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Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Effect of Pozzolana on the Compressive Strength of
Concrete in Chemically Aggressive Environment 1Aka, A., 2Musa, A. A., 3Kaase, E.T. and 4Tukur, A. 1 Department of Building, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger State. 2, 3 and 4 Department of Building, Waziri Umaru Federal Polytechnic, Birnin Kebbi, Kebbi State.
Corresponding E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract Concrete deteriorates considerably when exposed to aggressive chemicals such as sulphates and acids.
Incorporation of pozzolana to concrete can ameliorate its effectiveness in these chemicals but this has to be
experimentally established. This paper therefore investigates the effect of pozzolana; (rice husk ash (RHA),
powdered burnt brick (PBB) and saw dust ash (SDA)) on the compressive strength of concrete in chemically
aggressive environment. This was achieved by partially replacing concrete with 10 percent (%) of each
pozzolana to produce three different concrete samples. Samples of 100% concrete were equally produced to
serve as the control. The quantities of cement, fine aggregate and coarse aggregate used for the production of
the specimens were obtained through absolute volume method of calculation. A mix ratio of 1: 2: 4 with water-
cement (w/c) ratio of 0.65 was adopted for the various specimen. 150x150x150mm twenty-seven (27) concrete
cubes were produced for each pozzolana and the control specimen. The specimens were cured for 28 days in
ordinary water after which they were equally and completely immersed in chemical solution of 5% H2SO4, 10%
MgSO4 and ordinary water for another 28 and 56 days. The specimens in ordinary water were used as the
control during the chemical test. The percentage reduction in strengths of RHA, PBB, SDA and the control
specimens in 10% MgSO4 at 56 days were observed to be 2.09%, 3.26%, 23.03% and 10.06% respectively. In
5% H2SO4, the percentage reductions in strengths of RHA, PBB, SDA and the control at 56 days were also
observed to be 25.13%, 21.27%, 52.19% and 33.61% respectively. The results show that RHA and PBB
concrete exhibit better strength than SDA and the control specimen in MgSO4 solution. All the specimens tested
in H2SO4 performed poorly at 56 days. The study concludes that RHA and PBB concrete are highly resistant to
MgSO4 and can be recommended as sulphate resistant additive in concrete production.
Keywords: Aggressive environment, Concrete, Compressive strength, Pozzolanana.
Introduction Concrete, a heterogeneous material is being
debilitated when exposed to certain
conditions. Among these conditions is
aggressive chemicals (Collepardi, 2003;
Dehwah, 2007). Aggressive chemicals are
substances such as sea-water/soil rich in
sulphates, nitrates, chlorides and carbonates
that are deleterious to any material in its
vicinity (Ogwu, 2001). Sadiq et al. (2001)
and Neville and Brooks (2002) affirmed
that the degree of the damage constitute by
these chemicals depends mainly on the
permeability of the concrete. This implies
that once concrete is sufficiently permeable
that water could percolate through its
thickness, calcium hydroxide (Ca (OH) 2)
will be leached out (Sadiq et al., 2001;
Neville and Brooks, 2002). The extensive
leaching of Ca (OH) 2 increases porosity
and consequently, concrete becomes feeble
in strength and liable to attack (Ogwu,
2001). According to Shetty (2005),
magnesium sulphate (MgSO4) is the main
salt that constitutes maximum damage in
concrete, and a characteristics whitish
appearance is the indication of its attack.
Neville and Brooks (2002) observed that
calcium aluminate (C3A) in porous concrete
is more prone to sulphates attack, and the
susceptibility of the attack can therefore, be
reduced through the application of cement
that is low in C3A. Alternatively, Feret
(1992) and Smeaton (2002) proposed for
the adoption of a Pozzolana.
Aka, Musa, Kaase, Tukur Effect Of Pozzolanas On The Compressive Strength Of Concretes In Chemically Aggressive Environment
Pozzolana is defined as siliceous materials
which in itself possesses little or no
cementitious properties but in finely divided
form and in the presence of moisture,
chemically reacts with Ca (OH)2 at ordinary
temperature to form a compound possessing
cementitious properties (Neville and
Brooks, 2002). Zelie et al. (2001)
accentuated that pozzolana can be
incorporated as active addition or
substitution to concrete due to its capacity
for reacting with lime. It is essential to
know that this lime principally originates
during the hydration of Portland cement
(Smeaton, 2002). Zelie et al. (2001) are of
the view that the result of this reaction
(pozzolanic reaction) leads to the formation
of cementitious compounds (tricalcium
silicate (C3S)). Zelie et al. (2001) further
declared that this C3S modifies the
properties of cement and the resulting
concrete.
Generally, researches have been conducted
by different researchers to explicate the
effectiveness of pozzolana as partial
replacement of cement in concrete
production (Kamang and Datok, 2001;
Elinwa and Mahmood, 2002; Sa’ad et al.,
2007; Dahiru and Zubairu, 2008; Garba and
Tahir, 2008). However, the reviewed
literature shows that limited studies exists
on the concrete that exhibits higher
performance when exposed to aggressive
environments. Premised to this gap in the
literature, this research examined the effect
of three different pozzolana (RHA, PBB
and SDA) on the compressive strength of
concrete in chemically aggressive
environment. Hence, the pozzolana (RHA,
BBP and SDA) that produces the highest
compressive strength concrete in ordinary
water and chemical solutions of MgSO4 and
H2SO4 were established at 28 and 56 days
curing periods.
Reviewed Literature Chemical Composition of Portland
cement
Based on the reviewed literature, Table 1
shows the chemical composition of Portland
cement.
Table 1: Chemical Composition of Portland
cement
Normal Rapid
Hardening
Low
Heat
(a)
Composition
in percentage
Lime 63.1 64.5 60
Silica 20.6 20.7 22.5
Alumina 6.3 5.2 5.2
Iron Oxide 3.6 2.9 4.6
(b) Compound
in percentage
C3S 40 50 25
C2S 30 21 35
C3A 11 9 6
C2A 12 9 14
Source: Holland (2005); Kosmatka et al. (2002)
Chemical Composition of Common
Pozzolana
From the reviewed literature, Table 2 and
Table 3 also indicates the chemical
composition of common pozzolana such as
RHA and Dutch Fly Ash .
Table 2: Chemical Composition of RHA
Constituent % Composition
Fe2O3
SiO2
CaO
Al2O3
MgO
L.O.I
0.95
67.30
1.36
4.90
1.81
17.78
Source: Oyetola and Abdullahi (2006)
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Table 3: Chemical Composition of Dutch Fly Ash
Fly ash sample
(%m/m)
Average values
(%m/m)
CUR No. 12
SiO2
Al2O
Fe2O
Na2O
K2O
CaO
MgO
TiO2
P2O5
SO3
C
49.6
26.1
6.8
0.46
1.96
2.7
1.68
1.05
0.55
0.72
5.7
-
-
-
-
-
< 5.0
< 4.0
-
-
< 2.5
< 5.0
Source: Balkema (1992)
Materials and Methods Materials
The materials that were used for this study
includes: Powdered Burnt Bricks (PBB),
Rice Husk Ash (RHA), Saw Dust Ash
(SDA), Fine Aggregate (Sand), Coarse
Aggregate (Gravel), Ordinary Portland
Cement (OPC) (Dangote Brand),
concentrated solutions of H2SO4 / MgSO4
and tap water. The PBB was obtained from
broken burnt bricks which were sourced
from Funtua Bricks Producing Industry
Funtua, Katsina State. Pieces of the broken
bricks were subjected to manual crushing
using pestle and mortar in the laboratory to
form powdering particles. The powder was
then sieved using electric vibrating table
shaker. Only powdered particles that passed
through the 75-micron standard BS sieve
(No. 200) were collected and used for the
research. The Rice Husk used was obtained
from Samaru Rice Milling Factory, Zaria. It
was burnt into ashes through the electric
furnace in Industrial Design Centre, Zaria.
Rice Husk was converted into ashes at
control temperature of 650 °C for six hours
(Dahiru and Zubairu, 2008). The ash
obtained was then ground in grinding
machine and sieved with the use of the
same micrometer sieve that was used for the
PBB. Also, the saw dust used for the study
was obtained from local furniture making
beside Samaru market in Zaria. It was sun-
dried and then converted into ashes at
control temperature of 650 °C for six hours
(Elinwa and Mahmood, 2002). The ash
obtained (SDA) was then grounded in
grinding machine and sieved using the same
sieve as above.
Further, the coarse aggregate used was
crushed granite stones obtained from a
single quarry site along Sokoto-Zaria road,
opposite School of Aviation Technology
Zaria. The aggregate was sieved using
standard sieves and the one obtained
between 10 and 20mm sieves were used for
the production of the test samples. The fine
aggregate (sand) used was naturally,
occurring clean sharp river sand. It was
sieved using standard BS 4.75mm sieve size
to remove impurities and only those that
passed through the sieve was used for the
samples production. The magnesium
sulphate (MgSO4) and sulphuric acid
(H2SO4) used for the research were obtained
from Chemistry Laboratory of Ahmadu
Bello University, Zaria. They were prepared
into different percentage (%) concentrations
through the method of chemical water
addition (H2SO4,) and chemical water
dissolution (MgSO4). Thus, 5% H2SO4, 5%
MgSO4 and 10% MgSO4 ware prepared and
used for the research. These were done in
accordance to ASTM C 1012
recommendation. ASTM C 1012
recommends minimum of 5% and
maximum of 10% Sulphate solution to carry
out sulphate attack on concrete. Ordinary
tap water good for drinking was adopted
throughout the design mix. The chemical
analysis tests that was conducted on RHA,
PBB and SDA to determine their percentage
composition of iron oxide (Fe2O2), silicon
oxide (SiO2), magnesium oxide (MgO),
aluminum oxide (Al2O3) and Loss on
Ignition (LOI) was conducted in energy
research center, Zaria. The tests were done
in accordance to ASTM C 168-94
recommendations.
Aka, Musa, Kaase, Tukur Effect Of Pozzolanas On The Compressive Strength Of Concretes In Chemically Aggressive Environment
Physical Properties of Materials
The specific gravity of the various samples
of PBB, RHA and SDA were determined in
the laboratory in accordance to the
requirement of ASTM C 127-93 (1993).
The uncompacted bulk density of each
pozzolana and fine aggregate were
determined by the method recommended by
BS 812: Part 2 (1990). The moisture content
test of samples of RHA, PBB and SDA
were also determined in accordance to BS
1377: Part 2 (1990).
Specimens Production and Compressive
Strength Test
The concrete cubes produced for this study
includes OPC/RHA, OPC/PBB, OPC/SDA
and 100% OPC. The 100% OPC cube
served as the control. 0.65 water / cement
(w/c) ratio was adopted for all the
specimens produced. The w/c ratios were
obtained from the results of the trial mix
design that was first conducted before the
start of the actual mix. Absolute volume
method of calculation was used to
determine the quantities of the materials
used for the research. Physical properties
such as workability, setting time and
soundness of the mix were determined in
accordance with ASTM C 143-78, ASTM C
451-89 and BS 4550: 1992 respectively. It
is essential to know that twenty seven (27)
samples of 150x 150 x150mm concrete
cubes were produced for each pozzolana as
well as the control. Curing of the concrete
cubes was done by complete immersion in
ordinary water for 28 days. At 28 days
curing periods, three concrete cubes were
removed from each pozzolana and the
control. The cubes were allowed to dry in
open air for 6 hours and thereafter,
subjected to compressive strength test. The
remaining concrete cubes were
subsequently allowed to dry and then
transferred (completely immersed) into
chemical solutions of 5% MgSO4, 10%
MgSO4 and 5% H2SO4 for another 28 and
56 days. Samples of RHA, PBB, SDA and
control were equally immersed in ordinary
water at the start of the chemical test which
served as the basis of the comparison. The
specimens in chemicals were covered with
polythene leather to prevent air interruption
that could affect the concentration of the
chemicals (ASTM C 1012). At 28 days
immersion, three concrete cubes were
removed from each chemical and ordinary
water. The cubes were also allowed to dry
in open air for 6 hours and thereafter,
subjected to strength test in aggressive
chemicals. This was also repeated at 56
days. The percentage reduction in strengths
of the specimens in water/various chemicals
were determined at each immersion period
(28 and 56 days) and compared. These
served as the main findings, conclusion and
recommendations of the study.
Results and Discussion
The Results of the Physical Properties of
Materials
The results of the physical property test
conducted on the pozzolana (RHA, PBB
and SDA) and the sand used for the
research are shown in Table 4. From the
results, PBB gives the highest specific
gravity of 2.54 while SDA gives the lowest
value of 2.13. The value obtained on PBB
complied with BS 12:1991 which specified
its range to be minimum of 2.20 and
maximum of 2.80.The specific gravity of
RHA and SDA are within the range of 1.9
to 2.4 recommended for pulverized fuel ash
(Neville, 1996) and also similar to the
values reported by Oyetola and Abdullahi
(2006) and Dashan and kamang (1999) on
Acha Husk Ash (AHA) and RHA which
was 2.13 for RHA and 2.12 for AHA. The
specific gravity of the three materials are
less than the specific gravity of Ordinary
Portland Cement of 3.15 (Neville, 1996).
This means that the three materials are
lightweight constituents. The difference in
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
the specific gravity of the three materials
(RHA, PBB, and SDA) may be due to the
dissimilarity in their biological origin. This
may also be the reason to the disparity in
the materials weight. Based on this findings,
it can be concluded that SDA is the lightest
in weight among the three materials
followed by RHA. This consent with the
findings of Sa’ad (2005) on different PBB
samples.
Further, the compacted bulk density of
RHA, PBB and SDA were found to be 670
kg/m3, 1117kg/m3 and 660 kg/m3
respectively. The values obtained in RHA
and SDA are close to the one reported by
Oyetola and Abdullahi (2006), Nensok et
al. (2012) and Aka et al. (2015). While the
value obtained on PBB is also close to 1115
k/m3 reported by Taylor (1991) and Aka et
al. (2012). It was notable that the bulk
density of RHA, PBB and SDA are less
than that of OPC (1440kg/m3) (Neville,
1996). This further confirmed that the three
materials are actually lightweight materials.
The compacted bulk density of sand used
for the research was found to be very close
to the range speculated by Jackson and Dhir
(1998), which ranges from 1650 Kg/m3 to
1850kg/m3 specifically for all sandy soils
before excavation. Table 4: Physical Properties of RHA, PBB, SDA
and Sand S/No Properties Sample type and description
RHA PBB SDA Sand
1 Specific
Gravity
2.15 2.54 2.13 2.65
2 Compacted
Bulk
Density
(kg/m3)
670 1117 660 1600
3 Un-
compacted
Bulk
Density
(kg/m3)
540 980 530 1490
4 Moisture
Content
(%)
1.01 1.01 1.01
The Results of Chemical Analysis
The chemical analyses of RHA, PBB and
SDA are presented in Tables 5, 6 and 7
respectively. The percentage total content of
Silicon dioxide (SiO2), Iron Oxide (Fe2O3)
and Aluminum Oxide (Al2O3) on RHA,
PBB and SDA were found to be 76.16%,
75.8% and 61.14% respectively. Both
values on RHA and PBB are greater than
the minimum of 70% specified in ASTM C
618-94 while that of SDA is less. ASTM C
618 - 94 stipulates that the percentage total
content of SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3 in any
pozzolana should not be less than 70%. The
Loss on Ignition (L.O.I) obtained was 4.52
for RHA, 0.78 for PBB and 12.5 for SDA.
The value obtained on RHA and PBB are
less than the 12% maximum required for
pozzolana (ASTM C 618 -94, 1994) while
that of SDA is slightly higher. This means
that SDA contain more un-burnt carbon that
might have reduced its pozzolanic activities
(Oyetola and Abdullahi, 2006).
The Results of Workability Test
The results of the workability test shown in
Table 8 on each specimen sample indicate
that the slumps for 100% OPC and that of
10% replacement of each pozzolana were
within the range of 6-10 mm. These indicate
low workability (ASTM C 143-78). Also,
the result of the compacting factor test on
all the pastes ranges from 0.72 to 0.74
which also indicates low workability
(Shetty, 2005).The compacting factor test
on all the pastes is closed to the range of
0.85-0.92 recommended by Shetty (2005)
for roads and slabs concrete. It was
observed from the tests results that mixes
containing 10% replacement of RHA and
SDA have lower slump than that of PBB
and 100% OPC. According to Kamang
(1999), this may be due to the high un-burnt
carbon content in RHA and SDA pastes that
made the two materials to absorb more
water than PBB and 100% OPC pastes.
Aka, Musa, Kaase, Tukur Effect Of Pozzolanas On The Compressive Strength Of Concretes In Chemically Aggressive Environment
Table 5: Chemical Analysis of RHA
Constituent SiO2 Fe2O3 Al2O3 MgO L.O.I
% composition 69.5 2.16 4.50 1.50 4.52
Table 6: Chemical Analysis of PBB
Constituent SiO2 Fe2O3 Al2O3 MgO L.O.I
% composition 60.50 5.30 10.00 1.70 0.78
Table 7: Chemical Analysis of SDA
Constituent SiO2 Fe2O3 Al2O3 MgO L.O.I
% composition 46.5 2.14 12.5 9.25 12.5
Table 8: Workability of the Pastes
S/No Paste
Sample
W/c
Ratio
Degree of workability
Slump(mm) Compacting
factor
1 100%OPC 0.65 10 0.74
2 RHA/OPC 0.65 6 0.72
3 PBB/OPC 0.65 8 0.73
4 SDA/OPC 0.65 6 0.72
The Results of Setting Time Test
The result of the setting time test for each
pozzolana and 100% OPC pastes are
presented in Table 9. From the results, it
can be observed that SDA paste has the
highest initial and final setting time while
100% OPC has the least. This could be due
to the higher heat of hydration evolved by
100% OPC paste over SDA, RHA and PBB
pastes. Literature shows that the reaction
between cement and water is exothermic
which can lead to the liberation of heat to
the surrounding, evaporation of moisture
and consequent stiffened of the pastes
(Neville, 1996). Therefore, as OPC is being
replaced with pozzolana, the rate of reaction
may be reduced and the quantity of heat
liberated into the surrounding also reduced.
Hence, the late stiffening of the pastes. It is
expected that with the introduction of
pozzolana to cement paste, the lower the
heat liberated hence, the longer the
hydration period as well as the setting time
period (Neville, 1996).The difference in
initial and final setting times of each
pozzolan paste might be due to difference in
particles found in each pozzolana. The
initial and final setting time of all the pastes
tested were within the range recommended
for OPC paste. That is, minimum of 45
minutes for initial setting and a maximum
of 10 hours for final setting (BS 4550,
1992).
The Results of the Soundness Test
The results obtained on soundness tests
carried out on each sample of pozzolana and
100% OPC paste are presented in Table 10.
It was observed that RHA and PBB have
lower expansion as compared to SDA and
100% OPC cubes. The results of all the
samples tested complied with BS 812 part
121:1989 recommendation.
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Table 9: Setting Time (Minutes)
S/No Sample
paste
Initial
setting
time(minutes)
Final
setting
time (minutes)
1 100%OPC 90 190
2 RHA/OPC 150 240
3 SDA/OPC 180 290
4 PBB/OPC 130 270
Table 10: Soundness (mm)
S/No Specimen
sample
Initial
pointers
reading
before
boiling (mm)
Final
pointers
reading
after
boiling (mm)
Expansion
(mm)
1 100% OPC 3 3.5 0.5
2 RHA 3 3.2 0.2
3 PBB 3 3.2 0.2
4 SDA 3 3.5 0.5
The Results of Density and Compressive
Strength Tests
(A) In ordinary water
BS 8110 (1995) recommends that the
strengths of lightweight structural concrete
should range from 20-40 N/mm2 at 28 days
curing periods. From the study conducted,
all the concrete mixes attained the minimum
compressive strength at 28 days (Table 11)
exception of SDA/OPC cubes that was
observed to have compressive strength of
18.05 N/mm2.
(B) In chemical solutions of MgSO4
From the results that is presented in Table
12 and 13, it can be observed that there is
no substantial difference in the densities of
the specimens in water at 28 and 56
hydration periods. This might mean that
specimens in ordinary water were
adequately compacted during mixing
(Neville and Brooks, 2202). Neville and
Brooks (2002) accentuated that when
concrete is adequately compacted, excessive
water that can lead to density increase will
not be able to penetration into the capillary
pores of the specimens. Also, the densities
of all the specimens in ordinary water at 28
and 56 days are within the range
recommended for normal weight concrete
which is between 2355 to 2560 kg/m3
(Everett, 1990).
In 5% MgSO4 solution, the percentage
strength reduction of 100% OPC and PBB
in this chemical at 28 days were observed to
be lower than the percentage strength
reduction of RHA and SDA. However, as
hydration progressed (56 days) the
percentage strength reduction of RHA was
observed to be lower than the percentage
strength reduction of 100% OPC, PBB and
SDA. Also, the densities of the various
specimens in this chemical were observed
to be higher than their densities in ordinary
water. In 10% MgSO4, the percentage
strength reduction of 100% OPC and PBB
at 28 days were also observed to be lower
than the percentage strength reduction of
RHA and SDA. Conversely, at 56 days, the
percentage strength reduction of RHA was
observed to be lower than the percentage
strength reduction of 100% OPC, PBB and
SDA. Also, the densities of all the
specimens in this chemical solution were
observed to be higher than their densities in
ordinary water at 56 days.
Aka, Musa, Kaase, Tukur Effect Of Pozzolanas On The Compressive Strength Of Concretes In Chemically Aggressive Environment
Table 11: Average Initial Compressive Strengths of Specimen Cubes in Water at 28 Days Before
Chemical Test.
S/No Specimen Sample W/C
Ratio
Average Density
(kg/m3)
Average
Compressive
Strength(N/mm2)
1 100% OPC 0.60 2439.50 24.70
2 RHA/OPC 0.65 2380.45 21.10
3 PBB/OPC 0.65 2400. 00 22.70
4 SDA/OPC 0.65 2390.00 18.05
Table 12: Average 28 and 56 Days Compressive Strengths of Specimens in 5% MgSO4
Specimens Compressive strengths (N/mm2)
Water 5% MgSO4
(Control) 28 Days
Average density (Kg/m3)
Water 5% MgSO4
(Control) 28 Days
Percentage
strength
reduction (%)
100% OPC 28.80 28.55 2449.38 2439.51 0.87
OPC/RHA 24.30 23.50 2380.45 2390.00 3.29
OPC/PBB 26.30 25.60 2409.88 2400.00 2.67
OPC/SDA 20.10 19.00 2370.78 2380.45 5.47
56 Days 56 Days
100% OPC 31.60 30.52 2488.89 2479.01 3.42
OPC/RHA 28.25 28.00 2390.00 2409.88 0.88
OPC/PBB 28.20 27.84 2419.75 2419.75 1.28
OPC/SDA 22.80 20.25 2400.00 2409.88 11.18
Table 13: Average 28 and 56 Days Compressive Strengths of Specimens in 10% MgSO4
Specimens Compressive strengths (N/mm2)
Water 10% MgSO4
(Control) 28 Days
Average density (Kg/m3)
Water 10% MgSO4
(Control) 28 Days
Percentage
strength
reduction (%)
100% OPC 28.80 27.55 2449.38 2459.26 4.34
OPC/RHA 24.30 22.30 2380.45 2400.00 8.23
OPC/PBB 26.30 24.30 2409.88 2400.00 7.60
OPC/SDA 20.10 17.40 2370.78 2409.88 13.43
56 Days 56 Days
100% OPC 31.60 28.42 2488.89 2479.01 10.06
OPC/RHA 28.25 27.66 2390.00 2409.88 2.09
OPC/PBB 28.20 27.28 2419.75 2429.63 3.26
OPC/SDA 22.80 17.55 2400.00 2429.63 23.03
Hence, increase in density of a specimen in
MgSO4 solution may mean that the
specimen was not well compacted or being
permeable to chemical denser than water
and as a result, being penetrated by MgSO4.
This adds to the densities of the specimen
due to crystal (gypsum (CaSO4)) deposition
on the pores of the sample. Hence, the
highest increase in densities specimen may
mean the least resistant to sulphate attack
(Neville and Brooks, 2002; Shetty, 2005).
(C) In chemical solution of H2SO4
Table 14 shows the densities and
compressive straights of specimens in 5%
H2SO4 at 28 and 56 days. High strengths
reduction was observed in all the specimens
tested in 5% H2SO4 at 56 days. Severe
reduction in densities were also observed in
all the specimens at 28 and 56 days.
Reduction in density of a specimen in
H2SO4 may mean that H2SO4 was too
corrosive which led to loss of mortar on the
specimen and the consequent reduction in
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Table 14: Average 28 and 56 Days Compressive Strengths of Specimens in 5% H2SO4
Specimens Compressive strengths (N/mm2)
Water 5% H2SO4
(Control)
28 Days
Average density (Kg/m3)
Water 5% H2SO4
(Control)
28 Days
Percentage
strength
reduction (%)
100% OPC 28.80 22.67 2449.38 2350.61 21.28
OPC/RHA 24.30 20.00 2380.45 2360.49 17.70
OPC/PBB 26.30 22.05 2409.88 2370.37 16.16
OPC/SDA 20.10 12.78 2370.78 2360.49 36.42
56 Days 56 Days
100% OPC 31.60 20.98 2488.89 2350.61 33.61
OPC/RHA 28.25 21.15 2390.00 2370.37 25.13
OPC/PBB 28.20 22.20 2419.75 2360.49 21.27
OPC/SDA 22.80 10.90 2400.00 2360.49 52.19
density of the specimen. Hence, the least
reduction in density specimen in H2SO4
may mean the highest resistant to attack by
the corrosive media (H2SO4) (Neville and
Brooks, 2002; Shetty, 2005) .
Conclusions
Based on the outcomes of chemical tests
conducted on RHA, PBB, SDA and 100%
OPC concretes, it can be concluded that:
• RHA concrete has higher strength
than PBB and SDA in ordinary water
and chemical solution of
MgSO4 specifically at 56 days curing
period;
• PBB concrete exhibits higher
strength than SDA concrete in ordinary
water and chemical
solution of MgSO4;
• RHA and PBB can be adopted as
sulphate resistant additive in concrete
production, and
• OPC/RHA, OPC/ PBB and
OPC/SDA concretes perform poorly in
5% H2SO4.
It can be also be said that the density of
OPC/RHA, OPC/ PBB and OPC/SDA
concretes increase drastically when exposed
to 10% MgSO4 but decrease in 5% H2SO4
at 56 days. The aforementioned concretes
are also liable to cracking and warping in
10% MgSO4 / 5% H2SO4 at 28 days.
Further, this study also shows that the
cracking conditions of concretes exposed to
H2SO4 is more severe than that of 10%
MgSO4.
Recommendations
Based on the findings of the study, the
following recommendations were made:
• RHA and PBB are recommended for
production of sulphates resisting
concretes;
• Effects of other sulphates different
from MgSO4 should be carried out on
RHA and PBB concretes
so as to further examine their
performance in sulphates environment.
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Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
12
Assessment of Public Perception of Climate Change
Issues in Minna, Niger State, Nigeria 1 Odegbenro F.J. and 2 Ojoye S. 1Centre for Human Settlements and Urban Development (CHSUD), Federal University of Technology, Minna. 2Department of Geography, Federal University of Technology, Minna.
Abstract Climate change represents a significant environmental, social and economic threat and is now firmly recognized
by the majority of the world’s governments and scientists as an issue of extreme concern for the planet. The
study examines the public perception of climate change on both local and global scales by residents of Minna,
Niger State. Both Primary and secondary data were used for the analysis. The primary data for the study was
collected by the administration of a structured questionnaire and conduction of group discussions while the
secondary data was sourced from written materials on climate change. The results revealed that 85.6% of the
public were aware of the change in climate using change rainfall and temperature pattern as indicators. The
respondents noticed that there are changes in the amount of rainfall received and increase in average daily
temperature while14.4% were completely unaware of climate change issues. The study thereby recommended
among others that information and communication technology be used to sensitize people on the effects of
changing climate. Keywords: assessment, climate change, global warming, greenhouse gas, perception
Introduction Cities all over the world have witnessed
significant change in climate due to global
warming caused by greenhouse gas
emission and other activities of man. The
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change [IPCC](2007), forecasts a
temperature rise of 2.5 to 10 degrees
Fahrenheit over the next century. The
effects of global climate change are very
diverse. During the last century, the earth’s
average surface temperature rose by around
0.6oC and by the end of this century, the
global average surface temperature is
expected to rise by a further 1.1 to 6.4oC
(IPCC, 2007). Climate change currently
contributes to the global burden of disease
and pre-mature deaths. Okali (2008)
observed as quoted by Adeoti (2008) that
human beings are directly exposed to
climate change through changing weather
patterns (temperature, precipitation, sea-
level rise and more frequent extreme
events) and indirectly through changes in
ecosystems, agriculture, industry and
settlements and the economy.
One of the causes of climate change is fossil
fuel combustion. In Africa, only a few
countries account for the bulk of the
region’s emission from fossil fuels. These
are Nigeria, Egypt and Algeria which
together account for 35.5% of total fossil
fuel emission from the continent. In fact,
Nigeria is the largest contributor of carbon
dioxide and other greenhouse gases in the
West African sub-region (World Bank
Report, 1995). In Nigeria, only a relatively
small proportion of the natural gas produced
is utilized and as much as 76 per cent of the
gas is flared (World bank Report, 1995).
Nigeria Natural gas comprises per cent
methane1.5-2.0. Carbon dioxide 1.4-2.4,
heavier hydrocarbons 3.9-5.3 per cent, and
ethane, among other compounds (Jones et
al., 1998) thereby contributing substantially
to greenhouse gases locally and invariably
to the global climate.
Odegbenro, Ojoye
Assessment of Public Perception of Climate Change Issues in Minna, Niger State, Nigeria
13
Nigeria is among the nations of the world
that have been at the forefront of the global
efforts in addressing climate change and its
effects even though the resources for
understanding the magnitude and potential
impacts on its economy is low. Despite this
effort and knowledge of the fact that human
activities majorly through deforestation and
fossil fuel combustion, affect the
environment and greatly contribute to
global warming which in turn brings about
climate change, the question is, how
informed are the people whose activities
contribute adversely to climate change and
for whom efforts are being made by world
leaders and scientists to discover mitigation
and adaptation strategies to climate change?
One of the ways the impact of climate
change can be addressed is to acknowledge
the issue, discuss and share the knowledge.
It is important to note that people’s
perception of and reaction to, vary between
economic status and literacy level. In most
developed countries, regular perception
studies are conducted in form of opinion
survey. Such surveys are necessary in order
to create awareness about an issue but this
is missing in developing countries where
the majorities are dependent on economic
activities that are sensitive to climate such
as agriculture and forestry activities.
Leizerowitz (2004) observed that despite
the scientific warnings of earlier decades,
global warming did not become a public
issue until 1988-the hottest year since the
19th century and thereafter, numerous
public opinions have found that the
Americans, Europeans and Japanese are
increasingly aware of and concerned about
global climate change and supportive of a
wide range of mitigation and adaptation
studies. The world poll partner (2010)
discovered through the Pew Global
Attitudes Survey conducted that majority of
respondents from developed countries had
heard of global warming, while awareness
remained quite low in several developing
countries in particular, large categories of
respondents had never heard of global
warming in Pakistan, Indonesia, Nigeria,
and Egypt. This result suggests that many
have not heard about global warming
causing climate to change. There have been
a lot of researches on climate and climate
change and its threats to humanity and
adaptation strategies by authors both within
and outside Nigeria, however, only few
studies exist on public perception of climate
change.
In response to the report, similar studies
were carried out in Lagos, Ibadan and
Kaduna on climate change awareness in
Nigeria with the result showing that climate
change awareness increases with the level
of urbanization and education. The study
conducted by Adelekan (2005) within
Ibadan city revealed that a significant
proportion of the public is aware of the
dynamics of the local climate. In addition,
70% of the respondents have heard of
global climate change but less than 25%
know the causes. Ishaya (2008) examined
the way indigenous people in Jema’a Local
Government Area of Kaduna State
perceived climate change and the author
concluded that lack of awareness and
knowledge of climate change scenarios are
the hindering factors to the adoption of
modern techniques of combating climate
change in the area. The response by
experienced farmers in Jema’a on the
identified effects of climate changes in the
area indicated observed increase in
temperature and decrease in rainfall
quantity. Gbadegesin and Ogundele (2008)
revealed that Lagos level of awareness tally
with the current perception of climate
change in the USA. Most Lagos residents
are aware of the climate change issues and
concluded that awareness increases with
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
14
level of urbanization, educational status and
to some extent, gender and age.
It is against this background that this
research paper assessed the public level of
knowledge on climate change issues within
Minna metropolis, how they understood the
environment and in addition to investigate
their sources of information on the issue
which could serve as a tool for decision
making on ways to increase climate change
awareness.
The Study Area Minna is the capital of Niger state, Nigeria.
Its conversion to a state capital gave rise to
its population growth with the majority
working with the government and the
livelihood of the remaining population is
dependent on agriculture, trading and
transportation. The metropolis has a mean
annual rainfall of 1334mm. The highest
mean monthly rainfall is September with
almost 300mm. The rainy season starts in
April and lasts to October. The duration of
rains is between 190-200 days. The mean
monthly temperature is highest during the
peak of the dry season usually between
Februarys and March at 37.80C and lowest
in August at 25.80C.The study covered two
local government areas that make up Minna
metropolis; which are Bosso and
Chanchaga. Bosso is a Local Government
area in Niger state with its headquarters in
Maikunkele. It occupies an area of
1,592km2 and a population of 147,359 at
the 2006 census. Chanchaga has its capital
being Minna. It has an area of 72km2 and a
population of 201, 429 at the 2006 census.
The whole study area has been further
subdivided into six major districts namely:
Bosso, Maikunkele, F-layout/GRA, Tunga,
Chanchaga and the Central Business
District comprising of Mobil area, Keterin-
gwari, Kwangila, Yoruba road and Lagos
street.
Figure 1: The study area
Source: Niger State Ministry of Lands and Housing,
2016
Methodology Primary and Secondary data were
employed. Primary data through structured
questionnaire and oral interview were used
to collect information on the socio and
demographic characteristics of respondents,
questions were structured to address the
respondents’ consciousness of prevailing
climatic conditions, level of knowledge
about climate change in particular on key
climatic element of temperature and
rainfall. Secondary data on temperature and
rainfall were collected from the Nigerian
Meteorological Agency (NIMET) in Minna
(on climatic conditions of Minna metropolis
showing the maximum and minimum
temperatures) for the period of 20 years
(1988-2008). A total of 208 responded, out
of 240 questionnaires distributed. This
number participated in the study across the
different socio-economic strata of the study
area which was sub-divided into six districts
for the purpose of this study.
In order to have an unbiased sample;
random sampling was used within the
districts. Simple frequency analysis was
Odegbenro, Ojoye
Assessment of Public Perception of Climate Change Issues in Minna, Niger State, Nigeria
15
used to compute the onset and cessation
dates of rain and the trend of heat waves.
Chi-Square analysis was used to measure
the reliability and significance of data by
comparing observed measurement with the
expected.
Results and Discussion
Socio-Economic Characteristics of
respondents
Age of Respondents
Out of the two hundred and eight
respondents (208) respondents, 57.2% were
males while 42.3% were female. Majority
of the respondents (56.3) %, were between
20-40 years of age, 21.3%, falls below 20
years, 18.8% % were between 41-60 years
while the elderly between the ages of 61-80
years were3.8%, implying that the
respondents were vibrant.
Educational Level of Respondents
The study had respondents with post-
secondary educational level taking 81.7%,
those with secondary education were
13.0%; 2.4% had no formal education
whereas those with only primary education
were 4.3%. The educational statuses of the
respondents were high due to amongst other
factors, the establishment of Federal
University of Technology, College of
Education and a National Examination
body. This portends that the respondents
were enlightened.
Occupation of Respondents
The study revealed that 29.8% of the
respondents were civil servants, 52.4% were
students, those that were artisans are 10.1%,
traders are 4.8% and farmers were 2.9%. It
can be deduced that the respondents were
actively engaged in one trade or the other
and there are evidences that they are
conversant with their locality and their
immediate environment.
Residency Period
To establish the level of awareness of the
respondents as regards changes experienced
both in temperature and rainfall, the year of
residency of the respondents became
essential. Respondents who had lived in
Minna for over 20 years were 15.9%, 41.3%
had been living in Minna for 11-15 years,
17.3% had residency period of 6-10 years
and 15.9% had lived below 5years.
Knowledge of change in the pattern of
rainfall
Knowledge of Past and Present start of
rain
The respondents opined that there is an
observable change in pattern of rainfall
from their experiences in the past and
present years.. Table1: Educational Level of Respondents
Education Frequency Percentage
Post-Secondary 169 81.7
Secondary 27 13.0
Primary 8 4.3
Non formal 4 2.4
Total 208 100.0
Table 1: Respondents Residency Period
Residency Period Frequency Percentage
0-5 years 33 15.9
6-10 years 36 17.3
11-15 years 86 41.3
16-20 years 20 9.6
Above 20 years 33 15.9
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
16
Total 208 100.0
51.4% said in the past 20 years that rain
used to start around April, 17.3% claimed
the month of May as the beginning of rainy
season and another 17.3% claimed that start
of rain was in March. Presently, 44.7% of
the respondents’ still observed the start of
rain to be in the month of April, 35.6%
submitted the month of May while 7.7%
believed commencement of rain as March.
It could be deduced that the data for month
of April was reduced while the month of
May was increased implying that the start of
rain has changed from the month of April to
May in Minna as presented figure 2a.
Knowledge of Past and Present cessation
of rain
It was observed that 43.8% of the
respondents observed that the past cessation
of rain was November, 37.5% opined it was
in the month of October while13.5%
claimed that it was in the month of
September. While considering the present
cessation of rain, 13.5 % claimed it was the
month of September, 50% of the
respondents claimed it was in October while
only 11.1% observed November as the
present cessation of rain and 25.4% were
not sure. The result gives a sharp shift from
43.8% that claimed November to 11.1%
while the month of October receive the
biggest nod as the present cessation of rain
(see figure 2b). This implies that the people
are observant and invariably aware of the
changing climate.
Figure 2a: Past and Present onset of rain
Figure 2b: Past and Present end of rain
Knowledge of temperature
Temperature values were also used as
indicator to examine the public knowledge
of changes in climate. 54.3% was of the
opinion that the temperature used to be hot,
32.2% said the temperature used to be very
hot while only 6.2% opined it used to be
extremely hot. Presently, 37.0% were of the
opinion that the temperature is hot, 28.4%
believed it to be very hot while 13.5%
thought the temperature is extremely hot.
The percentages of those respondents who
observed that the temperature used to be hot
decreased while extremely hot respondents’
increased which buttressed the
internationally acclaimed fact that the world
temperature is indeed changing. This
Odegbenro, Ojoye
Assessment of Public Perception of Climate Change Issues in Minna, Niger State, Nigeria
17
implies that the consciousness and level of
awareness of the people is high. Table 2: Maximum and Minimum Temperature
for Minna (1988-2007)
Year Max.
Temperature
C
Min.
Temperature
C
1988 38.52 26.52
1989 32.49 20.49
1990 39.01 27.01
1991 41.34 29.38
1992 35.06 23.06
1993 34.82 22.81
1994 41.13 29.13
1995 34.45 22.45
1996 39.23 27.23
1997 36.30 24.30
1998 38.80 26.80
1999 39.62 27.62
2000 37.10 25.10
2001 39.27 27.27
2002 35.16 23.16
2003 32.25 20.25
2004 34.63 22.63
2005 42.86 30.86
2006 31.67 19.67
2007 42.67 30.67
Source: Nigerian Meteorological Agency, Minna,
2010
Cause of Changes in rainfall and
temperature pattern
The result of the public perception on
changing pattern of rainfall and temperature
indicate that 48.5% identified climate
change and global warming as a cause. 13.0
relate it to human activities, 25.5% opined
that the change results from position of the
globe while 13.0 had no idea and 0.55
attached change to an act of God(received
when asked about reasons behind the
change in rainfall and temperature pattern
were categorized and presented: 48.5%
were quick to mention climate change and
global warming,13. 0% said human
activities, 25.5% opined that the change
resulted from position of the globe, while
13.0% had no idea, only 0.5% of the
respondent attached change to act of God.
Table 3: Causes of Change in Rainfall and
Temperature
Cause of Change Frequency Percentage
Climate
Change/Global
Warming
97 46.6
Human Activities 30 14.4
Position of the globe 53 25.5
No idea 27 13.0
Spiritual(Act of
God)
1 0.5
Total 208 100.0
Source: Authors Field Survey (2011)
Knowledge of the term “global warming”
and “climate change”
The results on the concepts of global
warming and climate change shows that the
majority are conversant with happenings
around them. 85.6% are aware of the terms
while only14.4% claimed not to have heard
about them.
Source of information
On the source of information available to
people on their awareness of global climate
issues, 26.6% said through television
programmes, 22.8% of respondents claimed
that their occupation contributed to their
knowledge of climate change and 13.5%
who mostly student, gathered the
information from the internet/classroom,
from the newspaper carried 6.2% and 4.8%
acknowledge they heard from family and
friends while 4.8% got their information on
the radio. This invariably implied that
television remains an important source of
information with dual advantages of seeing
and hearing at the same time.
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
18
Table 4: Source of Information
Source of
Information
Frequency Percentage
Television 49 26.6
Occupation 42 22.8
Internet/ Classroom 34 18.4
Newspaper 13 7.0
Family & Friends 10 5.4
Radio 10 5.4
Total 158 85.6
Source; Authors Field Survey, 2011
Test of relationship between Occupation
and Perception of climate change
Using Chi-Square to determine the effect of
occupation on the perception level of the
people on climate change, it shows that
there was a significant effect. The test was
carried out under 0.05(5%) level of
significance. Chi square value was14.581
and degree of freedom (df) 5. While
checking df under 0.05, the result was equal
to 11.07. This shows that the Chi-square
(calculated) value was greater than the table
value. The authors therefore accepted the
hypothesis and deduced the there was a
significant relationship between types of
occupation and knowledge of climate
change.
Test of relationship between Education
and Perception of climate change
The test was conducted using the given chi-
square value of 11,052 degree of freedom
(df) 4 of respondents who had knowledge of
climate change and checking df under 0.05=
9.49. Chi-square (calculated) value was
greater than the table value; the authors
therefore accepted the hypothesis and
implied that education has a significant
effect on the level of awareness of
respondents on climate change. These
results confirms to the earlier findings of the
similar studies carried out on the level of
education and climate change awareness in
cities such as Lagos and Ibadan.
Conclusion
It has been established that climate change
will have a strong impact on Nigeria and
West Africa in general, particularly in the
areas of agriculture, land use, energy and
water sources. Making perception study a
regular exercise, as in this case,
environmental perception which is the
means by which we seek to understand
environmental phenomena in order to arrive
at a better use of environmental resources
and a more effective response to
environmental hazards will help policy
makers to formulate better policies that
could meet the local needs of the people. It
is important for Urban Planners to use the
available resources one of such is the
outcome of the perception studies generated
to improve the understanding of people on
impacts of climate change and its related
causes in order to enhance security and
safety of lives and livelihoods in our small,
medium-sized, large cities.
Recommendations
It is expedient to state the following
recommendations which includes:
i. The recommends that more indices
about climate change awareness and
its causes and impacts should be
designed.
ii. In addition, television and other
outlets of information dissemination
should be explored to target
population.
iii. Finally, climate change education
should be incorporated into school
curriculum to enhance better
understanding of climate change
issues.
Odegbenro, Ojoye
Assessment of Public Perception of Climate Change Issues in Minna, Niger State, Nigeria
19
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Agency, Minna, Niger State,
Nigeria.
The world poll partner (2010). Analysis of
Climate Change Perception and
Adaptation among Arable Food Crop
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Economists’ 2009 Conference,
Beijing, China, August 16-22,209
World Bank Report (1995). Defining an
Environmental Strategy for the
Niger Delta. New York: World
Bank.
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Geospatial Analysis of Shoreline Dynamics in the
Coastal Areas of Cross River State Nigeria *Adebola Abiodun. Olufemi, Adegboyega, Suleiman & Ibitoye, Matthew
Olomolatan
Department of Remote Sensing and Geoscience Information System, Federal University of Technology Akure,
Ondo State
Corresponding E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract This study assesses shoreline changes, land use and land cover change, geomorphological changes of the coast
as well as analyzes the coastal landforms with a view to generating baseline information for evolving informed
decisions and policies for effective flood control and management. The study utilized multi-temporal satellite
images namely, Landsat TM 1980, 1990 and Landsat 7 ETM+ 2010. Remote Sensing and Geographic
Informtion System techniques were used to analyse the satellite images, shoreline and geomorphological maps
were extracted. The land use classes identified from the image include vegetation, outcrops, grassland, water
body and settlement. The land use classification indicates a gradual reduction in the grassland, increase in
vegetation, water body and also an emergence of settlement in the year 2010. Grassland reduced from
247.65km2 to 93.6km2, vegetation increased from 6.60km2 in 1990 to 135.3km2 in 2010 and waterbody reduced
from 98.75km2 to 97.8km2. The change detection image also illustrates that areas that witnessed increase are
mostly water body and vegetation. Slope of the area also ranges from 0° to 12° with a stream order of 4. The
shoreline length for the year 1980 was 71.60 km, 71.43 km in 1990 and 69.70 km in 2010. A gradual reduction
of 0.17 km in length was noticed between 1980 and 1990 while a rapid reduction of about 1.724 km was
recorded between 1990 and 2010. The shoreline change movement showed that between 1980 and 1990, the net
shoreline movement was estimated 259 meters while the net shoreline movement between 1980 and 2010 was
about 347 meters. The end-point rate also indicated the rates of erosion (424.96 meters) and accretion (277.5
meters) (loss and gain), suggesting higher increase in erosion over accretion. It implies apparent reduction of
the shoreline on yearly basis due to low elevations that range from 00 to 60. The study advocates continuous
monitoring of shoreline changes to reinforce our understanding and establishing the processes driving erosion
and accretion in the coastal areas.
Keywords: Shoreline, Remote Sensing, Digital, Coastal dynamics, Accretion & Erosion
Introduction Coastal zones are considered vital
components of the global bio system as well
as high biological productive regions that
contain wealth of mixed species, genetically
diversified habitat and filter pollutants that
help to protect shorelines from erosion and
storms (Nemani and Running, 1995;
Yagoub and Kolan, 2006). These zones
serve as major carbon sink and oxygen
sources by way of regulating climate and
global ecosystem. Coastal zones are found
occuring at the interface between the three
major natural systems at the earth’s surface
atmosphere, ocean and land surface.
Processes operating in these systems are
responsible for the shaping of the coastal
zone. The interaction among the three
different sets of processes makes the coastal
zone an extremely dynamic one. The zone
is also a zone of transfer of material from
the land surface to the ocean system. The
eroded sediments are often moved to the
beach and near-shore, some to the ocean
floor and accumulated sediments may add
to the land mass in some areas (Davidson-
Arnott, 2010).
Several studies have shown the
effectiveness of remote sensing and GIS
techniques in shoreline dynamics
Abiodun, Suleiman, Matthew
Geospatial Analysis of Shoreline Dynamics in the Coastal Areas of Cross River State Nigeria
assessment. For example, Kumaravel et al.
