend (up)on

to dispose of

to dwell upon

to hear of

to insist on

to catch sight of

to lose sight of

to find fault with

to make fun of

to make a fuss of

to make use of

to pay attention to

to put an end (a stop) to

to put up with

to set fire to

to take notice of

to take advantage of

to arrive at

to come to

to live in

to sleep in

to sit in (on)

212

to interfere with

to laugh at

to listen to

to look at

to look for

to look into

to object to

to pay for

to provide for

to put up with

to read to

to refer to

to rely on

to send for

to speak about (of)

to speak to

to talk about (of)

to think about (of)

to touch upon

to wait for

to wonder at

to take care of

Group I in the list contains the majority (but not all) of prepositional transitive verbs. The list could be continued, for a number of verbs of the kind are used occasionally, but the pattern itself is very productive.

Some prepositional monotransitive verbs have non-prepositional equivalents, e.g. to account for is a synonym for to explain, to look on - to regard, to speak (talk) about - to discuss.

Your absence must be accounted for. = Your absence must be explained.

Group II contains phraseological units based on the fusion of a monotransitive verb and a noun as direct object. These units express one notion and function as prepositional verbs. Many of them have synonyms among monotransitive verbs, prepositional and non-prepositional:

to take care of

to find fault with

- to look after, to tend;

- to grumble at, about, to criticize;

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to put an end to

to put up with

to make fun of

- to stop;

- to reconcile oneself to;

- to laugh at, to mock.

Like single prepositional verbs the phraseological units with the verb in the passive voice are usually rendered in Russian by means of indefinite personal or impersonal constructions.In hospital patients are taken great care of.

The boy was the only child and was made a

lot of fuss of.

I’m not prepared to think that I’m being made

a fool of.

В госпитале за больными хорошо ухаживают.

Мальчик был единственным ребенком в семье, и с ним много возились.

Мне не хочется думать, что меня дурачат.

Sometimes a phraseological unit is split and the original direct object becomes the subject of the passive construction (the direct passive).

No notice was taken of the boy at first. - Сначала мальчика не замечали.

Group III contains a short list of intransitive verbs used with prepositional nominal groups functioning as prepositional objects or adverbial modifiers. These may form passive constructions by analogy with other verbs used with prepositions:

No conclusion was arrived at.

His bed hasn’t been slept in.

Such a dress can’t be sat down in.

He пришли ни к какому заключению.

В его постели не спали. (Она не смята)

В таком платье нельзя садиться.

The use of the passive voice§ 71. The passive voice is widely used in English. It is used alongside the active voice in

written and spoken English. Passive constructions are often used instead of active constructions in sentences beginning with an indefinite pronoun, a noun or a pronoun of indefinite reference.

Somebody left the dog in the garden.

Has anybody answered your questions?

People will laugh at you for your trouble.

They told me to go away.

= The dog was left in the garden.

= Have your questions been answered?

= You will be laughed at for your trouble.

= I was told to go away.

It is evident that in the process of speech passive constructions arise naturally, not as a result of conversion from the active into the passive.

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A passive construction is preferable in case when the speaker is interested in what happens to the person or thing denoted by the subject. The verb or the whole verb phrase is thus made more prominent. The agent or the source of the action is not mentioned at all, either because it is unknown or because it is of no particular importance in the utterance, or else it is evident from the context or the situation. The predicate verb with its modifiers contains a new and most important item of information and is of great communicative value.

We were brought up together.

I am always being contradicted.

Thank you for your help, but it is no longer required.

You will be met as you leave the airport, and you will be given another ticket.

There are a number of conventional expressions where the passive voice is constantly used.

The novel was published in 1929.

Shakespeare was born in 1564.

The use of the agentive by-object

§ 72. The use of the agentive by-object is highly restricted, it occurs in one case out of five, and even less frequently in colloquial speech and imaginative prose. However, when it does occur, the by-object is of great communicative value, and its elimination would often make the meaning of the verb incomplete and the sentence devoid of meaning.

