effect of psychosocial factors on organisational
TRANSCRIPT
John K. Aderibigbe, Emmanuel E. Nwokolo & Olugbenga J. Oluwole
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EFFECT OF PSYCHOSOCIAL
FACTORS ON ORGANISATIONAL CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIOUR AMONG
GRADUATE EMPLOYEES IN NIGERIA John K. Aderibigbe, University of Fort Hare, Alice, South Africa E-mail: [email protected] Emmanuel E. Nwokolo, University of Fort Hare, Alice, South Africa Olugbenga J. Oluwole, University of Fort Hare, Alice, South Africa Received: August, 2018 1st Revision: October, 2018 Accepted: February, 2019
DOI: 10.14254/2071-789X.2019/12-1/9
ABSTRACT. The study investigated the effect of psychosocial
factors on organisational citizenship behaviour among some graduate employees in Nigeria, using the positivist explanatory cross-sectional research design, and a structured and validated questionnaire to systematically sample opinions of 1,532 male and female graduate employees across the various sectors of the nation’s economy. The results of the statistical analysis of data collected showed that graduate employees in senior job positions expressed a significant higher level of organisational citizenship behaviour than their counterparts in junior job positions (t = 3.343, df (1530) p <.01); there is a significant interaction effect of single, married, divorce and widow/widower on organisational citizenship behaviour F (3, 1528) = 3.33; P<.05; there was a significant positive relationship between psychological capital and organisational citizenship behaviour (r = 0.588, p<0.01); there was a significant positive relationship between emotional intelligence and organisational citizenship behaviour (r = 0.473, p<0.01); there was a significant positive relationship between psychological capital and emotional intelligence (r = 0.493, p<0.01). The study recommended that human resource managers should constantly facilitate seminar programmes and training schemes where employees could be more oriented on the importance of organisational citizenship behaviour, and learn to develop psychological capital and emotional intelligence.
JEL Classification: J24, M54 Keywords: emotional intelligence, graduate employee, job position, marital status, organisational citizenship behavior, psychological capital, Nigeria
Introduction
Organisational citizenship behaviour is widely adjudged as an important concept that
is necessary for the survival of an organisation and meets its personal goals and needs (Duffy
& Lilly, 2013; Unal, 2013). It is one of the most widely examined areas in
industrial/organisational psychology and human resource management literature. Over the
past two decades, organisational citizenship behaviour has gained significant research
attention which is evident from the growing number of studies on the topic. It is an essential
phenomenon in the formal work setting because of its potency to facilitate interpersonal
Aderibigbe, J.K., Nwokolo, E.E. & Oluwole, O.J. (2019). Effect of psychosocial factors on organisational citizenship behaviour among graduate employees in Nigeria. Economics and Sociology, 12(1), 155-176. doi:10.14254/2071-789X.2019/12-1/9
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relationships among employees, and also to increase organisational performance (Pradhan et
al., 2016).
The concept of organisational citizenship behaviour was introduced by Bateman and
Organ in 1983 has become a major organisational construct studied in recent years. It has
been refined and strengthened by many researchers, (Yaghoubi et al., 2011; Sahafi, et al.,
2013). Kaya (2015) defined organisational citizenship as set of voluntary and effective
behaviours that are not explicitly written in the part of job or business descriptions, but subtly
promotes the health of the organisation. Nasurdin et al. (2013) described organisational
citizenship behaviour as those extra work-related behaviours that go beyond those specified
by job descriptions or measured by formal appraisals. Paul et al. (2016) described OCBs as
discretionary and extra role activities that are not directly or explicitly captured in the formal
reward system but are beneficial to the organisation.