(2013) used a remote sensing based
approach in shoreline change studies in
Cuddalore District, East Coast of Tamil
Nadu, India. The rates of shoreline changes
were estimated by overlay analysis using
GIS The study revealed that most of the
study area has been undergoing erosion
around 3.21km2 for the past four decades
and that both natural and anthropogenic
processes along the coast modify the
shoreline configuration and control the
erosion, accretion activities of the coastal
zones. In a related study, Ogoro (2014)
carried out spatio – temporal analysis on
changes in the geomorphic shoreline of
Bonny Island. The showed that 1,819.4sq
km, 4,588.38 sq km and 1,781.96 sq km of
land were lost to sea between 1986 and
2001, 2001 and 2006, 2006 and 2011
respectively. In another study, Odunuga et
al. (2013) conducted a geomorphic mapping
and assessment of human activities along
the southwestern Nigeria coastline. The
paper identified various coastal landforms
and anthropogenic activities in relation to
ecosystem degradation and stability on the
southwestern Nigeria coastline. In a similar
study, Pandiaraj et al. (2010) utilized
remote sensing to perform a study on
coastal geomorphological landforms from
Coleroon River Mouth to Cuddalore South
Arcot, Tamil Nadu, India using aerial
photographs and LANDSAT images.
Tomar and Singh (2010) utilized remote
sensing as a tool in geomorphological
mapping in land use planning around
Shivpuri city, India. Landforms were
interpreted on the basis of interpretation
element keys namely such as- tone, texture,
size, shape, color etc. and extract the
specific information from the false color
composites LISS-III sensor images.
Geomorphological units were classified on
the basis of differential erosion processes.
Vinayaraj et al. (2011) assessed quantitative
estimation of coastal changes along selected
locations of Karnataka, India using GIS and
Remote Sensing approach. Qualitative and
quantitative studies on changes of coastal
geomorphology and shoreline of Karnataka,
India were carried out using topo sheets of
Survey of India and satellite imageries
(IRS-P6 and IRS-1D). Changes during 30
years period are studied at each station and
observed significant morphological changes
in landforms like spit, channel Island,
coastal plain, tidal flat, lateritic plain,
alluvial plain and sand bar within and
adjacent to estuarine river mouths of Kali,
Sharavathi, Kollur-Chakkara—Haladi and
Udyavara Rivers.
Given consideration to environment
changes, global warming, and issues
regarding human activities, studies and
quantitative measurements from periodic
changes are beneficial for the environmental
management of shores. Shoreline change is
one of the most common natural processes
that prevail upon coastal areas. The most
important aspect of managing coastal areas
is identifying the location and change of
shoreline over time. This requires frequent
monitoring of the shoreline using satellite
imagery over time (Tamassoki et al., 2014).
In view of the non-existent of this kind of
study on shoreline dynamics in the study
area, this study therefore attempts to carry
out an assessment of the shoreline changes,
an identification of geomorphological
features along the coast, land use and land
cover change as well as analysis of the
coastal landform of Cross river State in
Nigeria. The study also scrutinizes the
environmental consequences of the
shoreline changes with a view to generating
baseline information for evolving informed
decisions and policies for monitoring and
managing anthropogenic activities in the
coastal zone.
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Study Area
Cross River State is one of the 36 states of
the Federal Republic of Nigeria. Cross
River State is made up of parts of old
Calabar and Ogoja Provinces divided into
18Local Government Areas. Its capital city
is Calabar. It is located between longitudes
8017’00 E and 80 20’00’’E latitudes 40
50’00’’N and 5010’00’’N (Figure 1). The
state has a total area of 21,287.8km2 and
ranked19th of the 36 states of Nigeria
(Bassey, et al, 2013). The state is home to
approximately 2.9 million people (NPC,
2006), predominantly of Efik, Ejagham and
Bekwarra background. One of the fastest
growing states in Nigeria, Cross River is
endowed with vast mineral resources,
plentiful arable land, and a growing number
of tourist attractions (Funds for Peace,
2015). It is a coastal state bordering
Cameroon to the east.
It covers the Oban Massif, Ikom-Mamfe
embayment and Obudu plateau southern
Nigeria with a humid tropical environment
which experiences alternation of wet and
dry seasons. The Oban Massif is composed
of Precambrian basement, which is overlain
by Cretaceous-Tertiary sediments of the
Calabar Flank. It has an interesting geology
which includes metamorphic rocks such as
phyllites, schist, gneiss, amphibolites and
charnockites with igneous intrusions such as
dolerite, granite, granodiorite, diorite,
tonalite and monzonite. The most prominent
fracture set in Oban Massif is the NNW-
SSE, with a trend of 150º -160º from the
north. Others are NNE-SSW, E-W and NW-
SE sets (Oden et al., 2013). The Ikom-
Mamfe embayment is a 130 Km long by
60Km wide Cretaceous sedimentary basin
extending east from the Lower Benue
Trough, Nigeria, into Cameroon where it
narrows and terminates beneath the Tertiary
to Recent volcanic cover of the Cameroon
volcanic line (Fairhead et al., 1991).
It resulted from the rotation of the Obudu
basement with respect to the Oban Massif
(Oden et al., 2013), and is predominantly a
sedimentary environment in which Albian
sandstones and limestone are overlain by a
sequence of Lower Turonian sandstones,
shales and limestone, all of these being
intruded by a series of post- Turonian basic
to intermediate intrusive (Hossain, 1981).
The Obudu plateau consists dominantly of
basement migmatitic gneisses, schist and a
few amphibolites, all of which have been
intruded by acidic, basic and ultra-basic
igneous rocks (Odein, 2013). This area has
a rugged topography with a series of
elevated ridges separated by lowlands.
Structural data (Oden et al., 2013), show
that the most prominent fracture set in
Obudu basement area is the NW-SE which
trends 140º - 150º from north. Minor sets
occur in the NNE-SSW, E-W and ESE-
WNW directions (Oden et al, 2013). The
state is covered by a body of water from the
tributary of the river cross and the Atlantic
Ocean. This renders the land very fertile
and provides abundant aquatic resources for
exploitation. About two third of the state is
covered by tropical rain forest. This makes
it one of the biodiversity hotspots. This
covers about 32% of the entire state,
making it the world’s second largest
preserved rain forest. The vegetation ranges
from mangrove swamp, through rain forest,
derived savannah and montane parkland.
Cross River State falls within tropical
equatorial climate with high temperature,
high relative humidity and abundant annual
rainfall. Two major air masses affect the
climate of Calabar as well as other
contiguous locations in the West African
region. The Tropical Maritime (mT) and the
tropical continental (cT) air masses affect
the climate in two distinct seasons. mT air
prevails and influences its moisture
characteristic while the cT air influences the
dry season condition due to is desert source
across the two air masses at the upper
Abiodun, Suleiman, Matthew
Geospatial Analysis of Shoreline Dynamics in the Coastal Areas of Cross River State Nigeria
troposphere from east to west. This is called
the Equatorial Esterlies (EE). The two air
masses meet at the pressure front called
Inter Tropical Discontinuity (ITD). There
have been a massive development and
urban expansion in the area over the last 10
years. Humid tropical climate (1300-
3000mm rainfall, 30°C mean annual
temperature) prevails over Cross river state
except Obudu Plateau where the climate is
sub-temperate with temperatures of about
15°C-23°C.
About 3 local governments out of 18 cover
the coastal part of the study area. They
include Calabar South, Bakassi and
Akpabuyo Local governments. This is
illustrated in Figure 2.
Materials and Methods The study used Landsat images TM 1980,
1990 and ETM+ 2010 acquired Global
Landcover Facility website and earth
explorer in United States Geological Survey
interface. Landsat 7 image which had scan
line errors was corrected using Landsat
toolbox in Arcmap and Focal Analysis tool
in Erdas Imagine 9.3. In addition, Digital
Elevation Model of the study area was used
to delineate the drainage pattern. Bands 432
within the visible region of the
electromagnetic spectrum (green, red and
near infrared bands) were used to create a
false composite image to make features
distinct from each other. ArcGIS 10.1 and
Erdas 9.1 GIS softwares were used for
image restoration. Creation of coastline
region was done by creating shapefile for
digitizing using the Local Government Area
as input. Land use classes were identified
and mapped in the images, which include
grassland, settlement, outcrops, vegetation
and water body using Maximum likelihood
(ML) classification algorithm in supervised
classification method.
Figure 1: Map Showing Local Government Areas of Cross River State
Source: Oden et.al. (2013)
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Figure 2: Local Government Areas along the Shoreline
This classifier considers not only the cluster
centres but also the shape, size and
orientation of the clusters, which is
achieved by calculating a statistical distance
based on mean values and the covariance
matrix of the clusters. The statistical
distance expresses a probability value: an
unknown pixel is assigned to a cluster to
which it has the highest probability. The
assumption of ML classifiers is that the
statistics of the clusters has a normal
distribution. So called equi-probability
contours are drawn around the centre of
each cluster and this allows the operator to
specify a threshold distance by defining a
maximum probability value. By choosing a
small threshold value, a small ellipse
centered on the mean defines the values
with the highest probability of membership
of a class.
The calculated parameters for the shoreline
change include shoreline change envelope
(SCE), net shoreline movement (NSM), and
end point rate (EPR). The change envelope
describes the distance between the shoreline
farthest from and closest to the baseline at
each transect. The shoreline change
envelope reports a distance. This represents
the total change in shoreline movement for
all available shoreline positions and is not
related to their dates. It is the greatest
shoreline distance between two periods. The
study revealed that the distance (SCE)
between the 1980 shoreline and 1990
shoreline was 259 meters (reduction in line
distance) while SCE between 1990 and
2010 shoreline was about 800 meters.
Furthermore, the net shoreline movement
(NSM) is associated with the dates of only
two shorelines. It reports the distance
between the oldest and youngest shorelines.
This represents the total distance between
the oldest and youngest shorelines. If this
distance is divided by the number of years
elapsed between the two shoreline
positions, the result is the End Point Rate
(EPR). The net shoreline movement
between 1980 and 2010 was about 347
meters. This indicates the extent distance
movement of the oldest and youngest
shoreline.
DEM was re-projected from geographic
coordinate system (GCS WGS 1984) to
projected system (WGS 1984 UTM Zone
32N). Drainage network was delineated
using a stream threshold of 500 cells in the
conditioning of the elevation raster in the
hydrology tools of the ArcGIS software.
Abiodun, Suleiman, Matthew
Geospatial Analysis of Shoreline Dynamics in the Coastal Areas of Cross River State Nigeria
File geo-database was created in order to
create a shapefile which houses the
shoreline for each year using on-screen
digitizing. Digital Shoreline Analysis
System (DSAS) uses a measurement
baseline method (Leatherman and Clow,
1983) to calculate rate-of-change statistics
for a time series of shorelines. The baseline
is constructed by the user and it serves as
the starting point for all transects cast by the
DSAS application. The transect intersects
each shoreline at the measurement points
used to calculate shoreline-change rates.
Each shoreline vector represents a specific
position in time and must be assigned a date
in the shoreline feature-class attribute table.
The measurement transects that are cast by
DSAS from the baseline will intersect the
shoreline vectors. Identification of
landforms was achieved by visual
interpretation using remote sensing
techniques as well as methodologies from
existing literatures. Change detection
analysis was done by calculating areas
cover by each land cover classes for the
years in view. The characteristics of the
images used the year, resolution and source
of each image is given in Table 1.
Shoreline geometry remains one of the key
parameters in the detection of coastal
erosion and deposition and the study of
coastal morpho-dynamics. DSAS as a
software extension within ArcGIS has been
used by many researchers in measuring,
quantifying, calculating and monitoring
shoreline rate-of-change statistics from
multiple historic shoreline positions and
sources. The main application of DSAS is
in utilization of polyline layers as
representation of a specific shoreline feature
(e.g. mean high water mark, cliff top) at a
particular point in time. A range of
statistical change measures are derived
within DSAS, based on the comparison of
shoreline positions through time. These
include Net Shoreline Movement (NSM),
Shoreline Change Envelope (SCE), End
Point Rate (EPR), Linear Regression Rate
(LRR) and Weighted Linear Regression
Rate (WLR). Despite the inability of this
tool to determine the forcing of morpho-
dynamics, it has been shown to be effective
in facilitating an in-depth analysis of
temporal and historical movement of
shoreline positions and cliff geometry.
Change detection studies was carried using
Erdas Imagine 9.1 using the classified as
input to generate a difference file and a
highlight file. Areas that have undergone
change are shown while areas that
unchanged are presented.
Results and Discussion Land Use and Land Cover Change
Figures 3, 4, 5 and Table 2 showed a drastic
reduction in the area covered by grassland
in the area and a rapid increase in the area
covered by vegetation. This may be due to
presence of good soil condition as well as
lush amount of tropical rain forest in the
area. Also, gradual reduction of grassland
between 1990 and 2010 may be attributed to
the emergence of settlement in the coastal
part of the study area. Outcrops area
coverage in 1990 was 0.03 km2 and was
increased to 68.7 km2 with an introduction
to a small percentage of settlement in places
laden with outcrops. The total area ocuppied
by water body in 1980 was 35% of the
coastal area but was increased to 36% with
an increment of about 1.1% due to
closeness to the ocean.. Vegetation
increased from 14.5% in 1980 to 34.13% in
2010 with an increment of 19.5% while
outcrop increment in acreage ranged from
0.009% to 17.3%. The result of the research
carried out by Odunnuga et al. (2013)
supports the results of this research as it
establishes that human activities along the
southwestern coastline have affected the
coastal features along the coast.
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Table 1: Summary of some satellites (LANDSAT) missions used.
Data Resolution Source
Landsat Tm
(1980)
Visible To NIR- 30 Meters
Thermal Band-60 Meters
Landcover.Org
Landsat Tm
(1990)
Visible To NIR- 30 Meters
Thermal Band-60 Meters
Landcover.Org
Landsat Etm
Plus (2010)
Visible To NIR- 30 Meters
Thermal Band-60 Meters
Panchromatic Band- 15
Meters
Earthexplorer.Usgs.Gov
Dem 1 Arc (30 Meters) Earthexplorer.Usgs.Gov
Figure 3: Land cover map of 1980
Figure 4: Land cover map of 1990
Abiodun, Suleiman, Matthew
Geospatial Analysis of Shoreline Dynamics in the Coastal Areas of Cross River State Nigeria
Figure 5: Land cover map of 2010
Table 2a: Land Use Change Statistics
Landuse
1980 1990 (%) 2010 (%)
Km2 (%) Km2 (%) Km2 (%)
Vegetation 58.2 14.5567 6.60 1.6504 135.3 33.8
Water Body 141.32 35.3338 98.75 24.6879 97.8 26.4269
Grassland 200.43 50.1095 247.65 61.9132 93.6 23.6202
Outcrops - 0.04 0.009549 68.8 17.3549
Settlement - - 4.5 0.202779
Table 2b: Land Use Change Statistics
Landuse
Change
betw1980 &
1990
Change betw1990 &
2010
Change betw 1980
&2010
Average rate of
Change per yr
Km2 (%) Km2 (%) Km2 (%) Km2 (%)
Vegetation -51.2 -88.0 128.7 1950 77.1 132.5 2.57 4.42
Water Body -42,57 -30.12 -0.95 -0.96 -43.52 -30.8 -1.45 -1.03
Grassland 47.22 23.56 -154.05 -62.20 -106.83 -53.3 -3.56 -0.12
Outcrops 0.04 - 68.76 171900 - - 3.44 8595
Settlement/
Built Up - 4.5 - - - 0.225 -
Vegetation along the coastline in Cross
River State has increased over the 30 years
study period by 2.57km2, the relationship
between the rate of urbanization and human
activities along the coast is inversely
proportional to the rate of vegetation
increase long the coastline. In Bakassi due
to the crisis over some portion of land,
activities in these areas have reduced
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
considerably which gave vegetation the
avenue to spring up.
The dynamics of water body as shown in
Figure 2b explains the unstable nature of
water, in this case the coastline reduced by
43.52km2 in 30 years and an average
1.45km2 per year. Sand mining along the
coast has affected the natural flow of water
along the coastline. The rate of loss water is
directly proportional to the rate of water
loss along the coast. Migration of cattle
rearers from northern Nigeria to Southern
Nigeria in search of pastures for animals has
depleted the grassland in the area between
1980 and 2010, grassland reduced
106.83km2 representing an average of
3.56km2 per year. Outcrops in 1990 covered
0.04km2 erosion, flooding in the area
between 1990 and 2010 exposed the
outcrops that were formally covered by soil.
In 2010 outcrops exposed covered
68.76km2 which is a result of urbanization
and erosion.
Hydrology Analysis
The stream analysis showed that there were
four stream orders bordering the coastal
area. The drainage pattern was dendritic in
nature. Also, the slope map also showed
that there were steep areas ranged from 5°
to 12° along the outcrop areas while river
and coastal area showed gentle or relatively
flat areas which range from 0° to 5°
(Figures 6 and 7). Most of the flat areas
were located in the coastal zones with
values ranging from 0° - 6° considered to be
extremely flat in nature. This accounts for
erosion occurrence in the area. Vegetation
and grassland in the region showed gradual
increment. This also accounts for luxuriant
vegetation and supports farming activities in
the region. The highest order of the stream
(4th order) was located in the coastal region
bordering the shoreline.
Figure 6: Slope of Study Area
Abiodun, Suleiman, Matthew
Geospatial Analysis of Shoreline Dynamics in the Coastal Areas of Cross River State Nigeria
Figure 7: Map Showing Stream Order
Shoreline Change Analysis and
Extraction
The shoreline length analysis indicated a
gradual decrease between the years in view.
The shoreline length for the year 1980 was
71.5962 km, 71.4262 km in 1990 and
69.7015 km in 2010. A gradual reduction of
0.17 km in length was noticed between
1980 and 1990 while a rapid reduction of
about 1.724 km was recorded between 1990
and 2010. End point rate is calculated by
dividing the distance of shoreline movement
by the time elapsed between the oldest and
the most recent shoreline. The major
advantages of the EPR are the ease of
computation and minimal requirement of
only two shoreline dates. In the analysis, it
was observed that between 1980 and 2010,
Figure 8: Shoreline from Landsat Images
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
the EPR was about 11.5m for thirty years.
Also, the rate of erosion between 1980 and
1990 was 424.96m while rate of accretion
(increase by gradual accumulation) was
about 277.59m. The rate of erosion was
about 15.4m per year between 1980 and
2010. This indicates that the erosion that
occurs per year is higher than rate of
accretion. This results in the apparent
reduction of the shoreline per year as shown
in figure 8.
Conclusion The study observed a remarkable change in
the shoreline with a gradual reduction of
0.17 km in length between 1980 and 1990,
and a rapid reduction of about 1.72 km
between 1990 and 2010. The study also
revealed that shoreline change envelope was
259m between the 1980 shoreline and 1990
shoreline (reduction in line distance) while
it was 800m between 1990 and 2010
shoreline. The net shoreline movement
between 1980 and 2010 was about 347
meters, representing the extent distance
movement of the oldest and youngest
shoreline. The study further observed that
between 1980 and 2010, the end point rate
was about 11.5 meters for thirty years. Also,
the rate of erosion between 1980 and 1990
was 424.96 meters while rate of accretion
was about 277.59m. The rate of erosion was
about 15.4m per year between 1980 and
2010. This indicates that the erosion that
occurs per year is higher than rate of
accretion.
This results in the apparent reduction of the
shoreline per year. This may be attributed to
low elevation with values ranging from 0° -
6°, suggesting extremely flat topography
and intense farming activities. This trend is
similar to other parts of the Niger Delta
region of Nigeria. Erosion and accretion
processes have been ongoing, outstanding,
and very severe in the area. Specifically, it
is worthy of note to say that these
occurrences are very much peculiar to the
coastal region of Cross River State.
Therefore, quantitative analysis of shoreline
changes at different timescales is very
important in understanding and establishing
the processes driving erosion and accretion
computing sediment budgets, identification
of hazard zones as a basis for modelling of
dynamics and for coastal management and
interventions.
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Environmental Technology & Science Journal
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Ayuba, P. & Akpama, D. S.
Department of Architecture, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger State, Nigeria.
Corresponding E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract In an era of climate change and a time when pupils especially those in elementary schools spend most of their
time indoors, attempt to entice and encourage children and their teachers to spend more time in well-structured,
child-centred green designed school grounds is timely and cannot be overemphasized. Creating an outdoor
learning and play environment is an initiative that would incorporate green design principles targeted at meeting
children's developmental needs. Children developmental needs are cognitive, physical, social and emotional.
This paper assessed the physical outdoor spaces and natural elements in elementary schools with a view to
integrating these elements in elementary schools in Minna, Niger State. The research was carried out by the use
of a structured observation schedule and questionnaires. Data collected were analyzed using descriptive
statistical tools such as mean, percentages and averages. The findings revealed that only 25% of the
playgrounds of elementary schools in Minna have above average fixed components. It also showed that no
provisions were made for experimental, individual, gathering and ecological spaces. The results generated were
shown in tables. The paper recommended that play-learning environment be integrated in elementary schools in
Minna.
Keywords: Developmental needs, elementary schools, green designed, space, play-learning.
Introduction In the world over, every child plays. The
drive to play in children is so profound that
children will make effort to do so in the midst
of any circumstance. Young children consider
pretending, running and building as fun
(Whitebread, 2012). It is a well-known fact to
researchers and educators that these playful
activities are of immense benefit to the
development of the whole child across social,
cognitive, physical and emotional domains.
Play is indeed very instrumental to a healthy
child’s development; it is no wonder that the
American Academy of Pediatrics issued a
white paper on the topic (Ginsburg, 2007).
The National Association for the Education of
Young Children (2009) named play as a
central component in developmentally
appropriate educational practices, and the
United Nations High Commission on Human
Rights (1989) recognized play as fundamental
right for every child.
Play has a wide range of definitions ranging
from discrete descriptions of various types of
play such as physical, construction play,
language play, or symbolic play (Miller and
Almon, 2009), to a list of broad criteria,
based on observations and attitudes that are
meant to capture the essence of all play
behaviours (Rubin et al., 1983).
Contemporary definitions of play focus on a
number of key criteria. The founder of the
National Institute for Play, Stuart Brown in
his words defines play as anything that
spontaneously is done for its own sake.
Similarly, Krasnor and Pepler (1980) and
Rubin et al. (1983) defined play along a
continuum as more or less playful using a
set of behavioural and dispositional criteria.
Play includes activities that are freely
chosen and directed by children and arise
from intrinsic motivation (Miller and
Ayuba, Akpama
Evaluation of Key Design Elements for Play-Learning Environment in Elementary Schools in Minna, Nigeria
Almon, 2009). Today under the pressure of
rising academic standards in our elementary
schools, play has been given trivial
consideration. In our society today, a
pseudo dichotomy has been created between
play and learning.
This paper therefore, seeks to discourage
the strict relegation of learning to the four
walls of the classroom by assessing the
physical outdoor spaces and natural
elements in elementary schools with a view
to integrating these elements in elementary
schools in Minna, Niger state. This research
will encourage outdoor learning through
play thereby reducing the time spent by
pupils in the classrooms.
The Importance of Play
Play builds the foundation for a lifetime of
learning. Play is pleasurable, intrinsically
motivated, freely chosen and is process
oriented. Play is also non-literal and is
actively engaged. According to American
Academy of Pediatrics (2016), children
playful behaviours can range from 0-100%
playful. It is through play that children at a
very early age engage and interact in the
world around them. The American
Academy of Pediatrics titled “The
Importance of Play in Promoting Healthy
Child Development and Maintaining Strong
Parent-Child Bonds" elucidates on the
importance of play to the healthy
development of children. Among other
things, the report says the" play allows
children to use their imagination, dexterity,
and physical, cognitive and emotional
strength"(p.151). Play is important to the
development of healthy brain. Children
stand the chance to learn how to work in
groups, to negotiate, to share and to resolve
differences, and to learn self-advocacy skill
(Heidi, 2013). These aforementioned
benefits of play would be impossible
without a well-structured and conducive
environment that can foster and instigate
children and their teachers to spend
appreciable outdoor time to play and learn.
It is alarming that as experts are arguing and
yet to come to terms with the importance of
play in the lives of children, the actual time
children spend daily in playing continues to
decrease. Today, children play eight hours
less each week than their counterparts did
two decades ago (Elkind, 2008).
Play as a Pedagogy
Moyles et al. (2002) examined that although
adults endorsed the educational benefits of
play, they were uncertain of their role in
play and how to assess the prospects of
play. Professional knowledge and expertise
is critical in planning and engaging in
playing, learning and teaching. Siraj-
Blatchford et al. (2002) studied effective
pedagogy and distinguished between
pedagogical framing (planning for play,
providing resources and a routine) on behalf
of adults and pedagogical interactions
(specific behaviors in face to face
encounters), and established that both are
required. In conclusion they emphasized
that the most effective settings had a
balance between adult-initiated and child-
initiated activities.
Play is a natural medium through which
learning and development is holistically
enhanced. As suggested by Hayes (2003),
"Play is a pedagogical tool for the teacher as
well as a pathway for learning for a child"(
p.122). It is obvious that young children
learn through play in a composite system.
Components of a Supportive
Environment
Outdoor and indoor learning environments
should be motivating and inviting to all
children, so that they are encouraged and
helped to explore and to use all the
possibilities offered for fun, adventure,
challenge and creativity as stated by
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
National Council for Curriculumn and
Assessment (NCCA, 2004).The physical
environment, both indoors and outdoors,
encourages positive growth and
development for children through
opportunities to explore and learn. Safe,
clean, spacious, bright, welcoming, warm,
and accessible environments for children
and adults, including those with additional
needs, should afford opportunities to rest
and play. Babies, toddlers and young
children need fresh air and outdoor play
space is essential if children are to have a
balanced, healthy day. Learning is
constrained and may be damaged if young
children are required to sit still indoors,
where adults do most of the talking and
require children to follow their lead (Bruce,
2004). The environment should offer
children opportunities to: actively explore,
make decisions and follow through with
their ideas; engage in co-operative,
symbolic, dramatic or pretend play; move,
dance and increase control over their bodies
(Hohmann and Weikart, 1995).
Socio-cultural theory is concerned with
children’s learning in context. Children
respond to the reality they see around them
and what they learn reflects that reality
(Penn, 2005). Environments can reflect the
lives and activities of the children/families
in the service to establish positive identities.
In addition, environments can have
resources to counteract stereotypical and
discriminatory attitudes (French, 2003).
The same principles apply whether
organizing indoor or outdoor areas. In fact
many of the activities babies, toddlers and
young children enjoy indoors can be
achieved outdoors and with greater
freedom. If in group care, careful
consideration of the organizing of rooms for
different age groups is necessary. Babies
and toddlers need a room or home base
where they can relate for part of the day
with a small group of children and adults,
where they can feel secure and build
relationships. Older children need more
space (French, 2003).
A supportive environment is one structured
to meet the developmental needs of
children. The developmental needs include
emotional development, physical
development, social development and
cognitive development needs. It is
paramount to note that any distinct space on
the playground is likely to have both fixed
and movable components and serving a
range of developmental needs (Heidi,
2013). Fixed landscape components are the
anchor points of a landscape, for example,
trails, groves of trees, hills, and rock circles.
These components must be thoughtfully
arranged, to prioritize connectivity,
maintain flexibility and create a kind of
"loose fit" that allows educators and
children to play an active part in adding
moveable components to customize their
play-learning environment (Heidi, 2013).
A menu for moveable components was
suggested by Heidi (2013), to serve as
objects that enhances play and can be
incorporated into the play space as seen in
figure I. They include but not limited to:
1. Containers: milk crates, buckets
2. Gardening equipment:
wheelbarrows, gloves, watering cans
3. Chalk boxes and tubes
4. Dirt, mud, cob, sand and water.
Ayuba, Akpama
Evaluation of Key Design Elements for Play-Learning Environment in Elementary Schools in Minna, Nigeria
Fig. I. Fixed and moveable components serving
developmental needs. Source: Heidi (2013)
Creating a Supportive Environment
Smith et al. (2005) advocated that the
learning environment should be carefully
planned to meet children needs by
providing them with the optimum
opportunities to work independently, to
make choices, decisions and solve
problems, to engage in real experiences, and
to experience success. The High and Scope
Educational Research Foundation (2001)
suggested that the space should be inviting
for children and organize into well-defined
areas of interest to encourage distinctive
types of play. Hohmann and Weikart (1995)
noted that the interest areas are arranged to
promote visibility and easy movement
between areas and are flexible to
accommodate children changing interests.
Curtis and O’Hagan (2004) promoted a
variety of easily accessible, open-ended,
natural, found, real life materials which can
be used in creative and purposeful ways and
reflect children’s family lives. Materials are
stored so that children can find, use and
return materials they need. The most
effective learning comes from simple but
versatile materials and environments which
extend the child’s imagination and can be
adapted by children to suit their learning
needs and level of understanding. Dowling
(2000) referred to this as an informational
environment which supports children ability
to make and learn from mistakes, discover
the best way of doing things and learn how
to make decisions.
Integrating Key Spaces into Play-
Learning Environments
Developing a conceptual design for a play-
learning environment will require the
bringing together entire piece together- the
fixed and moveable landscape components,
children developmental needs and the
desired spatial qualities of the site. It was
advocated that priority be placed on five
key spaces that should work in concert to
create a diversity of play and learning
opportunities (Heidi, 2013). The key spaces
as described by Heidi (2013) are active
spaces, experimental spaces, individual
spaces, gathering spaces and ecological
spaces as indicated in figure II.
Fig. II. Key spaces in play-learning environments
Source: Heidi (2013)
Active Spaces
Spaces that encourage active play vary in
topography, incorporate changes in height,
challenge the mind to assess competencies
and go beyond perceived limits. Plate I
explains how these spaces feel energetic as
they promote fitness and health.
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Plate I. Active Space Source: Heidi (2013)
Experimental Spaces
These are spaces for discovery, exploration,
hypothesizing. They are temporary in
nature. They are also flexible, alive, messy
and emergent. They should feel more like a
lab, a space that supports creativity,
constructing, building, testing and idea
generating. Plate II identifies spaces that are
often very social, offering opportunities for
the development of
communication/language skills. They are
filled with materials, and have child sized
furnishings and storage. Mud, sand, water,
wood, buckets, tools and other types of
loose parts are essential. Educational
materials such as hand lenses, clipboards,
pencils and cameras should be used (Heidi,
2013).
Plate IV. Experimental Space
Source: Heidi (2013)
Individual Spaces
Individual spaces support quiet reflective
moments, observation and listening as
shown in plate III. They feature small
enclaves that are protected, cozy and
enclosed. This type of space would
accommodate one or two children and could
be on the edge of another play zone, most
likely away from an active play area. This is
a space for private time. Some children are
sensitive to noise and have need for a quiet
space in the playground (Heidi, 2013).
Plate III. Individual Space
Source: Heidi (2013)
Gathering Spaces
Gathering spaces can be for a large or small
group. Plate IV describes a typical
welcoming, fostering of social interaction,
and focused on communication, negotiation,
and sharing. They offer seating, shade, and
should have a balance of soft and hard
features (Heidi, 2013). They should be
flexible and accommodate multiple use and
users (staff, children, parents).
Plate IV. Gathering Space Source: Heidi (2013)
Ayuba, Akpama
Evaluation of Key Design Elements for Play-Learning Environment in Elementary Schools in Minna, Nigeria
Ecological Spaces
Trees, shrubs, and vegetation are strong
elements of these spaces. They are alive,
containing ecosystems that attract birds,
butterflies, insects, and worms. They offer
children access to water, soil, and plants
(plate V). They create habitat on different
scales and will attract a diversity of plant
and insect species. They evoke an emotional
response, nurture a sense of responsibility,
and offer moments for reflection(Heidi,
2013).
Plate V Ecological Space Source: Heidi (2013)
Research Method The research method employed to carry out
this study was the use of post-occupancy
survey research. An observation schedule
was structured to evaluate the physical
outdoor spaces and natural elements
available in primary school play grounds.
The assessment was conducted in Minna,
Niger state, Nigeria. Two local governments
which lie within Minna are Bosso and
Chanchaga Local governments. Ten public
primary schools were selected at random
from each of these local government areas
by simple random technique of probability
sampling method. The selection of public
schools was based on the fact that large
populations of pupils in Niger State attend
public schools and has a wide variety of
spread across the wards in the area. The
data was collected and analyzed using
descriptive statistical tools such as mean,
percentages and averages in a tabular
format.
Ten public schools selected from each the
two local government local areas are
tabulated below:
Table 1.0: Schools selected in Bosso local
government area
S/No Name of Primary School
1 Baban Dabo Primary School
2 Dr. Yahaya Bawa Bosso Pry Sch.
3 Gusase Primary School
4 Gurusu Primary School
5 Jikuchi Ube Primary School
6 Kadna Primary School
7 Maitumbi Primary School
8 Shango Primary School
9 Tudun-Fulani Model School
10 Kwarkwota Primary School
Table 2.0: Schools selected in Chanchaga local
government area
S/No Name of Primary School
1 Shango Primary School
2 Aliyu Mu'azu Sarkin Yakin Mem. Sch.
3 Anguwan Zakka Primary School
4 Dr.Umar Farouk Primary School
5 Ibb Primary School
6 Kuyanbana Primary School
7 Usman Nagogo Primary School
8 Limawa Model Primary School
9 Tunga North Primary School
10 Umar Audi Memorial Primary Sch
Findings and Discussion of Results The results obtained through observation
schedules were recorded using following
representations.
0 -not available
1 - available
The result in Table 3.0 shows that all the
playgrounds of the schools had both hard
and soft surfaces required for physical
development. It also shows that 85% of
groves of trees will enhance the emotional
development of children. It further shows
that only 10% of the playgrounds have hills
which support cognitive learning, 20% of
rock circles which support social
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
development but none had trails or
pathways in the playgrounds.
Table 4.0 shows that all the playgrounds
had either sand or mud or both and chalk
boxes which support emotional and
cognitive developments in children during
play. No playground had a play table which
supports both cognitive and social
development and only 25% had garden
equipment which also supports cognitive
developments in children.
Table 5.0 shows that the only type of play
space available in the playgrounds of the
selected primary schools is the active space.
The ecological space, individual space,
experimental and gathering space which
support play-learning environments are not
available. The environment should offer
children opportunities to: actively explore,
make decisions and follow through with
their ideas; engage in co-operative,
symbolic, dramatic or pretend play; move,
dance and increase control over their
bodies.
Table 3.0: Fixed components in playgrounds
S/
No
List of Schools Hard/Soft
Sur.
Hills Rock
Circles
Groves
Of
Trees
Trails Total
01 Baban Dabo Primary School 1 0 0 1 0 40%
02 Chanchaga Primary School 1 0 0 1 0 40%
03 Dr. Yahaya Bawa Bosso Pry Sch. 1 0 1 1 0 60%
04 Gusase Primary School 1 0 0 0 0 20%
05 Gurusu Primary School 1 0 0 1 0 40%
06 Jikuchi Ube Primary School 1 0 0 1 0 40%
07 Kadna Primary School 1 0 1 1 0 60%
08 Maitumbi Primary School 1 1 0 1 0 60%
09 Shango Primary School 1 0 0 1 0 40%
10 Tudun-Fulani Model School 1 0 0 1 0 40%
11 Aliyu Mu'azu Sarkin Yakin Mem. Sch. 1 1 0 1 0 60%
12 Anguwan Zakka Primary School 1 0 0 1 0 40%
13 Dr.Umar Farouk Primary School 1 0 0 1 0 40%
14 Ibb Primary School 1 0 0 1 0 40%
15 Kuyanbana Primary School 1 0 1 1 0 60%
16 Kwarkwota Primary School 1 0 0 0 0 20%
17 Limawa Model Primary School 1 0 0 1 0 40%
18 Tunga North Primary School 1 0 1 0 0 40%
19 Umar Audi Memorial Primary Sch 1 0 0 1 0 40%
20 Usman Nagogo Primary School 1 0 0 1 0 40%
Total 100% 10% 20% 85% 0%
Ayuba, Akpama
Evaluation of Key Design Elements for Play-Learning Environment in Elementary Schools in Minna, Nigeria
Table 4.0: Moveable components in playgrounds
S/No List Of Schools Containers Garden
Equip.
Chalk
Boxes
Sand/
Mud
Play
Tables
Total
01 Baban Dabo Primary School 0 0 1 1 0 40%
02 Chanchaga Primary School 1 1 1 1 0 80%
03 Dr. Yahaya Bawa Bosso Pry Sch. 1 0 1 1 0 60%
04 Gusase Primary School 0 0 1 1 0 40%
05 Gurusu Primary School 1 0 1 1 0 60%
06 Jikuchi Ube Primary School 0 0 1 1 0 40%
07 Kadna Primary School 1 0 1 1 0 60%
08 Maitumbi Primary School 1 0 1 1 0 60%
09 Shango Primary School 1 1 1 1 0 80%
10 Tudun-Fulani Model School 0 0 1 1 0 40%
11 Aliyu Mu'azu Sarkin Yakin Mem.
Sch.
1 0 1 1 0 60%
12 Anguwan Zakka Primary School 0 0 1 1 0 40%
13 Dr.Umar Farouk Primary School 0 0 1 1 0 40%
14 Ibb Primary School 1 0 1 1 0 60%
15 Kuyanbana Primary School 1 1 1 1 0 80%
16 Kwarkwota Primary School 0 0 1 1 0 40%
17 Limawa Model Primary School 1 1 1 1 0 80%
18 Tunga North Primary School 0 0 1 1 0 40%
19 Umar Audi Memorial Primary Sch 1 1 1 1 0 80%
20 Usman Nagogo Primary School 0 0 1 1 0 40%
Total 55% 25% 100% 100% 0%
Table 5.0: Types of spaces required for a play-learning environment.
S/No List of Schools Active Experi-
Mental
Indivi-
Dual
Gather-
Ing
Ecolo-
Gical
Total
01 Baban Dabo Primary School 1 0 0 0 0 20%
02 Chanchaga Primary School 1 0 0 0 0 20%
03 Dr. Yahaya Bawa Bosso Pry Sch. 1 0 0 0 0 20%
04 Gusase Primary School 1 0 0 0 0 20%
05 Gurusu Primary School 1 0 0 0 0 20%
06 Jikuchi Ube Primary School 1 0 0 0 0 20%
07 Kadna Primary School 1 0 0 0 0 20%
08 Maitumbi Primary School 1 0 0 0 0 20%
09 Shango Primary School 1 0 0 0 0 20%
10 Tudun-Fulani Model School 1 0 0 0 0 20%
11 Aliyu Mu'azu Sarkin Yakin Mem.
Sch.
1 0 0 0 0 20%
12 Anguwan Zakka Primary School 1 0 0 0 0 20%
13 Dr.Umar Farouk Primary School 1 0 0 0 0 20%
14 Ibb Primary School 1 0 0 0 0 20%
15 Kuyanbana Primary School 1 0 0 0 0 20%
16 Kwarkwota Primary School 1 0 0 0 0 20%
17 Limawa Model Primary School 1 0 0 0 0 20%
18 Tunga North Primary School 1 0 0 0 0 20%
19 Umar Audi Memorial Primary Sch 1 0 0 0 0 20%
20 Usman Nagogo Primary School 1 0 0 0 0 20%
Total 100% 0% 0% 0% 0%
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Conclusion The study has revealed that a play-learning
playground has not been given any
considerable attention. It was observed that
only 25% of the playgrounds of primary
schools had above average fixed
components and 55% had moveable
components. It is alarming that no
provisions were made for experimental,
individual, gathering and ecological play-
learning spaces. These would limit or
deprive the children certain developmental
needs which these spaces would have
offered if they were present.
Recommendation Stake holders, developers and professionals
involved in the development of primary
schools, should pay adequate attention to
these key design considerations which
support play-learning playgrounds thereby
creating an enabling environment where
children developmental needs would thrive.
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Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Car Park Usage and Management in Federal
Institutions of Zaria Metropolis, Kaduna State- Nigeria
Oluwole M. S.1, Masugari, D. Y.2 and Elegonye I. I.3
1Department of Transport Management Technology, School of Entrepreneurship and Management Technology,
Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger State. 2Department of Geography, Kaduna State College of Education, Gidan-Waya, Kafanchan. 3Training Department, Nigerian Institute of Transport Technology, Zaria, Kaduna State-Nigeria.
Corresponding E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract Parking management is increasingly becoming a major component of surface transport planning needs of public
institutions like schools and hospitals, this is because the means of transportation cannot continually be in
motion. Zaria metropolis harbors a number of such institutions which generates substantial vehicular traffic.
Despite efforts by these institutions to provide parking facilities in the past ten years, persistent incidences of
indiscriminate parking, non-usage of prescribed parking lots, double and road side parking is still very
common. This study examines car par usage and management in five Federal Institutions (NITT, ABUTH,
NCAT, FCE and NARICT) within Zaria Metropolis, it provides information to the number of parking facilities
provided by the institutions, type of parking system adopted, users perception of such facilities and challenges
of parking management in the Institutions. The study was carried out through field observation, traffic count
and administration of 260 copies of questionnaires to determine the types, number, usage and parking duration
on the available facilities (tarred, roadside and shaded) across the Institutions. The study revealed that ABUTH
has the largest and most organized parking lots amongst all. This is perhaps due to the nature of its operations
(tertiary health care service provider) and high level of enforcement instituted by the management. The major
challenges faced by users of the car park facilities are long distance of the parking lots to the destination of the
users within the institutions as well as poor medium of communication and direction to the available parking
facilities. The implication of this study to the usage and management of car park in the study area lies in the
provision of additional designated parking facilities to accommodate the increasing number of vehicles, strict
enforcement through monitoring and sanctions to discourage parking within undesignated areas as well as
integrating parking programmes into the physical development plans of the institutions.
Keywords: Surface Transport, Car Park, Vehicular Traffic, Road Infrastructures.
Introduction Parking issue has become an integral part of
surface transportation system, this is
because all road based means of movement
cannot continually be in motion, and there
will certainly be a time where such vehicle
will come to rest either at home, workplace,
shops or social centers. Car park
management is thus an essential component
of any trip and has risen in significance as
an issue in local and strategic transportation
planning and policy (Hensher and Button,
2000). The socio economic costs of
providing parking facilities to the society is
significant and sometimes there are some
level of conflicts of supply and demand
amongst transport operators and managers
as observed by Victoria Transport Policy
Institute (VTPI, 2013). In Nigeria, car is
one of the dominant means of transportation
and yet parking management seems to be a
neglected aspect of transportation planning
and development. Venues of activities such
as offices, Institutions, markets, shops and
similar places often generate enormous
parking demand that is more than what the
parking provisions can accommodate thus,
creating difficulties of parking vehicles at
desired destinations particularly when
located within the central areas. Since
Oluwole, Masugari, Elegonye
Car Park Usage and Management in Federal Institutions of Zaria Metropolis, Kaduna State- Nigeria
illegal parking, roadside and on-street
parking is becoming a major feature in
Federal Institutions within Zaria, the traffic
carrying capacity of the road within them
which would have supported an efficient
movement of automobiles is greatly limited.
Cities in Nigeria are rapidly growing and
the economic patterns of the people in them
are equally changing, with these changes
there is a dire need for these cities to
adequately provide all the infrastructures
that would aid ensure and efficient mobility.
The use of cars as a means of intra-urban
movement in Nigeria has grown
appreciable, therefore adequate provision of
parking spaces as transportation
infrastructures is one issue relevant
authorities must adequately address (Cuddy,
2007). Zaria in Kaduna state Nigeria is
home to a number of federal institutions like
Ahmadu Bello University (ABU), Federal
College of Education (FCE), ABU
Teaching Hospital (ABUTH), Nigerian
College of Aviation Technology (NCAT),
Numerous Research Institutes like the
Nigerian Institute of Transport Technology
(NITT), National Research Institute for
Chemical Technology (NARICT) among
others. Military formations like the Nigerian
Military School (NMS), Nigerian School of
Military Police just to mention a few. These
institutions have been found to be centers of
trip generation and attraction. Despite
efforts made by the management to provide
parking facilities in the past ten years,
persistent incidences of indiscriminate
parking, non-usage of prescribed parking
lots, double and road side parking is still a
major source of worry. All these put
together raise some concern about parking
facilities, and its management in the study
area which if not addressed could lead to
great traffic, environmental, safety and
security within and around the institutions.
The forgoing leads to the examination of car
park usage and management in Federal
Institutions of Zaria metropolis. The study
provides information with respect to the
number of organize car park facilities
available in the institutions, type of parking
system adopted, users’ perception of such
facilities and challenges to the car park
usage and management in the Institutions. It
is expected that findings of this study will
assist in the planning, designing or re-
designing of parking system in the various
institution.
Review of Related Literature Ogunsanya (2002) noted that evidence in
literature suggests that one of the major
objectives of transportation planning is to
ease the movement of passengers and
goods. However, in many towns and cities
of Nigeria (Kano, Port Harcourt, Kaduna
and Abuja), there is an undesirable degree
of traffic congestion on urban roads
occasioned by unorganized parking. He
further observed that, the provision of new
roads is often expensive and most municipal
government usually considers the option of
widening existing roads which involves the
demolition of houses and its attendant cost
of compensation. As city transportation
system expands, it takes up more spaces, the
construction of new roads, the expansion of
existing ones and the building of parking lot
requires the acquisition of part of the
exchange space, yet the more space is
allocated to road transport, the greater the
requirement for more traffic space.
Automobile therefore has an insatiable
appetite for space, it uses space at home, at
work, shopping and even when some spaces
are empty it is tied up or reserved for the
automobile. Automobile do not only have
exclusive space for moving, they also have
a” zone of influence” which expands as the
speed and quantity of traffic increases, thus
reducing the effectiveness of exchanges
space and the level of interaction
(Ogunsanya, 2002).
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Unlike other urban problems, crisis in urban
transportation quickly manifest itself in
congestion, delay, accident, parking
difficulties and environmental pollution.
Ayeni (1983) described these as the most
pressing and most visible urban problem of
Nigeria cities. Earlier, Oduola (1981) has
exclaimed that most urban congestion
problems are caused by the sub-optimal
manner in which the roads are used, as road
side and on-street parking, street trading and
total disregard of traffic regulation by road
users are significant human contribution to
the traffic problem. In Lagos for instance,
Ogunsanya (1986) observed that illegal
parking alone account for 30 percent of the
cause of delay along Bangbose, Igbosere,
Ipodo, Bajulaiye, Ereko and Balogun and
Ojoo roads in Lagos state. Litman (2011) noted that mobility within the cities is generally
the key to economic growth in the developed
world, sustainable mobility need to be among
the first problem addressed when talking about
ways to make cities more sustainable. This
sustainable mobility development implies that
the consumption activities should be able to
take into consideration effective utilization of
available resource and develop environmental
friendly system for the mobility of the people
that would not change the natural resources and
at the same time have some positive effect on
the environment.
Simon (1996) observed that there are two
serious disadvantages facing urban
transportation, first was the heavy increase
in motor traffic in city centres which often
creates almost insolvable parking and
garage problems. The second is the vast
increase in road congestion, he submitted
further that in the developing countries,
parking is a complex and long term problem
which cannot be totally eradicated but
managed. Buses and trucks have to load and
unload passengers and goods, they all need
space to park and this pose a problem of
required spaces. The usage of vehicle has a
direct linkage with parking. This is because
after vehicle is driven to a destination, its
usefulness greatly diminishes if there is
difficulty in parking. To be effective
therefore, transportation system must
include adequate parking facilities in all
places that attracts vehicular traffic.