The agent may be a living being, or any thing or notion that can be the source of the action.

The whole scene was being enacted by puppets.

In some areas the picture has been barely touched by the brush.

I was wounded by a landmine.

The distant mountain had been formed by fire and water.

How much was she influenced by that fake idea?

Besides a noun and very rarely a pronoun, a by-object may be a gerundial phrase or complex, or a subordinate clause.

I was then awakened only by knocking on the window and Annie telling the person responsible to go off.

She didn’t really know anything about people, she was always being taken in by what they told her.

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Owing to its communicative value and the final position in the sentence, the by-object may be expanded, if necessary, to an extent that is hardly possible in the subject group, as in this commentary on Cezanne's painting:

“The Card Players.” The subject of this painting of two peasants playing cards was probably inspired by a similar composition by one of the brothers de Pack, French painters of the seventeenth century whose work Cezanne admired.

Literature.

1. Н. А. Кобрина, Е. А. Корнеева, М. И. Оссовская, К. А. Гузеева Грамматика английского языка: Морфология. Синтаксис. Учебное пособие для студентов педагогических институтов и университетов по специальности «Иностранные языки», СПб, СОЮЗ, 1999.-496с.

Theme 11. The specificity of lexical means of texts on speciality. Coincidence and divergence of meanings of international words. False friends of translator. The Sequence of Tenses.Topic: Environmental Problems in Today’s World

FALSE FRIENDS OF TRANSLATOR There are words in the source and target languages which are more or less similar in form.

Such words are of great interest to the translator since he is naturally inclined to take this formal similarity for the semantic proximity and to regard the words that look alike as permanent equivalents.

The formal similarity is usually the result of the two words having the common origin, mainly derived from either Greek or Latin. Since such words can be found in a number of languages, they are referred to as “international”.

As a matter of fact, very few international words have the same meanings in different languages. In respect to English and Ukrainian we can cite the words like the English “parliament, theorem, diameter” and their Ukrainian counterparts „парламент, теорема, діаметр“. In most cases, however, the semantics of such words in English and in Ukrainian do not coincide and they should rather be named “pseudo-international”. Their formal similarity suggesting that they are interchangeable, is, therefore, deceptive and may lead to translation errors. For that reason they are often referred to as the translator’s false friends.

The term ‘translator’s false friends’ (les faux amis) was introduced by the French theorists of translation M. Koessler and J. Derocquigny in 1928. This term means a word that has the same or similar form in the source and target languages but another meaning in the target language. Translators’ false friends result from transferring the sounds of a source language word literally into the target language. P. Newmark calls them deceptive cognates, as their meanings are different and they can easily confuse the target text receptor. Misleading words are mostly international, or it is better to say that they are pseudointernational. They are loan words that can be borrowed from the source text but have developed their own meanings in the target texts. For example, interview = ‘a series of questions in a formal situation in order to obtain information about a person’; интервью = a journalist’s questioning some