Although OCB is not formally rewarded, the concept has been employed by many
organisations to promote efficient and effective organisational performance (Tom-Jack,
2016). Studies show that organisational citizenship behaviour positively contributes to
decreased turnover intentions, increased employee satisfaction, and higher organisational
performance (Koopman et al., 2016). These benefits of OCB account for why organisations
are interested in the construct. Yen and Teng (2013) pointed out OCB as one of most vital
elements for organisational growth and performance due to the way it facilitates the
achievement of organisational goals. Tavazo et al. (2016) suggested that every organisation
requires OCB because of its instrumentality in surviving today’s challenging and competitive
work environment. Philip et al. (2012) added that organisational citizenship behaviour
exercises enormous impact on the efficiency and effectiveness of work teams in the
organisation, thereby contributing to the overall organisational productivity.
Furthermore, it appears that organisational citizenship behaviour studies could be
rewarding for 21st century organisations. Mohammad et al. (2013) indicated that OCB studies
have placed emphasis on two important aspects, which includes the consequences of
organisational citizenship behaviour on the one hand, and OCB determinants on the other
hand. Alizadeh et al. (2012) identified OCB antecedents from comprehensive perspective;
these include role clarity, leadership, organisational commitment, organisational justice and
traits. The impact of these antecedents is correlated with five organisational performance
parameters such as reduced turnover, reduced absenteeism, employee satisfaction and loyalty,
consumer satisfaction and consumer loyalty. In terms of OCB determinants, several
researchers examined various determinants of OCB in the work environment. Chowdhury
(2013) identified major determinants of OCBs, which include sustainability culture,
leadership support, and organisational commitment. Nadiri and Tanova (2010) revealed that
higher level of OCB results in more productivity and profitability.
Interestingly, most of these reviews of OCB benefits and antecedents have been
studied extensively in Western countries. It therefore reinforces the notion that considering
the effect of some psychological and demographic variables on OCB is crucial for
understanding individual and organisational performance. As workforce becomes more
diverse and people with different psychological and demographic characteristics work
together, consideration of the effect of psychological capital, emotional intelligence, job
positions (senior & junior) and marital status becomes paramount. Though, there is an
increasing consideration of the phenomenon of organisational citizenship behaviour by
researchers, a thorough review of the literature shows a lack of agreement about the scope of
the concept (Farzianpour et al., 2011).
In consideration of the implications of organisational citizenship behaviour, it is quite
necessary for scholars and human resource management practitioners, to urgently investigate
factors that could be effective in promoting the understanding of the phenomenon, which exist
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in the contemporary world of work. In the course of the study, the research participants or
respondents were not only considered in their entirety but they were also disaggregated
according to various biographical and occupational characteristics. The study thus reveals
whether findings pertaining to the whole sample also apply to various demographic segments
thereof. This is important, because some previous research findings suggest that this may be
the case (Oweke et al., 2014; Restila, 2015; Profili et al., 2016).
It is in view of the above that the study sought to investigate the effect of psychological
capital, emotional intelligence, job positions and marital status on organisational citizenship
behaviour among some graduate employees in Nigeria.
The objectives of this paper are:
To investigate the effect of job position on organisational citizenship behaviour among
some graduate employees.
To determine the effect of marital status on organisational citizenship behaviour among
some
graduate employees.
To examine the relationship between psychological capital and organisational citizenship
behaviour.
To explore the relationship between emotional intelligence and organisational citizenship
behaviour.
To investigate the relationship between psychological capital and emotional intelligence/.
1. Literature review
1.1. Organisational citizenship behaviour
Organisational citizenship behaviour has gained enormous popularity in recent times
and has become an increasingly important concept, in which businesses and institutions have
started recording its significance for better organisational performance and prospects (Borman
& Motowidlo, 2014). Organ (1988) defined organisational citizenship behaviours as those
behaviours that are beneficial to the organisation, but they are exhibited spontaneously by
members of the organisation and never been directly or explicitly instructed in the
organisation formal reward system. Asha and Jyothi (2013) defined organisational citizenship
behaviours as those behaviours exhibited by individuals or employees which are neither
coerced nor rewarded by the organisation.
Chib (2016) defined organisational citizenship behaviour as those positive and
constructive activities that employees carry out voluntarily, which support co-workers and
benefits the organisation. Chib (2016) added that employees who engage themselves in such
behaviours are always ready to go the extra mile or go beyond the minimum efforts required
to do a merely satisfactory job. Organisational citizenship behaviours (OCBs) are unique type
of work behaviour that are defined as individual behaviours that are beneficial to the
organisation and are discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward
system (Sharma et al., 2011).