Litman (2011) conceptualized parking
problem in terms of a paradigm shift which
describes a fundamental change in how a
problem is perceived and solutions
evaluated. Parking problem and solutions
can be viewed in terms of a shift from the
old paradigm to the new one. The old
paradigm assumes that parking should be
abundant and free at most destinations. It
strives to maximize supply and minimize
price. The paradigm also assumes that
parking lots should almost never be filled
and that parking facility costs should be
incorporated into the costs of buildings or
subsidized by governments and that every
destination should satisfy its own parking
needs The old parking paradigm asserts that
parking requirements should be applied
rigidly without exception or variation and
that parking management should be seen as
a last resort to be applied only if increasing
supply is not feasible. The new parking
paradigm on the other hand strives to
provide optimal parking supply and price, it
considers too much supply as harmful, as
too little, and prices that are too low are as
harmful as those that are too high as it
strives to use parking facilities efficiently
by considering full lots to be acceptable,
provided that additional parking is available
nearby and any spill over problems are
addressed. It emphasizes sharing of parking
facilities between different destinations and
favours charging parking facility costs
directly to users and providing financial
rewards to people who reduce their parking
demand (Willson and Shoup, 1999).
Management solutions tend to reduce most
parking problems, providing a greater range
Oluwole, Masugari, Elegonye
Car Park Usage and Management in Federal Institutions of Zaria Metropolis, Kaduna State- Nigeria
of benefits and so are supported by more
comprehensive planning. It is also
important to define parking problems
carefully in order to provide solutions. For
example, it is important to determine
exactly what type of problem, and where,
when and to whom it occurs. Increasing
supply simply helps reduce parking
congestion and spill over problems but
increases most other problems (Edwards,
2002). In order to provide optimal parking
supply, it is the practice in conventional
planning to determine how much parking to
be provided at a particular site by planners
based on recommended minimum parking
standards. This provides an index or parking
ratio used to calculate the number of spaces
to supply at a particular location. These are
unconstrained and unadjusted values, which
generally reflect the maximum supply that
could be needed. These standards are often
excessive and can usually be adjusted
significantly downward (Litman, 2009).
Conventional parking standards are based
on parking demand surveys but the analysis
does not usually take into account
geographic, demographic and economic
factors that can affect parking demand such
as whether a site is urban or suburban, and
whether parking is free or priced. These
standards err toward over supply in many
ways. They are derived from parking
demand studies that were mostly performed
in car-dependent locations. Applying these
standards results in far more parking supply
than is usually needed at most destinations,
particularly where land use is mixed
(Bradley,1997).
Better ways are now available to determine
how much parking to supply at a particular
site. These are the efficiency-based
standards which take into account,
geographic, demographic and economic
factors that affect parking demand (Cuddy,
2007; VTPI, 2008). They also reflect the
relative costs and benefits of different
options, so less parking is supplied where
parking supply is relatively costly to
provide and where management
programmes are easy to implement. Litman
(2007) has also recommended an integrated
parking plan which should be adjusted to
reflect the needs of a particular situation.
The steps include defining the geographic
scope of analysis such as the site, street,
district/neighbourhood and regional scale;
carefully defining the parking problems;
parking planning should be coordinated
with a community’s overall strategic vision
and development of a comprehensive
evaluation framework.
Methodology The study collects data on the capacity of
parking facilities, Parking System in place,
parking facilities compliance level in
different institutions and challenges to
parking management in the study area. The
data required were sourced from the
respective Federal institutions parking lots,
users and security units. Physical
observation, photographic method and
administration of questionnaires to staff,
students and visitors to the institutions. The
study focused on five purposively selected
Federal Institutions out of the fourteen
major Federal Institutions in Zaria
metropolis. Their selection were based on
their relative size, the volume of vehicular
traffic generated or attracted per day and the
relative ease of accessing data. The five
selected institutions are:
i. National Research Institute for
Chemical Technology (NARICT).
ii. Nigerian Institute of Transport
Technology (NITT).
iii. Nigerian College of Aviation
Technology (NCAT).
iv. Ahmadu Bello University Teaching
Hospital (ABUTH) and
v. Federal College of Education (FCE).
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Pilot survey was first conducted between
9am- 10am for 3 days to have insight into
the average volume of vehicular traffic
attributed to each institutions per day.
Physical observation was also carried out in
the various Institutions’ parking lots, where
an enumerator was stationed from 7am to
5pm to observe the parking behavior.
Information with respect to the duration of
the average parking time were obtained by
evaluating the time respondents spent on
parking lots. The study population
considered the average number of vehicles
in circulation (staff, students and visitors) in
these selected federal institutions and the
sample size was determined following
Krejcie and Morgan, (1970) table of
determination of sample size where it states
that a sample size of 248 is sufficient for a
population of about 700 at 0.05 level of
significance, see table 1 below.
Table 1 Average Vehicular Flow in the
Institutions
Institutions Av. No. of Vehicle Sample Size
ABUTH 200 70
FCE 150 53
NCAT 130 46
NITT 110 40
NARICT 110 39
Total 700 248
A total of 260 copies of questionnaires were
administered and 248 which represent 96%
were returned, only 12 which represent 4%
were not returned or filled improperly. The
stratified sampling technique was used to
select the respondents for the study. The
data collected were analyzed using
descriptive method involving tables of
percentage.
Results and Discussion Capacity of Parking Facilities
The capacity of parking facilities (marked
and covered parking) in the institutions in
terms of the number of vehicles it can
comfortably accommodate at full capacity
was investigated and presented in Table 2.
Table 2 Capacity of Parking Facilities within the
Institutions
Capacity
of
Parking
Facilities
NI
TT
NCA
T
NARIC
T
FC
E
ABUT
H
Marked
Parking
space
11
0 80 50 45 650
Covered
parking
space
40 60 0 15 80
Total 15
0 140 50 55 735
The result revealed that NITT have a total
of 150 parking spaces with 110 marked and
40 covered parking space, NCAT have a
total of 140 parking space with 80 marked
and 60 covered parking spaces, NARICT
have a total of 50 parking spaces with all
marked while ABUTH has the largest space
and capacity (650 marked and 80 covered
spaces) compared to the other institutions.
The figure of marked and covered parking
spaces in table 2 seems proportional to the
relative size of the organization and the
vehicular traffic it attract. Plate 1 and 2
present a pictorial view of this marked and
covered parking spaces.
Plate 1: Shaded Parking Space at ABUTH
Oluwole, Masugari, Elegonye
Car Park Usage and Management in Federal Institutions of Zaria Metropolis, Kaduna State- Nigeria
Plate 2: Open Marked Space at ABUTH
Users of Parking Lots
The parking needs of users within these
institutions varies in frequency, duration
and timing, proper management of parking
lots demands that information on this
should be known, this is presented in table
3. Five categories (staff, students, patients,
visitors and other general groups) of users
group were noted.
The result shows that 87.3% of users across
the institutions were staff, 8.1%,
students/participants, while 3.2%
respondent are patients on appointments
which could be relatives of the staff to the
hospitals and staff clinics within the
institutions. It can thus be inferred that staff
are the major users of parking facilities in
these institutions; this is expected in the
sense that they have to commute to work
almost on a daily basis.
Frequency of Parking Space Usage
The ability of parking facilities to meet the
demand to a large extent depends on the
frequency of usage per space and time in
the respective institutions; this was
investigated and presented in table 4. Four
scales (once a while, daily, 2-3 times a
week and weekly) were used.
Table 3 Categories of Users
Name Of Institution Total
N.I.T.T
%
NARICT
%
NCAT
%
ABUTH
%
FCE
%
Staff 59 35 34 38 27 193
26.7 15.8 15.4 17.2 12.2 87.3
Student 0 0 4 11 3 18
0.0 0.0 1.8 5.0 1.4 8.1
Patients 0 0 1 2 4 7
0.0 0.0 0.5 0.9 1.8 3.2
Visitors 0 0 0 0 2 2
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.9 0.9
Others 0 0 0 0 1 1
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.5
Total
59 35 39 51 37 221
26.7 15.8 17.6 23.1 16.7 100.0
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Table 4 Frequency of Parking Lots Usage
Frequency
Name Of Institutions
Total N.I.T.T
%
NARICT
%
NCAT
%
ABUTH
%
FCE
%
Once in a While 24 2 7 1 2 36
11.1 0.9 3.2 0.5 0.9 16.6
Daily 26 29 25 37 31 148
12.0 13.4 11.5 17.1 14.3 68.2
2-3 Times a
Week
7 1 1 8 3 20
3.2 0.5 0.5 3.7 1.4 9.2
Weekly 2 0 4 5 2 13
0.9 0.0 1.8 2.3 0.9 6.0
Total
59 32 37 51 38 217
27.2 14.7 17.1 23.5 17.5 100.0
As observed 68.2% uses the parking lots,
16.6% once in a while (i.e not exceeding
twice a month), 9.2% 2-3 times a week and
6% weekly. Across the five institutions
daily usage account for the highest
percentage, this agrees with table 3 position
which indicated that staff of the respective
organizations are the major users as they
have to commute to work almost on a daily
basis and frequently than visitors and
students category.
Kinds of Parking System Adopted by
Users
The study sought to know the types of
parking system adopted by the users at the
institutions premises as against what is
required by the management, this led to
table 5 below. As observed 47.2% of NITT
users adopted road side parking. Similarly
22.2% from NARICT, 5.6% from NCAT,
2.8% and 2.2% from FCE and ABUTH
respectively equally adopted parking along
the road. Furthermore, 38.1% of NITT users
parking lot users (which is the highest
amongst the institutions) parked in
undesignated open spaces found in the
Institute, followed by 23.8% from ABUTH,
21.4% from FCE, while 11.9% and 4.8%
are from NCAT and NARICT respectively.
Compliance level of designated areas
parking is higher in NCAT (27.2%) and
ABUTH (25.6). this is pointer to the
effectiveness of the management team
which are most times security personnel.
Plate 3 shows road side parking at NITT.
Table 5 Kinds of Parking Lots Adopted by the Users
Kinds
Name Of Institutions
Total N.I.T.T
%
NARICT
%
NCAT
%
ABUTH
%
FCE
%
Undesignated Open
Places
16 2 5 10 9 42
38.1 4.8 11.9 23.8 21.4 100.0
Road Side Parking 17 8 2 8 1 36
47.2 22.2 5.6 2.2 2.8 100.0
Designated Parking 17 23 34 32 19 125
13.6 18.4 27.2 25.6 15.2 100.0
Total 50 33 41 50 29 203
24.6 16.3 20.2 24.6 14.3 100.0
Oluwole, Masugari, Elegonye
Car Park Usage and Management in Federal Institutions of Zaria Metropolis, Kaduna State- Nigeria
Plate 3: Road Side Parking at NITT
Duration at Parking Lots
The average time spent at the parking lots
was measured in minutes the outcome is
presented in table 6. The table shows that
86.5% of users in the five institutions
spends above one hour at the parking lots,
10.2% spends 31- 60 minutes, while 3.3%
spends 1-30 minutes. It can thus be inferred
that the duration of parking in the lots the
study area is long and this is because since
most users are staff that spent about 8 hours
from resumption to closing. At the
comparative level amongst the different
institutions, NITT parking lots users spend
less time (1-30 minutes) compared to
ABUTH. This variation can be attributed to
the nature of ABUTH services as a tertiary
health care institution which attracted
visitors and referrals all over the nation and
is open for service 24 hours of the day.
Methods of Acquiring Parking Space
Different approaches are adopted to secure
parking space by users, information in this
regard can be used to substantiate argument
on the degree of orderliness of parking
system in each institutions. Table 7 provides
insight to this. As indicated 14.1% of
respondents from NITT drive in and then
start searching for space, followed by
NCAT and ABUTH with 8.6% of the
respondents each, while 7.3% of
respondents from FCE and 6.4% of
respondents from NARICT adopt similar
approach. The analysis revealed that users
from NITT have more problems searching
for space, this may be attributed to its small
size compared to other institutions.
Generally, most respondents in these
institutions have less access to private or
reserved space for parking in the following
order NITT 0.9%, ABUTH 1.8%, NCAT
2.7%, and FCE 3.2%. Further interview
with the authorities of this institutions
revealed that reserved/private parking
spaces are exclusively preserved for top
management level staff. The situation of
easy access to parking lots location can
aggravate the tendency for unorganized
parking systems in the institutions premises.
Plate 4 below shows unorganized parking at
FCE.
Table 6 Duration At Parking Lots
Name Of Institution
Total N.I.T.T
%
NARICT
%
NCAT
%
ABUTH
%
FCE
%
1-30 Minutes 2 0 1 4 0 7
0.9 0.0 0.5 1.9 0.0 3.3
31-60 Minutes 2 4 8 3 5 22
0.9 1.9 3.7 1.4 2.3 10.2
Above 1 Hour 55 27 26 44 34 186
25.6 12.6 12.1 20.5 15.8 86.5
Total 59 31 35 51 39 215
27.4 14.4 16.3 23.7 18.1 100.0
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Table 7 Methods of Acquiring Parking Space
Methods Name of Institution Total
N.I.T.T
%
NARICT
%
NCAT
%
ABUTH
%
FCE
%
Always go to the same
parking space
14 16 11 22 9 72
6.4 7.3 5.0 10.0 4.1 32.7
Have a private or reserved
space
2 0 6 4 7 19
0.9 0.0 2.7 1.8 3.2 8.6
Drive in and then start to
look for space
31 14 19 19 16 99
14.1 6.4 8.6 8.6 7.3 45.0
Drive around the institution
looking for a free space
12 4 3 4 7 30
5.5 1.8 1.4 1.8 3.2 13.6
Total 59 34 39 49 39 220
26.8 15.5 17.7 22.3 17.7 100.0
Plate 4: Unorganized Parking at FCE Zaria
Users’ perception on parking facilities in
the Institutions
The overall perception of the parking
system in the study area was obtained from
the users on a four scale level of strongly
agree to strongly disagree. Various issues
on parking system management like
availability, effectiveness of manpower,
safety and security of cars and presence of
signage facilities for ease of identification
were considered as presented in table. The
inference that can be drawn from table 8 is
that the general provision and standard of
signage for directions, safety and security of
vehicles, and quality of parking lots is
adjudged suitable as majority of the
respondents agreed to the claim. However,
it was noted that there is no effective and
adequate manpower to guide users of the
parking lots. Notwithstanding, car owners
are guarantee of minimum safety of their
vehicles when parked in their premises and
the respondents will want parking services
be provided free of charge.
Challenges of Car Park Usage
The need for the respective institutions to
provide a car park system which will meet
the need of the users’ necessitated enquiry
to car park usage from the perspective of
the users, the result is presented in table 9.
As observed parking space is least a
challenge across Institutions, so also is the
cost of ticket, this is because investigation
during the data collection shows that none
of the institutions charges any fee for
parking within their premises and each of
them have a fairly large land space. The two
issues that is fairly a challenge are distance
of parking lots to destinations (offices,
hostel, classes of hospital words and
medium of communication or who to seek
direction from with regards to the available
and nearest designated parking lots. This
development is perhaps one of the reason
users will park in undesignated places.
Implications of the Study
The implications of the above findings for a
sound and safe car park usage and
management in the Federal Institutions of
Zaria metropolis are:
• There is the urgent need to
discourage parking in undesignated
places within their premises, this
Oluwole, Masugari, Elegonye
Car Park Usage and Management in Federal Institutions of Zaria Metropolis, Kaduna State- Nigeria
policy should be backed up with
sanctions like: fines, clamping
wheels or detention of erring
driver’s vehicles.
• More parking lots should be
provided within the premises of
these institutions, this should be
preceded with a periodic car park
survey to know the trend of
vehicular traffic influx into the
institutions.
• Each designated parking areas
should be properly marked and
directional signs be provided to
guide users. In addition security
personnel should be provided to
ensure compliance.
Conclusion In conclusion car park facilities is an
important component of surface
transportation planning and management
and corporate institutions like ABUTH,
NITT, NCAT, FCE and NARICT should
integrate this into their physical
development plans. This is because car par
usage and management in each organization
can affect the effectiveness of traffic within
them as well as adjoining land uses
Table 8 Respondents ranking of car parking issues in the Institutions
Table 10 Challenges of Car Park Usage
Challenges Not a
challeng
e
(1)
Least a
challenge
(2)
Fairly a
challenge
(3)
Major
challenge
(4)
Great
challenge
(5)
Total Median IQR
Parking
space
91 38 55 15 15
214
2 2
Cost of
ticket
143 21 5 2 5
176
1 0
Distance to
Destination
112 36 36 7 6
197
1 2
Insecurity 88 15 17 5 4 129 1 1
Medium for
complain
94 33 27 19 9
182
1 2
Source: Authors’ Field Survey (2016)
Range of perception SA A DA SD Total Median
There is more signage in parking areas 54 63 45 27 189 Agreed
There is the presence of standard car
parking system
50 72 57 31 210 Agreed
There is effective manpower,
enforcement officers and efficient car
parking service delivery
40 50 63 62 215 Disagreed
Car owners assured of the safety, of their
cars from theft
66 68 43 36 213 Agreed
Parking lots should be free of charge to
staffs, students and visitors
118 48 23 20 209 Strongly
agreed
Parking policy is an important tool to
reduce car traffic within the institution
188 69 7 19 213 Strongly
agreed
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
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Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Reliability of the Liquidation Valuation Models of
Selected Real Estate Collaterals in Niger State
Babatunde, Isaiah Olajide
Department of Estate Management and Valuation, Federal University of Technology, Minna;
Corresponding Email: [email protected]
Abstract This study examined the dependability of Two-Third of Market Value (TTMV) model of determining
liquidation value of real estate collateral in Niger State. It discussed the value concepts required for mortgage
valuation and the models of liquidation valuation in Nigeria. Primary data were collected by questionnaire
served on thirteen Estate Surveying and Valuation (ESV) firms and sixteen commercial banks (CBs) in the
state. Descriptive statistics was used to analyze the data. The results showed that only one ESV firm identified
Market Survey Model (MSM) as the appropriate model of liquidation valuation; that liquidation values assessed
by the ESV firms ranged between 60% and 88.20% of market value (MV) in the state. The appropriate
proportion of liquidation value (LV) to MV in the principal cities, using MSM, was assessed to be 55.28% for
Minna; 57.05% for Suleja; 42.80% for Bida and 39.02% for Kontagora. These results provide the ESVs, the
CBs and the academics in the state the necessary information on the appropriate LV –MV proportion for
collateral valuation. It also enjoins NIESV and ESVARBON to review their valuation standards by substituting
LV for FSV and to include rental value in mortgage valuations. It also recommends MSM to the valuation
regulators as the basis of LV assessment where the property market is active in the state.
Keywords: Market value, Forced sale value, Rental value, Liquidation value, Real estate collaterals; Market
survey model
Introduction Real estate assets have remained one of the
most applied collaterals by institutional
lenders in the global financial credit market
(Nwuba, Egwuatu and Salawu, 2011).
Nwuba et al. (2011) also confirmed that the
Nigerian commercial banks alternated real
estate collaterals with the use of other assets
such as treasury bills, certificates of cash
deposit, government securities, bank
guaranties and receivables of blue chip
companies, bonds, stocks and shares,
machinery and equipment among others.
The vulnerability in the Nigerian stock
market in recent times has dampened the
interest of institutional credit operators in
accepting stocks and shares as collaterals
for securing loans (Asset Management
Corporation of Nigeria Report, 2014).
The Nigerian property market which
provides the necessary data for market and
forced sale valuations of real estate
collateral does not seem to be matured
enough to allow forced sale value to be so
easily measured by the current conventional
method (Babatunde, 2011). Some scholars
have also differed on the possibility of the
pre- determination of forced sale value of
real estate collateral before foreclosure of
loan transactions. Crosby, Devaney and
Matysiak (2003) argued that time was a
critical factor in real estate marketing and
sale and that forced sale implied that it had
become mandatory and compulsory that the
collateral would be sold. If this assertion is
true, how valid then is the notion of “forced
sale value” in valuation of collaterals for
secured lending in Nigeria?
Similarly, the current conventional
technique of forced sale valuation does not
agree with the auction sale method adopted
in the disposal of the pledged collaterals
during the period of foreclosure. Chow,
Babatunde,
Reliability of the Liquidation Valuation Models of Selected Real Estate Collaterals in Niger State
Hafalir & Yavas (2013) emphasized the
merit of auction sales for both foreclosed
and non-foreclosed properties in Singapore.
In the United Kingdom and America, the
notion of forced sale value has become very
contentious. Crosby et al. (2003) in U.K
and Rice (2006) in America argued that
liquidation value of pledged collateral was
the intended requirement of the lender
before and during the collapse of mortgage
transactions. If this argument is valid, why
do estate surveyors and valuers in Nigeria
prefer forced sale value to liquidation value
( as provided in NIESV’s Guidance Notes
on Property Valuation, 1985 and NIESV’s
Valuation Standards and Guidance Notes,
2006) when predicting the auction price of
real estate asset during foreclosure?
Another critical issue of contention is the
technique of assessment and analysis. The
conventional technique adopted by estate
surveyors and valuers in Nigeria is not
currently acceptable in the developed
markets of Europe, America and Asia.
Many valuation scholars in Nigeria such as
Ogunba (2004), Aluko (2007, 2010),
Oluwumi, Ajayi, Olaleye & Fagbenle
(2011) and Babawale (2012) have also lent
their voices to the use of contemporary
property valuation models in Nigeria. Aluko
(2007) and Kalu (2007) declared that the
use of conventional income capitalization
method in the mist of rental volatility was
highly flawed and consequently suggested
the use of one of “its variant, the discounted
cash flow (DCF) which was a much more
contemporary option with the required local
and necessary adjustments.”
Statement of the problem
Forced sale value has become a
controversial value notion among some
critical valuation scholars in the global
appraisal community. A more logical value
alternative (liquidation value) that could be
reasonably defined and assessed is being
canvassed .Similarly the methods and
techniques of determining liquidation value
of collaterals by estate surveyors and
valuers could no longer provide a proxy for
auction sale price. There is therefore an
urgent need to explore a more appropriate
technique that will produce a good
substitute for auction price of real estate
collateral for foreclosure purpose in the
study area.
Aim and Objectives
The aim of this study is to examine the
dependability of the current technique of
determining the liquidation value of real
estate collaterals in Niger State with a view
to providing an alternative model that will
ensure a more accurate value assessment.
The aim is intended to be achieved by the
following specific objectives:
(i) identify the types of value of real estate
collaterals required for secured lending
practice in Niger State;
(ii) examine the conventional and
contemporary models of determining
liquidation/ forced sale values of real estate
collaterals and
(iii) assess the liquidation value-market
value ratio of real estate collaterals in the
major urban centers of the study area.
Profile of the Study Area
The study area is Niger State. The state
situates in the Northcentral geopolitical
zone of Nigeria. According to the Niger
State website (www.nigerstate.gov.ng
retrieved on15/06/16) , the state is bounded
to the south by River Niger and Kwara
State; bounded to the north by the states of
Kebbi and Zamfara; bounded to the
northeast by Kaduna State; to the east by
Abuja; and to the southeast by Kogi. It
also shares an international boundary with
the Republic of Benin .It has a land area of
76,363 square kkilometers (29,483.9 square
miles which makes it the largest state in
land mass in Nigeria. According to the
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
National Population Commission (2006), its
population was 3,950,249 which made it the
18th largest state in the country. Minna is its
capital city. It is subdivided into 25 Local
Government Areas with Minna, Bida,
Suleja and Kontagora as the four major
urban centres.The map of Niger State
showing the four major cities is displayed
on Figure 1. According to the NIESV
Directory (2014), there are 13 practising
firms of estate surveyors and valuers in the
state.
Value Concepts and Valuation
Models for Secured Lending Types of value
Two types of value were provided by the
NIESV (2006) valuation standards and
guidance notes on valuation of real estate
collaterals for secured lending purpose.
They comprised of market value and forced
sale value. International Valuation
Standards Council, [IVSC] (2011) however
specified liquidation value in place of
forced sale value. AMCON (2010) required
rental value in addition to the two types of
value required by the NIESV (2006)
standards. In this subsection, the notions of
market value, forced sale value and rental
value are discussed.
Market value: Foremost valuation standard
organizations such as Appraisal Foundation
(2010), IVSC (2011), Royal Institution of
Chartered Surveyors[RICS] (2014) and The
European Group of Valuers Association,
TEGoVA ( 2016) defined market value as
“the estimated amount for which an asset or
liability should exchange on the valuation
date between a willing buyer and a willing
seller in an arm’s length transaction after
proper marketing and where the parties had
each acted knowledgeably, prudently and
without compulsion.
Figure 1: Niger State Showing the Four Major Cities
Source: Niger State GIS Agency, Minna
(2017)
Ifediora (2005, 2009)) and Ogunba (2013)
described it as the fundamental basis of
value for properties for sale, mortgage,
secured lending, liquidation,
merger/acquisition and all other market
based transactions. Babawale (2012)
similarly portrayed it as the surrogate of
market price. Arising from these academic
connotations this paper accepts market
value as the available substitute, proxy,
alternate or replacement of market price of a
property before actual sale thereof takes
place.
Forced sale value: Encyclopedia of
American Law (2008) described forced sale
value (FSV) as not having any strong
theoretical substance. The few academic
postulations made on FSV did not refer to it
as a concept of value rather it was
conceived as the value that resulted from an
action taken in a law court forcing the
owner of a unit of real estate collateral to
sell it and to utilize the proceeds of the sale
to settle his mortgage debt (West, 2008). It
is therefore an unintentional sale that takes
place by the method and at the time
specified by law so as to apply the proceeds
to settle the mortgage debt incurred by the
owner of the property. NIESV (2006)
asserted that FSV was the same as
liquidation value and subsequently defined
Babatunde,
Reliability of the Liquidation Valuation Models of Selected Real Estate Collaterals in Niger State
it as “the amount that may be reasonably
received from the sale of a property within a
time frame too short to meet the marketing
time frame required by the market value
definition.
From the definitions, description and
explanation of FSV provided by
Encyclopedia of American Law (2008),
West’s (2008) and the Business
Dictionary.com, it is not synonymous with
liquidation value as intended by NIESV
(2006). The action of carrying it out through
auction sale is also that of liquidation. It
similarly requires the order of the court
before it could be executed. It is therefore
not a forced sale but rather a court ordered
sale. Juxtaposing all the aforementioned
perceptions with the views of scholars in
Europe and America, liquidation value
seems to be the value notion contemplated
by the lender before mortgage transaction. It
is therefore accepted in this study as the
value notion required, in addition to value
concepts such as market value and rental
value during loan underwriting.
Rental value: IVSC (2011) construed rental
value as market rent and defined it as the
“estimated amount for which a property
would be leased on the valuation date
between a willing lessor and a willing lessee
on appropriate lease terms in an arm’s
length transaction, after proper marketing
and where the parties had each acted
knowledgeably, prudently and without
compulsion”. This definition, which is
different in some instances from rent
passing or rent reserved on a property, is the
accepted description of rental value in this
study.
AMCON (2010) popularized the demand
for the inclusion of rental value and its
definition in foreclosure valuations in
Nigeria. Many commercial banks in Nigeria
today such as the Unity Bank of Nigeria
Plc. and Stanbic-IBTC among others
require it as a concept that should be
included in secured lending valuations.
Rental value of real estate collateral
becomes significant where it is very
difficult to find a buyer in good time for the
property and it has to be subjected to
receivership. In that instance, the receiver
could lease out the property on the basis of
the rental value.
Conventional liquidation valuation model
Conventional liquidation valuation that is
incorporated into market valuation as part
of secured loan underwriting documents in
Nigeria today was adopted erroneously
from the principles of fixing loan for
property development and acquisition
enunciated by British authors such as
Britton, Davies, Johnson, Lawrence and
Rees (1980). The guiding procedure under
the latter was to determine the market value
and the rental value; use trial and error
method to initially fix the proposed property
development/acquisition loan at two-thirds
of the market (or acquisition) value; verify
whether the net rent could defray the
interest and part of the principal; and build
an amortization table on the basis of the
subject net rent for the tenure of the loan. If
the loan could be repaid from the proceeds
of the subject rent, then the two-third-
figure earlier projected would be acceptable
as the mortgage (loan). If the pre-
determined net rent would not be able to
defray the interest and the principal during
the tenure of the mortgage, the fraction
could be further reduced to 3/5; 1/2; 2/5 and
in that geometric order continually.
All the auction sale valuations of collateral
prepared by ESV firms for AMCON
between 2010 and 2014 were based on the
notion of MV.Today, TTMV is still adopted
among ESV firms as the predicted auction
sale value of collaterals in Nigeria
(AMCON Report, 2014) as against a more
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
logically and scientifically researched
proportion of market value (Rice, 2006).
Studies such as Ogunba (2004) and Aluko
(2007) among others which focused on the
appropriateness of the assessed market
values of real estate collaterals by ESVs in
Nigeria did not examine the model they
adopted in assessing the liquidation value of
the collaterals.
Contemporary model of liquidation
valuation of real estate collaterals
Before liquidation value of real estate
collateral could be accurately assessed, two
conditions, according to Crosby et al.
(2003) should be precedent. They
comprised of the appropriate assessment of
the MV (through accurate data assembly
and processing) and the adoption of a more
acceptable technique of determining the
appropriate proportion of the liquidation
value to MV in the location. Aluko (2007)
confirmed that a great number of MV of
collaterals assessed by ESVs in Lagos,
Nigeria were inaccurate and reviewed them
through contemporaneous valuation. Aluko
(2007) inferred contemporaneity to imply a
situation where valuation exercise
previously carried out by one valuer was
reviewed by another independent valuer as
if the exercise was carried out
simultaneously by the two valuers at the
same time. Aluko (2007), using the data
extracted from the valuation reports
prepared for deposit money banks in Lagos
and provided by the Nigerian Deposit
Insurance Corporation carried a
contemporaneous market valuation of the
collaterals. The study did not however carry
out a contemporaneous assessment of the
liquidation value of the affected collaterals.
Also, Babatunde (2011) declared that in
order to determine a reliable market value
of any real estate collateral, there was need
for the identification and selection of the
appropriate method; use of accurate market
data: and identification and adoption of the
appropriate model as a guiding procedure.
The model adopted to determine the
liquidation value in that work required more
illumination and illustration.
Rice (2006), nevertheless, declared that the
Market Survey Model (MSM) was one of
the most suitable models of determining
liquidation value. Rice (2006) of Rice
Group popularized the use of the model for
the determination of liquidation value of
real estate collaterals in the United States of
America. According to him, the usual
procedure was: to determine the duration of
the sale; classify the property according to
its neighbourhood; find out, through market
survey (the discount allowable on market
value of such property within the
neighbourhood); and make necessary
adjustment for appeal factor. The result
should produce a fair estimate of liquidation
value. Babatunde (2011) agreed with Rice
(2006) on MSM for liquidation value and
consequently assembled evidence of rents in
Niger State of Nigeria through multiple
listing system, MLS, (market survey from
estate agents); gathered evidence of
liquidation value of similar properties from
recent auction sales that emanated from
foreclosure procedures; found the
proportion of each auction sale to market
value derived from contemporaneous
valuation of such real estate asset;
determined the mean percentage as the
proportion of LV to MV. The result was the
LV percentage for the subject cities of
Minna, Suleja, Bida and Kontagora in the
state.
According to Babatunde (2011), the strong
message that this model conveyed to
valuers and users of valuation service was
that the proportion of liquidation value to
market value varied from one city or town
to another and it was a function of actual
auction sale evidences and accurately
assessed market value. He also declared that
Babatunde,
Reliability of the Liquidation Valuation Models of Selected Real Estate Collaterals in Niger State
where a city was very big, it could also vary
from one neighbourhood to another.
Babatunde (2011) however did not generate
a specific formula that would generally
define the model, which among others this
study seeks to accomplish.
The challenge of keeping records of:
foreclosed mortgage transactions involving
real estate collaterals by Niger State High
Courts; transfer of title of auctioned real
estate collaterals and accurate assessment of
MV of real estate collaterals could however
be some of the difficulties encountered by
estate surveyors and valuers in putting this
model into optimum use in the state.
Similarly, the model may not be applicable
where the property market is not active.
Methodology The study relied on primary data generated
through a survey conducted with
questionnaire and interview guide. There
were two sets of questionnaire each of
which was structured according to the
objectives of the study. The first set was
administered on the 13No practicing firms
of estate surveyors and valuers (ESV) in
Niger State while the second one was
similarly administered on the 16No
commercial banks (CBs) in the state. The
questionnaire for the ESV firms consisted
of one aptitude question on the appropriate
method of determining the liquidation value
(or FSV as recognized by NIESV, 2006).
The questionnaire for the CBs however
consisted of two sets of questions. The first
section sought information on MV and FSV
of real estate assets that were used as
collaterals for mortgage transactions which
failed and were subsequently foreclosed.
The second section contained questions on
the auction sale prices of the properties at
foreclosure. Also the valuation reports of
the mortgaged properties involved in
foreclosed transactions were requested from
the banks. Thirty two (32) of them were
made available for examination. Descriptive
statistics (frequency, percentages, means
and ratios) and the market survey model
were the main tools of data analysis. Data
derived from the reports were used to
reassess the contemporaneous market value
of the properties. The auction sale prices of
the subject properties were compared with
their respective contemporaneous market
values in order to determine the proportion
of liquidation value to market value in each
of the four principal cities of the state.
Data Analysis and Discussion All the thirteen (13) registered firms of
estate surveyors and valuers who received
the questionnaire completed and returned
them giving a response level of 100 %. 16
CBs were given questionnaire. Only seven
(7) of them completed and returned them,
indicating a 43.75% response level. The
criteria for the determination of LV or FSV
by ESV firms during loan underwriting
period, ESV‘s model of
LV,contemporaneous MV, liquidation and
auction sale price after foreclosure, auction
price percentage of MV and contemp. MV
and determination of appropriate MSM
percentage in the study area were presented,
analyzed and discussed in this section.
Table 1 showed the criteria adopted by the
ESV firms in determining LV of collaterals
in the study area. Table 1: Analysis of Criteria for Determination of
Liquidation Value
S/N Criteria Frequency Percentage
(%)
1 2/3 of Market
Value 10 76.92
2 Rule of the
Thumb 2 15.39
3 Market Survey 1 7.69
Total 13 100
The result on Table 1 indicated that 1No
ESV firm or 7.69 % selected market survey
model which is the appropriate model;
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
while 10 No ESV firms or 76.92 % and 2No
ESV firms or 15. 39% selected TTMV and
rule of the thumb respectively.This implied
that the conventional TTMV model was the
practice in the state. It really indicated that
ESV firms in the state were yet to be
conversant with the contemporary market
survey model of liquidation valuation.
The result of the analysis on Table 2
showed that 17No properties in Minna,11
No properties in Suleja,3No properties in
Bida and 1No property in Kontagora were
assessed by the ESV firms. The percentages
of the assessed FSV in Minna ranged
between 60 and 88.20; those of Suleja
ranged from 60% to 70% while the ones in
Bida and Kontagora ranged between
66.66% and 66.67%. Out of the 17No
properties assessed in Minna, TTMV model
was presumably used to produce 2/3 of MV
of eleven (11) of them. The model for the
assessment of the liquidation value of the
six (6) other properties could not be
ascertained. They could have been assessed
either on the basis of intuition, rule of the
thumb, instruction by the creditor/borrower
or by mere guess work. Out of the 11No
properties considered for liquidation
valuations in Suleja, six (6) of them were
apparently assessed on the basis of TTMV
while other models that could not be easily
verified were used for the five (5) others
that produced 70%,70%,60%, 60% and
70% respectively. The model of liquidation
value in Bida was 2/3 of MV for the three
properties assessed. The result also showed
that the TTMV model was adopted by the
ESV firm to assess the LV of the collateral
enumerated in Kontagora.
Table 2: Analysis of Forced Sale Valuations of ESV Firms during Loan Underwriting Period Identification
of ESV
Date of
Valuation
Types of Property Location MV
N’000
FSV
N’000
% of
FSV
RSV/MNA/01 10/2007 Flat Bosso,Minna 29,390 19,594 66.67
07/2007 Block of Flats Tunga, Minna 30,000 20,000 66.67 RSV/MNA/02 2005 Duplex Tunga, Minna 3,000 2,500 83.33
2005 Tenenment Tunga, Minna 3,600 3,000 83.33
2005 Tenenment Bosso, Minna 5,000 4,000 80.00
2009 Commercial (shops
and office units)
Tunga, Minna 10,000 7,500 75.00
RSV/MNA/03 9/1/07 Fuel Station Kuta Rd,Minna 15,144 10,600 70.00
31/5/07 Block of Flats F -Lay Out Minna
30,000 20,000 66.67
26/2/09 Flat Suleja 15,108 10,575 70.00
5/3/09 Fuel Station Suleja 32,000 22,000 70.00
RSV/MNA/04 2004 Flat Tunga,Minna 6,000 4,000 66.67
2006 Bungalow D/Kura, Minna 7,500 5,000 66.67
May,2013 Flat Tayi, Minna 5,500 3,667 66.67
RSV/MNA/06 2005 Bungalow Nassarawa
Ward B, Minna
3,750 2,500 66.67
RSV/MNA/07 2008 Flat Tunga,Minna 2,800 2,100 75.00
2008 Bungalow GRA,Minna 17,000 15,000 88.20
RSV/MNA/08 2010 Maissionette London St Minna
30,000 20,000 66.67
Nov,2010 Factory/
Warehouse
Suleja 120,000 80,000 66.67
RSV/MNA/09 July,2010 Flat M.I.W.Estate
Minna
6,000 4,000 66.67
Babatunde,
Reliability of the Liquidation Valuation Models of Selected Real Estate Collaterals in Niger State
Aug,2010 Flat M.I.W.Estate
Minna
6,000 4,000 66.67
RSV/SUL/01 Jan,2010 Bungalow Suleja 6,000 4,000 66.67
Nov,2010 Flat Suleja 5,000 3,000 60.00
June,2010 Shops Suleja 12,000 8,000 66.67
RSV/SUL/02 March 2010 Flat Suleja 6,000 4,000 60.00
26/2/09 Flat Suleja 15,108 10,575 70.00
RSV/SUL/03 27/8/2010 Bungalow Suleja 13,050 8,700 66.67.
2/9/2010 Bungalow Suleja 2,100 1,400 66.67
14/07/12 Tenement Suleja 7,850 5,230 66.62
RSV/BDA/01 2010 Flat Bida 5,000 3,333 66.67
2010 Mixed Res/Comm Bida 70,000 46,667 66.67
Feb, 2013 Bungalow Bida 9,150 6,100 66.66
RSV/MNA/02 2011 Bungalow GRA,K/gora 10,000 6,670 66.67
Further analysis of Table 2 is presented on
Table 3.
Table 3: ESV‘s Model of Liquidation Value
Type of Model
adopted by ESVs
Frequency of
collaterals
Percentage
TTMV 21 65.62
MSM 0 0
Unidentified Models 11 34.38
Total 32 100
Findings on Table3 indicated that TTMV
model was adopted to assess liquidation
value of 65.62% of the collaterals surveyed.
The use of other unverifiable models was
considered to have been adopted for the
remaining 34.38% of the collaterals
enumerated. MSM was not applied to assess
any collateral. Only twelve (12) real estate
collaterals out of the thirty two enumerated
had been fully foreclosed with concluded
auction sales after court orders. Their
contemporaneous valuations were
subsequently carried out. The analysis of
the review is presented on Table 4. Table 4
was further analyzed to produce the auction
price percentage of both the MV and
Contemp. MV presented on Table 5.
The results on Table 5 showed that TTMV
could not be a suitable basis for liquidation
value since none of the proportions of
auction prices of the foreclosed collaterals
to market values (i.e. the LV) was up to
66.67%. It therefore implied that any value
assessed by TTMV could not be a suitable
proxy for auction price in the study area.
The proportion of auction prices to market
values assessed by ESV for Minna ranged
between 33.33% and 53 % .The ones for
Suleja ranged between 50% and 51.72%
while those for Bida ranged between
30.30% and 35%.The proportion of auction
price and market value in Kontagora was
32%.
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Table 4: Contemporaneous MV, Liquidation and Auction Sale Price after Foreclosure
Bank ID ID of ESV Property Location MV
N’000
C/ MV
N’000
FSV
N’000
Auctio
n Price
(‘000)
CB/MN/01 RSV/MNA/01 Block of Flats Tunga, Minna 30,000 25,000 20,000 15,000
CB/MN/01 RSV/MNA/02 Tenenment Bosso, Minna 5,000 4,000 4,000 2,000
CB/MN/02 RSV/MNA/04 Flat Tunga, Minna 6,000 4,500 4,000 2,200
CB/MN/02 RSV/MNA/07 Bungalow GRA, Minna 17,000 15,000 15,000 9,000
CB/MN/03 RSV/MNA/09 Flat M.I.W Estate
Minna 6,000 4,300 4,000 2,000
CB/MN/03 RSV/MNA/04 Flat Tayi, Minna 5,500 5,000 3,667 2,750
CB/SL/04 RSV/SUL/02 Flat Suleja 6,000 5,000 4,000 3,000
CB/SL/05 RSV/SUL/03 Bungalow Suleja 13,050 12,500 8,700 6,750
CB/SL/05 RSV/SUL/03 Tenement Suleja 7,850 7,000 5,230 4,000
CB/BD/06 RSV/BDA/01 Flat Bida 5,000 3,500 3,333 1,500
CB/BD/06 RSV/BDA/01 Bungalow Bida 9,150 5,500 6,100 3,200
CB/KT/07 RSV/MNA/02 Bungalow GRA,K/gora. 10,000 8,200 6,667 3,200
Table 5: Analysis of Auction Price Percentage of MV and Contemp. MV
Bank ID ID of ESV Property Location %AP of MV % AP of C/MV
CB/MN/01 RSV/MNA/01 Block of Flats Minna 50 60
CB/MN/01 RSV/MNA/02 Tenenment Minna 50 50
CB/MN/02 RSV/MNA/04 Flat Minna 43.33 57.77
CB/MN/02 RSV/MNA/07 Bungalow Minna 53 60
CB/MN/03 RSV/MNA/09 Flat Minna 33.33 48.88
CB/MN/03 RSV/MNA/04 Flat Minna 50 55
CB/SL/04 RSV/SUL/02 Flat Suleja 50 60
CB/SL/05 RSV/SUL/03 Bungalow Suleja 51.72 54
CB/SL/05 RSV/SUL/03 Tenement Suleja 51 57.14
CB/BD/06 RSV/BDA/01 Flat Bida 30.30 42.86
CB/BD/06 RSV/BDA/01 Bungalow Bida 35 42.73
CB/KT/07 RSV/MNA/02 Bungalow K/gora 32 39.02
Table 6 presents further analysis of Table 4
in order to determine the MSM percentage
for the four cities under consideration.
Results of the analysis on Table 6 showed
that the percentages of liquidation value to
market value in Minna, Suleja, Bida and
Kontagora were 55.28, 57.05, 42.80 and
39.02 respectively. The MSM percentage
for each city was obtained by computing its
mean %AP of Contp. MV. The percentage
of liquidation value in relation to market
value in the study area could be generally
defined by the following MSM equation
which was derived from Table 6:
P=∑a/m N
Where P= percentage figure; a= auction sale
price; m= properly assessed market value
and N=number of sales transactions
The results of the analysis further revealed
that where the property market was not
active in terms of frequent sales of
foreclosed collaterals as it was in case with
Kontagora, the MSM equation might be
misleading to the lender in the event the
market later becomes active.
Babatunde,
Reliability of the Liquidation Valuation Models of Selected Real Estate Collaterals in Niger State
Summary of Major Findings The summary of major findings in this
study arranged in accordance with its
objectives indicated that 10 No ESV firms
representing 76.92% and1 No ESV firm
representing 7.69% of the respondents
selected the conventional TTMV model and
MSM of determining liquidation value
respectively. Twenty one (21) real estate
collaterals representing 65.62% of the
collaterals surveyed had their liquidation
values assessed on the basis of TTMV
model while the liquidation values of the
remaining eleven (11) collaterals
(signifying 34.28% of the total) were
assessed on the basis of unverifiable
models. It was also discovered that TTMV
could not be a suitable model for the
assessment of the proxy for auction price in
the study area.
Table 6: Determination of Appropriate MSM
Percentage
Similarly, the use of MSM was yet to be
recognized as a model for assessing
liquidation value of collaterals in the study
area. Liquidation values of collaterals
assessed by the use of MSM in a
contemporaneous valuation in Minna,
Suleja, Bida and Kontagora indicated
aggregates of 55.33%, 57%, 42.86% and
39.02% of market values respectively.
These percentages proved to be closer to
those of auction sale prices of collaterals
foreclosed in the recent past in the state.
Conclusion and Recommendations The study reviewed the use of the TTMV
model of assessing LV of real estate
collaterals during valuation for secured
lending in Niger State. It discovered that
TTMV model was the most popular model
for assessing liquidation values of
collaterals amongst estate surveyors and
valuers in the state. The study considered
MSM of liquidation valuation popularized
by Rice (2006) to assess the liquidation
values of some foreclosed real estate
collaterals in the state. It discovered that the
LV of such real estate assets could be
proxies, surrogates and replacement values
for their auction prices during foreclosure
since they were at close range to ones
indicated by the proportion of auction prices
to MVs of collaterals assessed by ESVs in
the study area.
Bank ID ID of ESV Property C/MVN
’000
Auction Price
(AP)N ‘000
% AP of
C/MV
MSM
%
CB/MN/01 RSV/MNA/01 Block of Flats,
Minna
25,000 15,000 60
CB/MN/01 RSV/MNA/02 Tenenment,
Minna
4,000 2,000 50
CB/MN/02 RSV/MNA/04 Flat ,Minna 4,500 2,600 57.77
CB/MN/02 RSV/MNA/07 Bungalow,
Minna
15,000 9,000 60
CB/MN/03 RSV/MNA/09 Flat, Minna 4,500 2,200 48.88 55.28
CB/MN/03 RSV/MNA/04 Flat, Minna 5,000 2,750 55
CB/SL/04 RSV/SUL/02 Flat,Suleja 5,000 3,000 60
CB/SL/05 RSV/SUL/03 Bungalow,
Suleja
12,500 6,750 54 57.05
CB/SL/05 RSV/SUL/03 Tenement,
Suleja
7,000 4,000 57.14
CB/BD/06 RSV/BDA/01 Flat, Bida 3,500 1,500 42.86 42.80
CB/BD/06 RSV/BDA/01 Bungalow, Bida 2,350 42.73
CB/KT/07 RSV/MNA/02 Flat,Kontagora 8,200 3,200 39.02 39.02
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
The study is concluded with the
recommendation that MSM percentage of
market value should form the basis of the
determining liquidation values of real estate
collaterals where the property market is
active in the state. Similarly, NIESV and the
Estate Surveyors and Valuers Registration
Board of Nigeria (ESVARBON) should
replace forced sale value with liquidation
value as canversed by IVSC (2011) and
other international valuation standards
organizations in their valuation templates.
Since valuation users now demand for the
inclusion of rental value in valuation reports
for secured lending, NIESV and
ESVARBON should include it in their
standards. Academics in Estate
Management and Valuation are also advised
to carry out similar studies in other states of
Nigeria in order explore the possibility of
building more valuation models that would
reduce lenders’ losses whenever real estate
collaterals are foreclosed in Nigeria.
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Management,11(1), 17-31.
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(2010).