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public figure in order to be published in mass media’. Or they can have the same origin of the third language (mainly Greek and Latin) and be borrowed both into the source and target languages: aspirant = ‘a person who has great ambition, desires strongly, strives toward an end, aims at’; аспирант = ‘a graduate student’. Sometimes the form similarity can be accidental: herb = ‘an aromatic plant used in medicine or as seasoning’; герб = ‘an object or representation that functions as a symbol’. Reference to some ‘false friends’ can be found in some dictionaries, like a special dictionary of ‘false friends’ or Cambridge International Dictionary of English. ‘False friends’ could be called interlanguage synonyms, homonyms and paronyms. Interlanguage synonyms are words that coincide in one or more meanings. However, beside similar meanings, they have some special meanings. For example, concert – концерт. Both words have the meaning of ‘a musical performance’, but the English word has the second meaning: ‘agreement in purpose, feeling, or action’. The Russian one has acquired a generic meaning of ‘any performance (reciting, drama extracts, etc.)’. Thus they can be equivalents in only the first meaning and somewhat erroneous in their second meaning. Interlanguage homonyms are words that have no common meanings, like accord – аккорд. The English word means ‘agreement, harmony; a settlement or compromise of conflicting opinions; a settlement of points at issue between the nations. The Russian word is more specific, meaning ‘musical chord’. Interlanguage paronyms are words with similar but not identical sound, and with different meanings. The case can be illustrated by example – экземпляр. The Russian word denotes ‘a copy’, whereas the English indicates ‘a representative of a group as a whole; a case serving as a model or precedent for another that is the same or similar’. When compared in the source and target texts, translators’ false friends can differ semantically, syntactically, stylistically, and pragmatically.Semantic difference presupposes the following oppositions:generic vs. specific meaning: actual (real, existing in fact) – актуальный (topical); моторист (air-fitter; machinist) – motorist (one who drives or travels in an automobile). monosemantic vs. polysemantic: галантный (couth) – gallant (1. Showy and gay in appearance, dress, or bearing a gallant feathered hat; 2. Stately, majestic; 3.high-spirited and courageous gallant soldiers; 4. Attentive to women, chivalrous, flirtatious.) different connotation (positive vs. negative): aggressive (determined to win or succeed) – агрессивный (inclined to act in a hostile fashion) Structural difference leads to different word combinations: comfortable – комфортабельный have the same meaning ‘producing a feeling of physical relaxation’. But in English this word is combined with the noun income (comfortable income), and in Russian this combination is impossible – the English expression has the equivalent of хороший доход. Likewise, sympathetic – симпатичный, but sympathetic strike – забастовка солидарности. impossibility of calque translation: ходячая энциклопедия – walking library. In this case idiomatic meanings are expressed by different structures. multi-component phrase vs. one-word structure: аудитория читателей – readership, readers. Stylistic difference results in stylistic overtone of the words: neutral vs. emotionally colored words: ambition (stylistically neutral) – амбиция (often negative); protection (neutral) – протекция (bookish) modern vs. archaic: depot – депо (in the meaning of ‘a building where supplies are kept’) common word vs. term: essence – эссенция (vinegar). Pragmatic difference implies the different associations a word carries for various groups of people, nations, etc. For example, when saying “Моя мама родилась через два года после революции”, a Russian person will definitely mean the Russian Revolution of 1917. S/he might be misunderstood by an American for whom the word ‘revolution’ is associated with American Revolution. The same with the common Russian expression после войны: Он поступил в институт сразу после войны. Probably, it will take time and effort for an American to

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associate the event with World War II, since America also knew the Korean and Vietnam wars in this century.

Literature.1. Прошина З.Г. ТЕОРИЯ ПЕРЕВОДА (с английского языка на русский и с русского языка на английский): Уч. на англ. яз. – Владивосток: Изд-во Дальневост. ун-та, 2008 (3-е изд., перераб.), 2002 (2-е изд., испр. и перераб.), 1999 (1-е изд.) ISBN 5-7444-0957-2

THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES

§ 1. The sequence of tenses is a certain dependence of the tense of the verb in a subordinate clause on that of the verb in the principal clause: if the verb in the principal clause is in one of the past tenses, a past tense (or future in the past) must be used in the subordinate clause. The rule is generally observed in object clauses (a more detailed treatment of the question will be found in § 7, 9, 10).

I thought you had better sense. (Dreiser)

I always thought it would come to this.

N o t e. — It is implied in the rule of the sequence of tenses that if a present or future tense is used in the principal clause, any tense required by the sense can be used in the subordinate clause: I’ve seen which way the wind is blowing. (Dreiser)

§ 2. If the past action expressed in the subordinate clause is simultaneous with that expressed in the principal clause, the Past Indefinite or the Past Continuous is used in the subordinate clause:

I thought you had more courage than this. (Dreiser)

Я думал, что у вас больше мужества.

Не looked at Cowperwood and saw at once... that the latter was preparing a big fight of some sort. (Dreiser)

Он посмотрел на Каупервуда и сразу понял, что тот замышляет какой-то бой.