Organ (1988) study identified five dimensions of organisational citizenship behaviour
and they are: Altruism, which refers to helping behaviour or helpfulness of an employee
towards other employees, Conscientiousness, which implies carrying out one’s duties beyond
the needed requirements, for instance obeying rules, taking individual initiative for
performing a task. Courtesy, this refers to the behaviour of an employee through which he
tries to prevent problems with other employees; Civic virtue, which refers to the willingness
to voluntarily participate in the governance of the organisation and Sportsmanship, which
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reveals the nature of the employees where they are willing to tolerate expected inconvenience
without complaints. Summarily, organisational citizenship behaviour has important
implications for effective organisational performance, understanding the antecedents of OCB
will provide a better outlook on how this concept affects performance.
1.2. Antecedents of organisational citizenship behaviour
There have been many debates on the factors influencing organisational citizenship
behaviours, and there is an agreement that different antecedents have huge significance on the
functioning of organisational performance. A critical review of the related literature shows
that job attitudes, individual disposition, job satisfaction, organisational commitment and
leadership behaviours are strongly related to OCB (Fatimah et al., 2011; Duffy & Lilly, 2015;
Huang et al., 2014). For example job satisfaction is often cited as an antecedent of OCB
because it is opined that satisfied employees are more likely to engage in behaviours that
enhance work and support for their organisations (Zeinabadi, 2010). Moreover, individuals
with higher levels of organisational commitment or job satisfaction are more likely to engage
in OCB (Chahal & Mehta, 2010).
Researchers such as Elstad et al. (2012) and Farell and Oczkowski (2012) have studied
the antecedents of OCB in the past. For example, Farell and Oczkowski (2012) discovered
that in service setting, organisational identification, and leader-member exchange and
customer orientation have a positive effect on OCB and organisational performance. Elstad et
al. (2012) found that the strength of accountability in an educational setting influences OCB
among teachers. Huang et al. (2014) investigated the mediating effect of followers’
identification with their leader, which assumes that followers are prone to free loyalty to the
leader rather than the organisation.
Furthermore, Taghinezhad et al. (2015) revealed that organisational commitment, job
satisfaction and procedural justice had significant influence on organisational citizenship
behaviour. In addition, study by Ersoy et al. (2015) which involves reward for application,
religiosity and relational identification found statistical difference in regards to relationship
with OCB among Turkish white-collar employees in their home country and in the
Netherlands.
1.3. Psychological capital and organisational citizenship behaviour
Shaheen et al. (2016) surveyed the role of psychological capital on organisational
citizenship behaviour in a sample of 325 male and female bank employees of private and
public sector banks in Islamabad and Rawalpindi cities of Pakistan. Their findings showed
that psychological capital is a significant determinant of organisational citizenship behaviour
among the participants. Furthermore, Shukla and Singh (2013) conducted a cross sectional
survey to examine the mediating role of job satisfaction between psychological capital and
OCB, and used a self-report questionnaire to sample the opinions of 172 male and female
mid-level managers in an Indian-based telecommunication firm. The results of the statistical
analysis that was performed on the data collected in the study revealed that psychological
capital has a significant influence on organisational citizenship behaviour, which was
expressed by the participants.
Similarly, Pradhan et al. (2016) investigated the relationship between psychological
capital and organisational citizenship behaviour among 212 professionals in the Indian
manufacturing and service industries, and observed if emotional intelligence assumes a part in
moderating the relationships between psychological capital and organisational citizenship
behaviour, using structural equation modelling. The outcomes of the structural equation
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modelling indicate that psychological capital is positively related to organisational citizenship
behaviour. Moreover, Ali-Shah and Ali-Shah (2016) adopted a longitudinal research design
approach to investigate the relationship between psychological capital and organisational
citizenship behaviour among 411 male and female employees of telecommunication firms in
Pakistan, using a structured questionnaire as an instrument of data collection. The results of
the investigation revealed that psychological capital and the in-role performance type of
organisational citizenship behaviour are significantly positively interrelated.