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Owed Nigerian Commercial Banks.
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examination of mortgage valuation
methods in Niger State. An
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submitted to the Department of
Estate Management, Federal
University of Technology, Minna.
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Lawrence, M. and Rees, W. (1980).
Modern Methods of Valuation, (7th
ed.) London: Estate Gazette Limited
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(www.businessdictionary.com
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(2003). Valuation accuracy:
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Development Studies, University of
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IVSC (2011). International Valuation
Standards. London: The
International Valuation Standards
Council.
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NIESV (1985). Guidance Notes on Property
Valuation.Lagos: The Nigerian
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B.M. (2011).The application of real
estate as loan collateral in Nigeria’s
banking sector. Research Journal of
Finance and Accounting. 4(11), 61-
71.
Ogunba, O.A. (2004). The demand for
accuracy in valuations: the case of
Nigeria.
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in Valuations
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IB6046. 679-688.
Ogunba, O.A. (2013). Principles and
Practice of Property Valuation in
Nigeria. Ibadan: Atlantis Books.
Oluwumi, A.O, Ajayi, C.A, Olaleye, A.&
Fagbenle, O.I. (2011). An analysis
of clients' satisfaction with mortgage
valuation reports in Nigeria.
International Journal of Marketing
Studies 3(2), 160-168.
Rice, A. (2006). Analysis of Liquidation
Value in Michigan .Real Estate
Appraisal forum.com Michigan arise
@ numail.org retrieved on
22/11/2011.
RICS (2014). RICS Professional Valuation
Standards. London: The Royal
Institution of Chartered Surveyors.
TEGoVA(2016). European Valuation
Standards (8th Edition).The
European Group of Valuers’
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Standards for Professional Appraisal
Practice. Washington DC: Appraisal
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Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
arcayubaxx2@ futminna.edu.ng 66
Appraisal of Recycling of Deconstructed Building
Materials from Selected Renewal and Renovation
Projects in Minna
Ayuba, P. & Albert, B. S.
Department of Architecture, Federal University of Technology, Minna
Corresponding E-mail: arcayubaxx2@ futminna.edu.ng
Abstract Deconstruction involves the process employed to disassemble the existing building structures such that it can be
reused or recycled. As cities develop and grow, urban renewal is often carried out which requires that existing
structures be made to reflect changes in modern architecture and to meet new standards. This process is often
done hurriedly and without necessary precautionary measures required to salvage building components that
may still be valuable and reusable. The resultant effect is great economic loss, damage and more worryingly
generation of significant waste and lots of debris to the built environment. Selected urban renewal and
renovation sites were examined to find out the techniques employed in removing whole or parts of such existing
structures allow for effective reuse or recycling. The study employed the case study survey and descriptive
research methods. Data were collected by means of structured observation and interviews. The result showed
that more emphasis was given to the economic benefits of deconstruction over its sustainable benefits. The
findings further demonstrated a lack of technical know-how as well as deployment of unsuitable equipment
during the construction process. The study recommended that there is need for the engagement of
deconstruction experts and specialists in order to ensure proper deployment of appropriate tools in carrying out
the work. The research concluded that greater partnership between construction industries and recycling
factories should also be encouraged.
Keywords: Building components, deconstruction, recycle, reuse, salvage, waste
Introduction Buildings are known to require
maintenance, refurbishment or renovation to
sustain their life cycle. It may also be
completely demolished when it has
approached its end of life. Over the years,
demolition has been mostly employed to
achieve this partial or complete removal of
buildings. This process generates
tremendous amount of waste and debris.
Santos and Brito (2005) confirm that
construction and demolition wastes are
responsible for up to a third of all wastes
dumped into landfills. The result of this
includes ecological impacts, severe negative
landscape, and occurrence of illegal dumps,
emissions and leaks. The Boulder County
(2008) adds that about 136 million tons of
debris is generated annually in the United
States arising directly from building related
construction and demolition waste. The
bulk of which comes from renovation and
urban renewals. The Century Bay Builders
(2016) further reiterates that the
decomposition of construction and
demolition waste is directly responsible for
the production of methane – one of the most
portent greenhouse gases. However, as
more attention is continuously drawn
towards sustainability, more attention is
also paid to the techniques and methods that
are used to take buildings apart.
The process where old buildings are
dismantled carefully in such a manner as to
preserve the building components for reuse
or recycling is referred to as deconstruction
(Sherman, 1998). Deconstruction can be
Ayuba, Albert
Appraisal of Recycling of Deconstructed Building Materials from Selected Renewal and Renovation Projects in Minna
arcayubaxx2@ futminna.edu.ng 67
seen to be the opposite of building
construction as the building is dismantled in
the reverse order in which it was built.
Century Bay Builders (2016) and Greer
(2004) also concur with the above definition
that deconstruction is simply construction in
reverse. Diven and Taylor (2006) put
deconstruction to mean the process by
which a building is dismantled from the
roof down, a piece at a time. Deconstruction
can similarly be seen as a green approach to
the dismantling of buildings. It ensures that
the waste arising as a result of the debris are
minimized and the building components are
recycled (Addis, 2006).The Century Bay
Builders (2016) similarly defines
deconstruction to be the selective
dismantling of building components for
recycling, reuse and efficient management
of waste. Santos and Brito (2005) also
describes as a process that ensures the
maximization of whole building materials
and components to complete the duration of
their technical life cycle for social,
sustainable and economic purposes by
means of careful disassembly methods and
techniques.
This is as opposed to demolition where the
‘wrecking ball’ or ‘bulldozer’ approach is
employed to teardown a building with all of
the building components crushed into debris
that would typically end up in landfills or
dumps (Thomsen, Schultmann, Kohler,
2011).
It can hence be deduced that deconstruction
is a sustainable practice that can be
harnessed to significantly reduce waste and
debris arising from renovation or renewal
projects. The potentials that deconstruction
possesses especially when sustainability is
factored is quite enormous and could
potentially lead to massive energy savings
and enhance the environment. This paper
seeks to assess the extent to which building
deconstruction is employed in building
renovation and renewal projects in Minna to
reuse or recycle building components and
materials.
Deconstruction as a Sustainable Practice
The modern concept of deconstruction goes
well beyond the economic benefits to being
strongly tied to environmental sustainability
(The Century Bay Builders, 2016). Beyond
giving a building material a new life cycle,
it helps reduce the craving for new
resources and materials for building new
projects. This leads to lower energy
consumption and emissions that could have
otherwise been emitted from the production
of new building components.
Deconstruction is usually carried out on a
local level, it saves energy that would have
been expended on transporting debris and
wastes to dumps or landfills. It also grossly
reduces the production of solid waste by
ensuring that construction waste is either
significantly minimized or not produced
entirely. It further opines that since
construction and demolition waste accounts
for up to 20% of solid waste, this should be
a big saving for better sustainability
(Century Bay Builders, 2016).
The New South Wales Department of
Environment, Climate Change and Water
(2010) also alludes to the fact that
Deconstruction contributes immensely to
sustainability and helps avoid negative
environmental impacts associated with
Construction and Demolition wastes. This
can be achieved through the lowering of the
amount of materials extracted and reducing
the amount needed to be produced. Other
benefits of Deconstruction to sustainability
include protection of air quality, reduction
of water pollution, reduction in energy use,
reduction of habitat loss as well as reduction
in the production of greenhouse gases.
The National Association of Home Builders
[NABH] (2000) who are responsible for the
construction of over 80% of homes in the
United States of America further support
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
arcayubaxx2@ futminna.edu.ng 68
the earlier assertions by The Century Bay
Builders (2016) and New South Wales
Department of Environment, Climate
Change and Water (2010) that
Deconstruction has important benefits to
sustaining the environment by diverting
valuable resources from dumps into
recycled components for profitable uses.
Stages in Deconstruction
The main goal in deconstruction is to ensure
that disassembled building components are
either reused or recycled. However, that
may not often be the case as certain
building materials may not be salvageable
entirely. The figure 1 further explains the
process involved in the Deconstruction
cycle.
Benefits of Deconstruction
There are incentives for a contractor or
client to take the deconstruction option as
against the generally accepted norm of the
‘bulldozer’ or ‘wrecking ball’ demolition
approach. The New South Wales
Department of Environment, Climate
Change and Water (2010) posits that the
choice between Demolition and
Deconstruction lies with the factors of time,
cost, site security, availability of storage
space, health and safety issues, construction
company/client reputation and
environmental sustainability. Sherman
(1998) comments that Deconstruction is
increasingly becoming practical for its
savings on disposal costs, reducing
demolition costs, decreasing distance to
dump sites, the generation of financial
revenue from the sale of recycled materials,
minimizing dangerous air pollutants such as
asbestos, lead, dust and burning of building
components on construction sites. He
further states other benefits to include the
enhancement of contractor/client image as
being more environmentally responsible,
preserving landfill spaces, while conserving
energy at various stages of deconstruction
and preserving raw materials.
Figure 1: Stages in Deconstruction. Source: Kibert, Chini (2000).
Ayuba, Albert
Appraisal of Recycling of Deconstructed Building Materials from Selected Renewal and Renovation Projects in Minna
arcayubaxx2@ futminna.edu.ng 69
Daven and Taylor (2008) similarly support
the postulation put forward by Sherman
(1998) that apart from financial benefits that
would likely accrue to the client/contractor,
the environmental trade-off as well as life
cycle assessment of building materials with
the accompanying savings on the
acquisition, transportation, manufacture,
installation and energy expended makes
Deconstruction an interesting prospect. It
continues that the use of Deconstruction can
lead to less dust, less noise and reduced
vibrations around sites.
The New South Wales Department of
Environment, Climate Change and Water
(2010) further reiterated some of the
benefits of Deconstruction to include;
a. Financial gains from the sale of
salvaged components.
b. Lowering of disposal costs as well
as transportation of debris to dumps
sites.
c. Reduction in the consumption new
resources that would have been
manufactured.
d. Increasing the business prospects
and opportunities of contractors to
environmentally savvy costumers.
The Indiana Brown Fields Program (2010)
further comments that as much as 30-50%
can be saved from using Deconstruction
when compared to traditional labour cost.
It can be deduced that there exist quite some
advantages when using Deconstruction over
the traditional Demolition in addition to
sustaining the environment.
Current Issues on Deconstruction
Although a lot of advantages and benefits
exist for Deconstruction vis-à-vis
Demolition, quite a number of issues remain
unresolved and serve as potential stumbling
blocks to the use of Deconstruction New
South Wales Department of Environment,
Climate Change and Water (2010). Some of
these issues observed include;
a. Longer time taken to deconstruct
b. The labour required is more skilled
and intensive.
c. Specialised tools and equipment
Jacque (2008) also opines that
Deconstruction takes more time, requires
more pre-planning and involvement in the
process by everyone and requires more on-
site storage space.
Bruening and Chini (2004) provide further
insight into some of the current challenges
to Deconstruction viz;
a. Existing buildings structures were
neither designed nor constructed in
such a manner as to allow for
Deconstruction
b. Deconstruction often requires
special equipment and tools and is
sometimes unavailable or even non-
existent.
c. Building codes and building
standards very rarely adopt
standards or regulations to aid
Deconstruction.
d. Lack of expertise.
e. Financial and environmental
benefits have not been sufficiently
established.
As specialised tools and equipment for
Deconstruction become more available and
accessible, the intensive nature of the labour
would likely reduce. This could in turn lead
to lesser time required to successfully
deconstruct a building. As more attention is
continuously drawn to field of
Deconstruction, experts and skilled
technicians and artisans may likely emerge
to further enhance the disassembly of
building parts. This could also further
provide job employment opportunities as
well as make Deconstruction even more
efficient in reducing waste until eventually
a situation is reached where everything can
be salvaged. Greer (2004) however, argues
that unless there are more economic and
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
arcayubaxx2@ futminna.edu.ng 70
financial benefits to Deconstruction, its
potentials based on sustainability alone may
be limited. This is especially because the
construction industry is largely money
driven and heavily influenced by financial
benefits.
Types of Deconstruction
Deconstruction is basically divided into
two: Table 1 summarises the types of
deconstruction, its characteristics and likely
Deconstructed materials.
Research Methodology The study employed the case study and
descriptive research methods, to study the
problem. Both primary and secondary data
were used. Primary data were obtained from
direct observation and interviews. A total of
8 renovation/ urban renewal sites within
Minna metropolis were studied. Sites were
selected using purposive non-probability
sampling based on the magnitude of
renovation wok carried out and wastes
generated. Public works were accorded
more priority while simple residential
buildings were given lesser priority.
Secondary data were obtained from
journals, textbooks, online sources and
other publications to further corroborate
findings from the field. The data was
collected and analysed using descriptive
statistical tools such as mean, percentages
and averages in a tabular format. The data
were analysed and computed using
Microsoft office 2010.
Study Sample. Table 2: Sampled Project Sites
S/No Name of Project
1 Cbn Minna, Paiko Road
2 Mini Market, FUT Minna (Gidan Kwano
Campus)
3 Late Idris kuta’s Villa, IBB Drive, Hill Top
Minna
4 City Centre Shopping Mall, Mobil Roundabout
5 No 15. Commissioners Quarters.
6 DSS Office Minna
7 Residential Estate, Behind Bomas Supermarket.
8 Kuta Road
Table 1: Types of Deconstruction
Type of
Deconstruction Definition Characteristics
Types of Materials
Salvaged
Non-structural Non-structural
deconstruction involves
removal of building parts
and elements whose
disassembly does not
affect the structural
integrity of the building.
Normally light and can be
salvaged with minimum
safety issues. It seldom
requires bracing or support
to disassemble.
Floor finishes, doors and
windows, wall finishes,
sanitary wares, electrical
fittings and installations,
fire fighting fittings.
Structural Structural deconstruction
involves the removal of
building parts and
elements that constitutes
an integral part of the
building and/or
contributes to the
integrity of the building
structure.
Typically large, rough and
often more likely to be
reused as building
materials or recycled into
other products.
Roofing sheets, roof
trusses, ceilings, suspended
floor systems,
blocks/bricks,
steel/wooden beams and
columns
Source: National Association of Home Builders [NAHB] (2000).
Ayuba, Albert
Appraisal of Recycling of Deconstructed Building Materials from Selected Renewal and Renovation Projects in Minna
arcayubaxx2@ futminna.edu.ng 71
Discussion of Results Table 3 shows the demography of the
samples studied. 37% of the sampled
studied were urban renewal projects while
63% were renovation works. This implies
that a lesser amount disassembling of
building components is required since
renovation works requires lesser amount of
stripping and removal of components and
materials.
Renovations are mostly carried out on non-
structural components of buildings; hence
the materials salvaged are mostly non-
structural components. Table 3also shows
63% of the Clients public/ government
institutions and 37% of were private clients.
This signifies that majority of the projects
studied were sufficient in scope and size as
most public buildings or offices have large
acreage.
Table 3: Demography of The Samples Studied
Name of Project
Nature
of
Project
Nature
of Client
Ren
ew
al
Ren
ov
ati
on
Pu
bli
c
Pri
va
te
CBN Minna, Paiko
Road 1 1
Mini Market, FUT
Minna (Gidan Kwano
Campus)
1 1
Late Idris kuta’s Villa,
IBB Drive, Hill Top
Minna
1 1
City Centre Shopping
Mall, Mobil
Roundabout
1 1
No 15.
Commissioners
Quarters.
1 1
DSS Office Minna 1 1
Residential Estate,
Behind Bomas
Supermarket.
1 1
Kuta Road 1 1
TOTAL 3 5 5 3
Percentage (%) 37 63 63 37
Table 4: Method of disassembly
Name of Project Labour
used
Equip
ment
Used
Sk
ille
d
Un
skil
led
vo
lun
teer
s Sim
ple
too
ls
po
wer
ed
too
ls
CBNMinna, paiko road 1 1
Mini market, FUTMinna
(gidankwano campus)
1 1
Late IdrisKuta’s Villa,
IBB Drive, Hill Top
1 1
City centre Shopping
Mall, Mobil Roundabout
1 1
No 15. Commissioners
Quarters.
1 1
DSS Office Minna 1 1
Residential Estate,
Behind Bomas
Supermarket.
1 1
Kuta Road 1 1
TOTAL 2 4 2 7 1
Percentage (%) 2
5
5
0
25 8
7
13
Table 4 shows the distribution of the
various methods and skill sets employed in
carrying out the task. The table indicates
that 50% of the projects employed unskilled
labour, 25% skilled labour and a further
25% utilised volunteers. Proper
Deconstruction of building components or
building structures require sufficient
knowledge of the building process as
deconstruction is merely construction in
reverse. It then means that unskilled labour
and volunteers which constitute 75% of the
labour used- though cheaper and more
economical – are generally unsuitable for
deconstruction works. This results in more
wastage and poor management of the
deconstruction activity. Building materials
and other components salvaged are hardly
reusable immediately and end up being
recycled (raw materials for the same or
equivalent product) or down cycled (raw
materials for lower value goods). The
wasted components or materials remaining
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
arcayubaxx2@ futminna.edu.ng 72
sadly end up in dumps or landfills due the
use of inappropriate labour force which
endanger the environment.
Table 4 further shows the equipment
utilised during the Deconstruction process.
87% of projects studied utilised simple
handheld tools and 13% employed the use
of powered tools. This reveals that more
time and effort will be required in 87% of
Deconstruction works. Since powered
machines require careful handling, skilled
labour will be required to execute the job as
is the case on the CBN Minna site shown in
plate 1. Less time will also be spent in
carrying out the work.
Plate 1: Removal of Floor Finish using powered
tools
Table 5 shows deconstructed building
materials salvaged on the respective sites.
All sanitary fittings, roofing (Plate 3),
egresses and wooden trusses were salvaged
in all of the samples studied. Floor finishes
were sampled in 87% of sites. The
remaining 13% was salvaged due to the
nature of floor finish involved (cement sand
screed). 63% of sample studied also made
efforts to salvage power fixtures and steel
bars.
Ceiling, Blocks/bricks, lighting fitting and
wall finishes were only deconstructed in
13% of the sites sampled, while no site
salvaged sanitary piping and concrete as
also shown in Table 5. Concrete and
sanitary wares were not salvaged on any of
the sites sampled. Very few sites
disassembled Ceiling and Lighting fitting
and may not be unconnected with the low
resale value of these components.
Although sanitary piping (PVC or
Galvanised) and lighting fittings (tungsten)
have harmful impacts on the environment,
they were not salvaged. This further
confirms that economic benefits are the
primary motivation for deconstruction with
sustainability of the environment probably
being a secondary reason. Blocks were also
predominantly neglected due to difficulty
and expertise required in carefully
disassembling as seen in plate 4. This
further reiterates the assertion made from
Table 4 that the use of unskilled workers
will result in wastage and turning of blocks
and concrete into debris. The lack of
technical know-how in recycling blocks and
concrete even when broken or turn to debris
further contributes the neglect in
deconstructing blocks and concrete.
Plate 2: Wall tiles carefully salvaged.
Ayuba, Albert
Appraisal of Recycling of Deconstructed Building Materials from Selected Renewal and Renovation Projects in Minna
arcayubaxx2@ futminna.edu.ng 73
Table 5: Deconstructed Building Components and Materials
Name of Project Non-structural Components
(Salvaged)
Structural components
(salvaged)
Plu
mb
ing
wa
res
Plu
mb
ing
pip
ing
P
ow
er f
itti
ng
s
Lig
ht
fitt
ing
s
Flo
or
fin
ish
es
Wa
ll f
inis
hes
Eg
ress
es
Ro
ofi
ng
sh
eets
Cei
lin
g
Wo
od
en
tru
sses
Blo
cks/
Bri
cks
Ste
el B
ars
Co
ncr
ete
CBNMinna, paiko road 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Mini market, futminna
(gidankwano campus)
Na N
a
1 1 1 1 1
Late IdrisKuta’s Villa, IBB Drive,
Hill Top
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
City centre Shopping Mall, Mobil
Roundabout
1 1 1 1 1
No 15. Commissioners Quarters. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
DSS Office Minna 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Residential Estate, Behind Bomas
Supermarket.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Kuta Road na na 1 1 1 1 1
TOTAL 6 0 5 2 7 1 8 8 1 8 1 5 0
Plate 3:Roofing sheets carefully salvaged.
Conclusion A lot of waste is generated from
Construction and Demolition sites.
Deconstruction is one of the sustainable
practices that can be employed to mitigate
and substantially reduce the amount of
waste and debris generated, conserve
energy and protect the environment.
Deconstruction was shown to be more
beneficial and helpful than ‘wrecking ball’
or ‘bulldozer’ style demolitions.
Deconstructed materials salvaged from
buildings can be reused, up cycled,
recycled, down cycled, compost, and burn
or landfilled in the order of preference. The
study also shows that more preference is
given to the economic benefits of
deconstruction to its sustainability.
Recommendations • Tax breaks or relief or other reward
systems can be offered to companies
and contractors who choose
deconstruction over demolition as
practiced in Australia, US and the EU.
• Efficient deconstruction requires
specialisation and expertise. Companies
that specialise in Deconstruction should
be subsidized and encouraged.
• The Leadership in Energy and
Environmental Design (LEED) rating
system should be incorporated into the
National Building Code to encourage
industry professionals to adopt
sustainable deconstruction practices.
• Architects should design buildings to
allow for Deconstruction.
• More modular, demountable and
prefabricated construction should be
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
arcayubaxx2@ futminna.edu.ng 74
encouraged as it allows for easy
disassembly.
• Recycle plants and Processing facilities
for concrete, blocks and cement related
waste is highly required to eliminate
cement waste as it constitutes the bulk
of the debris that end in landfills and
dumps.
• Surveys need to be carried out prior to
Deconstruction to determine the
required tools, equipment and
technicality to be used.
References Addis, B. (2006). Building with Reclaimed
Components and Materials. Earth
scan Publications Ltd. Retrieved
from
http://www.amazon.com/Building-
Reclaimed-Components-Materials-
Recycling/dp/1844072746 last
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January, 2016.
Boulder County (2008). Deconstruction and
Recycling. Boulder County Land
Use Publication. Retrieved from
www.bouldercounty.org/doc/landus
e/bs02bldsmrtdeconstruct.pdf last
accessed at 9:36pm 7th January,
2016.
Bruening, S., Chini, A. (2004).
Deconstruction and Materials Reuse,
An International Overview. Final
Report of Task Group 39 on
Deconstruction. A CIB Publication,
University of Florida, USA.
Diven, R., Taylor, M. (2006). Demolition
Planning. Supplementary
Architectural Services. Excerpt from
The Architect’s Handbook of
Professional Practice, Update 2006.
John Wiley and sons Incorporated,
USA.
Greer, D. (2004). Building the
Deconstruction Industry. Biocycle,
November 2004, 36-42.
Indiana Brown Fields Program (2010).
Demolition, Deconstruction,
Environmentally-Responsible Waste
Management. Responsible
Brownfields Redevelopment.
Indiana Brown Fields Program.
Jacque, R. (2008). Waste diversion during
Deconstruction. Build June/July
2008 72-75.
Kibert, C., Chini, A. (2000). Deconstruction
as an essential component of
sustainable construction. In
Proceedings of CIB Conference on
Overview of Deconstruction in
Selected Countries, University of
Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA, 18–
19 May 2000;6-14.
National Association of Home Builders
[NABH], (2000). A guide to
Deconstruction. The Path, a
publication of the US Department of
Housing Development. Retrieved
from
http://www.huduser.org/publications
/pdf/decon.pdf last accessed at
11:12pm on 7th January, 2015.
New South Wales Department of
Environment, Climate Change and
Water (2010). House
Deconstruction. Information
booklet, Australia.
Santos, A., Brito J. (2005). Building
Deconstruction: A contribution to
Sustainable building. The Second
Scottish Conference for
Postgraduate Researchers in the
Built and Natural Environment
(ProBE),593-600.
Doi:10.13140/RG.2.1.1744.2009.
Sherman, R. (1998). Deconstruction: Giving
Old Buildings new lives. Water
Quality and Waste Management
journal. A publication of the North
Carolina Cooperative Extension
Service, USA.
The Century bay Builders (2016).
Deconstruction. Retrieved from
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www.centurybaybuildes.com/index.
php/green-info/deconstruction last
accessed on at 10:11pm on the 7th
January, 2016.Thomsen, A.,
Schultmann, F., Kohler, N. (2011).
Deconstruction, Demolition and
Destruction. Building and Research
Information journal 39(4), 327-
332.Retrieved from
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09613218.
2011.585785. [Accessed 7th January
2016 ].
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
A Geospatial Analysis of Coastal Land use/Land Cover
Pattern and Shoreline Changes in Akwa-Ibom State,
Nigeria
Adebola Abiodun Olufemi 1, Ojoye Shamsideen2 &
Ibitoye Matthew Olomolatan1 1Department of Remote Sensing and Geoscience Information System (GIS), Federal University of Technology,
Akure, Ondo State 2Department of Geography, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger State. 1Department of Remote Sensing and Geoscience Information System, Federal University of Technology Akure,
Ondo State
Corresponding E-mail:[email protected]
Abstract The shoreline is one of the most important features on earth’s surface. They are highly dynamic and ever
changing. Changes are over time scales including minutes, hours, decades and Centuries. Spatial scales vary
from local to regional to worldwide. Although change is continuously occurring, it doesn’t occur in a constant
manner. Many factors influence these changes including the type of shoreline (rocky, sandy), wave activity,
tidal variations, storms and human impacts. The shoreline change study is necessary for updating the shoreline
change maps and management of natural resources. Shorelines are the key element in coastal GIS and provide
the most information on coastal landform dynamics. The frequent monitoring of coasts is only to accesses
variation of shoreline changes. This study investigates the shoreline changes of Akwa Ibom in Nigeria for three
different years 1990, 2000 and 2016, changes that occur in the land use land cover of the area and landforms
around the coast. The rate of shoreline change was assessed using Linear Regression (LRR) and End Point Rate
(EPR) methods. Landsat imageries for the three years were acquired and processed using Arcgis software by
digitizing the shoreline of the coast to determine the changes that occurred in the years under review, maximum
likelihood classification was done to classify the study area into different landuse/landcover in order to detect
the changes that had also occurred. The shoreline change detection was conducted using the Digital Shoreline
Analysis System (DSAS). Based on this result, it was concluded that the shoreline is eroding at -19.03 m/yr and
accreting at 15 m/yr.
Keywords: Coasts, End point rate, Accretion, Erosion, shoreline, geospatial.
Introduction Coastal shorelines worldwide are changing
rapidly as a result of natural physical
processes and human activities. Natural
factors such as sediment supply, wave
energy, and sea level are the primary causes
of coastal changes, whereas human
activities are catalysts causing
disequilibrium conditions that accelerate
changes. Coastline defined as the line of
contact between land and the water body, is
one of the most important linear features on
the earth’s surface, which has a dynamic
nature (Winarso et al., 2001).
Shoreline shifting is the uncontrollable
result of coastal erosion/accretion, the
consequence of near shore currents. With
reverence to the sediment supply, a certain
portion of coastline may have excess, be in
balance, or have a discrepancy in its
sediment budget. Enormous drop or boost in
the sediment supply, in a little span of time
or a stretched period, creates a
shortage/excess in the sediment budget
which causes shoreline shifting, multi-year
shoreline shifting mapping seems to be an
important task for coastal monitoring and
Adebola, Ojoye, Ibitoye
A Geospatial Analysis of Coastal Land use/Land Cover Pattern and Shoreline Changes in Akwa-Ibom State, Nigeria
appraisal, satellite remote sensing data in
combination with Geographic Information
System (GIS) is being used in shoreline
extraction and mapping.
Tides often determine the range over which
sediment can be deposited or eroded and the
tidal range are influenced by the size and
shape of the shoreline. Waves erode
shorelines as they break on the shore
releasing their energy, the larger the wave
the more energy it releases and the more the
sediment it moves. Human activities of
dredging, reclamation and infrastructural
development along shores also deface the
shoreline. A coastline or shoreline can be
geographically defined as a linear
intersection of coastal land and the surface
of a water body.
The shoreline is generally considered to be
the edge or margin of land next to the sea or
river Shorelines have been defined by
different coastal management and
regulatory agencies but most coastal zone
studies describe the coastline as the
interface between land and water (Bird,
1967; Dolan et al., 1980). The changes in
the coastline largely depend on its geology
and geomorphology, the nature of tidal
waves impacting on the coastline; changes
in sea level; and sediment transport by long-
shore currents (Carter and Woodroffe,
1994; Cowel and Thorn, 1994; Pidwirnyi,
2006a). Human activities which include
dredging, construction of breakwater
infrastructure and physical development;
mineral exploration and exploitation, ports
construction, removal of backshore
vegetation, construction of barges and
coastal control works and reclamation also
deface the coastline tremendously (Franos
et al., 1995; Bergerand 1996; Ibe 1988;
Pandian et al., 2004). The shoreline is the
bridge between aquatic life and terrestrial
life, and it is usually a fragile eco-zone,
hence the study of shoreline changes can be
of immense benefit to the understanding of
complex coastal ecosystems. Shorelines are
widely used as ports for navigation and
marine commerce and therefore are of
economic value and critical to the socio-
economic development of non-land locked
nations.
The location of the shoreline and the
changing position of its boundary over time
are of elementary importance to coastal
scientists, engineers and managers
(Douglass and Crowell 2000; National
Research Council, 1990).
Study Area
Akwa ibom is a state in Nigeria, it is located
in the coastal southern part of the country,
lying between the latitude 40 32’N and
5033’N and longitudes 7025’E and 8025’E.
The State is bordered on the east by Cross
River on the west by Rivers state, on the
south by Atlantic Ocean with population of
over 5 million people, it was created in
1987 from the former cross river state and is
currently the highest oil and gas producing
state in the country.
The topography of Akwa Ibom is rugged,
consisting of hills and ridges with steep-
sided valleys. The hills and ridges of this
region which are separated by flood-prone
lowlands are remnants of the west-east
extension of the Enugu-Okigwe. The slopes
are greatly ravaged by erosion during the
rainy season. The existing climatic factors
in Akwa Ibom would have favoured
luxuriant tropical rainforests with teeming
populations of fauna and extremely high
terrestrial and aquatic biomass. The native
vegetation has been almost completely
replaced by secondary forests of
predominantly wild oil palms, woody
shrubs and various grass under growths.
Akwa-Ibom state is reputed to hold the
highest oil palms per capita in Nigeria. The
climate of Akwa-Ibom State is
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
characterized into two seasons, namely, the
wet or rainy season and the dry season. In
the south central and central parts of the
state, the wet or rainy season lasts for about
eight months but towards the far north, it is
slightly less. The rainy season begins about
March-April and lasts until mid-November.
Akwa-Ibom State receives relatively higher
rainfall totals than other parts of southern
Nigeria. The total annual rainfall varies
from 4000mm along the coast to 2000mm
inland (NIMET, 2014). The whole of
Akwa-Ibom State is underlain by
sedimentary formations of late tertiary and
Holocene ages.
Deposits of recent alluvium and beach ridge
sands occur along the coast and estuaries of
Imo and Qua Iboe Rivers, and also along
the flood-plains of creeks. Inland, a greater
part of the state consists of coastal plain
sands now weathered into laterictic layers.
Ituen et al. (2014) remote sensing and
Geographic Information System (GIS)
based application in the analysis of
Shoreline change in Ibeno Local
Government. Area [LGA], Akwa Ibom
State. Satellite imageries of1986, 2006 and
2008 were used to extract the shoreline
through heads-up digitization. The rate of
shoreline change was assessed using Linear
Regression (LRR) and End Point Rate
(EPR) methods. The shoreline change
detection was conducted using the Digital
Shoreline Analysis System (DSAS).
Landsat Thematic Mapper (LTM) of 1986
and Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM) of
2006 both of 28.5 X 28.5metres ground
resolution were acquired from the United
States Geological Surveys (USGS) and
actually used for various analysis carried
out. A high resolution Ikonos image of 2008
with about 1m ground resolution was
obtained and used. These imageries cover a
period of 22yrs. The range of time and years
chosen was due to data availability. The
result however indicated that the rate of
erosion is found out to be very high with
maximum value of -7.8m/yr recorded at Itak
Abasi community. On the other hand, some
portions of the shoreline are accreting at an
average rate of 2m/yr. Based on this result
however, it was concluded that Ibeno
shoreline is eroding at an average rate of -
3.9m/yr.
Fig 1: Map of the study area
Adebola, Ojoye, Ibitoye
A Geospatial Analysis of Coastal Land use/Land Cover Pattern and Shoreline Changes in Akwa-Ibom State, Nigeria
Areas mostly affected by accretion
processes are identified near Qua Iboe River
Estuary and ExxonMobil Jetty where sand
filling is usually done for settlement
purposes. This best explains the reason for
the submersion of school buildings,
residential buildings and the persistent
inundation of large portions of land in the
area. Mitra et al. (2013) used Change
detection analysis of the shoreline using
Topo-sheet and Satellite Image in
Mandarmani-Shankarpur West Bengal
applied remote sensing and GIS techniques
on the multi-temporal satellite image and
topo-sheets, shoreline extraction using
water index and subsequent change
detection analysis was carried out to assess
the erosion-accretion pattern in the region at
both regional and local scale. Depending on
the erosional pattern, the entire study area
was divided into four erosional-cells, and
independent study was carried out in
different cells. The results exhibit that this
coastal region has been experiencing
erosion.
Kumaravel et al. (2013) and Saravana et al.
(2015) used remote sensing and GIS based
shoreline change studies in the Cuddalore
District, East Coast of Tamilnadu South
India, to investigate the spatial as well as
quantify the shoreline changes along the
coast in the parts of Cuddalore district, east
coast of TamilNadu by using geospatial
techniques. used Quantitative estimation for
shoreline change using Remote Sensing and
GIS for South South Andaman Island, India
and Andaman Island, India, respectively
Multiyear shoreline mapping is considered
as a valuable task for coastal monitoring
and assessment and detection of shoreline
change and estimation of erosion and
accretion along the eastern coast of the
South Andaman. The SOI topo-sheet 1979,
IRS 1D 1998 and IRS P6 2009 satellite
pictures were used to delineate the shoreline
changes. The results revealed that there is a
greatest value of erosion over 30 years of
studying. Boatemaa et al. (2013) used
impacts of shoreline morphological change
and sea level rise on mangroves keta coastal
zone investigated the effect of sea level rise
and shoreline recession on the mangroves at
Anyanui, using geospatial data and
modeling techniques. The local trend in
rising sea level was analysed using data
from a tide gauge station in Ghana. The
results indicate that Keta coastal zone is
eroding at a rate of about 2.32m/yr and the
sea level is rising at a historic rate of
about3mm/yr. The study revealed that
increasing sea level rise will enable the
shoreline to migrate about 8 km inland in
the next 100 years, which could pose a
severe threat to the mangrove forest. It also
emerged that there is a significant increase
in mangrove cover between 1986 and 2002.
Ramanamurthy et al. (2016) used Shoreline
Change Monitoring in Nellore Coast at East
Coast Andhra Pradesh District Using
Remote Sensing and GIS to investigate the
shoreline changes of Nellore district in
Andhra Pradesh coast, as well as the
quantity of the erosion and accretion rate.
Using multi-temporal resolution satellite
data(TM & LISS III, IV) and Geographic
information system(GIS) 25 years period
i.e, from 1989 to 2015. The resultant coastal
maps were used to estimate the
geomorphologic changes and shifting of the
shoreline position. This integrated study
was found useful for exploring accretion
and erosion processes in the region. About
87.6 km of coastline was found to be
accreting nature with average of +1.40 m/yr
followed by 38.4 km of coastal line eroding
with average of -1.36 m/yr and stable
coastline of 41.4 km was found. This study
demonstrates that combined use of satellite
imagery and statistical method such as
linear regression for shoreline change
analysis are helpful for erosion monitoring
and preventive measure.
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Prukpitikul et al. (2012) used shoreline
change prediction model for coastal zone
management in Thailand to utilize geo-
informatics technology to increase accuracy
of a shoreline prediction model along two
study sites in Samutprakarn province and in
Prachuabkirikhan province. The result
presents that averaged erosion and accretion
rate along Samutprakarn province was
22.30 meters/year and 2.94 meters/year,
respectively. On the other hand, the average
rate of coastal erosion along
Prachuabkirikhan province was much
lower, being 2.48 meters/year while the
accretion rate was approximately 4.11
meters/year. The predicted shoreline change
at Samutprakarn province in 2019 is about -
132.69 ± 0.758meters while at
Prachuabkirikhan is 40.58 ± 0.0012 meters.
Barman et al. (2015) used an approach of
future prediction for trends of shoreline
position for Balasore Shoreline to analyze
the shift in shoreline due to coastal
processes and formular available for best
estimate of future shoreline positions based
on precedent shorelines, simple Linear
Regression Model and End Point Rate
(EPR) was adopted to takeout the rate of
change of shoreline and its future positions,
based on empirical observations at
67transects along the Balasore coast.. The
rate of shoreline movement calculated from
the fixed base line to shoreline position of
1975, 1980, 1990, 1995, 2000, 2005 and
2010 and based on this, the estimated
shoreline of 2013 was calculated. The
estimated shoreline was compared with the
actual shoreline delineated from satellite
imagery of 2013. The model error or
positional shift at each sample point was
observed, the positional error varies from
−4.82 m to 212.41 m. It has been found that
model prediction error is higher in the left
hand side of river Subarnarekha. The
overall error for the entire predicted
shoreline was found to be 41.88 m by Root
Mean Square Error (RMSE). In addition, it
was tested by means difference between
actual and predicted shoreline positions
using “t” test and it has been found that
predicted shore line is not significantly
different from actual shoreline position at
(t132 = 0.278) p < 0.01.
Materials and Method
In the process of carrying out this study, the
use of satellite images and GIS tools to
extract the shorelines for three different
years of 1990, 2000 and 2016 became very
necessary. In this case, Landsat Thematic
Mapper (LTM) of 1990 and Enhanced
Thematic Mapper (ETM) of 2000 both of
28.5 X 28.5metres ground resolution were
acquired from the United States Geological
Surveys (USGS) site and used for various
analysis carried out. These imageries cover
a period of 26yrs. The images were
processed to delineate the shorelines for
1990, 2000 and 2016 with a view to
determining their rate of changes over the
study period. ARCGIS was used to perform
clipping of the study area, image processing
of the areas were done by combining bands
together.
Image classification was done on the three
images to separable land use/cover
categories which are dense, light vegetation,
unpolluted, polluted water, settlements and
wetlands. Digitizing of the shorelines was
done on the three images to detect the
changes that occurred over the years. The
combined false colour images of the area
were used for the identification of
geomorphology and landforms around the
coast.
a) Processes of Shoreline Extraction
To extract the shorelines from the satellite
images, shape files were created in Arc
catalog for each of the images. For easy
data handling, the three images were
spatially re-projected to Universal
Transverse Mercator (UTM 1984). This was
Adebola, Ojoye, Ibitoye
A Geospatial Analysis of Coastal Land use/Land Cover Pattern and Shoreline Changes in Akwa-Ibom State, Nigeria
followed by the determination of shoreline
reference feature where measurements were
based.
b) Determination of Rate of Shoreline
Change
After the shorelines were extracted, a base-
line was created parallel to these extracted
shorelines in order to cast perpendicular
lines to the shorelines and also to serve as
the origin for measuring distances of the
shorelines in relation to the established
base-line.
The base-line was created through buffering
method in ArcGIS 10.1 and this served as
the starting point for generating transects. In
this case, a 600 meter buffer was created
just above the lines, resulting in a single
buffer of 600 meters around the outermost
line. The upper and side sections of the
buffer were deleted resulting in a single line
600 meters from the shoreline.
This line served as the base-line and was
smoothened to remove the rough side of the
line in order to cast perpendicular transects
on the shorelines under consideration. The
base-line and shoreline data were imported
into a geo-database in order for DSAS to
recognize the data. Before running the
DSAS program, spatial reference and
feature type requirements of the shoreline
files were reconciled. The multiple shape
files of the shorelines were appended into a
single feature class by using the Append
tool from the Arc Toolbox. The various
attribute tables for the baseline and the
appended shoreline file were created as
shown below. If no accuracy field value
exist for a specific shoreline or Zero is used
in the accuracy field, a default value
specified in the Set data Accuracy section
by the user could be used. The ID field was
populated to control the order of transect
casting along the baseline.
c) Determination of Net Shoreline
Movement (NSM)
After the computation of the rate of change
in shoreline, the End Point Rate method was
used to calculate the distance of shoreline
movement by subtracting between the
earliest and latest measurements (i.e., the
oldest and the most recent shoreline). The
major advantage of the EPR is that, it is
easy to compute with minimal requirements
of shoreline data (two shorelines). The
linear regression rate-of change statistic
(LRR) was the second rate of change
method used. This was done by fitting a
least squares regression line to all shoreline
points for a particular transects. The rate is
the slope of the line. The linear regression
method has the advantage that all the data
are used, regardless of changes in the trend
or accuracy in addition to the method being
purely computational.
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Figure 1: Baseline, Transects and Shoreline of the Study Area
Result and Discussion The rate of shoreline change was assessed
using Linear Regression (LRR) and End
Point Rate (EPR) methods. The shoreline
change detection was conducted using the
Digital Shoreline Analysis System (DSAS)
an extension of ArcGis.
Shoreline length
From the maps and table, it shows that 1990
shoreline is 246.928 in length; it increased
in year 2000 to 257.678 and decreased
again in year 2016 to 251.061m.
Adebola, Ojoye, Ibitoye
A Geospatial Analysis of Coastal Land use/Land Cover Pattern and Shoreline Changes in Akwa-Ibom State, Nigeria
Table 1: Length in meters of each of the shoreline from 1990-2016
Shoreline Year Length(m)
1990 246.928
2000 257.678
2016 251.061
Fig 2: Shoreline of the study area in year 1990
Fig 3: Map showing the shoreline of the study area in year 2000
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Fig 4: Map showing the shoreline of the study area in year 2016
Changes In Shoreline Over Time
Getting the changes that occurred over the
years (End Point Rate) EPR and Net
Shoreline Movement (NSM) was used.
Net Shoreline Movement
The result of the analysis revealed
remarkable changes in the study area
Shoreline, the net change measured as the
distance between the most recent and
earliest shorelines, in this case the 1990,
2000 and the 2016 shorelines changes. 1990
to 2016 shows the highest changes between
the remaining years of shore line changes.
The change that occurred between the
timing of each available image is presented
in Figures 6.
Adebola, Ojoye, Ibitoye
A Geospatial Analysis of Coastal Land use/Land Cover Pattern and Shoreline Changes in Akwa-Ibom State, Nigeria
Fig 5: Map showing the shifting in shoreline between 1990-2016
Fig6: Net Shoreline Movement (1990- 2016)
End Point Rate
After the computation of the rate of change
in shoreline, the End Point Rate method was
used to calculate the distance of shoreline
movement by subtracting between the
earliest and latest measurements (i.e., the
oldest and the most recent shoreline).
From Figure 7, the highest accretion is at
the rate of 950 and the erosion is -1300.
This shows that in this period erosion was
more than accretion. EPR for shoreline
2000-2016 shows that the highest accretion
is at the rate of 250 and the erosion is -800.
This shows that in this period erosion is
more than accretion. It is noticed that there
is a decrease in erosion and accretion of
EPR of shoreline 2000-2016 compare to
that of 1990-2000.
Fig 7: EPR of the shoreline from 1990-2000
NS
M
CH
AN
GE
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Fig 8: EPR of the shoreline from 2000-2016
Fig 9: EPR of the shoreline from 1990-2016
From graph, EPR for shoreline 1990-2016
shows that the highest accretion is at the
rate of 390 and the erosion is -495
Table 2 shows the sum total of the
magnitude of Net Erosion and Accretion
that occurred over the different periods
under investigation. Table 2 shows the net
change of shoreline erosion and accretion.
The net change was at -350m in 1990-2000,
it increased in 2000-2016 but decreased in
1990-2016 at the rate of -105m.
Rate per year of erosion and accretion over
1990-2016 is calculated as; Erosion or
accretion / years from 1990-2016.
Erosion = -495 / 26 = -19.03 m/yr
Accretion = 390 / 26 = 15 m/yr
Table 2: Shoreline Erosion, Accretion and Net
Change in Meters
Periods Accretion
(M)
Erosion
(M)
Net
Change
(M)
1990-2000 950 -1300 -350
2000-2016 250 -800 -550
1990-2016 390 -495 -105
Land Use Land Cover Change Analysis
From the classified images of 1990, 2000
and 2016, the area of each land use
categories were computed and compared
statistically
Adebola, Ojoye, Ibitoye
A Geospatial Analysis of Coastal Land use/Land Cover Pattern and Shoreline Changes in Akwa-Ibom State, Nigeria
Fig 10: LULC map of Akwa Ibom and the ocean area of year 1990
Fig 11: LULC map of Akwa Ibom shoreline in year 2000
Land use classes
Vegetation- this is classified into dense and
light vegetation
Settlements- These portray all developed
land, including social utilities such as
transportation infrastructure (roads and
highways), built up areas, bare grounds and
human settlements of any size.
Water- These are categorized into polluted
and unpolluted water. They include all areas
covered by water like ocean, river and
lakes.
Wetlands - lands that are covered or
saturated by water for all or part of the year
(for example peatlands). It also includes
reservoirs
Cloud cover- these area covered by cloud
when the image of the area was taken by the
satellite.
From table 3 the total land use in square
kilometers is 17304.132568.
Dense vegetation decreased from 3475.298
in 1990 to 2992.5162 in 2000 and to
1187.178 in 2016 sq km. Light vegetation
increases from 1990-2016, Settlement is
low in 2000 compare to 1990 and increases
in 2016, wetland increases from 1990 to
2016, unpolluted water increases.
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Table 3: Land use and land cover classification statistics between 1990 and 2016
LULC
CLASSES
Year 1990
Area
(sq km)
1990 Area
(In %)
Year
2000
Area
(sq km)
2000
Area
(In %)
Year
2016
Area
(sq km)
2016 Area
(In %)
Dense
Vegetation 3475.296 20.08362 2992.5162 17.29365 1187.178 6.860664
Light
vegetation 407.2473 2.353468 4222.5948 24.40224 5237.414 30.26684
Settlement 1208.528 6.984043 723.0681 4.178587 954.243 5.514539
Farmland 2236.056 12.92209 - - - -
Wetlands 1642.298 9.490785 1794.8313 10.37227 2677.335 15.47223
Polluted water 2306.006 13.32633 1694.8953 9.794744 1946.384 11.24809
Unpolluted
water 2354.049 13.60397 5559.7509 32.12962 5301.578 30.63764
Cloud cover 3674.651 21.23568 316.476 1.828904 - -
Total 17304.1325
68 100 17304.13 100 17304.13 100
Conclusion The shoreline change in Akwa ibom has
been analyzed using the integrative
approach of satellite imageries and GIS
tools and it revealed that the shoreline of the
study area is being eroded due to natural
cause and human interference.
Also the present study demonstrated the
efficiency of remote sensing data in the
study of land use and land cover changes. It
gives a fairly good understanding of land
use/land cover changes or transition for a
period of years, which in turn will be very
helpful for local administrative bodies for
decision making in the state and coastal
management in the country.
Refrences Barma, N.K., Chatterjee, S. and Khan, A.
(2015). Trends of shoreline position:
an approach To future prediction for
balasore shoreline, Odisha, india.
IndiOpen Journal of Marine
Science, 5, 13-25.