If the past action expressed in the subordinate clause is prior to that expressed in the principal clause, the Past Perfect is used in the subordinate clause:

He knew that she (Hetty) had not had time to read the letter. (Eliot)

Он знал, что она еще не успела прочесть письмо.

If the action expressed in the subordinate clause lasted a certain time before the action expressed in the principal clause, the Past Perfect Continuous or the Past Perfect Inclusive is used in the subordinate clause.

He realized that the old life he had lived in that city since boyhood was ended. (Dreiser)

Он понял, что та жизнь, которой он жил в этом городе с детства, окончилась.

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If the action expressed in the subordinate clause is posterior to that of the principal clause the Future in the Past is used.

He knew they would read the book the following year. (FUTURE INDEFINITE IN THE PAST)

He knew they would be reading when she came. (FUTURE CONTINUOUS IN THE PAST)

He knew they would have read the book by the 1st of June. (FUTURE PERFECT IN THE PAST)

Occasionally we find examples of should being used with the 3rd person and would with the 1st. This generally occurs when the speaker wants to preserve the same verb that was used by the original speaker.

See! Here’s his writing; I made him put it down this morning when he told me he shouldn’t be back before I came here. (Dickens)

He asked me if there wasn’t any hope that I would change. (Webster)

§ 3. If there are several subordinate clauses in a sentence, the rule of the sequence of tenses is observed in all of them.

As the weeks went by... he began to believe that she had been able to think of her girlish fancy that Arthur was in love with her and would marry her as a folly of which she was timely cured. (Eliot)

§ 4. The rule of the sequence of tenses also holds good when a past tense is used in a subordinate clause to which other clauses are subordinated.

She says he knew they would never return. (Bennett)

He said he was sure you were in.

§ 5. It should be noted that the rule of the sequence of tenses is observed after verbals if they depend on a finite verb in the past tense:

Cowperwood stood by his desk... wondering where he should get one hundred thousand dollars. (Dreiser)

§ 6. In Russian, the tense of the verb in the subordinate clause does not depend on the tense of the verb in the principal clause.

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TENSES USED IN ENGLISH AND RUSSIAN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES AFTER A PAST TENSE IN THE PRINCIPAL CLAUSE

ENGLISH RUSSIAN

Past Indefinite Present

I knew she played the piano every day. Я знал, что она играет (играла) на рояле каждый день.

Past Continuous Present

I knew she was playing the piano and did not want to disturb her.

Я знал, что она играет (играла) на рояле, и не хотел ее беспокоить.

Past Perfect Past

I knew she had played the piano at the evening party.

Я знал, что она играла на рояле на вечере.

Past Perfect Continuous

(Past Perfect Inclusive)

Present

(in affirmative sentences)

I knew she had been playing (had played) the piano for two hours.

Я знал, что она играет (играла) на рояле два часа.

Past Perfect Past (in negative sentences)

I knew she had not played the piano for a long time.

Я знал, что она давно не играла (не играет) на рояле.

Past Perfect Continuous

Exclusive

Past

I knew she had been playing the piano. Я знал, что она играла на рояле.

Future in the Past Future

I knew she would play the piano at the evening party.

Я знал, что она будет играть на рояле на вечере.

§ 7. The main sphere where the sequence of tenses is applied is object clauses.

Harris said he knew what kind of place I meant. (Jerome)

The sequence of tenses is not observed if the object clause expresses a general truth:

The pupils knew that water consists of oxygen and hydrogen.

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In political language a present tense is often used in the object clause after a past tense in the principal clause.

The speaker said that the peoples want peace.

The sequence of tenses is often not observed if something is represented as habitual, customary, or characteristic.

He asked the guard what time the train usually starts. (Curme)

He did not seem to know that nettles sting. (Curme)

§ 8. In conventional direct speech the tenses are used according to the same principle which governs their uses in complex sentences with a principal clause and an object clause, though there is no principal clause.