1.4. Emotional intelligence and organisational citizenship behaviour
Tofighi et al. (2015) conducted a descriptive cross sectional study which investigated
the relationship between emotional intelligence and organisational citizenship among a
sample of 150 nurses that were working in the university teaching hospitals within the south-
east of Iran. The study used a validated questionnaire to gather data from the participants. The
results of the Pearson correlation analysis showed that even though there are significant
positive relationships between the conscientiousness category of organisational citizenship
behaviour and self-management (p < 0.001), social awareness (p <0.05), and management of
relationships (p <0.001) categories of emotional intelligence respectively; OCB and self-
awareness (p < 0.05) and self-management (p < 0.001) categories of emotional intelligence,
the Pearson correlation analysis showed that there is no significant relationship between
emotional intelligence and organisational citizenship behaviour when considered holistically.
Furthermore, the study also found that there is significant positive correlation between
the mean scores of the civic virtue category and organisational citizenship behaviour and self-
management (p < 0.05), but the relationships between the courtesy category of organisational
citizenship behaviour and self-management (p < 0.001), social awareness (p < 0.05) and
management of relationships (p < 0.05) are significantly negative. However, there is a
significant positive relationship between the altruism category of organisational citizenship
behaviour and self-awareness categories of emotional intelligence (p < 0.05) (Tofighi et
al., 2015).
Likewise, Irshad and Hashmi (2014) examined the relationship between emotional
intelligence and organisational citizenship behaviour among 300 male and female employees
of private sector organisations in Pakistan, using the convenience sampling technique and a
validated questionnaire to reach and sample views of the participants over the issues of
consideration in the research. The findings of the study indicated that there is a significant
positive relationship between emotional intelligence and organisational citizenship behaviour.
Equally, Shirsavar and Souri (2015) adopted the descriptive research design to explore the
relationship between emotional intelligence and organisational citizenship behaviour among
333 male and female high school teachers of District 5 in Tehran, using a simple random
sampling technique, the Morgan sample size table, to determine the appropriate sample size
for the study. The study used a validated questionnaire to elicit data from the participants, and
analysed the data collected with the Pearson correlation. It was found in the study that
emotional intelligence is significantly and positively related to organisational citizenship
behaviour.
1.5. Psychological capital and emotional intelligence
In a study of the relationship between emotional intelligence and psychological capital
among 220 female high school teachers, Sadoughi and Zarjini (2017) used the correlation
design and a validated questionnaire to test the hypothesized relationship between the two
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variables under consideration. The study demonstrated that there is a significant inverse
relationship between components of emotional intelligence and psychological capital.
Furthermore, Mellão and Mónico (2013) examined the relationship between emotional
intelligence and psychological capital among a sample of 301 employees of different
corporate organisations in Portugal, using a structure validated questionnaire. The results
revealed that emotional intelligence and psychological capital are positively related. In a
compressive investigation of what makes employees highly engaged and performing among
197 employees of a global professional services organisation in the Netherlands, conducted
by Boerrigter (2017), using a survey design, results showed that emotional intelligence is
significantly positively related to psychological capital.
1.6. Job position and organisational citizenship behaviour
In related empirical literature, a little research investigated the relationship between
organisational citizenship behaviour and longer term career outcomes such as performance
ratings (Halbesleben et al., 2010). Cameron and Nadler’s (2013) study regarding gender roles
and differences in employee evaluations based on organisational citizenship behaviour
participation. They discovered that organisational citizenship behaviour participation had a
direct effect on managerial rating and OCBs were perceived to be more feminine than
masculine. Allen (2015) study on the relationship between organisational citizenship
behaviour and two organisational rewards: salary and promotions; employee gender was
tested as a moderator. The results of the study revealed that gender was a moderator such that
the relationship between OCB and promotion was stronger for males than for females.