Boatemaa, M.A., Kwasi, A.A., and Mensah,
A. (2012). Impacts of shoreline
morphological change and sea level
rise on mangroves: the case of the
keta coastal zone, Journal of
Environmental Research and
Management. 4(11). 359-367,
Ituen, U.J., Imoh,U.J. and Njoku, J.C.
(2014). Shoreline Change Detection
in the Niger Delta: A Case Study of
Ibeno Shoreline in Akwa Ibom
State, Nigeria. Global Journal of
human-social science: B
Geography, Geo-Sciences, and
Environmental Disaster
Management, Volume 14 Issue 6.
(13-30)
Kumaravel, S. Ramkumar, T. Gurunanam,
T. Suresh, M. &Dharaniraja, D.
(2013). An Application of Remote
Sensing and GIS Based Shoreline
Change Studies – A Case Study in
the Cuddalore District, East Coast of
Tamilnadu, South India
International Journal of Innovative
Technology and Exploring
Engineering (IJITEE), 2(4),2278-
3075.
Makot, V. Sallema, R. and Mahika, C.
(2004). Monitoring Shoreline
Change using Remote Sensing and
GIS: A Case Study of Kunduchi
Area, Tanzania, Western Indian
Ocean Journal of Marine. Science,
3(1), 1–10,.
Adebola, Ojoye, Ibitoye
A Geospatial Analysis of Coastal Land use/Land Cover Pattern and Shoreline Changes in Akwa-Ibom State, Nigeria
Mitra S, Santra A, & Mitra D (2013).
Change detection analysis of the
shoreline using Toposheet and
Satellite Image: A case study of the
coastal stretch of Mandarmani-
Shankarpur, West Bengal,
international journal of geomatics
and geosciences Volume 3, No 3.
Niya, A.K., Alesheikh, A.A. Soltanpor, M.
and Kheirkhahzarkesh, M. M.
(2013). Shoreline Change Mapping
Using Remote Sensing and GIS
Case Study: Bushehr Province
International Journal of Remote
Sensing Applications,3(3), (46-58)
Prukpitikul, S., Buakaew, V. Keshdet, W.,
Kongprom A. and Kaewpoo, N.
(2012). Shoreline Change Prediction
Model for Coastal Zone
Management in Thailand, Journal of
Shipping and Ocean Engineering, 2,
238-243.
Ramanamurthy, M.V., Kannan R, and
Kanungo, A. (2016). Shoreline
Change Monitoring in Nellore Coast
at East Coast Andhra Pradesh
District Using Remote Sensing and
GIS. Journal of Fisheries &
Livestock Production, 4(1), (276-
288)
Saravana, Y. E and Dharanirajan. K (2015).
Quantitative Estimation of Shoreline
Change Using Remote Sensing and
GIS For South Andaman Island,
India. International journal of
geomatics and geosciences, 5(4),
(245-260)
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
The Risk of Residing in Proximity to Illegal Waste
Dump Site in Sabon Wuse, North-Central, Nigeria
Abd’razack, Nelson T.A., Medayese, S.O., Umaru, E.T. & Shaibu, S.I.
Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Federal University of Technology, Minna.
Corresponding E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract This study investigated the spatial distribution of solid waste dump sites in the study area, established the
residents’ perceived level of exposure to solid waste hazards, and the effect of living near refuse dump sites.
Systematic random sampling technique was used to administer 500 questionnaires to the households in the
study area. The result of the study indicated that there is only one legal dump site located in Buntu area; there
are 19 illegal dump sites within the town. The proliferation of illegal dumpsite was as a result of convenience
and open spaces within the town. The most frequently used method of waste disposal is on weekly basis. The
use of plastic bucket is favoured for storage. The level of health risk associated with living close to dumpsite
shows that a total of 878 houses are at the severe risk, while, 1,898 houses are at mild risk level. The study
concludes that There should be a total clearance of the existing illegal dump site and proper monitoring of the
waste management in the town to forestall illegal dumping, and adequate information to residents and
awareness on the danger of consequences of indiscriminate dumping of refuse in an undesignated dump site.
Keywords: Illegal Dump Site, Solid Waste, Waste Management, Environment, Urbanisation.
Introduction Waste generation is a result of consumption
of resources and other activities of mankind.
As this is an unavoidable event in day to
day living, there is need for waste generated
to be managed. Lack of proper management
of waste always results in environmental
and health challenges. Globally, the process
of waste management requires a chain of
activities from collection, sorting,
transporting and disposal. If any of these
lines of management is disrupted, it affects
the management of the waste. How this
may be efficiently done poses a problem in
many societies today. Another natural
process, population growth, makes waste
management even more challenging; more
people in a specific geographic location
would imply a higher level of waste
generated, hence more waste to contend
with in that area. As poorly managed wastes
are perceived as environmental hazards of
high significance, the societies’ inability to
manage waste generation effectively play
no small role in increasing extant
environmental pressures (Karanjit et al.,
2007).
The double function of Sabon Wuse as the
Local Government Headquarters and the
resettlement of displaced people from Abuja
due to its proximity to the Federal Capital
has increased the population of the town
and thereby increased the solid waste being
generated. The responsible agencies, such
as Niger State Environmental Protection
Agency (NISEPA) and Tafa Local
Government Council Public Health
Department did not have any improvement
in the capacity to handle the massive
garbage being generated in the town. The
local Government and NISEPA could not
control the urban development as well as
waste disposal sites that are scattered all
over the town, which resulted into poor and
unclean environment.
Abd’razack, Medayese, Umaru, Shaibu
The Risk of Residing in Proximity to Illegal Waste Dump Site in Sabon Wuse, North-Central, Nigeria
General Concept of Waste
Waste generally is an unwanted by-product
of man’s activities. It is defined by Lutui
(2001) as “materials that currently have
negative value to their owner, that is the
generator incurs costs in managing them
(importantly this does not prevent them
from having positive value to another owner
at another location in space or time)”
(Lututi, 2001: p3) and are disposed of. Solid
waste is a matter of time and places, as what
is a waste can become raw material in
another place. For example, the recycling
plant uses solid waste product as raw
material for production of other items
(Sanusi, 2010). Research has shown that
there are two different variance of waste,
that is, solid waste (effluence) and liquid
waste (foul water, semi- liquid and the
gaseous liquid Biogas). “Waste” does not
have a generally concise definition,
however waste is generally known to be any
unwanted material (Lutui, 2001).
Morrisson, Wray, Dever, and Dusbaun
(2000) define waste as “any matter
prescribed to be waste under national
legislation, any material listed as a waste in
appropriate schedules, and in general, any
surplus or reject material that is no longer
useful and which is to be disposed off”.
This definition uses two words that is
important to this study “waste is neither
wanted nor has value to the owner” and
which in turn need to be disposed off.
Waste has an unwelcome and often
unnoticed effect on the environment and
hamper development and civilization (Kim
and Gobalan, 1997) and can be traced to the
growth of industrialization in modern
economies (Holmes, 2000).
Solid Waste
Solid waste could be defined as any non-
liquid and non-gaseous substance produced
out of human activities which are regarded
as being useless. It could take the form of
garbage, refuse, and sludge (Nwosu and
Olofa, 2015). Solid waste can also be
regarded as materials, which are no longer
in use. This includes household garbage,
unwanted materials from commercial and
mining activities. Solid wastes are
categorized in to three (3) types, based on
the composition. These are:
i. Biodegradable; mainly composed of
green waste, garbage, trash.
ii. Non-biodegradable; this consist of
scraps, synthetic (plastic, rubber, leather)
materials, metals etc.
iii. Semi-biodegradable; this consist of
rubbish (paper, cartons, wood.)
Solid waste can also be defined as those
materials that are generated, resulting from
man’s activities and are not in form of
liquid or gas but are compacted and
substantial.
Types of Solid Waste
i. Domestic Solid Waste: These
consist of rubbish and garbage from
household (i.e Municipal waste).
Other examples are reminant of food
materials, old newspapers, spoilt
kitchen utensils, cartoons, baby toys
etc. it is always the principal focus
of solid waste management till date
(Abdrazack, Yusuf and Utange,
2013). In Sabon Wuse, The Niger
State Environmental Protection
Agency are those that are saddled
with the responsibility of collection
and disposal of Municipal solid
waste management.
ii. Agricultural Solid Waste: These
waste resulting from different
agricultural activities, include
cultivated waste (weed); harvested
wastes from plants, field and tree
crop wastes; the dung from Animal
production and waste from operation
of feed lots as described by United
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Nation Environmental Programme
(UNEP, 2010).
iii. Commercial Solid Waste : These
include all solid waste which
emanate from business and profit
making activities such as financial
institution (Banks, market, stores,
super market), educational
institution (theatres, lecture halls and
class rooms), hospitals (Abdrazack
et al., 2013)
iv. Industrial solid waste: These are
solid waste product from the
production of goods. They include
all solid waste which result from
both light and heavy industries. In
most developed countries, industrial
solid waste account for the most
divasting tonnes of general waste
hazards. In the USA for examples,
industries generate one third of the
general waste produced in the
country. They are mostly as a result
of industrial processes of
manufacturing operation inherent in
the country. Examples of such
operations are: processing plant,
repair and clearing establishment,
refineries, manning and mineral
operations (UNEP, 2014).
v. Special Solid Waste: These types of
waste comprise of waste from street
sweeping, road side litter, debris,
dead animals, abandoned vehicles
and litters of store drains. They are
called ‘special waste’ because it is
impossible to predict where they
will be found (Abdrazack et al.,
2013).
Literature Review Rapid increase in the types and volume of
domestic waste (either liquid or solid waste)
as a result of continuous economic growth,
urbanization and industrialization, is
becoming an escalating problem for
national, state and local governments to
ensure effective and sustainable
management of waste. In the year 2006, it
was estimated that the total amount of
municipal solid waste (MSW) generated
worldwide reached 2.02 billion tons of
waste, representing a 7% annual increase
since 2003 (Global Waste Management
Market Report, 2009). It was further
estimated that between year 2007 and 2011,
global generation of municipal waste would
rise by 37.3%, equivalent to roughly 8%
increase per year. Based on incomplete
reports from its participants, The Basel
Convention estimated that about 318 and
338 million tonnes of solid waste were
generated in 2001 (World Bank, 2010).
Owing to an increase in human population,
industrial and technological revolutions,
waste management has become increasingly
complex (Akinbile and Yusuf, 2011).
Marshall and Farabahksh (2013) observed
that population growth and subsequent
innovations have not only led to changing
consumption patterns across borders but
have also placed considerable pressure on
waste management services. This is so
because as the world races towards its urban
and more complex future, the by-product of
the urban lifestyle, waste, is growing at
even faster rates. At present, global solid
waste generation is growing approximately
at 1.3 billion tonnes per year and is
expected to double by the year 2025
(Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012). The
pressure placed on waste management
services has consequently led to widespread
inefficiencies that are mainly due to lack of
funds, improper infrastructure, inadequate
waste collection services, unlicensed waste
management activities, insufficient waste
minimisation and limited waste related
legislation (Nahman and Godfrey, 2010).
Inefficient waste management services have
also led to extensive illegal dumping.
According to Zurbrugg (2002), illegal
dumping refers to an instance where solid
Abd’razack, Medayese, Umaru, Shaibu
The Risk of Residing in Proximity to Illegal Waste Dump Site in Sabon Wuse, North-Central, Nigeria
waste is disposed of in inappropriate
manners in places such as in drains, roads,
near rivers and on private and public land
that is not legally approved for such a use.
Dumped materials typically include
furniture, garden waste, discarded
appliances, household rubbish, building
rubble, broken glasses, old tires, hazardous
materials such as illegal pestilences, and
metal contamination and abandoned
automobiles (United States Environmental
Protection Agency, 1998).
Illegal dumping of waste products is a
recognised problem in much of the world
and Nigeria. At a global level, dumping has
resulted in increased costs associated with
clearing and clean-up efforts. For instance,
in Britian, clearing waste that is dumped
every 35 seconds has cost the government
millions according to the British
Broadcasting Corporation (BBC news,
2005). There have also been instances of
developed countries dumping waste in the
less developed countries. A recent
occurrence is the dumping of old and
broken television sets in Ghana by one of
the United Kingdom’s leading waste and
recycling companies. This is said to have
been done in violation of the laws in
relation to the flow of waste to developing
countries (Wasley, 2011). In the city of
Abidjan in Côte d'Ivoire, vast amounts of
toxic waste released by a tanker registered
under a Dutch Oil Trader resulted in the
death of ten people and left many others
suffering from diarrhoea, vomiting and
nosebleeds (Johnson, 2006). It is uncertain
as to how the toxic pollutants entered the
country. Such occurrences thus make it
important for countries to monitor and to
enforce policies that ensure proper waste
disposal services. Bylaws for illegal
dumping are clearly presented, but the
enforcement of these regulations is unclear.
Dumped solid waste has serious
implications for the health, environment and
the quality of life. Dumped solid waste
contaminates both soil and water. This
occurs when water from rainfall seeps
through dump waste and mixes with
substances within the waste and forms a
substance known as leachate. According to
Akinbile and Yusuf (2011), leachate
released from waste sites also poses a high
risk to groundwater and surface water if it is
not properly managed. Dumpsites also
make the surrounding areas prone to
flooding as the different components of
waste can block drains, creeks and culverts
(United Nations Environment Programme,
2005). In an attempt to combat illegal
dumping and mitigate its effects, residents
in rural areas burn sites. This, however, has
a direct impact on the environment because
fires cause severe erosion due to burning of
trees which limit vegetation growth. Small
animals such as birds are also affected as
they die from feeding on materials from
waste sites and by being stuck in debris
(Project Green Sweep, 2011).
The presence of an illegal dumpsite can
cause serious health problems for nearby
residents as it is an ideal breeding ground
for disease-vectors such as rats and
mosquitoes (United States Environmental
Protection Agency, 1998). Certain
respiratory illnesses such as asthma and
tuberculosis are also linked to illegally
dumped waste (Etengeneng, 2012). The
occurrence of illegal dump sites not only
affects health and the environment, but also
the quality of life. According to Madava
(2001), illegal dumpsites have adverse
effects on the basic human rights of people
with regards to the standard of living. This
is so because hazardous wastes are
prospective pollutants of the biophysical
and human environment. This is so because
the presence of dumpsites does not only
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
deteriorate the quality of the environment,
but also breaches human rights as it has an
impact on community pride. More often
than not, the sight and smell that emerge
from illegal dumpsites are unpleasant and
diminish the land value. Illegal sites that
mostly constitute of flammable substances
and gases are vulnerable to fires. More also
as stated by United State Environmental
Protection Agency (USEPA), the impact is
not limited to the aesthetic appeal of
landscapes, but also diminishes the value of
surrounding properties significantly, forcing
residents to vacate their homes to further
places (USEPA, 2005).
The situation in Nigeria is different in that
the process of urbanisation in the country is
unplanned; there is population explosion as
decentralisation of government has turned
villages to local government headquarters
thereby attracting more people to the urban
centres (Okpala, 2004). This has led to high
production of solid waste, the traditional
attitude, poverty and high level of ineptitude
on the agency responsible for waste
management has contributed significantly to
turn our towns and cities to garbage cities
rather than serene environment (Oyelola,
and Babatunde, 2013). Table 1 shows the
level of waste generation in some selected
cities in Nigeria. There are many illegal
waste dump sites round the cities. The
population of the cities are grasping with
the environmental and health risks
associated with unclean environment. This
has led to breeding of pathogenic condition
(breeding ground for mosquitoes, rodents
and airborne diseases (Ogwuelika, 2009).
Table 1: Volumes of solid waste generated in some
Nigerian cities (Tonnes/year) Cities Tonnage/
Month
Density Kg/Capital day
Lagos 255,556 294 0.63
Kano 156,676 290 0.56
Ibadan 135,391 330 0.51
Kaduna 114,433 320 0.58
Port/Court 117,825 300 0.60
Makurdi 24,242 340 0.48
Onitsha 84,137 310 0.53
Nsukka 12,000 370 0.44
Abuja 14,785 280 0.66
Source: Ogwuelika, 2009
Table 1 has clearly shown that the city of
Lagos generates more waste than every
other cities in Nigeria due to population of
the state. It is worthy to know that Kano has
a larger population when compared with
Lagos state but Lagos state generates more
waste than Kano. Ogwueleka concluded
that, on the average the Southern part of the
country generates about 0.63 kg per capita
per day while the Northern part produces
about 0.56 kg per capita per day. On the
average, the country produces about 0.60 kg
per capita per day.
Study Area Sabon Wuse is a Community in Tafa Local
Government Area of Niger State, Nigeria,
adjoining the Federal Capital Territory
Abuja. It is located on latitude 90’33”N and
longitude of 71051”E with the projected
population of 71,074 people as of 2015
(NPC, 2011). The geographical location of
Sabon Wuse is shown in Figure 1 in the
context of Nigeria and Niger State. The
study area has a long range of hills and
ridges on the western side of the town,
which serve as restrictions to physical
development in that part of the town.
Presence of many slopes and valleys in the
town encourage rapid erosion and formation
of gully channels that are common in the
town. Incidence of flash floods is a
common occurrence especially in high
density areas. While farming remains the
chief occupation in Sabon Wuse, the town
is noted for mat making and export of
cotton weaving and dyeing.
Abd’razack, Medayese, Umaru, Shaibu
The Risk of Residing in Proximity to Illegal Waste Dump Site in Sabon Wuse, North-Central, Nigeria
Figure 1: Location of Sabon Wuse in the National and State context
Source: URP Dept. FUT Minna.
Research Methodology The methodology adopted for the study was
a mixed-methods approach which integrated
Geographical Information Systems (GIS)
mapping, qualitative and quantitative
research (Bryman, 2006). This approach
was selected to ensure that the data
presented a holistic view of the issue at
hand. In order to map out illegal dumpsites
throughout the town, the town was divided
into four neighbourhoods and all illegal
dumpsites within the neighbourhoods were
identified. The GPS co-ordinates of each
illegal dumpsite were then taken and
recorded using a hand-held GPS. The co-
ordinates of the dumpsites were then
entered into Geographic Information
Systems (GIS) software called ArcMap.
This software used the coordinates to
generate a map displaying the location of
each dumpsite, the coordinate of each refuse
dump point, height of the refuse dumpsite
and area coverage of each refuse dump site.
Systematic random sampling technique was
adopted in administering a set of pre-tested
questionnaire on households living near the
dump sites. To do this, ten of the twenty
illegal dumpsites in the town were
randomly selected from the four
neighbourhoods in the town. A set of self-
administered questionnaire designed to
include dichotomous, Likert rating,
checklist and open-ended questions, was
used to obtain primary information on
respondents’ attitudes and views on solid
waste dump sites. Forty residential
buildings within the closest proximity (as
the crow flies) from all the dumpsites were
purposively selected. A household was
randomly sampled in each of the selected
building and the household head provided
the required data. It was only in the
absence of the head that available oldest
adult member of the household was
interviewed. 500 copies of the
questionnaire was administered out of
which 370 copies were correctly filled,
returned and used for analysis of the study.
Both descriptive and inferential statistics
(Analysis of Variance and Tukey Post-Hoc
tests) were used in analyzing data collected
at p≥0.05.
The level of exposure to environmental and
risk hazard when living in proximity to
dump site was measured using Chung and
Poon (2001) scale. The scale measured the
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
distance to dump site to determine the level
of rsk and exposure to hazard thus:
i. 0.00 - 50.00 metres = Very Severe
Risk
ii. 50.01 – 100.00 metres = Severe Risk
iii. 100.01 – 150.00 metres = Moderate
Risk
iv. 150.01 – 200,00 metres = Mild Risk
v. >250.00 metres = No Risk
Research Findings and Discussion Results of the study are presented under
four main headings: Spatial distribution of
illegal dumpsites; Assessment of solid
waste disposal method; Residents’
perception of level of exposure to solid
waste hazards; and, Effects of living near
solid waste dump sites.
Spatial Distribution of Waste Dump in
Sabon Wuse
Investigations conducted by the researchers
revealed that although there is only one
legally recognized solid waste dump site in
Sabon Wuse town, nineteen illegal ones
were identified by the authors. Spatial
distribution of the dump sites are presented
in Table 2 and Figure 2. From Figure 2, it
is revealed that illegal dumpsites of solid
waste were found throughout inhabited
parts of the town. Distance of the legal
dumpsite and inadequate enforcement of
environmental sanitation laws and edits,
especially in relation to illegal dumping of
solid wastes, might be responsible for the
proliferation of illegal solid waste dump
sites in the town.
Table 2: Spatial Location of Solid Waste Dump Site in SabonWuse
S/N Location of
the Dump
Site
Status
of
Dump
Site
Location and Coordinate
of Dump Site
Size of the Dump Site
Northern Eastern Length
(m)
Breath
(m)
Area
(m2)
Height
(m)
Vol.
of
Waste
(m3)
1 Buntu Legal 9°17.932'N
7°13.707'E
100 70 7,000 3 21,000
2 AngwanYashi Illegal 9°18.265'N
7°14.430'E
5 3 15 1 15
3 Katampe Illegal
9°18'290"N
7°14.876'E
10 5 50 1 50
4 Katampe
Bridge
Illegal 9°18.125'N
7°14.718'E
12 6 72 1 72
5 Aso Illegal 9°17.962'N
7°14.575'E
50 20 1,000 1 100
6 Behind
SarkinAso
House
Illegal 9°17.884'N
7°14.542'E
40 30 1,200 5 6,000
7 Central
Mosque Aso
Illegal 9°17.924'N
7°14.417'E
20 11 220 1 220
8 AngwanTofa Illegal 9°17.997'N
7°14.096'E
70 45 3,150 4 12,600
9 Behind Aso
Market
Illegal 9°18.169'N
7°14.228'E
10 4 40 1 40
10 AngwanYashi Illegal 9°18.327'N
7°14.365'E
10 5 50 1 50
11 Hausawa Illegal 9°18.535'N
7°14.366'E
4 2 8 1 8
12 Abuja Kaduna
Expressway
Illegal 9°18.591'N
7°14.388'E
6 3 18 4 72
13 Abuja Kaduna Illegal 9°18.574'N 18 2 36 3 108
Abd’razack, Medayese, Umaru, Shaibu
The Risk of Residing in Proximity to Illegal Waste Dump Site in Sabon Wuse, North-Central, Nigeria
Expressway 7°14.389'E
14 Abuja Kaduna
Expressway
Illegal 9°18.549'N
7°14.367'E
16 4 64 1 64
15 Abuja Kaduna
Expressway
Illegal 9°18.529'N
7°14.345'E
5 3 15 1 15
16 Abuja Kaduna
Expressway
Illegal 9°18.525'N
7°14.343'E
20 10 200 4 800
17 Abuja Kaduna
Expressway
Illegal 9°18.494'N
7°14.318'E
40 20 800 8 6,400
18 Abuja Kaduna
Expressway
Illegal 9°18.477'N
7°14.307'E
15 7 105 4 420
19 Abuja Kaduna
Expressway
Illegal 9°18.484'N
7°14.293'E
6 4 24 2 48
20 Abuja Kaduna
Expressway
Illegal 9°18.472'N
7°14.282'E
12 8 96 5 480
Figure 2: Spatial location of both legal and illegal waste dump site in SabonWuse
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Assessment of Solid Waste Disposal
Methods
Solid Waste Disposal Methods in the Study
Area
Table 3 shows the level of assessment of
waste collection and disposal in Sabon
Wuse. The analysis indicated that 21.4% of
respondents dump their solid waste to an
informal collector on daily basis; about
61.7% dump their solid waste
indiscriminately on weekly basis which is a
clear indication that they often dump their
waste when they are less busy which
happens that be Saturday and Sunday when
they do not go to work, While 14.9% on
fortnightly, this deal with dumping of refuse
at any time they were able to see the
informal refuse collectors which does really
have a prescribed day and 6.0% on monthly
basis.
Table 3: Frequency of Waste Disposal in Sabon
Wuse
Frequency of
Disposal
Number of
Respondents
(%)
Daily 79 21.4
Weekly 228 61.7
Fortnightly 55 14.9
Monthly 7 1.9
Total 370 100.0
The most used municipal waste storage
facilities in the study area are; Plastic
Bucket (23.4%), Cotton Sack (18.2%),
Nylon Bag (21.4) and Bagco Bag (11.7%),
reasons being that they are easy to convey
to various area of disposal because of their
light weight and they are less expensive and
very few people in the study area are aware
of the undesignated dump site so they are
often saddled with no option than dumping
it off available place of their choices. Table
4 shows various storage facilities used by
households in Sabon Wuse.
Table 4: Method ofWaste Collection in SabonWuse
Storage
Facilities
Number of
Respondents
(%)
Palm Tree
Front Basket
24 6.5
Plastic
Bucket
87 23.4
Cotton Sack 67 18.2
Drum 60 16.2
Nylon Bag 79 21.4
Bagco Bag 43 11.7
Others 10 2.6
Total 370 100.0
Risk Associated with Illegal Solid Waste
Proximity to Houses in SabonWuse
Figures 3 and 4 show the extent of
closeness of compounds to refuse dump in
the study area. The risk of staying close to
refuse dump was measured between 100
meters and 200 meters. The risk ranges
from fatal, severe and mild (Chung and
Poon, 2001). Satellite image of the study
area was used to capture the number of
compounds that were within the 100 meters
(Severe) and 200 meters (mild) risk. This
process is known as buffering. The
buffering uses radius to determine the area
of coverage. The total numbers of structures
at the study area is 3,571. The total number
of compounds at severe risk (100m) is 878
which is 24.6% and at mild risk (200m) is
1,898which is 53.2% of the total number of
structure within the study area. Dumped and
untreated solid waste has serious
implications for the health, environment and
the quality of life of people, therefore,
Chung and Poon, 2001 indicated that
residents within the buffering region of the
refuse dump at 100m are at higher risk than
those at 200m distance. This is due to the
fact that level of exposure to hazard is high,
hence the ability of rodents and other
vectors to transmit infections is also high.
The implication of this is that the closer the
residents to dump site the higher the risk of
both environmental and health hazard in
Sabon Wuse.
Abd’razack, Medayese, Umaru, Shaibu
The Risk of Residing in Proximity to Illegal Waste Dump Site in Sabon Wuse, North-Central, Nigeria
The analysis of the proximity to risk of
exposure to hazard is measure using the
buffer analysis as shown in Figures 3 and 4.
The buffer that was used followed the 100
metres and 200 metres risk zones. The 100
metres shows a severe risk associated with
living within the catchment of such
environmental and health risk, while, 200
metres buffer on the other hand shows a
mild risk of exposure to both environmental
and health risk as posited by Chung and
Poon (2001), it is better to avoid living in an
area where there is risk whether mild or s
evere.
Figure 3: 100m Risk radius showing houses closer to waste dump site in Sabon Wuse
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Figure 4: 200m Risk radius showing houses closer to waste dump site in Sabon Wuse
Residents’ Perception of the Types of
Hazard Exposed to in the Study Area.
Table 5 shows the perception of residents to
various risks of exposures to solid waste
hazard in the study area. The extent of
perception of the risk is measured using
Linkert Scale. The range of the scale is
Strongly Agreed (SA); Agreed (A); Fair
(F); Disagreed (D) and Strongly Disagreed
(SD).
The specific risk and hazard exposed to by
the residents based on their perception
include the following: Foul water, Dust
during hamattan, Dust at the beginning of
rainy season, Dust at the end of rainy
season, Rats and Rodents attack,
Houseflies, Mosquitoes, Defacing the
physical appearance of the environment,
Children playing off the dump, Injuries
from sharp objects of the dumps, Pollution
of water bodies and Smoke from burning of
the waste.
Abd’razack, Medayese, Umaru, Shaibu
The Risk of Residing in Proximity to Illegal Waste Dump Site in Sabon Wuse, North-Central, Nigeria
Table 5: Residents’ Perception of the Type of Hazard exposed to in the Study Area
S/
N
Hazard Fixed Hazard Grade (1-5) Ground
Total SA A F D SD
1 Domestic Sewage 47 89 62 130 41 370
2 Sand Dust 29 26 202 60 53 370
3 Erosion 38 50 38 67 187 370
4 Poor Physical Apperance of the Environment 199 24 103 17 24 370
5 Children Playing on dump sites 7 19 48 125 171 370
6 Rats and Rodents 7 46 38 55 223 370
7 Mosquito Breeding 147 72 50 82 19 370
8 Houseflies 113 159 55 14 29 370
9 Injuries from Sharp Objects 5 14 19 183 149 370
10 Epidemics 7 34 46 84 199 370
11 Pollution of Water Source 17 7 10 130 206 370
12 Smoke from burning of solid waste (open
dump)
31 10 50 58 221 370
Table 6 shows the responses of the
residents in respect to their exposure to
hazard of solid waste. These data are known
as Variable Numbers of Respondents
(VNR) and the Fixed Hazard Grade (FHG)
is ranged from 1-5 of which 5 is the most
dangerous. The procedure of calculation of
the households level of exposure to solid
waste Hazards is shown thus:
AG = ∑FHG XVNR (1)
(SSо)
Actual Grade (AG) = Fixed Hazards Grade
(FHG) X Variable Numbers of Respondents
(VNR)
Sample Size (SSо)
Where;
Fixed Hazards Grade (FHG): ranging from
1 to 5, were ‘1’ is Very Good; ‘2’ Good; ‘3’
Average; ‘4’ Very Poor and 5 is Extremely
Dangerous.
Variable Numbers of Respondents (VNR):
the total number of responses for each
grade.
Sample Size (SSо) - it is referred to as the
sample size of the study area, which is 370.
Table 4 also shows that erosion, children
playing on the dump, injuries from sharp
objects of the dumps fall within the fair
condition, meaning that their effect as a
result of the presence of these refuse dumps
is minute/ fair on the people around that
area. In the same vein, it shows that: foul
odour, dust at the beginning of rainy season
and house flies falls with the average
condition, which indicate that most of the
just itemized hazards exist on an average
scale in the study area as a result of those
refuse dumps being present in that area.
In addition, Table 4 also indicates that: dust
during hamattan, rats and other rodent
outbreak, mosquitoes, defacing the physical
appearance of the environment, pollution of
water and smoke from burning of waste fall
within the very bad condition on the ranking
scale, which means that there is a very high
existence of health hazards due to the
presences refuse dump sites in the study
area. It has made the area susceptible solid
waste hazard and if urgent measures are not
taken, it would be more terrifying in the
nearest future.
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Table 6: Households Level of Exposure to Solid Waste Hazards
S/N Hazard Fixed Hazard Grade (1-5) Actual
Grade Poo
r
Fair Average Very
Bad
Extremely
Dangerous
1 Domestic Sewage .13 .48 .51 1.40 .55 3.07
2 Sand Dust .01 .08 .16 1.97 2.01 4.23
3 Erosion .08 .14 1.64 .65 .71 3.22
4 Poor Physical Apperance of the Environment .02 .18 .37 .91 2.69 4.18
5 Children Playing on dump sites .31 .86 .45 .12 .39 2.12
6 Rats and Rodents .02 .25 .31 .73 2.53 3.95
7 Mosquito Breeding .10 .10 .39 1.35 2.31 4.17
8 Houseflies .02 .25 .31 .60 3.02 4.19
9 Injuries from Sharp Objects .40 .39 .41 .88 .26 2.34
10 Epidemics .54 .13 .84 .18 .36 2.05
11 Pollution of Water Source .05 .04 .08 1.40 2.79 4.36
12 Smoke from burning of solid waste (open
dump)
.08 .05 .41 .62 2.99 4.16
Perception of Residents to Solid Waste
Hazard in Sabon Wuse
Table 7 shows level of health hazard
exposed to when residing close to dump site
in the study area. The health hazard exposed
to varies,and it included the following: fear
of disease, discomfort from foul odour,
irritation from the sight of the dump, fear of
people leaving the neighbourhood, fear of
persecution by the environmental sanitation
body, the neighbourhood being repulsive to
needed businesses, friends and relatives not
wanting to visit.
Table 8 shows the response of the residents
to risk of health hazard when residing close
to refuse dump in the study area. The
variable was then grouped as Variable
Numbers of Respondents (VNR) and the
Fixed Hazard Grade (FHG) is ranged from
1-5 of which 5 is the most dangerous. The
total number of respondent is 370. The
procedure of its calculation and judgement
follows the same procedure.
Table 7: Residents’ Perception to Level of Health Hazard in the Study Area
S/
N
Perception of Risk Exposed to Fixed Hazard Grade (1-5)
Actual
Grade
Poo
r
Fai
r
Averag
e
Very
Bad
Extremel
y
Dangerou
s
1 Fear of disease 12 38 101 144 75 370
2 Discomfort from foul Odour 22 34 139 82 175 370
3 Irritation from the sight of the dump 26 12 79 197 113 370
4 Fear of people leaving in the neighborhood 34 77 108 86 65 370
5 Fear of persecution by the environmental
sanitation body
26 82 77 82 103 370
6 The neighborhood being repulsive to needed
businesses
31 10 43 127 159 370
7 Friends and relatives not wanting to visit my
family
26 14 67 123 139 370
8 Blocking of roads 21 46 53 151 99 370
Abd’razack, Medayese, Umaru, Shaibu
The Risk of Residing in Proximity to Illegal Waste Dump Site in Sabon Wuse, North-Central, Nigeria
The result of Table 8 also shows that fear
of disease, discomfort from foul odour,
irritation from the sight of the dump, fear of
people leaving the neighbourhood, fear of
persecution by the environmental sanitation
body, friendsand relatives not wanting to
visit and blocking of roads falls within the
average condition, it therefore indicate that
due to the presence of the refuse dump the
area suffers the just listed health hazard in
an average manner, that is to say, the
occurrence are minimal though exist in that
area. Furthermore, The Table 8 shows that
only one falls within the very bad condition,
this indicates that the presence of the refuse
dump has made the neighbourhood to be
repulsive to needed businesses. According
to the popular Nigerian saying “The eyes
eat before the mouth”. Due to the
unpleasant odour, unpleasant view and
other environmental deterioration caused by
the present of the refuse dump, this has
drastically harper business activities with
the affect area of the study area.
Recommendations Based on the findings of this study, the
following recommendations are hereby
proposed;
There should be a total clearance of the
existing illegal dump sites and proper
monitoring of the waste management in the
town to forestall illegal dumping. The
offenders of this provision should be
punished to serve as a deterrent to others.
There should also adequate information to
residents and awareness on the danger of
consequences of indiscriminate dumping of
refuse in an undesignated dump site. System
of refuse collection by the responsible
agency that is Niger State Environmental
Protection Agency should be improved
upon to include door to door system of
refuse collection, putting into consideration
durable storage facilities.
Regular evacuation of the solid waste from
dump site by the government and its
agency. Prompt and timely evacuation of
municipal solid waste from residence to the
nearest landfill and sorting of the waste to
reduce the time of decomposing and
recycling of recyclable waste. It should be
noted that if there is a delay or irregular
frequency in evacuation of municipal solid
waste, it might lead to the temptation of
residents returning back to their usual habit
of indiscriminate refuse dumping.
Table 8: Residents’ Level of Risk of Health Hazard Exposed to in the Study Area
S/
N
Hazard Fixed Hazard Grade (1-5)
Actual
Grade
Poo
r
Fair Averag
e
Very
Bad
Extremel
y
Dangerou
s
1 Fear of disease .03 .21 .82 1.56 1.01 3.62
2 Discomfort from foul Odour .06 .18 .47 .88 2.40 3.99
3 Irritation from the sight of the dump .07 .05 .64 1.51 1.53 3.80
4 Fear of people leaving in the neighborhood .09 .42 .88 .94 .88 3.19
5 Fear of persecution by the environmental
sanitation body
.07 .44 .42 .88 1.40 3.21
6 The neighborhood being repulsive to needed
businesses
.08 .05 .35 1.38 2.14 4.01
7 Friends and relatives not wanting to visit my
family
.07 .08 .55 1.32 1.88 3.90
8 Blocking of roads .06 .25 .43 1.64 1.33 3.70
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Conclusion The study has been able to establish that
there is one legal and 19 illegal dump sites
in Sabon Wuse Area despite its close
proximity to Federal Capital of Nigeria and
influx of people to the town. The quantity of
waste generated shows that it ranges
between 0.52 kg/capita/day and 0.62
kg/capita/day.The result also shows that
dumping of solid waste into the surrounding
is the most favoured method. There is also
the use of informal waste collectors who
also dump the waste in the illegal dump
sites in the town. The perception of the
residents to the risk of staying close to
refuse dump varies between severe (at
100m) and mild (at 200m). The total
number of buildings exposed to the risk of
both environmental and health hazard is
about 25.6% at 100 m and about 53.2% at
200 m buffer. This shows that a greater
number of residents are exposed to danger
on health and environmental hazard. This
has an effect on the health care delivery as
many residents are prone to mosquito attack
and epidemic as a result of houseflies.
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Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Developing a Mass Appraisal Approach for Residential
Properties in Minna Metropolis
Hassan Shuaibu Liman*1, Isaac Ayodele Olatunji1, Gbenga Morenikeji1,
Oluseun Olukemi Olubajo2 & Zakari Dodo Usman3 1Department of Estate Management and Valuation, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Nigeria 2Department of Building, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Nigeria. 3Department of Estate Management, Niger State Polytechnic, Zungeru.
Corresponding author’s email: [email protected]
Abstract Mass appraisal has become a standard approach of valuing large groups of properties especially for taxation
purpose. It is widely used in developed countries including the US, UK and other European countries as well as
in some developing countries such as Malaysia. In this paper, the application of mass appraisal model in
Nigeria was examined. Hedonic based multiple regression analysis was used to analyse a set of 91 transaction
data recorded between 2009 and 2013. The regression results revealed the contributory effect of the different
housing attributes on the house price. Based on these results, a mass appraisal model for residential property
valuation was developed. The performance of the model was evaluated using ratio study and the model was
found to be adequate. It was discovered that a good mass appraisal model can bring about improvement in
property tax administration in the study area by reducing cost and ensuring fairness and equity, which are very
crucial in any property tax assessment process. The paper recommends that future studies should incorporate
GIS, more explanatory variables as well as larger sample size to improve the accuracy of the model.
Keywords: Mass Appraisal, Residential Property Price, Hedonic Model, Ratio Study
Introduction The significance of housing to both the
society and economy cannot be
overemphasised. It provides for one of the
basic human needs and also constitutes a
substantial proportion of the wealth of many
households as stated by Forensic
Technologies International (FTI Consulting,
2012). This wealth also accrues to
government as most countries of the world
use different forms of taxes levied on
homeowners as revenues to carry out
developmental projects. These projects will
in turn offer direct or indirect social benefits
to the property occupants and in most cases
lead to increase in values of their properties.
Property tax therefore is one of the major
and important sources of revenue to the
local government, the arm of government
mainly charged with the administration of
property taxes (Harris and Moore, 2013;
Owuso-Ansah, 2012; Sipan, et al., 2012).
However, this potential of property tax as a
source of revenue has not been fully
realised particularly in Minna, despite the
city’s economic importance. Therefore, the
selection of Minna for this study is due to
the importance of the city as the capital of
Niger State, which shares boundary with
Nigeria’s capital city, Abuja. Minna has
over the years experienced continuous
influx of people which has led to rapid
increase in its population. However, this
rise in population has not been accompanied
by adequate infrastructural development.
Real property tax is thus seen as one of the
avenues through which the local
government can generate more revenues to
finance its activities especially in terms of
infrastructural development for the benefit
of the populace. Consequently, there is need
for a systematic real property tax
administration system that will serve the
Liman, Olatunji, Morenikeji, Olubajo, Usman
Developing a Mass Appraisal Approach for Residential Properties in Minna Metropolis
interest of the government and people. It
becomes very important to propose a more
efficient way of assessing house prices by
the local governments for the purpose of tax
administration. This will ensure equity and
uniformity, as well as effectiveness in the
assessment process, which will be
advantageous both to the taxpayers and the
local authorities. It will also lead to
reduction in costs of property assessment as
well as time saving. This has necessitated
the recommendation of mass appraisal for
taxation purposes, which will serve as a
starting point to providing an effective tax
system in Minna.
Property valuation is required for different
purposes including taxation. This implies
that before tax is levied on a property, the
property has to be properly assessed to
know its value. The accuracy of this
valuation is very paramount for a good tax
system and also very important to property
market players especially the real estate
professionals (Sipan and Ab Rahman,
1996). The valuation of real estate has been
carried out using the traditional methods of
valuation which are comparison, cost,
investment, profit and residual methods
(Selim, 2008). These approaches are still
useful for single property valuation. It is
however argued in the literature that they
are not efficient for valuing large group of
properties especially for the purpose of
taxation, which requires a certain level of
equity and fairness across all the assessed
properties. This is because these traditional
methods have some level of subjectivity and
also bring about inconsistencies of assessed
values (see Sipan et al., 2012). Apart from
the inconsistencies, errors involved and the
lack of evidence to be used by valuers in
adopting the traditional sales comparison
approach also makes the valuation process
difficult, thereby resulting in inaccuracy of
valuation opinion (Bozic et al., 2013). Due
to lack of any standardized procedure for
determining residential property value in
Minna, people may tend to resort to
personal judgement to arrive at an estimated
value. There is therefore need for a shift in
paradigm to more reliable methods of
valuing properties. Thus, mass appraisal, an
approach for valuing large group of
properties was introduced.
The purpose of this paper therefore is to
employ a hedonic regression approach in
estimating house prices in Minna, Nigeria,
with the aim of applying a mass appraisal
model for residential property taxation
which will ensure equity, fairness and cost
effectiveness that will be at the advantage of
the taxpayers and the local government.
Literature Review Mass appraisal
According to International Association of
Assessing Officers(IAAO), mass appraisal
is “the process of valuing a group of
properties as of a given date and using
common data, standardized methods, and
statistical testing (IAAO, 2013a).” It usually
involves large group of properties as against
individual property (Kauko and d'Amato,
2008). Mass appraisal started in the United
States in the 1920s, and has since then
continued to evolve (Florida Department of
Revenue, 2002). It has been adopted in
developed countries like America, the UK
and other European countries. Research in
the field of mass appraisal is also gaining
more prevalence in some developing
countries such as Malaysia. There is
however no evidence of the application of
mass appraisal model for property taxation
in the Minna property market.
Mass appraisal performance evaluation
In mass appraisal, the performance of the
model has to be evaluated to ensure that the
model is capable of replicating the forces of
demand and supply in the whole tax
jurisdiction fairly and equitably. According
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
to IAAO (1990), the primary tool used to
evaluate the performance of mass appraisal
models is ratio study. For the purpose of
equity, there are two major aspects of mass
appraisal accuracy measured in a ratio study
which are appraisal level and appraisal
uniformity.
Appraisal level
Appraisal level measures the proximity
between assessment values and actual sales
prices on an overall basis (IAAO, 2013a).
This is because in mass appraisal, appraised
values do not usually equal market prices.
The principle however is that
overappraisals should balance
underappraisals such that the typical ratio
is near 1 or 100 percent. The four measures
of appraisal level in a ratio study are the
median, arithmetic mean, weighted mean
and geometric mean, each of which has its
pros and cons. It is thus recommended that
all the measures be calculated and
compared for proper guidance (IAAO,
1990). Note that wide variations among the
different measures of appraisal level may be
indicative of poor appraisal performance.
The Standard for Ratio Study (IAAO,
2013b) stipulates that while the theoretically
desired level of appraisal is 1.00, a level
between 0.90 and 1.10 is acceptable for any
class of property with the exception of cases
where stipulated local standards must be
followed.
Appraisal uniformity
The second tool used in measuring the
performance of mass appraisal is the
appraisal uniformity. It basically looks at
the consistency and equity of values. First,
it considers uniformity between property
groups, for example, “that residential and
commercial properties are appraised at
similar percentages of market value and that
residential assessment levels are consistent
among neighbourhoods, construction
classes, age groups, and size groups.
Secondly, it also considers the consistency
of assessment levels within property
groups” (IAAO 2013a). The typical
measures of uniformity used in ratio study
are the Coefficient of Dispersion (COD)
and the Price-Related Differential (PRD).
The standards for COD have been outlined
in details in the Standard on Ratio Studies
(IAAO 2013b). Generally, a COD between
5 – 20 is acceptable depending on the type
of property being appraised. It should be
noted however that Low CODs (15 or less)
tend to be associated with good appraisal
uniformity (IAAO, 1990).
The PRD on the other hand is used to
measure assessment’s progressivity or
regressively. It provides a simple gauge of
price-related bias, which shows the extent
of bias between low- and high-value
properties in the sample used. The Standard
on Ratio Studies (IAAO, 2013b) specified
an acceptable PRD of 0.98 to 1.03. PRD
below 1.00 is an indication of assessment
progressivity, whereby the assessment ratios
increase with price. It implies that the high-
value properties are over-appraised.
Conversely, PRDs above 1.00 tend to
indicate assessment regressivity, in which
case the assessment ratios decline with
price, indicating that the high-value
properties may be under-appraised (IAAO,
1990).
Hedonic price model
Alternative methods of assessing values of
properties have sprung up lately such as
econometric models which are useful
approaches in estimating home prices to
buyers and local authorities (Tabales et al.,
2013). More so, the authors noted that over
the years, classical hedonic models in real
estate appraisal have been used as a
procedure to estimate prices of such
complex goods as housing. The hedonic
model posits that “a good possesses a
myriad of attributes that combine to form
Liman, Olatunji, Morenikeji, Olubajo, Usman
Developing a Mass Appraisal Approach for Residential Properties in Minna Metropolis
bundles of utility-affecting attributes that
the consumer values (Ching and Chan,
2003).” The hedonic model based on micro
economic theory has been widely used in
real estate valuation and housing market
studies, particularly in analysing residential
property prices and rental values (Selim,
2008). The hedonic approach is particularly
useful when there is no enough statistical
information especially the property
transaction details (Tabales et al., 2013). It
also has the advantages of easy-to-use,
easy-to-understand and high accuracy of
results (Tian, 2013). In the case of a house,
the model tends to estimate the price or
rental value of the house as a function of its
attributes. Other advanced techniques that
are used in mass appraisal include artificial
neural networks, spatial analysis, fuzzy
logic, kriging, autoregressive integrated
moving average, spatial autoregression,
geographically weighted regression, moving
window regression, time trend analysis and
feedback (Jahanshiri et al., 2011;
Mohamad, 2012). The literature has shown
that the Ordinary Least Square regression is
the most common model used in property
assessment ratings (Sipan et al., 2012).
There are two types of variables that are
usually included in a house price hedonic
regression model. They are dependent
variable (also called regressand or measured
variable) and independent variable (also
called regressor or predictor variable)
(Ismail, 2005). According to the researcher,
the dependent variable is a measure of
house value, which is represented by rents,
sales price, asking price, or even owner's
estimated price as the case may be. The
researcher noted that the use of each of
these different measures of house value is
evident in previous studies, adding that
rents are normally adopted in case of studies
that involve rented properties while the
other measures of value are adopted in
studies that involve owner occupied
properties.
The second type of variable, which is the
independent variable includes all significant
factors that are likely to affect the measure
of value. In the housing market literature,
these factors have been broadly grouped
into three namely the structural, locational
and neighbourhood attributes. Focusing on
property-specific attributes, Wyatt (2007)
submitted that “the principal physical
qualities of the building are size, age,
condition, external appearance (including
aspect and visibility), internal specification
and configuration.” He argues that these
qualities are hypothesized to have effect on
the level of “performance of the building to
varying degrees depending on the use to
which it is put.”