She put her hands up to her ears; it was because there were . some thin gold rings in them, which were also worth a little money. Yes, she could surely get some money for her ornaments. The landlord and landlady had been good to her; perhaps they would help her to get the money for these things. But this money would not keep her long; what should she do when it was gone? (Eliot)

§ 9. The sequence of tenses does not concern attributive relative clauses and adverbial clauses of cause, result, comparison, and concession (if the verb stands in the Indicative Mood).

I didn’t go out of the shop door, but at the back door, which opens into a narrow alley. (Eliot)

He didn’t go to the cinema last night because he will have an exam tomorrow.

She worked so much yesterday that she is feeling quite weak today.

Last year he worked more than he does this year.

He insisted on going to the library yesterday, though he will not want the book today.

§ 10. The sequence of tenses is generally observed in subject clauses and predicative clauses:

What he would do was of no importance.

The question was what he would do next.

It is also observed in appositive attributive clauses:

She had a sickening sense that life would go on in this way. (Eliot)

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Literature.

1. В. Л. КАУШАНСКАЯ, Р. Л. КОВНЕР, О. Н. КОЖЕВНИКОВА,Е. В. ПРОКОФЬЕВА, 3. М. РАЙНЕС, С. Е. СКВИРСКАЯ, Ф. Я. ЦЫРЛИНА ГРАММАТИКА АНГЛИЙСКОГО ЯЗЫКА, ПОСОБИЕ ДЛЯ СТУДЕНТОВ ПЕДАГОГИЧЕСКИХ ИНСТИТУТОВ, ГОСУДАРСТВЕННОЕ УЧЕБНО-ПЕДАГОГИЧЕСКОЕ ИЗДАТЕЛЬСТВО МИНИСТЕРСТВА ПРОСВЕЩЕНИЯ РСФСР ЛЕНИНГРАДСКОЕ ОТДЕЛЕНИЕ, Ленинград 1963

THE SEQUENCE OF TENSESThe rules of the sequence of tenses are one of the peculiarities of English. The sequence of

tenses is a dependence of the tense form of the predicate in a subordinate clause on the tense form of the predicate in its principal clause. The rules mainly concern object clauses depending on principal clauses with the predicate verb in one of the past tenses, though it holds true also for some other subordinate clauses (such as subject, predicative and appositive ones).

The rules are as follows:

1) a present (or future) tense in the principal clause may be followed by any tense in the subordinate object clause:

1. I know

I say

I am just saying

I have always known

I’ve just been telling her

I shall tell her

(that) he plays tennis well.

he is playing tennis in the park.

he has played two games today.

he has been playing tennis since morning.

he played tennis yesterday.

he was playing tennis when the storm began.

he had played two games before the storm began.

he had been playing tennis for some time when the storm began.

he will play tennis in summer.

he will be playing tennis all day long.

he will have played some games before you return.

he will have been playing tennis for some time before you come.

2) a past tense in the principal clause is followed by a past tense in the subordinate object clause.

I knew (that) he played tennis well.

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I said

I was just saying

I had never known

She had been telling

he was playing tennis in the park.

he had played two games that day.

he had been playing tennis since morning.

he had played tennis the day before.

he had been playing when the storm began.

he had played two games before the storm.

he had been playing tennis for some time before the storm.

he would play tennis in summer.

he would be playing tennis all day long.

he would have played some games by the time you returned.

he would have been playing tennis for more than an hour before you came.

Thus the past indefinite or the past continuous tense in the subordinate clause denotes an action, simultaneous with that of the pripcipal clause. They are translated into Russian by the present tense.

For a moment she did not know where she was.

Joanna noticed suddenly that I was not listening.

Had she not hinted what was troubling her?

He had thought it was his own son.

People had been saying he was a madman.

My first thought was where they were now.

The past perfect or the past perfect continuous in the subordinate clause denotes an action prior to that of the principal clause. Both of these forms are translated into Russian by the past tense.

I perceived that something had happened.

I wasn’t going to tell her that Megan had rung me up.

I knew well enough what she had been doing.

Up to that moment I had not realized what they had been trying to prove.

The fact was that his sister Rose had married beneath her.

She had a feeling that she had been deceived.

The future in the past tenses in the subordinate clause denote an action following that of the principal clause.

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I hoped she would soon be better.

I told Caroline that I should be dining at Fernley.

What she would say or do did not bother him.

The fact remained that none of us would see them till late at night.

The sudden thought that Nell would not come at all flashed through his head.

The fact that the action of the subordinate clause follows that of the action in the principal clause may be also indicated by other means.

She said she was going to see him the same night.

The rules of the sequence of tenses concern subordinate clauses dependent not only on the predicate of the principal clause but also on any part expressed by a verb or verbal:

I received from her a letter saying that she was passing through Paris and would like to have a chat with me.

She smiled again, sure that I should come up.She turned her head slightly, well aware that he was watching her.

In complex sentences containing more than two subordinate clauses the choice of the tense form for each of them depends on the tense form of the clause to which it is subordinated:

I guess you told him where they had come from and why they were hiding.

As far as I can see he did not realize that very soon all would be over.Besides the complex sentences described above the rules of the sequence of tenses are also

found in all types of clauses and simple sentences reproducing inner speech (conventional direct speech).

As already stated the rules of the sequence of tenses concern object, subject and predicative clauses. In all the other clauses (attributive and adverbial ones) the use of tenses depends wholly on the sense to be conveyed:

Clyde thought of all the young and thoughtless company of which he had been a part.He lifted the heavy latch which held the large iron gate in place.

She only liked men who are good-looking.

I was thinking of the day which will come only too soon.

He was standing where the creek turns sharply to the east.

At the moment he was standing where he always had stood, on the rug before the living-room fire.

She felt gay as he had promised to take her to the pictures.

You see, I could not follow them as I’m rather shy.

Mr. Direck’s broken wrist healed sooner than he desired.

He knew the job better than I do.

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She had been a wife for even less time than you have.

In my youth life was not the same as it is now.

The rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed in the following cases:

1) when the subordinate clause describes the so-called general truth, or something which the speaker thinks to be one.

Up to then Roy never realized that our Solar system is but a tiny speck in the infinite Universe.

The other day I read in a book that everything alive consists mostly of water.

She was very young and - and ignorant of what life really is.2) when the subordinate clause describes actions referring to the actual present, future, or past

time, which usually occurs in dialogues or in newspaper, radio, or TV reports.

Margaret, I was saying to you - and I beg you to listen to me – that as far as I have known Mrs. Erlynne, she has conducted herself well.

“Before the flier crashed,” the operator said ten minutes later, “he gave me information. He told me there are still a few men alive in these mountains.”

I did not know he will be here tomorrow.

3) when the predicate verb of the subordinate clause is one of the modal verbs having no past tense forms.

She said I must come at once.

I thought you should come too.

Literature.

1. Н. А. Кобрина, Е. А. Корнеева, М. И. Оссовская, К. А. Гузеева Грамматика английского языка: Морфология. Синтаксис. Учебное пособие для студентов педагогических институтов и университетов по специальности «Иностранные языки», СПб, СОЮЗ, 1999.-496с.

Environmental Problems in Today’s World Man should carefully study the impact of his activity on the surrounding nature. The

ecological problem is not simply the environmental pollution problem, but the problem of turning man's uncontrolled impact on nature into a purposeful and planned interaction with the latter.

Some scientists say that human civilization will perish as a result of environmental pollution and depletion of non-renewable natural resources.

The rational utilization of resources and the conservation of nature are a matter of state policy in many countries. All the problems concerning the interaction of man and nature are now of international importance.

The pollution of the Ocean by one particular country affects fishing in the other countries. The Chernobyl disaster was felt in Belorussia, Tula region and even in Scandinavia. So many ecological problems are global problems and can be solved by efforts of all countries.