Factors for mass appraisal approach in
residential neighbourhoods
Residential real estate prices can be
influenced by a diverse number of attributes
or factors. These factors can be broadly
classified under micro and macro
determinants. The macro determinants of
house prices are those macroeconomic
factors such as inflation, exchange rate,
unemployment rate and GDP that affect the
entire economy of a country. The micro
factors on the other hand, which are
property specific factors and are of
relevance in hedonic price analysis, have
been classified into three by Watkins (2001)
as physical, neighbourhood and locational
characteristics. For the purpose of this study
which focuses on developing a mass
appraisal model, only the micro
determinants of house price will be
considered because mass appraisal is based
on local property markets.
Sirmans and Macpherson (2005) listed out
the top twenty housing attributes (micro
house price determinants) that are most
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
frequently included in previous studies on
hedonic house price modelling. Table 1
shows details of the appearances of the
variables from the previous studies.
It is worthy of note that not all of these
variables can be found in the present study
area. The absence of some variable in the
current study may be attributed to
differences in contextual, idiosyncratic and
cultural settings as noted by Ching and
Chan (2003) or as a result of variation in the
nature of the property market characteristics
as noted by Bello and Bello (2008). In
addition, the unavailability of data on some
variables has equally limited the number of
variables to be included in the study.
Methodology
Data
Data used in this research are property
attributes/ characteristics and sales
transaction data. The attribute data cover the
three aspects of structural, locational and
neighbourhood attributes earlier mentioned
and they include house type, size, number
of rooms, number of bathrooms/toilets, age,
condition, location, distance to the central
business district and neighbourhood
facilities available. The sales transaction
data is basically the price at which the
residential properties in question were sold
and the respective year each property was
sold. These attributes were identified from
previous studies through literature review.
Table 2 shows the list of variables included
in this study and their units of measurement.
They are variables for which data were
obtained by the researcher. Macroeconomic
factors were not included since they are
variables that are more concerned with the
larger economy of the country as a whole
rather the local property market as
applicable to this study.
Due to the unavailability of much
residential transaction records in the study
area, data for this study is made up of 91
house sales transaction cases in Minna,
recorded between 2009 and 2013.
Table 1: Variables often included in most hedonic models
Independent
Variables
Number of (Times):
Appearances Positive Negative Not Significant
Lot Size 52 45 0 7
Ln Lot Size 12 9 0 3
Square Feet 69 62 4 3
Ln Square Feet 12 12 0 0
Brick 13 9 0 4
Age 78 7 63 8
No. of Stories 13 4 7 2
No. of Bathrooms 40 34 1 5
No. of Rooms 14 10 1 3
Bedrooms 40 21 9 10
Full Baths 37 31 1 5
Fireplace 57 43 3 11
Air Conditioning 37 34 1 2
Basement 21 15 1 5
Garage Spaces 61 48 0 13
Deck 12 10 0 2
Pool 31 27 0 4
Distance 15 5 5 5
Time On Market 18 1 8 9
Time Trend 13 2 3 8
Source: Adopted from Sirmans and Macpherson (2005)
Liman, Olatunji, Morenikeji, Olubajo, Usman
Developing a Mass Appraisal Approach for Residential Properties in Minna Metropolis
The data were sourced from six of the
registered estate surveying and valuation
firms that are practicing in Minna. The
firms provided data on residential property
transactions, particularly the sales prices
and corresponding property attributes. Note
that in a ratio study that utilizes sales data
only (as in the case of this research), there is
limited extent of control that the researcher
has over sample size (IAAO, 1990). This
implies that the sample size will be limited
by the amount of data available. Other
secondary data used in this research were
sourced from published materials and
documents that contain discussions about
the subject matter of research and the
research trend. These sources include
textbooks, reports, journals, conference
proceedings, gazette materials, internet and
other electronic sources.
Table 2: List of variables and their descriptions
Variable Variable
Name
Measurement
of Variable
Variable Description
Y Price Nigerian Naira
(N)
Price of the House: Actual Sales price of the house in
Naira
X1 Type Nominal Type of House: Whether the house is a Tenement,
Flat, Semi-Detached or Detached Bungalow or a
Duplex
X2 Size Scale (Sqm) Total Size of the house in square meters
X3 Rooms Scale Number of rooms in the house
X4 Bathrooms Scale Number of bathrooms or toilets in the house
X5 Age Scale (Years) Age of the house since it was built
X6 Condition Nominal Physical condition of the house: Whether the house is
Very Poor, Poor, Fair, Good or New.
X7 Year Scale Year the house was sold: 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012 or
2013
X8 Location Nominal Location of the house: Area in which the house is
located – low, medium or high income area.
X9 Distance Scale (KM) Distance of the house to the Central Business District
(Mobil)
X10 Facilities Nominal Number of facilities available in the neighbourhood
the house is located such as School, Hospital/ clinic,
Police Post.
A representation of the proposed model is
given as:
P = a + βx + e (1)
In the equation 1, P is the House prices, a is
the constant, β is the coefficient matrix, x is
the set of independent variables and e, the
error term. Substituting for the variables, we
will have the equation re-written thus:
House Price = Constant + β1 (Type) + β2
(Size) + β3 (Rooms) – β4 (Baths) + β5 (Age)
+ β6 (Year) + β7 (Condition) – β8 (Location)
+ β9 (Distance) + β10 (Facilities) + error
term (2)
Table 3: Descriptive statistics
Variables Mean Std. Deviation
Price 4349450.54 2711923.206
Type 3.14 1.644
Size 171.7 54.453
Rooms 5.88 5.625
Bathrooms 2.79 1.197
Age 12.58 8.694
Condition 3.23 1.034
Year 3.67 1.491
Location 2.40 .728
Distance 2.9398 1.28924
Facilities 3.13 .957
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
N 91
Five types of houses were sampled in the
study. They are detached bungalows, semi-
detached, flats, tenements and duplexes.
The number of rooms in a house ranges
from 2 to 21 rooms depending on the house
type. The prices of these houses range from
N1,200,000 for tenements, which are the
cheapest types, up to N10,000,000 for
duplexes, with the average price being
about N4,349,450. Most of the recorded
transactions within the sample period of 5
years took place in 2013 with the other
samples almost evenly distributed
throughout the previous year. This is an
indication of improved record keeping by
the estate firms. Data on the condition of the
houses revealed that 32 of the houses are in
fair condition, 25 are in good conditions
while 20 were said to be in poor state of
repairs as at the time they were sold.
Method of analysis
The study employed the use of statistical
technique particularly the hedonic price
modelling approach base on multiple
regression analysis (MRA) to empirically
identify the significant factors that affect
house prices in the study area and the level
of effect exerted by each of the factors. The
selection of this method of analysis is based
on the evidence from literature that MRA
performs better when small samples are
used for analysis (see Kauko and d’Amato,
2008). The coefficients from the regression
result showed the marginal contribution of
each of the variables included in the
regression model to the overall price of a
house in the study area. The significant
factors identified from the regression results
were then used to propose a model. The
model was then evaluated to test its
suitability for the purpose of mass appraisal.
The model evaluation was done with the aid
of the mass appraisal evaluation technique
known as ratio study. The two aspects of
mass appraisal accuracy in a ratio study
namely appraisal level and appraisal
uniformity were measured to ascertain the
adequacy of the model. There are four
measures of appraisal level in a ratio study
which are the median, the arithmetic mean,
the weighted mean and the geometric mean,
each of which is expected to be at a level
between 0.90 and 1.10. On the other hand,
appraisal uniformity is typically measured
using Coefficient of Dispersion (COD) and
the Price-Related Differential (PRD). While
the COD should normally fall between 5
and 20, the PRD is expected to be between
0.98 and 1.03.
Results A regression analysis was obtained using all
the variables and it was found that the
number of rooms did not pass the check,
having a P-Value of 0.272 which is above
0.05. Consequently, the variable was
excluded and a second regression model
was obtained which is shown in table 4. The
model has a coefficient of determination
(R2) of 0.923. This shows that about 92% of
variation in house price can be explained by
the independent variables. The F-statistics
(F-value – 107.57 and F-sig. – 0.000)
indicate that the independent variables when
put together are statistically significant in
determining house prices in Minna. While
the F-statistics show the significance of the
variables as a whole, the significance of the
individual variables is indicated by their
respective P-Values (sig.) and the results
shows that all the variables are individually
significant (p-values less than 0.05).
Further evaluation of the results reveals that
the problem of multicollinearity does not
exist in the model as all the variables have a
tolerance that is greater than 0.1 and VIF
that is below 5. The contributory effect of
each variable can be observed from the B
coefficients of the variables. A look at the
signs of the coefficients of the independent
variables will reveal that all the variables
Liman, Olatunji, Morenikeji, Olubajo, Usman
Developing a Mass Appraisal Approach for Residential Properties in Minna Metropolis
included in the model except age of a house
and its distance to the CBD are positively
correlated with house prices. This implies
that a unit increase in each of the variables
with positive coefficients (type of house,
size, bathroom, condition, year, location and
facilities) will bring about corresponding
increase in price of a house. On the other
hand, the negative signs on the coefficient
of age implies that the older a house is, the
lesser the price of the house. Likewise, the
farther a house is from the CBD, the lower
the price of the house.
A mass appraisal model was therefore
obtained using the coefficients from the
regression results. The equation for the
model is presented as follows:
House Price =-5721793.178+
255441.430(Type)+5942.767(Size) +
722872.168(Baths)- 30191.112(Age) +
1035230.685
(Condition)+146506.912(Year) +
675543.323 (Location) - 189033.094
(Distance)+531602.035 (Facilities) (3)
The model presents house price as a
function of the different attributes of the
house, each of which affects the price at
varying degrees as indicated by the
coefficients
Mass appraisal performance evaluation
As earlier stated, every mass appraisal
model has to be evaluated. The essence of
the evaluation is to compare the appraised
values with the actual sales prices to see if
the model can be accepted. Evaluation of
the model in this study was done using ratio
study. The results of the ratio study are
presented in table 5.
Table 4: Regression coefficients
Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized
Coefficients
t Sig. Collinearity
Statistics
B Std. Error Beta Tolerance VIF
(Constant) -5721793.178 719275.614 -7.955 .000 - -
Type 255441.430 68010.869 .155 3.756 .000 .561 1.783
Size 5942.767 1904.560 .119 3.120 .003 .652 1.534
Bathroom 722872.168 97761.689 .319 7.394 .000 .512 1.955
Age -30191.112 12335.514 -.097 -2.447 .017 .610 1.641
Condition 1035230.685 124791.713 .395 8.296 .000 .421 2.373
Year 146506.912 76315.623 .081 1.920 .048 .541 1.847
Location 675543.323 176636.993 .181 3.824 .000 .423 2.362
Distance -189033.094 87677.689 -.090 -2.156 .034 .549 1.823
Facilities 531602.035 169577.230 .188 3.135 .002 .266 3.757
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Table 5: Measure of appraisal level and appraisal
uniformity
S/N
o.
Measure of
Appraisal Level
Required* Result
1 Median 0.9 – 1.1 1.0024
2 Mean 0.9 – 1.1 1.0091
3 Weighted Mean 0.9 – 1.1 1
4 Geometric Mean 0.9 – 1.1 0.94
Measure of
Appraisal
Uniformity
5 Coefficient of
Dispersion (COD)
5 – 20 20.91
6 Price-Related
Differential (PRD)
0.98– 1.03 1.009
*Note: The requirements for each of the measures as
stipulated in The Standard on Ratio Studies (IAAO
2013b) have been discussed in the previous sections.
All the measure of appraisal level
computed, that is, the median, arithmetic
mean, weighted mean and geometric mean
fall within the acceptable standard of 0.90 –
1.10. In addition, two measures of appraisal
uniformity were computed. While the PRD
has fallen within the acceptable of standard
of 0.98 – 1.03, the COD is a bit above 20
(20.91), the researchers deem the model still
acceptable considering the sample size
utilized in the research as well as the fact
that all the five other measures are within
the acceptable standards.
Conclusion The paper made attempt to develop a
symbolic Mass Appraisal model to
undertake valuation of residential properties
in Minna. The research established that
house prices in Minna are significantly
influenced by type of the house, its size,
age, condition, the number of bathrooms,
year the house was sold, location of the
house, its distance to the CBD as well as the
availability of neighbourhood facilities. The
age of a house and its distance to the CBD
have negative effect on prices, meaning that
as the two variables increase, house prices
tend to decrease. The study has used these
significant variables to develop a model for
mass appraisals of residential properties for
taxation purpose. The model was evaluated
using ratio study; a mass appraisal
evaluation technique. After evaluation, the
model was found to be suitable and is
therefore recommended for mass appraisal
of residential properties in Minna. The
study further recommends that in the future,
more explanatory variables and larger
samples should be used and Geographic
Information Systems (GIS) should be
incorporated to accurately capture the
locational attributes of the properties, as it
has been noted in previous studies like Tian
(2013) that the adoption of GIS has helped
to produce more accurate assessment
values.
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Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Assessment of Urban Heat Island in Zaria
Urban Area
Fidelis C. Duchi and Wadanda Kabiru Musa
Department of urban and regional planning, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria
Corresponding E-mail. [email protected]
Abstract The Urban Heat Island effect is linked to the built environment and threatens human health during extreme heat
events. This study aimed to examine the spatial pattern of heat islands in Zaria urban area. Satellite imagery,
Landsat imagery Base map and Metrological data were used. Reconnaissance survey was used for data
collection with other sources. ArcGIS and Google earth software were used to collect data and analyzed using
remote sensing, simple descriptive statistical techniques method. The results show the correlation between the
maximum temperature and the years of analysis as 0.8433 with 84.33% linear relationship. The coefficient of
determination R2 is 0.7112 which reveals 71.12% change in maximum temperature caused by variation of time.
To attain a balance heat change in Zaria Urban area it is recommended to: Restore loss of vegetation,
Consideration for landscaping in plan approval, strategic management on congested city and traffic problems,
Consideration for building material and orientation, Creation of shelter belt and stabilizing river embankment,
Encouraging the use of permeable surface, Use of contemporary techniques, Partnership towards sustainable
environment and Improving the competency of environmentalists.
Keywords: urban heat island, land use; spatial analysis, remote sensing, strategies
Introduction Global warming has obtained more
attention because the global mean surface
temperature has increased since 19th
century. Urbanization has occurred at
unprecedented rates in the last 100 years.
The United Nations estimated that in 2010
more than half of the world’s population
lived in cities, predicting an increase to
more than 70% by 2050 (United Nations,
2012). It is argued that the world urban
population will increase from 3.5 billion in
2010 to 6.2 billion and by 2050 almost all
of which will be focused on developing
countries. Growing at about 5% per annum,
Nigeria’s urban population estimated at
46.2% in 2005 would rise to 58% by 2050
(UN-Habitat, 2008). Given the expected
urban expansion, cities are likely to triple
their developed land intake a situation that
would have untold negative environmental
and economic consequences. The
implications of negative externalities of
climatic change, increased vehicular
congestion, alterations in natural drainage
systems, and reduced water supply which is
generally change in the land use cover are
already associated with rapid urbanization.
The term, urban heat Island (UHI) was
coined by Gordon Manley in 1958. UHI
phenomenon is known for centuries, but the
semi-scientific awareness of the urban
climate anomaly is traced back to mid-18th
century. In the 1750s, Ezra Stiles noted that
the air of towns was warmer than the
country side (Meyer, 1991). Urban heat
island (UHI) can be defined as an urban
area which is significantly warmer than its
surrounding rural area. It is a measurable
increase in urban air temperatures resulting
primarily from the replacement of
vegetation with buildings, roads, and other
heat-absorbing infrastructure (United States
Environmental Protection Agency [EPA]
(2008).
Duchi, Musa
Assessment of Urban Heat Island in Zaria Urban Area
The urban heat island (UHI) effect is linked
to the built environment and threatens
human health during extreme heat events.
This study analyzed the weather
characteristics of land uses within an urban
area associated with higher surface
temperatures, and whether concentrations of
hot land uses exacerbate this relationship.
Higher concentrations of these land uses are
usually associated with more extreme
surface temperatures. Municipal planners
and decision-makers formulate policies and
regulations that are specific to the
problematic land uses in order to mitigate
extreme heat. Temperatures are gradually
increasing globally due to changing climate.
The built environment in urban center is
categorized into different land uses for local
and regional planning. General
meteorological conditions also affect the
magnitude of the UHI effect. The UHI is
maximized under conditions of minimal
cloud cover (increased solar input), low
wind speeds (reduced mixing of air) and high
vertical stability (thermal inversions) (Oke,
1987). The horizontal and vertical motions
of air reduce the rural-urban microclimate
contrast. Cloud-cover at night absorbs and
re-radiates long-wave radiation emanating
from the surface back to the ground so that
surface cooling everywhere is diminished
and tends to reduce the UHI effect (Oke,
1987; Stull, 1988).
Statement of Research Problem
Extreme temperatures have serious impacts
on human health, including but not limited
to heat rash, sunburn, fainting, and heat
exhaustion. Continuous rising temperatures
in urban areas create an uncomfortable
environment for residents which results in
increasing demand for energy to use air
conditioners during extreme heat events,
decrease in surface albedo that increase the
amount of energy at the surface. Therefore,
the understanding of urban heat island
concept and strategies will help planners to
make physical planning recommendation
for sustainable urban development.
Aim and Objectives
The aim of this study is to examine the
spatial pattern of heat islands in relation to
land use pattern in Zaria urban area.
The following are the specific objectives
1. To review the concept and analytical
technique of urban heat island.
2. To examine the physical
development characteristics of Zaria
urban area.
3. To assess the implications of urban
heat island pattern in Zaria urban
area.
Description of the study area
Zaria Urban area is located between
latitude10◦57’36’’N and 11◦15’32’’N and
7◦39’00’’E and 7◦53’02’’E. the urban area is
made up of Sabon Gari and Zaria local
government areas and some parts of Giwa
Local government area like Shika about
from Ahmadu Bello University main
campus, Samaru. Zaria Urban Area is
bounded by Kudan to the North, Igabi to the
South, Soba to the East and Giwa to the
West. Zaria is about 26 km from Kudan, 50
km from Igabi, 40 km from Soba and 29 km
from Giwa.
Conceptual Advances in Urban Heat
Island
The understanding of urban energy balance
and search for causes that facilitate it is
greatly enhanced by Oke’s (1976)
conception of the urban atmosphere as a
system composed of two distinct layers: the
urban canopy layer (UCL) and the urban
boundary layer (UBL). The UBL is the
overall atmospheric system that extends for
many kilometers above cities, whose
characteristics are determined by the form
and pattern of cities. And the UCL is that
layer of the atmosphere where most life
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
occurs; from ground up to the mean height
of roofs (Oke,1982). Montavez et al. (2000)
shows that in fine weather, the city size and
population play important roles in the
intensification of UHI. This could be due to
increase in anthropogenic heat release, air
pollution, surface roughness and structures
that absorb, store and transmit more heat.
Smith and Levermore (2008) concluded that
the bigger or denser the city the bigger also
the UHI intensity.
Research have revealed that a wide range of
urban factors are responsible for higher
temperatures in urban areas compared to
those of rural areas (UHI) and they include;
urban geometry, anthropogenic heat,
thermal characteristics of urban surfaces,
obstruction to wind flow by buildings and
lack of vegetation. From the works of
Landsberg (1981), Oke (1973, 1978, 1982,
1988), Roth et al (1989) and Santamoouris
(2002), the most important factors
influencing the UHI effect are summarized
as follows; Canyon Geometry, Building
Materials, Greenhouse Effect,
Anthropogenic Heat Source, Evaporative
Cooling and Wind Pattern
Materials and Methods In this study remote sensing, Google earth
and GIS data from different sources were
used. Three medium resolution Landsat
Thematic map (TM), Enhanced thematic
map (ETM) and Enhanced thematic map
plus (ETM+) of the study years, using path
and row, 189 and 52 respectively which
were used to detect the heat island pattern
of the study area. These images were
obtaining from the United States Geological
Survey (USGS) website as standard
products. Also in order to avoid the impact
of seasonal variation, all images were
selected from the same season in such a
way that the cloud cover will not exceed
10%. The images are also of 60m spatial
resolution which makes it convenient for
comparison of changes and pattern. The
Google earth imagery of Zaria urban area
were obtained for Google Earth 4.2
software, using Zaria, Kaduna as point of
reference to be searched.
Results and Discussion The data were analyzed using classification,
overlay analysis and descriptive statistical
method. The statistical method used: mean
and graphs to illustrate trends of heat island
pattern over time. The pattern is made up
various land use of residential, commercial,
industrial, public and semi- public, open
spaces, Roads and streets. Even though the
heat island pattern is dynamic in respect to
economic development and social progress,
it does not come without costs, as such there
is potential implications of the heat island
change in Zaria urban area over time. The
potential implications of heat island can be
considered as environmental. In trying to
establish the environmental implications
heat island pattern in Zaria urban area some
climatic parameters were considered to
define the climatic condition of the study
area which are precipitation and
temperature. Land use change have been
said to affect climatic condition and at the
same time the climatic condition of a place
do affect land use, as such it can be said that
an indirect relationship exist between the
two. In trying to understand such
relationship for this study, there is a need to
understand the variation of temperature of
the study area over time. The dynamic heat
island distributions for each study year as
derived from the maps below;
Heat Island Pattern 1980
The heat island pattern in the study area in
1980 can be visually seen from the map
below which depict the highest magnitude
as 32.22 0c, medium, 30.52 0c and lowest
as 28.96 0c. The difference between the
Duchi, Musa
Assessment of Urban Heat Island in Zaria Urban Area
highest and the lowest temperature range is
3.24 0
Fig. 1: surface temperature classification across Zaria urban area
Source: Landsat image, 1980
Figure 1, above revealed that there was an
urban heat island effect within the study in
1980 the red colour depicts the highest
magnitude, yellow colour medium and
green colour depict the lowest heat island
intensity. Comparing the urban heat island
intensities, it can be seen that the patterns
shows a typical temperature profile for an
urban heat island. The temperature gradient
from the rural area to the suburban area
form the basis of heat island extend in Zaria
urban area within the residential and
commercial land use, Zaria city wall expand
with residential land use, Tudun Wada
residential and commercial land use, Sabon
Gari commercial, industrial and mixed land
use, Samaru residential, commercial and
educational land use. The rest of the sub-
urban area has a relatively gentle
temperature gradient forming the plateau
The thermal center (“Peak”) of an urban
heat island is usually located in the central
urban center.
Heat Island Pattern 2015
The heat island pattern in the study area in
20115 can be visually seen from the map
below which depict the highest magnitude
as 39.50 0c, medium, 37.75 0c and lowest
as 36.03 0c. The difference between the
highest and the lowest temperature range is
3.47 0c.
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Fig. 2: surface temperature classification across Zaria urban area
Source: Landsat image, 2015
Figure 2, revealed that there was an urban
heat island effect within the study in 2015
the red colour depicts the highest
magnitude, yellow colour medium and
green colour depict the lowest heat island
intensity. The temperature gradient from the
rural area to the suburban area form the
basis of heat island extend in Zaria city,
Tudun Wada and Samaru signifies an
increase in residential, commercial and
educational land use, Sabon Gari and PZ
witness an increase in commercial,
industrial and educational land use. The rest
of the sub-urban area has a relatively gentle
temperature gradient forming the plateau
The thermal center (“Peak”) of an urban
heat island is usually located in the central
urban center. More over congestion of
residential unit, traffic, emission of harmful
gases from industries, automobile and the
use of firewood and generator as source of
cooking and lighting due to urbanization. It
is clear that the relationship between land
use and surface temperature revealed and
confirms that urban heat island effect is
usually observed between urban and rural
land uses Surface temperature tends to
increase with the size of commercial and
industrial land use polygons and decreases
with the size of parks, recreation and water
body polygons.
Rate of Heat Island Change in the Study
Area (1980-2015)
The rate of heat change analysis base on the
implication of land use change over time,
Tables 1 shows the detail of mean
maximum and minimum temperature within
the study area. Table 1: Mean maximum and minimum
temperature (oC) for Zaria urban area
Year Max Min Mean
1980 35.2 11.57 27.80
1985 36.0 12.67 27.91
1990 37.53 12.58 28.00
1995 35.43 12.65 28.71
2000 37.7 9.935 28.90
2005 37.133 12.58 28.70
2010 38.5 12.42 29.40
2015 39.29 16.19 29.90
Source IAR ABU, Zaria
Duchi, Musa
Assessment of Urban Heat Island in Zaria Urban Area
Table 1: Shows trend of temperature change
within the period from 1980-2015.
Regression Analysis of Mean Maximum
and Minimum Temperature for Zaria
Urban Area Analysis of Maximum Temperature
Table 2 analysis reveals the correlation
between the maximum temperature and the
years as 0.8433 (84.33%) indicating linear
relationship between the maximum
temperature and the years of analysis. The
coefficient of determination R2 is 0.7112
indicating that 71.12% of change in
maximum temperature is caused by time
change. This is due to change on surface
characteristics and morphology over time
which include thick walls, concretes surface
and tarred roads, high anthropogenic
activities such as; high population density,
busy streets and high traffic volume
accounting for the anthropogenic heat
release.
The analysis reveals the least square
(regression) model that would be used to
predict the maximum temperature pattern in
Zaria is y = 0.100*t – 163.646. where y is
the maximum temperature and t is the time
(years). The p-value of the slope of the
model (0.009) is less than 0.05 we therefore
conclude that the there is a significant
increase in maximum temperature over the
years of analysis as shown above.
Table 2: Regression Summary for Maximum
Temperature
Regression Statistics
Multiple R 0.84333
R Square 0.711206
Adjusted R Square 0.663074
Standard Error 0.847171
Observations 8
Coefficients Standard Error t Stat P-value
Intercept -163.646 52.22403 -3.13354 0.020233
Year 0.100498 0.026144 3.843964 0.00852
y-0.100*t-163.646
Fig. 3: Max. Temperature pattern with its estimated trend
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
The graph reveals the least square
(regression) model that predict the
maximum temperature pattern in Zaria, the
blue line represents maximum temperature
gradients while the red line represents the
trend over years’ y = 0.100*t – 163.646.
where y is the maximum temperature and t
is the time (years). And the coefficient of
determination R2 is 0.7112 indicating that
change in maximum temperature is caused
by time, which signifies increase in
maximum temperature over the years of
analysis as shown above. with a projected
predicted values at five years’ interval to
2025.
Predicted values
Year Max. Temp (0C)
2020 39.36
2025 39.8625
The table above reveals the maximum
temperature pattern and estimated trend
with predicted values at five years’ interval
to 2025. Which signifies that there will be
an increase in maximum temperature in
years to come if proper measures are not put
in place to mitigate the occurrence.
Analysis of Minimum Temperature Table 3: Regression Summary for Minimum
Temperature
Regression Statistics
Multiple R 0.476736
R Square 0.227278
Adjusted R Square 0.09849
Standard Error 1.647931
Observations 8
Table 3 reveals the correlation between the
minimum temperature and the years of
analysis as 0.4767, indicating 47.67% linear
relationship between the minimum
temperature and the years of analysis. The
coefficient of determination R2 is 0.2273
indicating that 22.73% of change in
minimum temperature is caused by time
change. This is due to surface
characteristics and morphology over time
which include thick walls, concretes surface
and tarred roads, and high anthropogenic
activities, such as high population density,
busy streets and high traffic volume
accounting for the anthropogenic heat
release. while area with lower temperatures
have lower anthropogenic activities.
The above analysis reveals the least square
(regression) model that would be used to
predict the minimum temperature pattern in
Zaria is y = 0.068*t – 122.378. where y is
the minimum temperature and t is the time
(years). The p-value of the slope of the
model (0.232) is greater than 0.05 we
therefore conclude that the there is no
significant increase in minimum
temperature over the years of analysis as
shown above
.
Coefficients Standard Error t Stat P-value
Intercept -122.376 101.5871 -1.20464 0.273699
Year 0.06756 0.050856 1.32844 0.232324
y-0.068*t-122376
Duchi, Musa
Assessment of Urban Heat Island in Zaria Urban Area
Fig. 4: Min. Temperature pattern with its estimated trend
The graph reveals the least square
(regression) model that predict the
minimum temperature pattern in Zaria, the
blue line represents minimum temperature
gradients while the red line represents the
trend over years’ y = 0.068*t – 122.378.
where y is the minimum temperature and t
is the time (years). And the coefficient of
determination R2 is 0.2273 indicating that
change in minimum temperature is caused
by time, which signifies a moderate shift in
minimum temperature over the years of
analysis as shown above. with a projected
predicted values at five years’ interval to
2025. Predicted values
Year Min. Temp (0C)
2020 14.0932
2025 14.431
The table above reveals the minimum
temperature pattern and estimated trend
with predicted values at five years’ interval
to 2025. Which signifies that there will be
an increase in minimum temperature in
years to come if proper measures are not put
in place to mitigate the occurrence.
Temperature Records in Different Days
of the Survey (From 14, 15 and 16 July
2016)
Table 4 reveals the temperature record of
day one at 8:00am, 2:00 pm and 5:00pm
with maximum UHI intensity occurred by
2:00pm at 37 0c. The minimum UHI
intensity occurred in the morning by
8:00am with at 18 0c. In the evening by
5:00pm at 19 0c. It can be concluded that
the UHI intensity is relatively higher during
the daytime.
Table 4: Result Day One Temperature (Oc)
Name Of Site 8:00
Am
2:00
Pm
5:30 Pm
Shika 18 25 19
Samaru 20 26 21
Kwangila 22 30 22
GRA 20 24 19
PZ 23 33 24
Sabon Gari 24 35 25
Park Road
Round About
25 37 25
Agoro Bridge 18 25 19
Tudun Wada
Market
20 28 20
Kofan Doka 22 27 22
Zaria City 24 28 23
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Diurnal temperature variation for day
one
The result reveals the highest diurnal
temperature for day one is 37 0c at 2:00 pm
with a mean temperature of 28.9 0c, this is
due to surface characteristics and
morphology which include thick walls,
concretes surface and tarred roads, and high
anthropogenic activities, these area is
known as commercial centers with high
population density, busy streets and high
traffic volume accounting for the
anthropogenic heat release.
The graph reveals the temperature record of
day one at 8:00am, 2:00 pm and 5:00pm
respectively with maximum UHI intensity
occurred at 2:00pm with a value of 37 0c.
The minimum UHI intensity occurred
during early morning about 8:00am with a
value of 18 0c. And late evening about
5:00pm with the value of 19 0c. it can be
concluded that the UHI intensity is
relatively higher during the daytime.
The table reveals the temperature record of
day two at 8:00am, 2:00 pm and 5:00pm
respectively with maximum UHI intensity
occurred at 2:00pm with a value of 35 0c
difference of 2 0c compare to the day. The
minimum UHI intensity occurred during
early morning about 8:00am with a value of
17 0c and late evening about 5:00pm with
the value of 18 0c. With a difference of 2 0c
compare to day one. it can be concluded
that the UHI intensity is relatively higher
during the daytime.
Fig. 5: Result of Day One Temperature
Duchi, Musa
Assessment of Urban Heat Island in Zaria Urban Area
Table 5: Result Day Two Temperature (OC)
Name Of Site 8:00
Am
2:00 Pm 5:30 Pm
Shika 17 25 18
Samaru 20 27 21
Kwagila 22 31 23
Gra 20 26 21
Pz 24 30 25
Sabon Gari 26 32 24
Park Road
Round About
26 35 25
Agoro Bridge 18 26 19
Tudun Wada
Market
20 32 21
Kofan Doka 22 30 22
Zaria City 25 32 24
Diurnal temperature variation for day
two
The result reveals that the highest diurnal
temperature for day two is 35 0c at 2:00 pm
and it has a mean temperature value 0f 29.6 0c, this is due to surface characteristics and
morphology which include thick walls,
concretes surface and tarred roads, and high
anthropogenic activities, these area is
known as commercial centers with high
population density, busy streets and high
traffic volume accounting for the
anthropogenic heat release.
The graph reveals the temperature record of
day two at 8:00am, 2:00 pm and 5:00pm
respectively with maximum UHI intensity
occurred at 2:00pm with a value of 35 0c
difference of 2 0c compare to the day. The
minimum UHI intensity occurred during
early morning about 8:00am with a value of
17 0c. And late evening about 5:00pm with
the value of 18 0c. With a difference of 2 0c
compare to day one. it can be concluded
that the UHI intensity is relatively higher
during the daytime.
The table reveals temperature record of day
three at 8:00am, 2:00 pm and 5:00pm
respectively with maximum UHI intensity
occurred at 2:00pm with a value of 33 0c
difference of 2 0c compare to the two. The
minimum UHI intensity occurred during
early morning about 8:00am with a value of
19 0c. And late evening about 5:00pm with
the value of 20 0c. With a difference of 2 0c
compare to day two. it can be concluded
that the UHI intensity is relatively higher
during the daytime.
Table 6: Result Day Three Temperature (OC)
Name Of Site 8:00 Am 2:00 Pm 5:30 Pm
Shika 19 26 20
Samaru 20 27 21
Kwagila 23 29 24
Gra 20 25 20
Pz 24 30 25
Sabon Gari 25 31 25
Park Road
Round
About
25 33 24
Agoro Bridge 21 26 20
Tudun Wada
Market
23 28 22
Kofan Doka 22 29 22
Zaria City 25 30 23
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Fig. 6: Result of Day Two Temperature
Diurnal temperature variation for day
three
The result reveals that the highest diurnal
temperature for day three is 33 0c at 2:00
pm and it has a mean temperature value 0f
28.5 0c, this is due to surface characteristics
and morphology which include thick walls,
concretes surface and tarred roads, and high
anthropogenic activities, these area is
known as commercial centers with high
population density, busy streets and high
traffic volume accounting for the
anthropogenic heat release.
Cumulative diurnal temperature
variation
It is being observed that day one has the
highest diurnal temperature of 37 0c while
day two has the highest diurnal mean
temperature value of 29.6 0c in respect to
day one and three with 28 0c, the cumulative
diurnal mean temperature is 29 0c which
shows and appreciable variation in the mean
diurnal temperature variation, all the station
areas of high temperature is due to the
anthropogenic factor, while area with lower
temperatures have lower anthropogenic
activities. Chow and Roth (2006), Balogun
and Olaleye (2000), and Okpara (2002) all
agree that station with highest temperatures
were always at the commercial areas and
the high level of traffic and nature of the
surface morphology, and this also true for
this study.
The graph reveals the temperature record of
day three at 8:00am, 2:00 pm and 5:00pm
respectively with maximum UHI intensity
occurred at 2:00pm with a value of 33 0c
difference of 2 0c compare to the two. The
minimum UHI intensity occurred during
early morning about 8:00am with a value of
19 0c. And late evening about 5:00pm with
the value of 20 0c. With a difference of 2 0c
compare to day two. it can be concluded
that the UHI intensity is relatively higher
during the daytime.
From the analysis carried out, it reveals that
Kwagila, PZ, Sabon Gari, park road
roundabout Tudun Wada, Kofan Doka and
Zaria city wall has the highest pick of heat
island compare to Shika, Samaru, GRA and
Agoro bridge.
Duchi, Musa
Assessment of Urban Heat Island in Zaria Urban Area
Fig. 7: Result of Day Three Temperature
Conclusion From the results of this study, it can be
concluded that Zaria urban area adequately
represent the nature of surface cover and
morphology, temperature variables are
responsible for significant variation within
the study area. The seasonal climatic
conditions of the region were also noted to
have significant effect on the annual urban
heat island variation. The study has shown
that Urban heat island studies using
satellite-based remote sensing data have
also come into prominence. Because apart
from providing a large array of information
with a wide spectrum of possible
applications, the data also have the
advantage of availability for areas that may
not be physically accessible due to physical
dangers or socio-political restrictions.
Planning Recommendations Having examine the pattern of heat island
change in the study area which shows that
built-up is increasing with decreasing
vegetation cover which is likely to continue
into the future. If proper measure is not put
in place may likely heighten the
vulnerability of the town to the effect of
floods, extreme temperature and other heat
change related implications as mentioned in
the implications above. As such, in order to
attain a balance heat change in Zaria urban
area, the following are recommended for
sustainable urban development, restoration
of lost vegetation, tree planting campaign
,consideration for landscaping in plan
approval, strategic management of
congested part of the city and traffic
problems, consideration for building
material and orientation ,creation of shelter
belt and stabilizing river embankment
,encouraging the use of permeable surface
,use of contemporary techniques,
partnership towards sustainable
environment, improving the competency of
environmentalist.
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Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Assessment of Safety and Health Performance of
Contractors’ Construction Projects in Nigeria Using
Shassic Method
Yakubu. D. M
Department of Quantity Surveying, Federal University of Technology Minna
Corresponding E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract There is need for the construction industry to comply with necessary law and regulations as regard to safety and
health of their workers in order to improve on their safety records. In Nigeria, construction industry loses 5 – 7
% of its workforce annually to construction accidents. This has gaven the industry a poor safety and health
record. As such this paper will assess safety and health performance of contractor’s construction project in
Nigeria using Safety and Health Assessment System in Construction (SHASSIC) method. The assessment is
usually carried out in three different approaches i.e document check, site/workplace inspection and employees
interview. The result of the assessment show that the performance of the contractors is two (2) stars in ranking.
This means that in term of compliance to safety management standard on sites, the construction
firms/organizations considered for the work fall within two (2) stars in ranking were all their potential and
significant workplace high risks/hazards are partly managed and not properly documented. Therefore, what the
industry needs is an act (OSHAct) that provides for the promotion, coordination, administration and
enforcement for occupational safety and health. Also, effective application of OSH management system can
lead to safety construction work and reduce the rate of accidents on construction sites and improve safety
records.
Keywords: construction, management, performance, project sites, safety and health.
Introduction Construction industry is vital to the
development of any nation, as it strongly
contributes to the economic growth of any
nation. As such there is need for the
industry stakeholders to comply with
necessary law and regulations as regard to
safety and health of workers, most
especially during the construction stage.
Construction project i.e. a product of
construction industry involves a wide
range of economic activities such as
housing project, commercial building
project such as hotels, office building, and
high rise building project and civil
engineering works i.e bridge construction,
Airport, Seaport, Jetty, Tunneling
construction etc. At the same time the law
of construction health and safety requires
action to protect those at work on sites
(such economic activities sites) as well as
members of the public who may be
affected as a result of such activities. Also
Occupational Safety and Health Act of
1994 (OSHAct) obligates each employer
to provide and maintain a safe and
healthful workplace for all employees.
Chang (2008) stated that more than
100million people in this world take
construction work as a profession and
according to Keller and Keller (2009)
reported that tens of thousands of
construction workers are injured while on
the job each year and an average of over
1000 die, while in Nigeria, construction
industries lose 5 – 7 % of its workforce
annually to construction accidents,
(Olatunji et al., 2007). A number of
studies have revealed that accidents and
injuries in construction in many
developing countries such as Nigeria are
far higher and worse than in developed
Yakubu
Assessment of Safety and Health Performance of Contractors’ Construction Projects in Nigeria Using Shassic Method
countries such as the UK, US, China and
Australia (Idoro, 2007). This is because,
the later have active and fully functioning
health and safety regulatory bodies and
employ innovative and workable safety
methods on construction sites. According
to Awodele and Ayoola (2005), several
hundreds of construction workers are
killed each year on Nigerian construction
sites, with many more rendered
temporarily or permanently disabled.
Dodo (2014) reported that accidents on
Nigerian construction sites still cause
devastating effects on the lives of workers,
properties, project delivery times, and
have also undercut the completion of
projects within defined budgets and
achievement of specifications. This calls
for immediate efforts to identify and
explore innovative ways of promoting
safety on construction sites. Tam et al.
(2004) revealed that the behaviors of
contractors on safety management are of
grave concern including the lack of
provision of personal protection
equipment, regular safety meetings and
safety training. Despite the existence of
laws related to safety and health at
workplace in many nations, the accidents
rate in most of those nations is at high rate,
based on the report of center to protect
worker’s right (1993), that many safety
professional and scholars were of the
opinion that the existing safety legislations
and regulations are not strong enough to
bring about the require zero accidents
level at construction site. Though, by
complying with those legislations and
regulations, safety on construction sites
can be improved as legislations and
regulations provided a platform for a good
construction practices. Also, (Ratay, 1997)
and (Haupt, 2001) agreed that a good code
of standard i.e legislations and regulations
can improve on construction safety at an
acceptable cost. Lack of Occupational
Safety and Health Act (OSHAct) and poor
implementation of safety management
system in Nigerian construction industry is
responsible for poor performances record
of safety and health. As such this paper
will looked into the performance records
of safety and health measures of
contractors, by assessing safety and health
performance of contractor’s construction
project in Nigeria (Abuja) using Safety
and Health Assessment System in
Construction (SHASSIC) method.
Assessing Safety and Health
Performance
The occurrence of high incidence of
accident and fatality rate are reason why
the construction industry is regarded as the
most hazardous industry as many
constructions workers are killed, some
suffer from various injuries and some
suffer various illness due to occupational
diseases on construction site. As such,
safety management in the construction
sites should be a thing of concerned to
everybody in the industry, most especially
the client, contractor, professional, sub-
contractors etc.
Similarly, the responsibility of safety at
construction sites, most especially of the
construction workers, rest on the shoulder
of the main contractor of the work. But
Said et al. (2009), realize that zero
accident is indeed, an attainable objective,
client, designer firm and contractors can
complement each other by playing
different roles in preventing accident to
achieve an injury free worksite.
Furthermore, Said et al. (2009) have
drawn the attention to the fact that
contractors are without doubt, still the
main party to plan and control
construction site safety, and that the
designers can only reduce safety hazards
in the working environment by
considering workers safety issues in their
design decision.
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Taking safety issues in to design decision
simply mean how a construction work or
activities can be carried out without any
form of injuries or illness to the
construction workers. This design decision
concept applies only to the design of the
permanent structure as it does not initiate
how to make different method of
construction engineering safer. This issue
is addressed by Toole et al. (2006), that
the design for safety concept for example,
working at height does not focus on how
to use fall protection system but it does
include design decision that influence how
often fall protection will be needed.
However, what this mean is that while
designing for safety for working at high, it
does not provide or explain how protection
from working at high could be achieved i.e
how to erect scaffolding but it does
provide decision that influence provision,
location and type of scaffolding needed to
accomplish the working at high.
Also more client are now interested on
issue of safety at construction sites, this
may be due to high cost involved in
payment on accident compensations to the
victims and the legal liabilities in relation
to worker’s injuries. As such it is the client
that stands a better chance of gaining
accident free construction site, as cost of
construction accidents and the legal
liabilities in relation to workers’ injuries
will no longer be an issue of concerned to
them.
A study conducted by Coble (cited in Said
et al., 2009) showed that the average
worker’s compensation insurance cost
could be conservatively estimated at 3.5%
of the total project cost. Said et al. (2009)
concluded that the clients can actively
impact construction safety by selecting
reliable contractors addressing safety
issues in design and participating in safety
management during construction.
Contractors Safety and Health
Performance
Despite the fact that the designer and the
client are nowadays much more interested
on the issue of safety at the construction
sites, the management of construction
safety on site still rest on the shoulder of
the contractor. Contractors have a role to
play in promoting safety programmers and
safety behavior as stipulated in OSHA
1994 Section 17 (Duties of employers and
self-employed to their employees), and
they have an obligation to ensure that their
workers are not exposed to risk which can
affect their safety and health.
As such it has become a vital issue to
select a contractor with knowledge of
safety and health together with a good
performance on safety and health based on
their previous record. A contractor is an
individual or groups that work for a
reword. Therefore a contractor is
contracted to do something for another
party and in consideration for what is done
and receive a payment. Also this
contractor is subjected to the same guiding
rules of OSH Act 1997 and their duties are
covered in part 1V of OSH Act.
The nature of operation of contractors in
some countries differs most especially as
regard to big jobs. For example, in
Malaysia, according to Ghani et al.
(2012), the current trend is the undertaking
of big project by subcontractor; the main
contractor would only lobby for the
project, while construction matters would
be handed over to the sub-contractor for a
substantial profit. This contract system has
been in existing for long in many part of
the world, the only thing required is that
the main contractor has to make sure that
competent sub-contractor (with vast
Yakubu
Assessment of Safety and Health Performance of Contractors’ Construction Projects in Nigeria Using Shassic Method
knowledge on safety and health) is
selected to handle such type of project.
A study conducted by Koehn et al. (cited
in Ghani et al., 2012) affirmed that the
contractors must have a full power to
select a sub-contractors, in order to ensure
that the sub-contractor has both skill and
manpower to undertake the job in a safer
manner. Therefore, for effective
implementation of safety and health at
construction site, there is the need for full
commitment and support from top
management to the contractor in order to
improve safety performance on sites.
When contractors believe that the
management cares about safety and health
issues at construction sites, they will be
more willing to improve safety
performance.
Methods and Materials The main focus of this paper is to assess
the health and safety system as practiced
on site by contractors in Abuja. Three (3)
large indigenous construction firms that
have been in construction activities for the
past ten (10) years were considered. Also
the construction firms must have an
ongoing project that is between 25 – 75%
completed. As such there is the need to
study how health and safety are being
handled on sites and this make qualitative
approach best research method to be
adopted for this work. In this work the
commitment of the management must be
looked into together with how workers
view health and safety on their working
place. Also this work required the
inspection of workplace, so as to ascertain
how free such workplace of element that
causes accidents. As such structured or
standardized questionnaire called Safety
and Health Assessment System in
Construction (SHASSIC) was adapted for
the assessments.
SHASSIC is an independent method to
assess and evaluate the safety and health
performance of a contractor in the
construction projects. It is recommended
that the assessment be carry out when the
work progress is between 25 – 75%
completion. As this is the stage were
different work trades activities will be
going on at sites.
Assessment Approach
The assessment is usually carried out in 3
(three) different approaches as contain in
the (CIS 10, 2008):
a. Document Check.
Checking OSH related document will
enable the assessor to ascertain the level of
compliance with safety and health programs
and activities. There are 63 questionnaires
identified for this component check.
b. Site/Workplace Inspection
Workplace inspection are expected to be
carry out at five different highly risk area
within the site, there are 62 items identified
for inspection. Workplace inspection
provides valuable visual comparison
evidence on the OSH programs
implemented, enforced and practiced at
site/workplace.
c. Employee’s Interview
Employees shall be randomly selected from
all levels and occupations so that they could
be interviewed by the assessor using
established standard questionnaire. There
are 48 questions for this component. The
employees are categorized into 3 (three)
categories. The (CIS10, 2008) list the
numbers of employee from each category to
be interview as follows:
Category A Management personnel, 1
employee from management personnel, The
Project Manager represents the management
personnel.
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Category B Safety and Health Committee
Members, Section 30 of OSHA (Act 514) of
1994, requires the employer to establish a
safety and health committee at workplace
that employed forty or more people at such
place of work. Among the function of the
committee at workplace include
investigating any matter at workplace which
a member of the committee or a person
employed consider as a threat or not safe or
risk to safety and health of those at
workplace and have been brought to the
attention of the employer. Also the safety
and health committee review the measures
taken to ensure the safety and health of
person at work.
Category C, Construction Workers
Assessment Method
Weightage
The weightage for safety and health
performance are allocated in accordance to
3 (three) components as shown in the Table
1 below; Table 1: Allocation of Weightage for Components
COMPONENTS WEIGHTAGE.
Document check 40%
Workplace inspection 40%
Employee interview 20%
Total score 100%
Source: CIDB CIS 10:2008.