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The ecological problem is one of the pressing problems of our days. It is closely linked to the problems of economic growth, progress in science and technology, natural resources, energy and food supply. An increasing influence on nature and the application of new technological processes may cause catastrophic results.

The accumulation of C02 in the atmosphere, as well as of aerosols, has increased globally by 20 %. The formation of C02 layer around the Earth may transform our blue planet into enormous greenhouse and may cause an increase in temperature and raise the level of water in the oceans. The pollution of the environment through chemical, physical and biological agents, together with he increases in ionizing radiation produce mutagenic influence and cause genetic defects.

A modern economy is impossible without the concentration of chemicals. We may say that life without chemistry is impossible at present.

On the one hand, chemical industry is making life easier, more comfortable, on the other, it is associated by many people with the environmental pollution. For instance, modern agriculture needs fertilizers, insecticides, pesticides. These chemicals help solve the problem of feeding the population on the Globe. But at the same time these chemicals may destroy the flora and fauna. They yield new types of waste products that pollute air, water and soil.

One kilogram of polymer constructional material can replace 4 to 5 kg of ferrous metals, the production of one ton of plastic parts requires 2 to 3 times less energy than for the production of metal parts. Such features of polymers as their long durability and resistance to high temperature are needed for the structural materials. But the same qualities may make plastics the cause of environmental pollution. Plastics contribute to our waste disposal problem, because they are non-degradable and remain undecomposed indefinitely. Of all domestic wastes the greatest trouble is given by plastics. They cannot be burned, they only melt and release a smoke which poisons the air. Higher concentrations of heavy metals in the soil pollute it, result in disappearing some species of plants and animals. So chemistry should work out environmentally safe chemical products, low-waste or waste-free technology, watersaving methods new recycling processes, and create new ways for waste utilization. Some waste can be treated by microbes, because some microbes may be considered as a chemical plant. This is a new trend in technology.

Not long ago scientists have grown microbes that are, destroy the plastic. Some plastics may be exposed to UV radiation. The polymer chains that form plastics do not normally break apart when exposed to UV light. If light-sensitive linking molecules are inserted, the polymer chains unzip in sunlight and the plastic disintegrates.

The most promising way to solve the problem of clean air is to improve technology, because the cleaning systems are complex and costly.

In conclusion, it may be summarized that environmental protection is a solution of waste disposal problems and educational activity among people.

Literature.1. Алимов Вячеслав Вячеславович, Артемьева Юлия Вячеславовна Общественно-политический перевод: Практический курс переводf: Учебное пособие. Изд. 3-е. — М.: Книжный дом ≪ЛИБРОКОМ≫, 2009. — 272 с.

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS IN TODAY’S WORLD        Some people say that we should invest money in ecology projects, while others believe

that nature is doing well by itself.The earth is the only planet that people can live on, but nowadays they seem to be doing everything to make their home unfit for living. Industrialization has brought us into conflict with the natural environment. Our pl^get is in danger; air, water and land pollution have disastrous consequences which threaten human life on Earth.

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I strongly feel that the more money is invested in ecology projects, the better our lives are going to be. People have technologies to make our planet cleaner: we can control pollution, recycle waste materials, protect rare animals and plants and install antipollution equipment. We need more disaster-prevention programs in order to control environmental pollution, fight the destruction of wildlife and preserve woodlands. There should be more organizations like Greenpeace that will help protect the animal world and stop environmental degradation. Such organizations influence public opinion and help form a correct attitude to nature. There should be more newspaper articles, TV-programs and science-popular films about ecological problems. They help people become environment-educated.However, many people still believe that nature is doing well by itself. They use natural resources and pollute the environment, but they don't think how awful the consequences may be. I'm sure that nature can't do without our help. If we want to breathe fresh air, to drink clean water and to eat healthy food, we must stop polluting the environment.To conclude, ecological problems concern everybody and there are ways to solve them. People must always remember that the earth is our home and it depends on us what it will be like.