The weightage system is aimed at making
the score quantitative in representing the
safety and health performance of the
respective contractor. Basic formulas for
respective component weightage are as
follows;
1. Document check.
Total Number ‘C’ Scored. X 40% =
SHASSIC score for Document Checked-(A)
(63– Number of ‘NA’)
2. Site/Workplace Inspection
Total Number ‘C’ Scored. X 40% =
SHASSIC score for workplace inspection-
(B). (310 –Number of ‘NA’)
3. Employee’s Interview
Total Number ‘C’ Scored. X 20% =
SHASSIC score for employees interviewed-
(C). (330 – Number of ‘NA’).
Where:
C is the total number of “Compliance”
NA is the total number of item that is “Not
Applicable”.
b. S
tar Ranking
The total SHASSIC score in Document
Check (A) plus (+) total SHASSIC score in
Workplace Inspection (B) plus (+) total
SHASSIC score in Employees Interview
(C). Component shall justifying the ranking
star or stars. Stars awarded ranges from 1
star to 5 stars as shown in the table 3.2
below:
Table 2 Star Ranking
SHASSIC (score %). Star(s) Awarded. Justification.
85 to 100 *****
Potential and significant workplace high risks/hazards are
managed and documented.
70 to 84 ****
Potential and significant workplace high risks/hazards are
managed and documented but there are few low risks work
activities are neglected.
55 to 69 ***
Potential and significant workplace high risks/hazards are
managed and documented but there are few medium risks
work activities are neglected.
40 to 54 **
Potential and significant workplace high risks/hazards partly
managed and not properly documented.
39 and less *
Potential and significant risks/ hazards poorly managed and
not properly documented.
Source: CIDB CIS 10: 2008
Yakubu
Assessment of Safety and Health Performance of Contractors’ Construction Projects in Nigeria Using Shassic Method
Results of the SHASSIC Analysis This consists of construction industry
standard questionnaire, which is
administered on each of the three sites
selected for this work. At each of the three
sites three (3) set of questionnaires were
administered i.e document checking,
workplace inspection and employee
interview questionnaire. Table 3 shows the
analysis and the result of assessments
carried out in each of the three construction
sites.
Discussion of Results Various firms/organizations sizes
implement health and safety in different
ways. For, these types of firm/organization
(large size) they are expected to have an in-
house safety and health expertise and are
less likely to need or seek external
assistance. It can be observed from table 4.1
that the size of the site determines the
number of subcontractors. The site with
lowest number of employees has 18
subcontractors while the site with highest
employees has 20 subcontractors. The
subcontractors are supposed to be vast in
safety and health knowledge. In term of
document checking, site 3 has the highest
number of scores 19 while site 1 has 15 and
site 2 has 14. Therefore it can be observed
from Table 3 that the scores of document
checking are determined by the size of the
site and the number of subcontractors. The
effectiveness of document checking on sites
depends upon how management of those
sites was able to document and manage
their document on sites. As regard to
workplace inspection, there exist
inconsistences as the site with higher
employees and higher numbers of
subcontractor (site 3) score less than site
with less employees and subcontractors (site
1). Both sites 1 and 3 score more than site 2
as regard to workplace inspection.
Therefore size of site and number of
subcontractors has little or no impact on
workplace inspection scores. The size of the
sites and the number of subcontractors has
little determinant on the knowledge of
safety and health management practice on
sites among the employees i.e management
personnel, safety and health committee
members and the construction workers. Site
1 with 135 employees and 19
subcontractors scores 11, while site 3 with
138 employees and 20 subcontractors also
scores 11. The size of the firm/organization
determines the percentage scores of
SHASSIC, which automatically determine
the star ranking of the sites. From table 4.1,
site 3 and 2 with the highest numbers of
employees scores 48.25 and 46 respectively
and qualified as 2 star in ranking. Site 2
scores 33 and qualified as 1 star in ranking.
Therefore, the size of the sites determines
the SHASSIC scores. The average
SHASSIC scores of the 3 sites is 42.42%,
(40% – 52%), this qualified the sites as 2
star in ranking. This means that in term of
compliance to safety management standard
on sites, the construction firm/organization
consider for the work falls within two (2)
stars in ranking were all there Potential and
significant workplace high risks/hazards are
partly managed and not properly
documented. It was observed that only
foreign construction companies that are well
established in their mother’s countries are
able to compete and have the ability to
maintain their standard in the existing
situation as regard safety and health at
workplace.
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Table 3 Analysis of SHASSIC Results
SHASSIC Results
S/no Size of
the
site
Number of
Subcontractors
Document
check
scores (40).
Workplace
inspection
scores
(40)
Employees
interview
scores
(20)
SHASSIC
Scores
(100)
Star
ranking.
1 135 19 15 20 11 46 2star
2 128 18 14 10 9 33 1star
3 138 20 19 18.25 11 48.25 2 star
Also observed is that many accidents at
construction sites can be prevented if the
construction teams can carry out their
responsibility with emphasis on accident
prevention in mind from the design stage to
completion stage down to the demolition
stage, but the main issues is how to
encourage the design team, management
and the workers to see safety and health as a
way in achieving zero accident at sites.
Another issues observed is that accident
prevention measures are left in the hand of
the contractors alone, despite the fact that
both the design team and the client have
great impact on the project. Some clients’
views issues of safety as an additional cost
and are much more engaged in safety
violation.
Conclusion and Recommendation
From the analysis of performance of
contractors construction project as regard to
safety and health measures on the
construction sites using Safety and Health
Assessment in Construction (SHASSIC)
method, it can be concluded that the
contractors’ performance are two (2) star in
ranking. This means that at the contractor’s
construction project sites most of the
potential and significant high risks/hazard
are partly managed and are not properly
documented. Therefore, the current standard
of safety and health measures of
construction site i.e were potential and
significant workplace high risks/hazards are
partly managed and not properly
documented makes the construction sites a
dangerous place of work were all form of
injuries and illness can occur.
Effective application of OSH management
system can lead to safety construction work
and reduce the rate of accidents on
construction sites. This view have been
supported further by (Hinze, 1997), that the
implementation of the OSH Management
system by the main construction parties
must apply at all level of the construction
process and must comply with the existing
safety and health laws and regulation at
workplace. Therefore, what Nigeria
construction industries need in order to
improve on their safety records is
enforcement act i.e OSHAct together with
adoption and implementation of safety-
conscious contractors supported by
experienced and trained employees. Safety
training is an important aspect of improving
safety records. Lack of safety training will
have a bad impact on the workers as they do
not have knowledge and education to
prevent the accident at construction sites.
There is need for government to support a
specific safety management system in place
as a legal requirement at workplace like the
construction sites. Reiman and Rollenhagen
(2011) stated that safety management is
associated with the policies, objectives,
procedures, methods, roles and functions
that aim at controlling hazards and risk in
socio-technical systems. The company’s
management should ensure that training;
personal protective equipment and other
resources are provided to the project
Yakubu
Assessment of Safety and Health Performance of Contractors’ Construction Projects in Nigeria Using Shassic Method
management team in order to demonstrate
its commitment. Effective safety culture
within a firms/organizations structure
should be established as this will enable
employees to have a good attitude toward
workplace safety and health practice. In
order for the safety cultural system to be
effective and to achieve its objectives, it
needs to be supported at all levels of
management in the firmd/organisations and
at the same time the system must be able to
create a positive safety culture and climate
in which everybody should be convinced of
the importance of safety and acts
accordingly. Also there is need for the
firms/organizations to have a clear,
complete and workable site safety plan as it
is among the most effective methods for
ascertaining site safety. Regular safety
audits provide an effective way to review
and refine site safety plan, thus improving
safety in the jobsite or workplace. Adequate
and well-articulated safety program can cut
down the rate of accident, which could help
in promoting the image of the companies
most especially as regard to safety and
health of construction sites. There is need to
have a construction insurances in order to
protect those involved and the equipment
against any form of accident due to the high
risks involved in the construction operation.
The objective of any insurance at any
workplace is to protect lives of those at
work and properties/equipment at the
workplace.
References Center to Protect Workers’ Rights (1993).
An Agenda for Change, Report of
the National conference on
Ergonomics, Safety and Health in
Construction. Washington, D.C. 18
– 22 july.
Chang, D. O. (2008). Global construction
and asian workers: Expansion of
TNCs in asia and implications for
labour.
CIS. (2008). Safety Health Assessment
System in Construction.
(CIS10:2008). CIDM Malaysia.
Ghani, B. E. M. K., Hamid, E. D. Z. A.,
AbduRahim, B. E. A. H., Mohamad
Kamar, B. E. K. A., and Abdul
Rahman, B. M. A. (2012). Safety in
Malaysian Construction: The
Challenges and Initiatives. Jurutera
Construction Bulletin, Malaysia
Haupt, T. C. (2001). The performance
approach to construction worker
safety and health. University of
Florida.
Hinze, J. (1997). Construction safety: Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Keller, and Keller. (2009). Construction
Accident Statistic, from keller and
keller library.
http://www.2killer.com/library/const
ruction.ac
Olatunji, O. A., Aje, O. I., and Odugboye,
F. (2007). Evaluating health and
safety performance of Nigeria
construction sites. CIB World
Building Congress.
Ratay, R. T. (1997). Construction Safety
Affected by Codes and Standards.
Proceedings of a session sponsored
by the Design loads of structures
during construction standards
committee and the performance of
structure during construction
technical committee of the structural
engineering institute minneapolis,
USA, 6 – 8 October.
Said, I., Mohd,W..S., and Abdelnaser, O.
(2009). The role of clients in
enhancing construction safety.
annals of faculty of engineering
hunedoara, 7(2).
Tam, C. M. and Fung, W. H. (2004). Study
of Attitude Changes in People after
the Implementation of a New Safety
Management system: The
Supervision Plan. Construction
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Management. Economics, 19, 393 –
403.
Toole, T. M., Hervol, N., and Hallowell, M.
(2006). Designing for construction
safety. Modern Steel Construction,
46(6), 55-59.
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
A Simulation Framework for Housing Choice
Optimality: Decision-Support Guide for Housing
Procurement Service in Abuja
Olatunji I.A.
Dept of Estate Management and Valuation, Federal University of Technology, Minna.
Abstract Currently, an assessment index to guide Estate Surveyors and Valuers (ESV), willing to offer housing
procurement service for house-seekers does not exist. Concomitantly, house-seekers in Abuja, because of their
limited capacities to gather and process contemporary housing market data, are in need of advice from ESV.
This technical constraint explains why the levels and variations in Housing Choice Optimality, (HcO), in Abuja
are unrevealed. The aim of this paper is to develop an Optimality Index,(OPTi), a simulation framework to
assess HcO, and test its application from two perspectives based on utility optimization of 5 key variables,
namely, household income, property value, workplace distance, commuting cost and activity pattern. Data from
12 randomly selected ESV firms, 56 households extracted from a larger set of 182 Middle Income
Households, (MIH), on the basis of carefully selected criteria, and 1 median income Household were
purposefully chosen as illustration, to demonstrate the application of OPTi to assess HcO. It was revealed that
indeed there are wide variations in HcO across households in the 6 neighborhoods studied, ranging from
0.9044, 0.6612, 0.3424, -7.184, -0.7774, to -11.703. These results seem to confirm that a wide level of
housing inequality exists even among households in Abuja, and in some neighborhoods the levels are
unacceptably low. The consistency of the results with well known pattern in Abuja housing market is a proof
that the simulation package could assess housing wellbeing objectively. It is recommended that OPTi could be
used by ESV to assess housing conditions from utility perspective as it is more inclusive than cost-based
affordability indices.
Keywords: Housing Choice Optimality, Decision-support, Property value, Simulation, Housing Well-being.
Introduction Technical and regulatory constraints are two
main obstacles to the assessment of
housing-specific wellbeing, designated in
this research as housing choice optimality
(HcO) among Abuja urbanites. Emphasis in
this study rests on the development of a
utility-based technique to assess HcO as a
Decision-Support system for ESVs who
may wish to offer Residential
Accommodation Procurement services
(RAPs). It is a specialized and upgraded
form of agency services which Estate
Surveyors and Valuers (ESVs) are
positioned to offer. Many ESVs offer
residential agency services strictly on the
basis of affordability, rather than tenants’
housing well-being.
In spite of the opportunity that abounds for
the ESV in RAPs services, anecdotal
evidence suggests that a void in service
coverage still exists to serve the household
more purposefully as a tenant. This void
constitutes, and translates to, a gap in
knowledge which, as emphasized by Maritz
and Ghyoot (1990), requires specialized
training and education. Going back to the
history of Estate Management, Thorncroft
(1965) in his definition places emphasis on
the supervision of real estate interests to
secure optimum returns and social benefits
for any holder of an interest in property.
However, the mechanism by which
optimality could be measured objectively is
still missing in real estate practice.
Olatunji
A Simulation Framework for Housing Choice Optimality: Decision-Support Guide for Housing Procurement
The aim of this research is to develop a
simulation framework to assess housing
choice optimality, HcO, and test its
application from two perspectives:
households and neighborhoods. Three
objectives set up to achieve this aim are to
develop a simulation Technique for
assessing Housing Choice Optimality, HcO
levels and variations and test the application
of the technique to assess HcO for the
Median Income Household in a selected
population of Abuja, as an illustration.
Thirdly, the simulation package is to be
applied in a wider context, to assess the
HcO variations among 6 selected Medium
density neighborhoods.
Housing has been confirmed as a major
issue in urban Nigeria, and, Abuja as a
political and commercial center, has
witnessed unprecedented in-migration and
outmigration in recent times. However,
Abuja is now widely recognized as a
maturing and emerging global property
market and it presents a suitable test-bed for
an examination of peoples’ welfare
attributable to housing choices.
Nigeria, alongside 42 other emerging
property markets, is classified as a Low
Transparency Market (LTM) by Global
Real Estate Transparency Index [GRETI]
(2016). This is just 1 step above an Opaque
Market, but 3 steps below a Highly
Transparent Market. GRETI concluded that
transparent real estate practices have direct
correlation with efforts to raise community
well-being in LTMs. The main features of
LTM which are reminiscent of Abuja are
low levels of “security of property rights
ownership, safe housing and workplaces
and being able to trust estate agents to act
honestly and professionally”. In the
absence of appropriate indexation of
housing well-being in Abuja, it is doubtful
if real estate transparency practices could be
guaranteed.
The main research question posed by this
study is consolidated into the levels of
optimality in residential choice decisions
made by households in the study area.
It is assumed, for the purpose of this study,
that work or gainful employment is an
important economic activity of the urban
MIHs and that MIHs are rational and tend
to seek after optimality when compelled to
make residential choices. Although a
previous study by Limbumba (2007) affirms
this tendency for Dar es Salam, it remains
only an assumption in Abuja since there is
no corresponding empirical study.. It is also
presumed that variables which are
measurable on scale ratio are reliable
indicators of housing choice optimality.
The study scope covers residential choice
decisions by middle-income households in
an urban setting. Studies have shown that
MIHs are found in nearly all neighborhoods
as owner-occupiers or tenants, but are
predominant in certain districts that are
purposively identified in the study area.
Spatial data through empirical observations
including physical measurements were
primarily relied upon; this imposes
considerable limitation on the sample size
for the study, but the methodology adopted
ensures validity of results.
The need for an indicator to assess any
human condition susceptible to wide
variations such as housing choice is
undeniable. This is explained by
multiplicity of affordability indicators, most
of which are cost-based. The importance of
Optimality is borne out of the absence of an
objective gauge to measure well-being
attributable to housing (Limbumba, 2007).
A lot of criticisms have trailed the
continued use of variants of affordability
index as a measure of housing conditions
principally because it is cost-based. To
compound the problem, the technical
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
capacity of the house seeker to gather and
process property market data is severely
limited thus require an advisor. This
limitation justifies the development of a
Decision-Support guide for the ESVs, as a
real estate advisor, to assist the house seeker
professionally. Ultimately, the ESVs using
this guide would have an enhanced capacity
to serve the general public beyond mere
agency service because Optimality index is
utility-based and a more inclusive indicator
of housing well-being.
Literature and Theoretical Review Theoretical Underpinnings for Utility
Concept and Optimality in relation to
housing
A strong theoretical base is needed to
address the measurability or evaluability
aspects of housing well-being. The
theoretical underpinning is provided by the
utility concept. Utility Functions which
convert all arguments of residential choice
to a measurable unit, in a clearer form, seem
to rectify the shortcomings about
measurement of Housing well-being, HWB.
It is supported by Straszheim (1975),
Granfield (1975) and Cappoza and Helsley
(1989) to model residential location choice.
The Cobb-Douglas version of the utility
function was adopted with modifications by
Bolton (2005) and Pollakowski et al.
(2007). However, Bolton’s version seems
to have more demonstrable application and
capabilities, using ICT. Though unsuitable
in its present form for a number of reasons
(for example the nature and composition of
variables adopted), it lends itself to
adaptations and is amenable to
modifications and technical transformation.
Barlowe (1986) stresses the combined
importance of the utility, scarcity and
futurity. Going further than Barlow, the
Appraisal Institute (2001) defines utility as
the ability of a product (such as housing) to
satisfy a human want; all property must
confer utility on households (tenants, owner
investors or owner occupiers). Utility,
scarcity and effective purchasing power, are
the four economic factors that create
property value. The Institute draws
distinction between the design features that
enhance attractiveness (amenities) and
utility. The influence of utility depends on
the characteristics of the property such as
size utility, design utility, location utility
and other specific forms of utility.
Emphasis is also placed on functional
utility, defined by Appraisal Institute (2001)
as the ability of a property to be useful and
to perform the functions for which it is
intended; the efficiency of buildings in
terms of architectural style, layout, (traffic
pattern or circulation pattern), size and type
of rooms. Optimal functional utility implies
that a building is considered best to meet
the expectations of the users. In their
opinion, the marketability or rental value is
the ultimate test of optimal functional
utility. Other standards of functional utility
are design/layout, amenity, comfort level,
ease and cost of maintenance, space, safety
and security.
Bid-rent theory
Households, in a bid to maximize utility,
have to compete for urban space, with other
users. The development of this proposition
is attributed, in Knox and McCarthy (2005),
to Alonso (1964a). First, household will
find central locations and employment
nodes most attractive and desirable and will
be prepared to bid highest rent for the right
to be nearest. The reasons are two-fold:
central locations offer the highest utility and
the best opportunity to earn the highest
income; then the commuting cost to work
node is less than elsewhere. Secondly, each
class of household as argued by O’Sullivan
(2000) will have a distinct bid-rent curve
that reflects its capacity to pay rent for
locations at varying distances from the
Olatunji
A Simulation Framework for Housing Choice Optimality: Decision-Support Guide for Housing Procurement
Central Bussiness District (CBD). These
benefits accruing to a household are
interpreted as Utility for which the
household, in competition with others, is
compelled to pay a rent. Alonso found out
that the bid-rent declines from the center to
the periphery at a rate that partially reflects
the quality and costs of urban transportation
system as presented in equations IV and V.
Also, Olatubara (1994) argued that activity
pattern which represents the nodes regularly
patronized by the household is an important
factor.
Location Theory
Location theories are concerned with the
allocation and use of land resource, and
how land uses compete for the limited urban
and regional space. The theory of urban
land use is traced to Ricardo, the 19th
century classical economist who stated that
among other things the location of a piece
of land determines its use and its rent
(Aluko, 2004).
From the reviewed authorities, five major
factors that seem to have dominant effect on
residential choice are property attributes,
neighborhood characteristics, activity
pattern, socio-economic variables and other
non-housing factors. From this broad
grouping, the key variables identified by
Olatunji (2012) are extracted for optimality
test on the basis of their measurable
attributes: space for land (L) and
improvement (H), property value,
commuting cost(C) and workplace distance
(D) and household income(Y).
Utility Function
The utility function combines all the
aforementioned key variables or
determinants in a way that brings out a
solution for decision making. In Bolton
(2005), three sets of functions are developed
based on modified Cobb-Douglas utility
version. Olatunji (2010, 2012) present an
adaptation of this utility functions with clear
transformations in Equation I.
The Key Variables
The key variables revealed in the literature
and theoretical reviews are six. Property
Value represents the rental value of the
apartment of choice. It is obtained by
disaggregating and adjusting the self-
declared contract rent for errors emanating
from property quality, land space, house
space, land price and house price.
Household Income is the monthly gross
income upon which the household has full
and effective control. The total distance
attributed to movements of house members
to all the various activity nodes patronized
on a monthly basis is the Network Linkage
or Activity Pattern, while the cost
implication in terms of out-of-pocket
expenses is the Commuting Cost. All other
articles, goods and services upon which the
household spends the entire remainder of its
income after meeting the rental and
commuting costs are classified as Non-
housing variable.
Methodology Primary data obtained from 182 households
in the study areas were employed. Through
questionnaires, data pertaining to the socio-
economic status of the household and the
commuting costs per month were obtained.
Data on physical spaces (house sizes and
plot sizes), were obtained partly through
physical tape-survey and from ESVs. The
property values profile of the area was
obtained from the ESVs. The network
linkages of activity patterns engaged in by
each household and its members were
established in terms of distances in
kilometers, their spatial pattern of house and
workplace locational geo-references were
established using handheld GPS in
conjunction with Google Maps online
application.
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
The study area was first stratified by
neighborhood densities and then the
medium density neighborhoods where
MIHs are predominant were purposively
chosen. Identification was based on advice
and assistance of Abuja Geographic
Information System (AGIS). In Abuja,
Utako, Durumi, Wuye and are 4 of 11
districts with features matching medium
density. MIH are selected randomly
therefrom. There are 107 estate firms in
Abuja, listed in the 2014 directory of
Nigerian Institution of Estate Surveyors and
Valuers, NIESV and 10 were selected with
systematic randomness from the directory
of practicing firms.
The respondent household with five
options, as revealed in its questionnaire
indicated the highest number of choices,
and was selected to illustrate the Housing
Choice Optimality simulation. The list of
56 households (representing 30.77% of the
population of MIH in the study area), whose
questionnaires disclosed complete spatial
data on four key decision variables
(household income, property value
constituents, commuting cost and network
distances) was extracted from the 182
households surveyed by Olatunji (2014) and
used for the Optimality Simulation
programme.
Data Presentation Table 1 presents the optimality decision
variables in 14 rows and 7 columns. The
columns designated 1- 5 on top are the
house options available to the household to
chose from. The income row shows the
entire family income which is constant for
all. The 2nd and 3rd rows are the plot and
house sizes respectively, presented both in
hectares and square metres, with measured
data capturing instrument. Land rent is the
amount of rent attributed to bare land. It is
derived, as a residual, by apportionment as
indicated in Royal Institution of Chartered
Surveyors, 2014 Guidance Notes.
Table.1 Housing Choice Optimality Data for Five Options available to the Median Income earner
Variables House Choices
1 Variable
Name
Notation/
Unit
1 2 3 4 5
2 Income N/m p.a. 510000 510000 510000 510000 510000
3 Plot size Ha; (m2) 0.0136;
(136)
0.0625;
(625)
0.0537;
(537)
0.06;
(600)
0.043
(428)
4 House size Ha; (m2) 0.0158;
(158)
0.0171;
(171)
0.0134;
(134)
0.024;
(240)
0.0001;
(114)
5 Rental Value N/mth;
(N p.a.)
120000;
(1440000)
200000;
(2400000)
143,750;
(1725000)
208,333
(2500000)
200000
(2400000)
6 Land rent* N/m2/mth; N/
m2p.a
143.48;
1723
111.83;
1342
98.5;
1182
335.42;
4025
357.83
4294
7 House rent** N/m2/mth; N/
m2p.a
7630.8;
635.9
9130;
760.84
8136; 678.03 354.17;
29.51
4931;
354.17
8 House value N / ha/mth 6359030 7608430 6780261 295139 4109415
9 Land Value N /ha/mth 1435833 1118333 985000 3354167 3578333
10 Commuting
Cost
N/mth 31000 39000 38000 34000 30000
11 Activity
Pattern
Km/mth 120 192 264 288 252
12 Location Km 5.25 9.9 10.35 6.0 6.1
13 Utility - 8925 2354 -4957 719 3165
14 Optimality - 0.561 0.166 -0.6468 0.6318 0.303
Olatunji
A Simulation Framework for Housing Choice Optimality: Decision-Support Guide for Housing Procurement
Development of Simulation Framework
To attain a certain desired level of
residential fulfillment, a household, i,
expends all its monthly income,Yi, on a
particular house choice c plus other
essential needs, E, as follows:
Yi = ALjcPLjc + EPEjc+HjcPHjc + Cwc .….I
Where, L , H, E represent land, house and
non-housing good respectively, and PL,
PH, PE represent their respective prices; A
is a constant.
After expending all household income,
Yi = Xi, where Xi is total monthly Expenditure ………….II
A level of utility is attained, thus,
Uijc = A . Ljcα . Ejcβ . Hjcθ - gDɣ ……….III
Where
Uijc represents the welfare level
experienced by household i at location j
from house choice c; Ljc is the plot size of
location j; Ejc is the size of the non-housing
goods; Hjc is the size of the house chosen;
and D is the network linkage of activity
pattern engaged in. The parameters, α, β, θ,
are defined as proportionate returns to scale
on each of the three variables, L, H and E..,
defined in Equation I
Prices are specified for each of the variables
as follows:
PLj = Pw exp (δ) Dwc + N …………IV
Where PLj is the bid-rent or Price per
hectare of the plot located at j ,
Pw is the rack-rent or price per ha of
workplace location, w by household i);
Dwc is distance between workplace (w) and
house chosen(c); and N is the market value
of the neighbourhood quality of location j;
PEjc the unit price of essential pack is 1;
and P0 is a special price representing the
rack rent.
The commutting cost function is specified,
thus:
C= vDwcη ……….V
PE, the combined price of all the non-
housing needs is designated as 1 unit.
The magnitudes or sizes of the variables,
Land (L), House (H) and Non-housing good
(E), are derived from Marshalian demand
functions respectively in Equations VI, VII
and VIII thus:
L* = α M
(α + β+θ) PL VI
H*= θ M VII
(α + β+θ) PH
E*= β M VIII
(α + β+θ) PE
where M is Y-C, and other parameters are
as previously defined.
The Optimality Index, OPTi
The index is construed as the level of
optimality that the household under
observation stands to obtain from the given
house choice. It also has the ability to
measure the true Location efficiency of a
particular house choice to a particular
household. The Utility obtained, Uijc,
represents the satisfaction level achieved as
indicated by the examination. It is the figure
of utility in Column S that corresponds to
the location D, of the house choice,
Revealed or Stated.
The Utility obtainable, Uiw represents the
highest satisfaction possible for the
household under analysis, given the
combination of factors, variables and
parameters that exercise control over the
household choice. It is the highest figure of
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Utility, and it is usually, but not always,
found at D=0 or close to D=0.
The Optimality Index , OPTi, is derived
from the simple relationship:
OPTi = (Utility Obtained)/( Utility
Obtainable)
OPTi=Uijc/Uiw IX
Where,
OPTi is the level of fulfilment, contentment
or satisfaction that a particular household i
whose primary workplace is w, stands to
achieve from a particular house choice c in
neighbourhood j,
Uijc is the Utility obtained by household i
from house choice c at neighbourhood j,
Uiw is the highest possible utility
obtainable by household i from house
choice c at workplace w or at any other
location for that matter.
At the zenith of any choice, Uijc will equate
Uiw. This implies that the maximum OPTi
is unity, 1. Under extremely adverse
conditions utility obtained or obtainable
could be negative, and then OPTi could be
negative. The optimal choice is indicated
by OPTi = 1; any values less than 1 can be
construed or interpreted as sub-optimal
choices. The three theoretical optimization
conditions, if passed, are merely to
reinforce the OPTi.
As OPTi is tied to utility, two facts are
worthy of note; OPTi has no units and its
relative figures are useful for comparing the
HWB of two or more house choices in
rank, bearing in mind that the highest
figure is 1. In absolute terms, OPTi has the
capacity to show by how much the HWB of
one choice exceeds or falls below the other.
This is a good Decision-Support attribute of
the model.
Computer Simulation Programme
Based on these functions a computer
programme is developed to simulate the
choices made by the selected households in
Abuja. This is illustrated in thirteen steps
that lead the household from preference to
choice demonstrated in Excel Spreadsheets
and Worksheets.
Step1: In an Excel Worksheet, all the
parameters for Abuja are preset at defaults
as follows:
α=0.1; β= 1.1 ; θ = 0.3 ; η=0.75;
v=7969.87; g= 337.897; δ= -0.85
γ= 1.75;Po=1000000; Y=0; D=0
In Excel Spreadsheet, the parameters are
entered in Columns B through to Column
K.
Step 2: Impute Y, Household Income (In
Column A)
Step 3: Impute D, Workplace distance (In
Column L)
Step 4: Impute PH, House value directly (In
Column P)
Step 5: Impute PL, Land value, actual using
the PL function and N, the add-on, that
produce actual land price. (In Column Q)
Step 6: Impute H, house size, actual by
adjusting θ from preset position by iteration
Step 7: Impute L, plot size, actual by
adjusting α from preset position also by
iteration. Observe and record the utility.
Step 8 : Generate U values for locations
D=0, 1, 2….. to D=11km across the city.
Scan all values of U and observe U*
maximum, usually at D=0 or nearby.
Step 9: Set OPTi level in Column S
Step 10 : Observe OPTi at location D
Step 11: Repeat steps 2 to 10 for each
available house choice.
Step 12: Observe and compare OPTi indices
for all available house options
Step 13: Select House option corresponding
to the highest OPTi
Olatunji
A Simulation Framework for Housing Choice Optimality: Decision-Support Guide for Housing Procurement
The Simulation Narrative: how the
simulation process runs
Compelled by need, an accommodation
seeker usually enlists friends, co-workers,
relations as well as professional estate
agents to find a house matching the need in
terms of size, location, rent and other
pertinent variables of housing, all of which
are consolidated into HcO. From these
sources a finite set is generated. If
consulted, the ESV extracts only six
variables from each of the options presented
by the accommodation seeker, represented
in Plate 1. These are fed into the simulation
programme, starting with Step 2. For
security, the programme is passworded and
opens a dialogue box when the password is
imputed. The house choices are assessed
consecutively, until the OPTi in each case
is arrived at in Step 21. The limitation here
is that the choice set must be finite as the
programme is not designed to handle
unlimited choice sets.
Plate1: Dialogue box to generate Optimality
index and show the record
On the Simulation Programme:
The Simulation Programme is based on
Visual Basics programming language with
Microsoft Access database and is run
through 21 steps as follows:
Step 1. Click on Here to continue
Step 2. Login: User Name;
Password
Step 3. Click on Template
Step 4. Select select template
Step 5. Select Abuja or Minna
Step 6. Click on Show the Template’s
variable Inputs
Step 7. Input α, β, θ
Step 8. Click on Activate
Step 9. Input Y = and Click on Activate
Step 10.Input D = Click on Activate
Step 11.Input PH= Click on Activate
Step 12. Click on Calculate PL to open a
Dialogue box
Input PL Present =
Click on Calculate (delete –ve signs
in dialogue box)
Click on Close
Step 13. Click on Activate
Step 14. Click on Calculate to calculate H;
then Activate
Step 15. Click on Calculate to calculate L;
then Activate
Step 16. Click on Generate Utility
Step 17. Click on OK in Project 1 dialogue
box
Step 18. Click on Proceed to generate
Optimality Values
Step 19. Click on Generate Optimality
Step 20. Click on OK in Project 1 dialogue
box, Optimality generated
Step 21. Click on Show Record
Observe the value of OPTi corresponding
to D, and record.
Application of Framework to Assess the
HcO for the Median Income Household
The median income for the population of
study was found to be N510,000, attributed
to a particular household; other details
specific to the household are shown in
Table 2 and are used alongside income as
the variables for the simulation exercise.
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Table 2: Field Data for Median Income-Earning Household
D C Y L H Pl Ph Rent P.M. Nd Opti
5.25 31000 510000 0.0136 0.0158 1435833 6359030 120000. 120 0.6505 KEYS: OPTi= Optimality Index; Y= Income in Naira per month; D=Distance in km; PH= House price in Naira per ha per month; PL=
Price attributed to neighbourhood quality in Naira per ha per month; H=House size in ha; L= Plot size in ha; C= Commuting Cost in Naira per month; ND=Network Commuting in kilometers
The values of α, β, θ are 0.04607, 0.8547,
0.237. When imputed with relevant data
obtained from the housing market shown in
Table 2 and run in the simulation
programme, they produce the output in
Table 3.
The annual rental of N1446101 returned by
the Simulation programme in Table 2
constitutes a good pedagogical check
against the actual rental value of
N1,440,000 per annum respectively
obtained from the property market. Minor
difference is attributable to serial
approximations.
Table 3 shows the profile of residential
choice utility optimisation for the Median
income household in Abuja over a span of
12 kilometers radius from Durumi I.
Durumi I , where the household lives is
identified by georeferenced coordinates
9.025004N; 7.465576E and UTM readings
997978.7N; 331342.0E. The household
head workplace is located 5.25 kilometers
away and has UTM georeferences of
1001056.909 Northing and 333539.546
Easting. Furthermore, the household
activity network, ND, amounts to 120
kilometers per month which is below the
neighbourhood mean of 205 kilometers.
The Table also shows comparative results
of two housing indices: that Affordability
(24%) and H+T (29%) place this particular
household on a better affordability level
than the benchmarks of 30% and 45%
respectively. Ostensibly, this implies that
the household is well off in term of
affordable cost burden. However, the OPTi
level of 0.6505 portrays more accurately,
the level of well-being achieved by the
household as sub-optimal in term of utility
achieved. The interpretation of this index is
undertaken in Tables 4 and 5.
Table 3: Utility Optimisation Output from Simulation Programme for Abuja
***Y D Utility MCD MMUD Affor1 H+T Rent p.a. OPTi
510000 0 17054 0 0 0.25 0.25 1539545 1
510000 1 16626 -12,507 -12,317 0.25 0.26 1515486 0.9952
510000 2 15730 -13,258 -20,735 0.24 0.27 1499083 0.9604
510000 3 14423 -13,568 -28,128 0.24 0.28 1484703 0.8947
510000 4 12765 -13,722 -34,930 0.24 0.28 1471496 0.8002
510000 5 10790 -13,800 -41,324 0.24 0.29 1459100 0.6807
510000 5.25 10249 -13,812 -42,872 0.24 0.29 1446101 0.6505
510000 6 8520 -13,834 -47,413 0.24 0.3 1447312 0.5621
510000 7 5970 -13,841 -53,262 0.23 0.3 1436008 0.4245
510000 8 3152 -13,828 -58,912 0.23 0.31 1425101 0.2527
510000 9 74 -13,802 -64,395 0.23 0.31 1414532 0.0117
510000 10 -3256 -13,767 -69,735 0.23 0.32 1404252 -0.3125
510000 11 -6833 -13,724 -74,950 0.23 0.32 1394227 -0.7933
510000 12 -10650 -13,675 -80,055 0.23 0.33 1384428 -1.7623
***All notations are as previously defined
Olatunji
A Simulation Framework for Housing Choice Optimality: Decision-Support Guide for Housing Procurement
The negative values of both MMUD and
MCD are a check or proof that the settings
are theoretically in order.
Application of Simulation Framework to
assess HcO in Selected Neighbourhoods.
The levels of WBH are designated by
optimality levels and measured by OPTi
index, a Utility-based indicator, and a proxy
that consolidates the key house choice
variables. The results of Optimality
variations using the OPTi index are
presented in Table 4 and they confirm that
there is indeed a wide variation across
households, neighbourhoods and even
between the study areas.
The range of values of OPTi indices among
individual households was computed in line
with the simulation framework of this
study; this is interpreted in Table 5. Three
of the six neighbourhoods in Abuja (Utako,
Abacha and FinanceQ in Table 4) with
favourable indicators on the H+T and AFF
indices are observed to have poor housing
choice optimality standards.
Main Contributions to Knowledge
The paper contributes to knowledge by
developing a Decision–Support System for
measuring housing-specific well-being,
HcO, as an assistive tool for Estate
Surveyors and Valuers in practice of
Residential Accommodation Procurement
counselling service to house seekers on
demand. Also, it enables the ESV to
ascertaining the levels of optimality or
household-specific well-being of a
neighbourhood and a contemplated house
choice. All of these hold some prospects in
policy formulation towards Housing Care
and Support for the well-being of the family
in the study area.
Table 4:Comparative Schedule of Optimality and
other Housing Indices across 6 selected
Neighbourhoods in Abuja
AFF
Index(%)
H+T (%) OPTi
Sagamio 14.12 18.74 0.6612
Okekenta 16.23 21.60 0.9044
Estate4 26.88 32.29 0.3424
Utako 22.97 26.81 -0.7774
I. Abacha 37.74 41.44 -11.703
Finance Q 28.91 36.20 -7.184
Study Area 14.87 20.39 -2.959
Source: Fieldwork, 2016
Table 5 Interpretation of Residential Choice
Decisions on Optimality Index Scale
OPTi
indexLevel
Description
of Choice
Decision
Optimality
Interpretation
1 Excellent Optimal
≥ 0.80 Very Good Sub-optimal
≥0.60 Good Sub-optimal
≥0.50 Moderate Sub-optimal
≥0.20 Poor Sub-optimal
≥0.00 Very poor Sub-optimal
≤ 0.00 Non-optimal
Source: Fieldwork, 2016
Findings
The results emanating from the simulation
programme seem to confirm the existing
belief that there are wide variations and
inequalities in housing conditions in urban
Nigeria. The limitations in technical
capacities of house seekers to gather and
process property market data provide an
imperative and justification for developing
an assistive technique or decision-support
system. To this end, the Simulation
Framework developed appears to offer
predictive capability to assess Housing
Choice Optimality.
Conclusion and Recommendation Housing delivery policies by the Federal
and State Governments in Nigeria,
particularly in FCT and neighboring Niger
State, if correctly interpreted, are steps
towards creating wider house choice sets for
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Nigerians and to improve their well-beings
associated with housing. The study uses
revealed residential choice and measurable
variables to model well-being attributable to
housing choices among households and
neighborhoods in the study area. The results
of the simulation are largely consistent with
the well-known pattern of well-being,
which portrays wide inequalities in housing
perceptions among a fairly homogeneous
group of Middle Income Households; the
OPTi enjoys an advantage drawn from its
quantitative and objective attributes.
In the business world, the indices issued
from time to time by Rating Agencies such
as Moody, Fitch and Standard and Poors on
the economic performances of Financial
Institutions, Corporations and the national
economies are very useful decision-support
guides for decision makers. In the same
vein, the degree of precision in this
framework could point to its usefulness as a
predictive and objective decision-support
guide to empower Estate Surveyors and
Valuers in advising their clients on Housing
Choice Optimality. It is thus recommended
that ESVs using this package would be able
to offer Residential Accommodation
Procurement services to their clients based
on optimal choices.
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Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
The Effects of Road Quality on Commercial Land Use
Pattern in Makurdi Urban, Benue State, Nigeria
Victor Umoren and Alexander Mchi Department of Urban and Regional Planning, University of Uyo, Nigeria.
Corresponding E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract This study examines the effects of road quality on commercial landuse pattern in Makurdi, urban, Benue State.
The study investigated the road condition and the spatial pattern of commercial landuse change in the study
area. The study was carried out considering the year between 2008 and 2014, to determine the variation in
landuse pattern across the neighbour in relations to the road quality in the study area. The study employed field
observation and measurements. The study area road map, layout plans for the years 2008 and 2014 were used
for the analysis. The data required for the study was obtained from primary and secondary sources that provided
baseline and subsequent information needed for the research. The population for the research consists of one
hundred and twenty seven majors in the study area from which a sample of forty-four roads was drawn for
investigation representing 36.6% of the population of the area. Multi-stage simple random sampling was used in
sampling. The research analysed variation in commercial land use pattern due to road quality across
neighbourhoods in the study area. The result shows that interaction effects between neighbourhood and road
quality was not statistically significant, F (8, 28) = .432, p = 0.892. There was significant effect for
neighbourhood, F (8, 28) = 4.279, p = 0.002 and road quality, F (1, 28) = 20.419, p = 0.0001. The study
revealed that road quality influence commercial land use pattern across neighbourhoods in the study area. The
study recommended that mix use development be encouraged, more roads to link the neighbourhoods in
Makurdi urban should be develop and adequate attention should be given to planning of commercial landuses in
the area.
Key Words: Road quality, Commercial landuse, Pattern, Makurdi urban, Neighbourhoods.
Introduction In the history of cities, transportation and
land use have a close link. People settled in
areas that are accessible by different modes
of transportation available at each period of
time. As settlements grew into clusters,
there is need for better transportation
facilities. Based on the new modes of
transportation that became available, cities
in turn developed. SRPC (2003) defines the
framework for land use and transportation
cycle based on form, function, land use and
transport. The form implies the nature and
structure while the function implies the
level of its efficiency and effectiveness
relating to landuse and transportation. Land
use and transport are interlinked; so
whatever affects land use also affects the
transport policy. To have an efficient and
effective transport system implies getting
the land use planning right, and planning
urban development implies getting the
transport access right. In other words, the
different policy spheres and disciplines have
to work together to deliver the best results
for the functioning of towns or cities. The
purpose is to reduce the need to travel, the
length of journeys and make it easier for
people to access jobs, shopping, leisure
facilities and services by public transport,
walking and cycling.
The rapid economic development of a
country depends on her concern for
transportation. However, urban road
network is developed to link land uses in
the town and facilitates the movement of
people/services, thereby allowing for social
interaction. High quality road network
connects key urban centres and isolated
local communities for which many public
transport options are limited or not
Victor, Mchi
The Effects of Road Quality on Commercial Land Use Pattern in Makurdi Urban,
available. The growth of towns necessitated
for improved road network development to
cater for increased pedestrian and vehicular
movements. Umoren, Sule and Eni (2011)
reported that a good quality road
infrastructure attract socio-economic
development than a bad road condition.
Their study revealed that Akwa Ibom State
has a total length of 6288km of roads. A
total of 1272.6km (20 %) constituted paved
or tarred roads while about 5015.4km (80
%) constituted unpaved roads. The study
revealed that a greater percentage of the
roads in the area were unpaved and could
not be used in all seasons, maintenance
costs are high and they reduce the economic
life of vehicle. The study further reported
that a greater number of the roads in the
study area are single lane and narrow.
Potholes, depressions and sagging surfaces
are common features on the roads that
impede free flow of traffic. The study
recommended that efforts should be made
to increase the length of paved roads in the
area to attract socio-economic development.
It is a known fact that as the economic
activities expands in the city centre, it spills
over to adjoining areas and these changes
seem to occur in nearly all cities in Nigeria
(Egbenta, 2010). The trend was observed in
most towns/cities including Uyo, Lagos,
Enugu, Calabar and Jos. Residential plots
situated along major roads were fast
disappearing; while commercial land uses
had invaded residential areas fronting the
major roads within residential zones.
The Calabar municipal land use had
undergone a substantial level of change
from residential use to commercial use with
the latter becoming more prevalent. Eja,
Nwachi, Sunday, Inah, and Ita (2011)
examined the pattern of commercial land
use pattern in Calabar, Nigeria. The study
used questionnaire to collect data on
commercial land value and factors
influencing the location of various land-use
in the area. The study revealed that there is
a positive relationship between commercial
land use and rental value in the area.
The terms "invasion" and "succession,"
derived from plant and animal ecology is
used to describe the processes of
neighborhood population alteration.
Weinstein (2007) explained the
fundamental way one ethnic or racial group
replaces another. A few people from one
group invade a neighborhood inhabited
largely by members of another group. The
long-time residents begin to move out as the
invading group move in, and in time the
new group succeeds the old. According to
Weinstein (1992), revealed long-time
Coney residents who remained behind in
the 1970s, unable or unwilling to move to a
better neighborhood, needed no urban
sociologist to quote Chicago School
ecological theories to them. Competition for
housing may result into conflict as the
locals and the newcomers attempt to devise
strategies to achieve their goal. If some
accommodation between the locals and the
newcomers is not conducive, one of the two
groups will withdraw. If the newcomers
withdraw, the invasion has been halted. If
the established population withdraws, their
departure coupled with the continued arrival
of the new group will result in succession.
Invasion and succession refer to change in
land use or dominant activities in the
neighborhood. The concepts of road
network and commercial land use patterns,
and invasion-succession theory are essential
to guide the study towards attaining the
stated objectives.
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
The study is aimed to assess the effects of
road quality on commercial land use. The
study will enlighten the policy makers of
the need to formulate policies that will
encourage maintenance of road network and
re-zoning of some areas in Makurdi urban.
The Study Area Makurdi, the capital of Benue state is
delineated by sixteen kilometres radius with
the centre of the town taken at a control
near the post office. It lies between latitudes
7˚28' - 8˚00' North and longitudes 8˚28' -
8˚35' East (Shabu and Tyonum, 2013) as
shown in Figure1. It is bounded by Guma
local government in the north-east, Tarka
local government in the east, Gwer local
government in the south, Gwer-West local
government in the west and Doma local
government area of Nasarawa State in the
north-west (Edan, Idowu, Abubakar and
Aliyu, 2014).The town is traversed by trunk
‘A’ road that connects the southeastern
parts of the country to the north. Makurdi
has a total land area of about 820 square
kilometres (Shabu and Tyonum, 2013). An
assessment of the land use pattern in the
study area indicated that the area comprises
of residential, commercial, industrial, public
space, public, recreational, transportation
and urban agriculture landuses.
The major roads also called primary or
arterial roads are routes that carry long
distance through traffic to specific areas in
urban centers (Dauda and Lawali, 2014).
Arterial roads are the major road links in
Makurdi urban. They handle large volumes
of freight and passengers that traverse
through the town.
Access roads are largely the neighbourhood
street system. These roads are relatively free
of through traffic and handle local traffic.
These roads are required to provide a high
level of safety and adequate access to
neighbourhood services and facilities.
Pathways are pedestrian ways and they are
in the form of narrow accesses leading to
individual premises. Vehicular traffic is
restricted on the pathways. For the purpose
of our investigation, major roads compose
of arterials and collectors.
Methodology The research design followed a multi stage
framework covering survey analysis and
interpretation of data. The data required for
the study was obtained from primary and
secondary sources that provided baseline
and subsequent information needed for the
research. The study employed field
observations and measurements method in
study area. The study area road map, layout
plans for the years 2008 and 2014 was
obtained from the Ministry of Lands and
Survey, Makurdi and used for the analysis.
The analogue Makurdi township map for
the years 2008 and 2014 was obtained from
Office of the Surveyor General of the
Federation, Abuja. The purpose of selecting
the above years for study was that the study
area went through rapid road network
development during the civilian
administration that came to power in 1999.
And therefore there was need to investigate
how commercial landuse react to road
network development in the study area. A
Register of business premises was obtained
from the Ministry of Commerce and
Industries, Makurdi, for assessment of
commercial landuse determined through
Victor, Mchi
The Effects of Road Quality on Commercial Land Use Pattern in Makurdi Urban,
identification and measurement of
commercial shop area cover in the study
area. Other secondary data sources include
available materials from scholarly sources
such as textbooks, road transportation and
other planning research journals, etc.
The population for the research consists of
One hundred and twenty seven major roads
in Makurdi urban from which a sample of
forty-four roads was drawn for investigation
representing 36.6% of the population in the
study area. The sample for the study was
drawn using a multi stage simple random
sampling technique. The geographic
coordinates on Makurdi road map was
converted to Universal Transverse Mercator
(UTM) coordinates for ease of computation
then gridded into four quadrants and labeled
1-4 as shown in figure 2.