 Many people think that they can't solve the world's environmental problems on their own and that the government and big companies must care about these problems. However, others say that individuals can do much to help the environment.Our planet is in danger: air, water and land pollution have disastrous consequences which threaten human life on Earth. Most people are convinced that something must be done to stop pollution, but they don't know if they can help.In my opinion, much can be done by an average citizen. People have to be smart about such things as driving a car or using electricity. Whenever we drive a car, we are adding greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. To make our planet cleaner and to use less energy we can try carpooling. That is when three people ride together in one car instead of driving three cars to work. We can also use public transport, ride a bike, or walk. People can save electricity by turning off lights, our TV-set and computer. We can use less washing up liquids to keep the water clean. We can also plant trees, collect litter and recycle cans, bottles, plastic bags and newspapers. Besides, we can buy products that don't use much energy.But a lot of people still think that there is little they can do to help the environment. They are sure that it is the duty of the government and big companies to make our planet cleaner: to recycle waste materials, to protect rare animals and plants, to install antipollution equipment and so on. But they are wrong. Everybody must take part in reducing pollution.To conclude, if we want to be healthy, to drink clean water and to breathe fresh air, we should take care of the environment and help improve our lives on Earth.

 There is a lot of discussion about the destruction of rain forests. Some people don't care about this problem, while others feel that the rain forest must be preserved.Nowadays rainforests occupy a relatively small area. One can find them in South America and Indonesia, in Thailand and Sri Lanka. Worryingly, rainforests are disappearing at an alarming rate owing to deforestation, river pollution and soil erosion. Quite a lot of people still don't know what effect the destruction of the rainforest may have on the world climate.To my mind, tropical rainforests are very important for our planet because they are home to a great variety of plants, insects, birds and animals. Tropical rainforests are called the "world's largest pharmacy" because a lot of natural medicines have been discovered there. More than half of the world's species of plants and animals are found in rainforests. They also offer a way of life to many people living in and around the forest. What is more, rainforests are the lungs of our planet because they produce a significant amount of the world's oxygen.Unfortunately, rainforests continue disappearing. Some people say that we need more land for agriculture and more trees for timber. They continue killing animals and picking up herbs and rare flowers. Rainforests also have value as tourism destinations. But the increasing number of tourists may damage the local environment. I strongly feel that people must be careful with

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nature.To conclude, if people want to be healthy and to live happily on Earth, they must preserve rainforests. I think that governments must work together with environmentalists to fight deforestation and to prevent the disappearance of "the lungs of our planet".

 Everybody understands that we should recycle our waste. However, most people continue disposing of it in the usual way.Recycling is an important issue nowadays. Unfortunately, people have always polluted their surroundings. The development of big industrial cities has led to the concentration of huge amounts of waste into small areas. Disposal of waste has become a major problem. When rubbish is burnt, this pollutes the atmosphere. When it is buried in landfill sites, it can cause pollution of water supplies. So the obvious solution of this problem is recycling.I strongly feel that everybody can help recycle waste by collecting litter and by sorting rubbish into different categories. Paper, glass and plastic can be sold to recycling companies. Recycled waste can be made into new products and it can help save natural resources. Some waste can also be used to produce electricity or to make soil for growing fruit and vegetables. In my opinion, it would be great if recycling centres paid people for the rubbish they brought in.But in spite of all the advantages of recycling, there is still a lot of waste everywhere. Many people don't want to sort their rubbish. Some areas still have plenty of landfill space and no recycling centres. They find it rather expensive to transport materials for recycling to big cities. To my mind, there must be more recycling centres not only in big cities, but in small towns as well. Besides, people should be educated about the importance of recycling.In general, recycling is good for the environment. What is more, it is an interesting and profitable business. If everybody made a small effort to improve their local environment, pollution would be reduced gradually and the global situation would improve.

Literature.1. Юнева С.А. Открывая мир с английском языком. 150 эссе для ЕГЭ. – Москва: «Интеллект-Центр», 2011. – 88с.

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