The Selection of the study location was
based on quadrant sample location
coordinate system using Excel spreadsheet
approach. Random numbers for eastern and
northern axes of the map were generated
using Excel spreadsheet formula
(Mathwave, 2015);
=RNAD() ... Eqn. 1
The generation of random numbers for east
and north axes; =RAND() were 0.350763
and 0.172047 respectively. The sample
location coordinates was derived using the
formula (Wilson, 2007):
= RAND()*(high – low) + low Eqn. 2
To obtain quadrant sample location, the
generated random numbers were used.
Sample coordinate location for east axis
was 0.305763(457380.28 – 444380.28) +
444380.28= 448355.20 mE. While for north
axis; sample coordinate location was
0.172047(859764.18 – 849764.18) +
849764.14 = 851484.65 mN. The
coordinates (448355.20 mE, 851484.65
mN) were plotted as shown in Figure 2 to
determine sample location, and quadrant 3
was selected for study. The land use spatial
pattern in Makurdi urban was assessed
through the comparison derive by counting
of tables on data generated in 2008 and
2014 approach. The total number of
potholes, sagging and depressions on each
road was used to assess the quality of each
road, this was done by observation. The
structural defects of each major road were
counted and recorded. Road quality
assessment was done using equation 3 as
shown below.
Q =1/n …Eqn. 3
Where; Q = road quality,
n = number of structural
defects (sagging, potholes and depressions),
1 = unity.
The scores were plotted on a model linear
scale ranging from the minimum number
(zero) to the maximum number (one). A
benchmark was established at lower
quartile. The road quality scores recorded
below the benchmark of the model were
classified as bad quality while road quality
scores above the benchmark were regarded
as good quality. The two-way ANOVA with
the aid of SPSS software, which seeks to
investigate the variation of commercial land
use pattern due to road quality across the
neighbourhoods in the study area was
adopted in the analysis.
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Results and Discussion The selected forty-four roads were assessed
to determine the road quality of the road
network in the study area. The road quality
assessment was based on the Road Quality
Index (RQI) model derived by the
researcher. The RQI has a benchmark that
determines the road quality index for the
roads in the study area. The benchmark is a
point on the RQI model that determines
whether the road was good or bad quality
and expressed as follows:
Road Quality Range (RQR) = 0.50 – 0.03
= 0.47
Bench mark= 25% of RQR
= 0.12
If RQI < 0.12 = Bad Road Quality or
if RQI > 0.12 = Good Road Quality.
Twenty-six roads out of forty-four
roads representing 59.10% were in good
condition therefore are of good quality.
Eighteen roads representing 40.9% of the
roads in the study area were of bad
quality.The study revealed that new bridge
road, Iyorchia Ayu road, David Mark
bypass, Abdullahi Shelleng road and Ishaya
Bakut road in the study area have the
highest RQI of 0.50 as shown on Table 1
below.The 2008 and 2014 land use in the
study area was assess through a-screen
digitisation of township maps as shown on
Table 1.
The null hypothesis which states that
“There is no significant variation in
commercial landuse pattern due to road
quality development across neighbourhoods
in the study area” was tested. A two-way
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was
employed to investigate using SPSS
Version 17. The application of the two-way
ANOVA in this research was to compare
the means of a single variable (commercial
landuse pattern) at different levels of two
conditions (road quality and
neighbourhood) in the study area. The
Levene’s Test for a P-value significance of
the analysis was 0.72. This value was more
than 0.50, therefore, null hypothesis was
rejected and the alternate hypothesis, which
states, “there is significant variation in
commercial land use pattern due to road
quality development across the
neighbourhoods in the study area” was
accepted.The acceptance of alternate
hypothesis provides adequate grounds for
further investigation. The study area was
divided into nine landuse categories:
Wurukum, Ahule, High level. Old GRA,
Ankpa quarters, Idye, Nyiman, Ankpa ward
and Modern market. The interaction effects
between neighbourhood and road quality
was not statistically significant, F (8, 28) =
.432, p = 0.892; therefore the main effect
can be interpreted.There was significant
effect for neighbourhood F (8.28) = 4.279, p
= 0.002. From the (Neave, 1978) table of F-
distribution, the table value for degree of
freedom (28 under 8 at 5% level) is 2.27,
therefore null hypotheses was rejected while
alternate hypothesis was accepted. There
was significant effect for road quality, F (1,
28) = 20.419,p = 0.0001. ) From the table of
F-distribution, the table value for degree of
freedom (28 under 1 at 5% level) was 4.17,
therefore null hypotheses was rejected while
alternate hypothesis was accepted. This
means that the good and bad nature of the
road quality influence the commercial
landuse pattern in the study area. Similarly,
differences occur in commercial landuse
pattern in the study area on the basis of
neighbourhood.
The effect for neighbourhood and road
quality provided in the Partial Eta Squired
column are 0.550 and 0.442 respectively.
Using Cohen’s (1988) criterion, these
effects are classified as large.This implies
that the effects reach is statistical
significance. The post-hoc comparisons
indicated that the mean score for the Ankpa
quarters, Ankpa ward, High level, Nyiman,
and Wurukum differs significantly from one
another as shown in Table 2 below.
Victor, Mchi
The Effects of Road Quality on Commercial Land Use Pattern in Makurdi Urban,
Table 1: Road quality index and land use change by neighbourhoods S/No. Name of Road RQI 2008 2014 Change Neighbourhood
1 New bridge road 0.50 5.46 20.10 14.42 Wurukum
2 Abu King Shuluwa road 0.33 3.42 13.44 10.02 Ahule 3 Wurukum Market road 0.14 4.10 11.55 8.42 Wurukum
4 Gboko road 0.17 4.92 14.17 9.38 Wurukum
5 Onitsha street 0.08 3.53 9.50 7.28 Wurukum
6 Awe street 0.04 2.19 7.84 6.94 Wurukum
7 Iyorchia Ayu road 0.50 7.24 17.09 12.37 Wurukum
8 Amokachi lane 0.05 3.58 7.62 6.41 Wurukum
9 Konshisha street 0.14 5.39 18.37 12.92 High Level
10 Katsina Ala street 0.17 6.15 21.52 14.37 High Level
11 Abbatoir street 0.03 1.80 8.23 5.03 Wurukum 12 Conrad Welgba street 0.04 5.28 8.49 3.21 Idye
13 Ishaya Bakut road 0.50 3.86 8.21 4.35 Idye 14 Vandeikya street 0.14 5.13 17.09 11.96 High Level
15 Calabar street 0.04 5.84 12.92 7.08 High Level
16 Boniface Okoli street 0.06 2.34 3.35 1.01 Ankpa ward
17 Esther Acka street 0.25 4.36 8.57 4.21 High Level
18 Abdullahi Shelleng road 0.50 6.59 22.63 16.04 High Level
19 Balewa crescent 0.33 2.88 13.92 11.04 High Level
20 Kashim Ibrahim way 0.25 3.89 9.51 5.62 Old GRA
21 J S Tarka way 0.17 4.12 10.13 6.01 Old GRA
22 Ogiri Oko road 0.11 0.35 1.52 1.17 Old GRA
23 Joe Akaahan way 0.33 6.97 18.01 11.04 High Level
24 College crescent 0.05 0.85 3.21 2.36 Ankpa ward
25 Lawrence Onoja street 0.03 1.57 4.96 3.39 Ankpa ward
26 David Mark bypass 0.50 3.39 6.84 3.45 Ankpa ward
27 Edward Ujege street 0.20 6.80 10.69 3.89 High Level
28 Regina Agbese street 0.05 2.81 8.08 5.27 High Level
29 Iorkyar Ako street 0.20 3.62 13.06 9.44 High Level
30 Major Wende street 0.08 3.22 11.63 8.41 High Level
31 Ugbokolo street 0.17 3.62 8.89 4.91 High Level
32 Inikpi street 0.07 5.16 14.59 9.43 High Level
33 Jonah Jang crescent 0.14 4.98 10.15 5.17 Nyiman
34 Old Oturkpo road 0.10 6.15 15.58 9.43 High Level
35 Atom Kpera road 0.33 3.98 5.35 1.27 Ankpa ward
36 Jerry Agber street 0.14 6.77 13.46 6.69 Ankpa quarters
37 Jerome Hwande street 0.07 2.75 6.23 3.48 Ankpa ward
38 Simon Songo street 0.05 3.25 5.23 1.98 Ankpa quarters
39 Naka road 0.25 13.01 22.83 9.82 Ankpa ward
40 Simon Aondona street 0.07 2.15 8.60 6.45 Modern Market
41 Augustine Ezekwisili street 0.07 2.56 5.01 2.45 Modern Market
42 Ahmadu Comassie road 0.04 4.57 10.90 6.33 Modern Market
43 Dominic Oneya road 0.33 4.16 13.24 9.08 Modern Market
44 Sefanu Tor Sabo street 0.03 3.87 6.55 2.68 Modern Market
Source: Author’s Fieldwork (2015)
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Table 2: Post Hoc Tests Multiple Comparisons of Neighbourhoods.
Neighbourhood (I-J) Mean Difference (I-J) Std.Error Sig. level
(LSD)
Sig. level
(HSD)
Ahule-High level ± 4.2860 1.97860 .039 NS Ankpa quarters-High level ±6.9210 1.97860 .002 .036 Ankpa quarters-Wurukum ± 6.4063 2.07795 .005 NS
Ankpa ward- High level ±5.1960 1.20313 .000 .005 Ankpa ward- Wurukum ±4.6812 1.36034 .002 .041 High level- Idye ±5.5160 1.97860 .009 NS High level-Modern market ±3.8980 1.35731 .008 NS High level-Nyiman ±6.7110 1.97860 .002 .046 High level-Old GRA ±5.0293 1.66236 .005 NS Idye-Wurukum ±5.0013 2.07795 .023 NS Modern market-Wurukum ±3.3832 1.49843 .032 NS Nyiman-Wurukum ±6.1963 2.07795 .006 NS Old GRA-Wurukum ±4.5146 1.77945 .017 NS
Source: Author’s Fieldwork (2015)
Table 3: Post Hoc Two-Way ANOVA Table
Tests of Between-Subjects Effectsb
Dependent Variable: Commercial
Source
Type III Sum of
Squares Df Mean Square F Sig.
Corrected Model 544.248a 17 32.015 4.634 .000
Intercept 691.142 1 691.142 100.041 .000
Neighbourhood 236.498 8 29.562 4.279 .002
Road Quality 141.065 1 141.065 20.419 .000
Neighbourhood * Road Quality 23.883 8 2.985 .432 .892
Error 193.440 28 6.909
Total 2768.998 46
Corrected Total 737.688 45
. r squared = .738 (adjusted r squared = .579)
Source: Author’s Data Analysis
The Post hoc test shows the neighbourhoods
where significant variation in land use
pattern occurs.
Table 3 shows the post hoc two-way
ANOVA test, it can be inferred that
commercial landuse pattern varies with
neighbourhood and road quality (p = 0.002
and p = 0.0001) respectively. It can be
concluded that commercial landuse pattern
varies with the neighbourhood and road
quality in the study area. The improvements
of road network in the study area influenced
positively on commercial activities.
Businesses cluster where they can take
economic advantage and maximize profits.
The areas designed for resident has changed
to commercial area. However, the impact is
associated with environmental and traffic
consequences.
Makurdi urban is expanding very fast. The
Makurdi CBD has grown beyond its limits
and exerts pressure on the zones that
surrounds it. Commercial land use extends
to other neighbourhoods outside the CBD
leading to gradual disappearance of
residential land use and commercial land
use increased by 19.07% annually. This
agrees with Barau and Bashayi’s (2013)
Victor, Mchi
The Effects of Road Quality on Commercial Land Use Pattern in Makurdi Urban,
study, which reported that the emerging of
Lafia CBD witnessed the gradual change in
land use from residential use to commercial
use. It also agrees with Egbenta (2010) who
stressed that residential neighbourhoods in
Enugu bordering business district were
overwhelmed by the expansion of the
Enugu business district. Commercial land
use pattern varies in neighbourhoods due to
the road quality in the study area. The
variation in commercial land use occurs in
all neighbourhoods at varying intensities.
The increase in commercial activities in
Makurdi urban per year is tremendous as
residential land use is fast disappearing.
This is an indication that adequate
consideration was not given for commercial
places in the planning of the Makurdi urban
when the layouts were prepared. The
implication of the inadequate provision for
commercial spaces in Makurdi urban is that
the wind of invasion-succession will compel
residents to move to urban fringe. This
would likely create housing problems. The
rents will soar, residents would pair up with
their neighbours thereby increasing the
occupancy ratio and altering the residential
densities. There is need to plan the Makurdi
urban fringe to accommodate these people
so as to avoid haphazard development and
promotion of squatter settlements.
The emerging commercial land use pattern
in the study area has changed the zoning
plan of the area. There is need to rezone
these areas so as to avert incompatible uses.
This would boost the internally generated
revenue hence property owners will pay
appropriate ground rents on their
commercial property. The emerging
commercial land use pattern would be
associated with environmental problems
hence the anticipation of increase waste
generation, strain of water and electricity in
those areas, indiscriminate constructions
would likely cause drainage problems. The
study identified concentration of road
network development in some
neighbourhoods leaving others without
adequate road network. This implies that
commercial activities would concentrate on
the existing major roads, that would likely
cause traffic congestion.
Conclusion The study revealed that 59.10% of the road
networks in the study area are of good
quality while 40.10% were rated as bad
quality. Most of the good quality roads are
found in High level, and Wurukum
neighbourhoods. Good road network
enhance free flow of vehicle thereby
influencing distribution of goods and
services and motivates the shop owners to
locate their business along good quality
roads in anticipation of maximum profits.
The study revealed that “there is significant
variation in commercial landuse pattern due
to road quality and neighbourhoods across
the study area. The interaction effect
between road quality and neighbourhood
was not statistically significant, F (8, 46) =
.432, p = 0.892 at 5% level.However, the
effect for road quality, F (1, 46) = 20.419, p
= 0.0001 and neighbourhood, F (8, 46) =
4.279, p = 0.002, were statistically
significant. This implies that the road
quality and neighbourhood influence the
variations in commercial landuse pattern in
the study area. The effects of road network
on commercial land use pattern in Makurdi
urban was studied in relation with the
neighbourhood.The road quality and
neighbourhoods influence the pattern of
commercial landuse activities in the study
area.
Recommendations The following recommendations were made
based on the findings, to point the way
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
forward on the part of the policy makers.
The study recommends the following:
i. The Government should encourage
subdivision design that will
maximise connectivity and develop
major roads in Ahule, Nyiman, Idye
and Ankpa quarters neighbourhoods
to connect more areas.
ii. Houses fronting Abdullahi Shellang
road, Iyorchia Ayu road, Konshisha
street, Katsina Ala street, New
Bridge road, Naka road, Joe
Akaahan Way and Atom Kpera road
should be redesigned to at least four
storey. The upper, middle and lower
storey should be used for residential,
offices and retail business
respectively.
iii. As the planning of the study \area
continue to evolve the government
should give adequate attention on
planning of commercial areas, since
commercial investment contribute to
the economy of the area.
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Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Assessment of Residential Attributes of Lagos State
Development and Property Corporation’s Residential
Schemes on Resident’s Well-Being
Mokolade B. Johnson1, Michael Adebamowo1, & Olatunji Adejumo2 1Department of Architecture, University of Lagos. 2Department of Urban and Regional Planning, University of Lagos.
Corresponding author; [email protected].
Abstract The outcomes of rapid urbanization crisis are many, and it dates back to the Lagos bubonic epidemics of 1928.
According to literature, resident’s well-being is a key factor in the quest to provide residence and
neighborhoods that are people-responsively designed, produced and situated in a conducive physical
environment to bring about satisfaction, quality of life and health. This study attempts to find out how the
physical attributes of residential units and the immediate neighborhood impact on the well- being of residents.
Human well-being as a positive state connected to experience, emotions and cognitive evaluation of residents’
life is one of the assertions that underpins the focus of this study. Four (4) largest low- income residential
schemes belonging to Lagos State Development and Property Corporation (LSDPC) were purposively selected
among its residential stock. Residential attributes identified as residents’ well-being indicators was qualitatively
and quantitatively measured through on-site assessment of physical quality and neighborhood characteristics.
Appraisal of as-built drawings, structured survey, resident’s self-measurement and physical observational
technique were used as instruments to collect data from 1980 to 2017 period. The outcome of this study seeks
to inform designers and policy makers about the possibility of user-consideration in residential provision and
time-based residential design for human well-being benefits.The study suggests that neighborhood
infrastructure that can enhance resident’s well-being as proposed by people-responsive designs are embarked on
to consolidate on past gains, in order to alleviate the hydra-headed problem of residential inadequacy and
maintain sustainable well-being in future residential developments. The implication of the results and findings
were highlighted.
Key words; neighborhood, physical well-being, residential unit, responsive-residential design.
INTRODUCTION
The exponential population growth in Lagos
in the last five decades as one of the results
of rapid urbanization compounds the
problem of residential inadequacy. Other
attendant enumerated challenges include,
overcrowding (high occupation density),
and poor building quality, lack of good
residential infrastructures, poor air quality,
poor indoor ventilation and natural daylight
due to wrong building orientation,
unsatisfactory neighborhoods, generally
unsanitary and deplorable residential
environments major problems in this
setting. Mabogunje (2002). These problems
usually have wide-ranging effects on the
quality of life, happiness, comfort,
satisfaction, welfare, health and well-being
of inhabitants. (Amole, Ajayi and Okewola
2002).Well-being is a positive state which is
generally connected to experience, emotions
and cognitive evaluation of one’s life. (Deci
and Ryan, 2008; Conceicao and Bandura
2008). Another assertion say that, physical
well-being refers to the resident's
cumulative positive and negative experience
associated with the, preparation, possession,
function, maintenance and management of
the residence within a given period
(Katrien,2010). From reviews of research
done by Rapoport (1995) on home
interpretation, meanings and urban
environment. From review of research work
done by various scholars, Rapoport (1995)
worked on home interpretation, meanings
and urban environment. Housing
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
[email protected]. 162
satisfaction was researched by Amole &
Tettly (1998) and Jiboye (2010). Iyagba
(1997) and Ademiluyi (2010) dwelt on
residential delivery, housing quality and
sick buildings. Adebamowo (2007)
researched on residential energy
consumption and thermal comfort. Research
on housing and psycho-social benefits was
carried out by Ilesanmi (2011). Financial
and mortgage aspects by Nubi (2006). Post
occupancy evaluation by Iweka (2012) and
challenges in residential delivery was
tackled by (Olayiwola, Adeleye &
Ogunsakin (2005). All these areas have
severally investigated, but it appears that
residential research on the impact of public
residential scheme attributes on resident’s
physical well-being have not been covered.
Human well-being is promoted when the
residence is designed, produced, prepared,
and situated in a conducive physical
environment (location) to meet the use and
needs of the occupants, while bringing
about satisfaction, enhanced quality of life
and sustainable physical well-being.
Grzeskowiak, Sirgy, Lee and Claiborne
(2005).This study examined how the
residential buildings and immediate
environments can function as a tool for
enhancing resident’s well-being through
people-responsive architectural design.
Much of the research that relates to the
impact of the physical and urban
environment on mental, social and
psychological wellbeing has been on the
developed world Evans, Chan, Wells, and
Saltzman, (2000). Many factors was
identified as variables that can influence
resident’s well-being positively or
negatively. These include; dwelling density
(overcrowding), noise, spatial adequacy,
spatial organization, accessibility, privacy,
security, social network, air quality,
landscape, infrastructural decay and general
neighborhood visual amenity (aesthetics)
(Dutton,2003). Research has also explicitly
proven that there are associations between
ownership and well-being, to the extent that
psychological well-being varies in a
significant manner between residents in
different residential tenures (Clapham,
1991,2005; Cairney,2005).
It appears that due to the lack of
understanding central to the link between
the physical residential setting and well-
being, past residential building studies have
not paid much attention to the issue of
human well-being in the existing residential
stock of the Lagos State Development and
Property Corporation (LSDPC). In spite of
the fact that there are varieties of residential
prototypes in the public and private sectors,
there is inadequate knowledge of what the
existing and emerging situations are for
well-being. From the residential architecture
perspective, this could be useful knowledge
for future programming, planning and
design of improved residential buildings
and environment in Lagos.
Literature Review This study focus on assessing the residential
attributes (characteristic) of the LSDPC
residential scheme and their impact or
influence on resident’s physical well-being
and the implication for architectural design
(Ilesanmi,2005; Jiboye, 2009)(See figure 1).
This is the gap in knowledge that this study
attempts to fill. Presently, there is a scarcity
of knowledge to establish whether the
existing Lagos State Development and
Property Corporation (LSDPC) residential
stock promotes residents’ physical well-
being or not, in order to assess its
implication for design. Understanding the
relationship between residential attributes
and human well-being is central to knowing
how architectural designs of existing
residential schemes are meeting the well-
being need of occupants.
The quest is to bring to the fore the
minimum physical standards for healthy,
Johnson, Adebamowo, Adejumo
Assessment of Residential Attributes of Lagos State Development and Property Corporation’s
[email protected]. 163
family-friendly residential neighborhoods
qualities and physical characteristics that
impact and improve well-being from the
architectural design standpoint. Human
well-being was considered as a wider
umbrella under which the health aspects of
residents are embedded.
To attenuate the diminishing quality of life
that poor designs can bring, it is necessary
to identify the value and benefits to
residents’ well-being achievable through
thoughtful and people-responsive
architecture. Sometimes, in the bid to cut
costs in residential provision, we lose more
than money from these residential schemes
by using financial budgetary mechanisms,
cheap or unsustainable building material to
cut cost and poor construction methods such
that the project eventually becomes grossly
inadequate and unsustainable.
Residential researches in 2012, estimated
that the UK spends up to £2 billion per year
treating illnesses arising from poor
residential buildings – more than the sum
spent by local authorities on their own
residential stock. (McGillivray and Clark
2012). A good residence is a crucial
criterion for quality standard of living.
(Aribigbola, 2008). It is very fundamental
to the welfare, survival and health (Evans,
2003). Hence, the residential setting is one
of the best indicators for evaluating
standard of living of residents. The location
and residential typology are also factors
crucial to this assessment. Rapoport (1995)
noted that shelter is central to the existence
of man. He submitted further that this
involves access to land, shelter and the
necessary amenities to make the shelter
functional, cultural, aesthetically pleasing,
safe and hygienic to satisfy well-being.
In Nigeria, earlier studies of public
environmental health focused almost totally
on disease control, pollution, emission
control, chemical toxicants and their
relationship to other illnesses from the
medical science angle of research.
However, in the last 50 years, the definition
of environmental health has widened to
include the effects of the physical and social
environment on human health according to
World Health Organization WHO, (1946).
It now encompasses issues related to quality
of residences, urban and rural development,
land use, public infrastructure systems and
industrial development. (WHO, 2010).
Issues Affecting Well-Being.
Environmental well-being
Researchers such as Wells, Evans and Yang
(2010) found that factors such as density of
communities, presence and size of parks,
land-use mix, height and size of residential
structures, food store location, and road
layout affect people’s physical health and
well-being. Most of the major health
problems plaguing the U.S. population
today— from psychological distress to heart
disease to diabetes—have significant
environmental causes. According to
Coetzee (2002) and Lawanson (2015), when
changes in the environment are intense, the
more vulnerable are inhabitant’s level of
well-being. The residential environment is
the place where human beings appreciate
through experience the benefits of
architectural design more than anywhere
else because individuals eat, repose, engage
in physical activity, interact and form social
bonds here (Wiggle, 2003;, UNHABITAT,
2003; Wells et al., 2010). The four main
metaphors that describe the residence are
subsumed in the idea that it is not only a
physical, but a mental, social, and
psychological phenomenon (Onibokun,
1983; Salau, 1990; United Nations, 1992;
Rapoport, 1995; Gifford, 2002;
Sommerville, 1992; Fincher and Gooder,
2007). The residential environment entails
the organization of space, time, meaning
and communication, setting systems,
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
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cultural landscapes, and the make-up of
fixed and non-fixed features in order to
figure out relationships between society and
built environment (Rapoport, 2001). The
residential building is an important and
significant entity of the residential
environment. This significant phenomenon
is embraced dialectically in the culture of
the major Nigerian nationalities of Yoruba
as “ile” , Igbo as “uno” and Hausa as
“gida”.In these settings, the residence is a
living entity representing physical, social,
cultural, economic and historical values and
status of the family. It is transferable
through inheritance from generation to
generations. Culturally across major
Nigerian tribes, it is taboo to offer
traditional family homes for sale (Odunjo,
1970; Babade, 2008). Other functions that a
residence performs in the traditional society
include the protection of family genealogy,
values, and care for the elderly through the
extended family system, and the protection
of the ancestral history (Igwe, 2001).
Architecture and Physical Well-Being
There is a connection between how a
residential scheme is conceived, designed,
managed, built, and ultimately occupied.
Three key issues at the core of residential
provision highlighted are; residential design
must be wide-ranging and inclusive, it must
accept change and transformation, and must
incorporate the user as part of the design
decision-making process (Habraken, 1972;
Iweka, 2012).
Architecture is a discipline and practice that
is directly concerned with the development
of the physical environment which is one of
the four phenomena or aspects of well-
being (Rapley, 2003; Bond and Corner,
2004). It is science and art at the same
time.” We do not just ‘exist’ within a
physical environment - we interact with it
and derive important meaning from it”
(Altman, 1993; Jacard and Jacoby, 2010).
Residential schemes are products of
architecture, this suggests that when the
residence and neighborhood (built
environment) are designed with the
intention to satisfy users need from the
conceptual stage, the benefits are many. The
nexus between poor residential attributes
and poor health is well established (Iyagba
et al., 1997; Wells et al., 2010). For
example, the Building Research
Establishment [BRE] (2010) reported that
almost a quarter (4.8 million) of homes in
England contain defects that can give rise to
hazards which can lead to serious health
risks such as cardio-respiratory disease,
stroke, asthma, excess cold, excess heat to
mention a few. Estimates put the cost to the
National Health Scheme (NHS) of these
hazards at £600 million per year, while the
cost to individuals and society from loss of
earnings is estimated, at £1.5 billion per
year. Also, Peg (1994) points out that in the
United States of America, the Pruitt-Igoe
residential scheme built in St Louis,
Missouri in the 1950s was hailed in
architecture circles for its attractive physical
design (Bacon,1985). However, the facility
served its residents so poorly that the
authorities found no other remedy than to
pull down the buildings in 1972. Many
problems arising from chronic indoor and
neighborhood spatial dysfunction have also
be proven to affect resident’s well-being.
Shelter and well-being
Shelter is one of the three basic cardinal
needs of man, it is a habitation, a place of
abode or house in which a person lives over
a period of time. It offers refuge and
protection from harsh and unfavorable
environmental elements and living
conditions. It usually assumes various
dimensions (tangible and intangible) and
meanings depending on the resident’s
attachment to this setting. The size, type and
quality of residence is determined by one or
combination of factors like income,
Johnson, Adebamowo, Adejumo
Assessment of Residential Attributes of Lagos State Development and Property Corporation’s
[email protected]. 165
location, culture, identity, socio-economic
influences, government or developers
control amongst others (Rapoprt, 1995).
Another argument described a house as a
tool or device intended to meet intangible
and subjective needs like residential
satisfaction, purpose in life, identity,
meaning of life and satisfy other psycho-
social requirements which are strongly
beneficial and related to resident’s health
wellbeing (Sarvima, 2006). These tangible
and intangible dimensions of a residence are
usually not fully appreciated and factored-in
at the architectural design and planning
stage. In situations where these residential
aspirations are not met as cited before,
several poor residential buildings and
spaces had to be re-designed or eventually
demolished because the spaces and their
users were inharmonious (Peg, 1994;
Cairney and Boyle, 2004). The assertion of
Le Corbusier that a house is a tool or device
primarily produced for living, so every part
of its design functions to satisfy the well-
being needs of occupants, the desire to
fulfill this leads to the actual construction of
the residential building irrespective of class
or creed. Ilesanmi (2011) opined that,
“Shelter is symbol for family, quality of
life, residential satisfaction (hearth), it is
autonomous and usually a status symbol for
the residents or owners.”
At the conceptual stage, it is difficult for
architects or planners to comprehend many
real or unforeseen challenges in the brief
available for the design, planning and
production of residences. Therefore, proper
assessment of the relationships between
residential attributes and resident’s
wellbeing need to be undertaken, because
literature strongly established that poor
dwelling is strongly associated with poor
health (Iyagba, 2005; Shaw, 2004;
Wilkinson, 1999 ). There’s a growing
understanding and awareness that enabling
healthy lifestyles through well designed
residential environments can mean savings
in health treatment costs. Improvement of
existing schemes can be embarked on
through gradual improvement or phase by
phase upgrading and not total
redevelopment of existing built
environment to enhance health and well-
being of residents (Gray, 2001; Wells et al.,
2010).
Wellbeing is defined as the state of good
health, happiness, satisfaction and living in
perceptually healthy conditions physically,
socially and mentally. The World Health
Organization (WHO, 1948) have also
postulated that in improving the quality of
life of residents, three main aspects impact;
the quality of residential building, the
quality of the close environment
(neighborhood) and the quality of the urban
site (Mohit, Ibrahim and Rashid, 2010). The
Aristotelian concept of living well and
reaching our full human potential well-
being may be explained as living a
meaningful life, characterized by feeling
empowered to make change, be happy,
healthy, and connected to one’s
environment and community. The
relationship between these factors are inter-
related and central to understanding how
residential attributes of a residential
environment can have significant effect in
determining and enhancing human well-
being (Giuliani 2003; McGillivray 2007).
Scholars like Dolan and White (2007)
explained well-being as a non-physical
phenomenon suggesting a strong possibility
that resident’s health outcomes are related
or affected by other aspects like the social,
financial, spiritual, mental and
psychological attributes. The World Health
Organization’s (WHO) classical definition
states that “health is not merely the freedom
from sickness, disease or infirmity, but a
favorable state of physical, mental and
social well-being”. (WHO, 1946) also
affirms this position.
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
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In the past 50 years, residential provision
programs set by Lagos State government
and private collaboration initiatives fell
short of projected targets. Hence policy and
plan to tackle the problem of inadequacy,
finance, lack of residential infrastructure,
over-crowding, congestion, poor air quality,
noise pollution, poor residential planning
and other associated challenges of urban
sprawl confronting Lagos since the 1930s
have remained unresolved. The assessment
of the availability or non- availability of
residential infrastructures, good sanitary
environment and living conditions
established through people-responsive
planning of the residential environment are
key factors that this study considered
relevant for assessing the level of well-
being of residents (Olayiwola, Adeleye and
Ogunsakin, 2005).
Residential development in Nigeria in
general and LSDPC in particular has been
the responsibility of government as the
largest spender. Therefore every agenda set
by government to achieve these had
tremendous impact on financing, residential
provision, adequacy, quality and public
perception of the sector.
Relationship Between Residential Quality
and Well-Being
Well-being is a complex concept, it varies
from setting to setting and from individual
to individual. It ties together a number of
assorted, but connected psycho-physical
factors from life-fulfilment, to happiness
and resilience, or mental toughness (Deci
and Ryan, 2008; Diener and Biswas-Diener,
2008). According to some theories, if some
fact about life does not affect experience, it
cannot affect well-being. Traditionally,
well-being has been identified with a single
objective dimension where material
progress measured by income or Gross
Domestic Profit (GDP). However, it is now
widely accepted that the concept of
wellbeing cannot be captured solely by
GDP. Human well-being is a multi-
dimensional phenomenon encompassing
all aspects of human life. One approach to
measure multi-dimensional well-being is to
use objective indicators to complement, or
supplement or replace GDP (Conceição and
Bandura, 2008). Well-being is a concept
that people and policymakers commonly
aspire to improve. Nevertheless, it is an
indistinct concept, lacking a collectively
acceptable definition and often faced with
opposing interpretations. This study also
hinges on the definition that views well-
being as generally a description of the state
of people’s life situation, which classifies
well-being into two broad categories: the
objective and subjective aspects which is
explained to a large extent by Hedonists
(McGillivray 2007; Conceição and
Bandura, 2008). The Hedonistic theory
describes “hedonia” as a state of pleasure,
and “eudaimonia” describes it as life
experienced as meaningful and engaging
(Sarason, 1974; Twigger-Ross and Uzzell,
1996; Sarvina, 2006; Shueller and
Seligman, 2010).
In the Gallup’s model (see Figure 1),
Human well-being is at the center of five
identified criteria for assessment. The
community and physical aspects are the
platform on which this study stands.
Figure 1: Chart showing the Gallup’s 5 aspects of
wellbeing,
Source; Gallup & Hill (1960).
Methodology
Johnson, Adebamowo, Adejumo
Assessment of Residential Attributes of Lagos State Development and Property Corporation’s
[email protected]. 167
The archival architectural drawings was
evaluated vis-à-vis what was built and their
evolution from 1980 till date. Formative and
summative method of evaluation was
adopted in the study. The formative
evaluation focuses on how program
implementation relates to specific
objectives established at the program
development or initiation phase, including
issues regarding stakeholders’ satisfaction
with the amenities provided. Most studies
on public housing dealing with satisfaction
adopt this approach because they seek to
answer questions on how, why and under
what conditions residential projects succeed
or fail. The summative evaluation, on the
other hand, evaluates the effectiveness of a
program after it has been executed or
implemented. It focuses on the relationship
between the goals of a program and its
outcomes. This approach provides a way to
measure how a program works (that is, its
effectiveness), and proffer suggestions on
ways to improve it. The application of this
method was evident in a number of studies
that evaluated outcomes of public housing
in Nigeria (Awotona, 1982; Bana, 1991;
Mustapha, 2002; Obeng-Odom, 2009).
Study Area
The Metropolitan area of Lagos takes up to
37 per cent of the land area of Lagos State
and houses about 90 per cents of its
population. (Mabogunje, 2002)). The lack
of accommodation facilities in Lagos is
enormous. It is normal that the size of the
family is five or more persons and they all
live together in the small room, average of
4.30 m2 (Nubi, 2006; Iweka, 2012). Most of
the houses are in poor conditions and the
facilities in them are shared. Sewage
systems are in deplorable states or non-
existing, sewage is available only in high
income areas. (Amole et al., 2002).
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
[email protected]. 168
Fig 2; Map of Lagos Metropolis showing Local Government Areas (Scale; Undefined
“In 2011, Lagos was 150 years old. It is by
no means one of Nigeria’s oldest cities”
(Godwin and Hopwood, 2012). Lagos
became a capital city during the colonial
acquisition era and was part of the British
Empire and can be compared to other urban
centers like Singapore and Hong Kong,
New York in many respects. Though not as
developed, Lagos as a heterogeneous city
can boasts of modern infrastructure and
substantial funds investment. Residential
provision at the government level in the
Lagos Metropolis of Lagos State as it is
now known dated back to 1928. Lagos
Executive Development Board (L.E.D.B.)
was established for the provision of modern
residential infrastructures in order to
transform the informal settlements, ghettos
so as to change the filth and unhealthy
conditions which prevailed in Lagos at the
time. The Board was saddled with the sole
official responsibility to transform these
areas into a planned and habitable
residential environment. L.E.D.B. had the
executive powers for planning and
development in central Lagos, while Lagos
City Council was in charge of adjoining
districts to maintain, construct new roads,
drains, parks and the vetting of building
plans for Town planning approval. This
resulted in long delays of approvals which
led to frustrations of private developers and
non-compliance to building codes and
regulations. A problem which is still
prevalent till date.
The status of Lagos as a political and
economic capital of Nigeria brought a
resultant astronomical expansion that
necessitated the involvement of the Ikeja
Area Planning Authority (I.A.P.A) in
development control and residential
provision for the ever-growing populace
desperately in need of decent and healthy
accommodation. However for efficiency in
the residential delivery bureaucracy, Lagos
State between 1967 and the 5 year period
that followed consequently merged the three
government agencies. In 1972, the Lagos
Executive Development Board (L.E.D.B.),
Ikeja Area Planning Authority (I.A.P.A.),
and Epe Town Planning Authority
(E.T.P.A.), transformed into what is known
today as Lagos State Development and
Property Corporation (LSDPC ). The
LSDPC Edict No. 1 of 1972 provided the
legal framework that backed up this merger.
Consequent on its advent, LSDPC took over
the liabilities of L.E.D.B., I.A.P.A. and
E.T.P.A. and relinquished its power for
development control to the Lagos State
Ministry of Works and Planning
(L.S.M.W.P.) The Corporation now has a
completely commercialized and profit
driven agenda. The goals of new LSDPC
include; Development of land and all its
attendant interests like residential buildings,
acquisition, development and maintenance
of residential schemes.Shopping centers,
offices, desirable industrial buildings that
can enhance the establishment’s
performance. Facility management and
service provision to the residential schemes
built and responsibility for the sale and
letting of residential building owned or
developed by the LSDPC. Rasaki (1988).
Table 1 LSDPC residential low-income scheme
built since 1983
S/N Name of Estate No of
Units
1. Abesan 4,272
2. Amuwo-Odofin 2,068
3. Anikantamo 714
4. Dairy
Farm/Ijaiye
708
5. Dolphin II. 576
6. Iba 2,388
7. Iponri 1,026
8. Isolo 3,664
9. Ojokoro 534
Total 15,950
Johnson, Adebamowo, Adejumo
Assessment of Residential Attributes of Lagos State Development and Property Corporation’s
[email protected]. 169
Appraisal showed that the drive for quality
of life, residential health and well-being is
not listed in agenda for L.S.D.P.C.’s
residential delivery program, which can
explain the decay in the infrastructure of the
residential scheme in general, hence
justifying the relevance of this assessment.
Tracing the antecedents of LSDPC as
agency sole responsible for residential
provision sheds light on the issues that
surround housing delivery.
Four (4) of the largest low-cost residential
estates belonging to Lagos State
Development and Property Corporation
(LSDPC) were purposively selected. They
are Abesan (4272 units), Isolo (3664 units),
Iba (2388 units) and Amuwo Odofin (2068
units). A total of 12,392 units. Systematic
random sampling technique was applied to
choose a sample size of 7.5% of the
residential units of each scheme (see table
2) as follows;
Table 2 List of selected residential neighborhood,
units and sample size.
No. Residential
scheme
No. of
residential
units
Sample
size
7.5% of
units.
1 Abesan 4272 320.4
2 Isolo 3664 274.8
3 Iba 2388 179.1
4 Amuwo Odofin 2068 155.1
Total no of units 12,392 929.4
Data was obtained from primary and
secondary sources, through triangle
approach comprising of physical appraisal
and measurement of built floor plans and
site plans as it exist now, and the proposed
drawings in the archives and database of
LSDPC. Well-being indicators were
examined under three broad categories of
variables, namely; neighborhood attributes
in LSDPC’s design, residential typologies,
and infrastructure and well-being pointers
through structured survey, respondent’s
self-measurement, and observational
method. Identified variables include;
Community/ social amenities-Crèche,
Nursery/ primary school, children’s
playground. Neighborhood open spaces-
General, central and easily accessible car
park for residents. Landscaped parks for
recreation and social integration.
Multifamily and physical exercise-friendly
spaces. Like football field, basketball,
badminton, lawn tennis and so on.
Health facilities- hospital, clinic, pharmacy.
Commercial infrastructures- shops, food
and fruit stalls and mobile sellers. Religious
needs- church and mosque Neighborhood
and residential access - adequate non-
resident car parks, good vehicular roads,
wide enough walkways, intra-neighborhood
trails, street lights, and vehicular traffic
control like speed bumps. Sanitary control
amenities-central refuse dump.
On the Likert scale of 1-7, with 7 being the
highest score. Residents were guided on
self-reporting of the indicators of well-being
in both residential spaces (living room or
parlor, lining room, bedroom(s), kitchen,
store, toilet, and bath) and immediate
neighborhoods. (Roads, car park,
neighborhood open spaces, drains,
recreation, sidewalks.)
The Gap Analysis Model
This conceptual approach was adopted by
this study commonly used in post
occupancy evaluations, residential delivery
and other residential research work. It states
that “residential buildings and its immediate
environment should be able to satisfy the
purpose for which they were designed”. The
GAP analysis is used as a tool to minimize
the gap between what is produced and the
reality of how it is used or what became of
it. – see figure (Parasuraman, Zeithaml and
Berry, 1985).
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
[email protected]. 170
Findings Findings include but not limited to
inadequate neighborhood amenities, poor
anticipation of the effect of population
growth on the residential schemes at
conceptualization stage. Physical well-being
enhancing variables (open spaces,
neighborhood parks, wide enough
walkways, neighborhood visual amenity,
hygienic or sanitary environments, effective
refuse collection are necessities and not
optional during design and
conceptualization. Open spaces favorable to
neighborhood recreation interactions were
not integrated in to neighborhood layout, as
such, it was easy for them to be converted
to other uses different from their original
concept. Neighborhood building
arrangement were forced into a linear
pattern, this suggest that building
orientation must follow linear order and
wrongly so, as they do not take advantage
of natural air speed and flow for effective
ventilation and lighting of interior spaces.
Congestion
The histograms were presented for
understanding in the cast of the questions to
responders as it appeared on the survey.
This is to establish the self-measurement
method of measuring well-being. Table 3 Inadequate parking:
Frequen
cy
Perce
nt %
Valid
perce
nt
Cumulative
percent
valid 34 18.9 18.9 18.9
Yes 78 43.3 43.3 62.2
No 68 37.8 37.8 100.0
Total 180 100.0 100.0
Histogram of inadequate parking.
Parking Convenience Table 4
frequ
ency
perce
nt
Valid
perce
nt
Cummulative
percent
Valid
1-2
mins
72 40.0 59.5 59.5
3-4
mins
36 20.0 29.8 89.3
5-6 min 13 7.2 10.7 100.0
Total 121 67.2 100.0
Missin
g
59 32.8
Total 180 100.0
Nearness to Household Consumables
Table 5
Frequency percent Valid
percent
Cumulative
percent
valid 11 6.1 6.1 6.1
available
169 93.9 93.9 100.0
HEALTHY LIFESTYLE PROMOTING
AMENITIES. Table 6
Frequ
ency
Perce
nt
Valid
percent
Cumulative
percent
valid 20 11.1 11.1 11.1
available 129 71.7 71.7 82.8
Not
available
31 17.2 17.2 100.0
Total 180 100.0 100.0
Johnson, Adebamowo, Adejumo
Assessment of Residential Attributes of Lagos State Development and Property Corporation’s
[email protected]. 171
Histogram of health support facility.
Table 7: Likert scale self-rating from residents.
frequ
ency
perc
ent
Vali
d
perc
ent
Cumula
tive
percent
valid 29 16.1 16.1 16.1
excellen
t
25 13.9 13.9 30.0
Very
good
12 6.7 6.7 36.7
good 17 9.4 9.4 46.1
Very
fair
8 4.4 4.4 50.6
fair 25 13.9 13.9 64.4
Poor 36 20.0 20.0 84.4
Very
poor
28 15.6 15.6 100.0
Total 180 100.0 100.0
General Neighborhood Visual Amenity
(Aesthetics)
Histogram on general neighborhood aesthetics Accessibility Table 8: Condition of roads and walkways frequen
cy
percent Valid
percent
Cumulative
percent
valid 8 4.4 4.4 4.4
excell
ent
16 8.9 8.9 13.3
Very
good
9 5.0 5.0 18.3
good 26 14.4 14.4 32.8
Very
fair
21 11.7 11.7 44.4
fair 19 10.6 10.6 55.0
Very
poor
32 17.8 17.8 100.0
Total 180 100.0 100.0
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
[email protected]. 172
Plate 1 & 2: Isolo; The neighborhood conditions here are
typical of the other case studies; collapsed roads and
drains.
Histogram of road condition.
Resident’s Self-Envisaged Tenure. Table 9: Self-Projected Tenancy.
Frequenc
y
Percen
t
Valid
Percen
t
Cumul
ative
Percent
Valid
1-2
yrs
33 18.3 20.6 20.6
3-4
yrs
64 35.6 40.0 60.6
4-5
yrs
30 16.7 18.8 79.4
10yrs
Above
33 18.3 20.6 100.0
Total 160 88.9 100.0
Total 180 100.0
Histogram on tenure
I Plate 3:Non-existent water supply system , façade
redesign with makeshift sun shading.
Johnson, Adebamowo, Adejumo
Assessment of Residential Attributes of Lagos State Development and Property Corporation’s
[email protected]. 173
Plate: 4 Abandoned open spaces are refuse dumps
Plate 5: Abesan approach- No clear separation
between vehicular and pedestrian access.
Plste 6: Amuwo Odofin- modification and addition to
existing structures
Plate 7: Open drains.
Plate 8: Iba residential scheme. Newly built additions to
residential units with improved sun-shading devices, no
street sidewalks and drains
Plate 8a: Iba residential scheme. Newly built additions to
residential units with improved sun-shading devices, no
street sidewalks and drains.
From these assessments, it was evident that
the neighborhood amenities beneficial to
resident’s well-being proposed at design
stage were either grossly inadequate and
now completely absent in about 76% of the
evaluated schemes. 82.4% of communal
open spaces was later converted to other
uses different from their original concept.
These schemes were built 1983, all of them
no longer conform to pre-designed
standards and dictates. Residential premises
and immediate neighborhood open spaces
are abandoned overgrown with weeds and
double as refuse dumping grounds. Most
neighborhoods have collapsed drains,
narrow walkways (1.0m -1.2m wide)
instead of the recommended 1.5m-2.4m.
(Neufert, 2000) and undefined foot-paths.
Buildings plans and elevations have been
altered without due approval, neighborhood
visual amenity have been destroyed.
Environmental Technology & Science Journal
Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
[email protected]. 174
Electricity and water supply is at residents’
discretion in all the assessed neighborhood
Well-being indicators like convenient car-
parking, shops and religious buildings,
schools, open recreational spaces were not
thoughtfully integrated in to the schemes
with the aim of delivering physical well-
being. These are inadequate, non-existent or
collapsed in about 85% of the examined
residential schemes. Rampant destruction of
neighborhood general aesthetics was
common-place in estates like Abesan ,Isolo,
Iba, and Amuwo Odofin. The impact of
these residential well-being crisis were
confirmed by government demolition of
illegal structures and unapproved traders
and artisan stalls around lager schemes like
Isolo and Abesan as the field assessment of
this study progressed.
Conclusion and Recommendations The study recommends that neighborhood
infrastructure beneficial to well-being as
suggested by resident-responsive design are
not converted and abused, in order to
maintain sustainable well-being in future
residential developments. Physical well-
being is an aspect of human well-being that
should be the design-focus of future
residential developments, while a phase-by-
phase redevelopment of existing scheme
can be systematically carried out to improve
on the well-being status of occupants. The
study highlighted the different components
and variables of well-being among selected
residential schemes, in order to facilitate
design-led actions to improve or enhance
well-being. Also, due to pressure on the
inadequate urban residential capacity, this
study recommends that the high population
existing residential schemes be reduced
with the view to enhance occupant’s well-
being.
It took 35-40 years to get to this deplorable
level of physical well-being in these
residential schemes, urgent remedial
measures are necessary to recreate
conducive living conditions for physical
well-being. In conclusion, the study
recommends that firmer pro-active
development control policy actions and best
professional practices are necessary to
protect occupants, maintain current
residential capacity and hence make the
residential developments sustainable in
terms of well-being.
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