Liu and Qu (2011) in their study explored the structural relationship among perceived
work support, organisational commitment, job satisfaction and organisational citizenship
behaviour in regard to part-time employees in the restaurant industry. Using descriptive
statistics and structural equation modeling, the findings proved that part-time employees are
willing to show positive behaviours and are satisfied with their job when they perceive that
they are receiving positive supervisor and organisational support. Based on the findings,
restaurant operators could consider paying more attention to and showing more concern for
part-time employees in order to enhance their positive work behaviour and job satisfaction.
Cho and Johanson (2008) investigated the moderating effect of work status on the
relationship between organisational and supervisor support, organisational commitment, OCB
and employee performance among 300 employees working in the restaurant industry. Using
structural equation modeling to examine the four hypotheses proposed to investigate the
objectives. The results reveal that there are stronger effects on employees’ commitment and
organisational commitment on OCBs among part-time employees than full-time workers.
This finding implies that part-time employees should not be treated as perishable workers.
Chiu et al. (2015) examined the effect of employment status on service-oriented
organisational citizenship behaviour (OCB) of customer contact employees and the mediating
roles of internal mobility opportunity and job insecurity in the relationship between
employment status and service-oriented OCB. A sample of 270 employees and their
supervisors was drawn from one retail organisation and one bank in Taiwan. The results
demonstrate that temporary employment related negatively to service-oriented OCB.
Moreover, both internal mobility opportunity and job insecurity mediated the employment
status-service-oriented OCB linkage.
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1.7. Marital status and organisational citizenship behaviour
Several studies have revealed the relationship between OCB and marital status.
Mohammad et al. (2013) conducted a study on the demographic determinants of
organisational citizenship behaviour in a hospital setting. This study was done through cross-
sectional method in an educational hospital of Yazd, Iran. The results revealed that gender
and profession have statistical relationship with employees’ organisational citizenship
behaviour, but age, education, marital status and professional experience have no statistical
relationship with the perception of organisational citizenship.
Yaghoubi et al. (2010) in their research revealed that marital status has no statistical
relationship with OCB. Mazzi (2011) study also indicated that there is no significant
relationship between OCB and marital status. Mahnaz et al. (2013) study on the relationship
between OCB and demographic characteristics (including sex, marital status, academic
qualification, type of profession, salary and wages, ethnicity, job position and duration of
employment) in the selected Tehran’s hospitals showed that all demographic characteristics
except ethnicity, had significant effect on OCB.
Iranzadeh and Asadi (2009) study conducted among the employees of Mohagheghe
Ardbili University revealed that marital status has statistical relationship with OCB.
Moreover, inconsistencies can be identified with the existing literature that examines the
relationships between marital status and organisational citizenship behaviour, providing
strong reason for the need to explore different groups accordingly so as to avoid the pitfalls of
generalization.
Furthermore, in related demographic characteristics, Mohammad et al. (2013) study
failed to find a significant relationship between educational level and OCB. Their result found
no statistical relationship between the two constructs. Yaghoubi et al. (2010) study also found
that educational status has no statistical relationship with OCB. Mitonga-Monga et al. (2017)
investigated the effect of differences in age, education and tenure on organisational
citizenship behaviour. Using multiple regression to analyze and independent samples t-test to
determine the effect of these demographic variables on OCB, the results indicated they have
significant effects on OCB and that age, education and organisational tenure respectively
differed significantly in their effect on OCB.
Another study conducted by Dolan et al. (2013) concluded that there is a meaningful
negative relationship between OCB and its dimensions with educational level. In addition,
Nadiri and Tanoval (2010) study revealed that educational status has a positive and significant
statistical relationship with OCB. In line with the above literature on the relationship between
job position, marital status and organisational citizenship behaviour, the following hypotheses
were stated in this paper.
1.8. Statement of hypotheses
Hypothesis 1
H0: Job position has no significant effect on organisational citizenship behaviour.
H1: Job position has a significant effect on organisational citizenship behaviour.
Hypothesis 2
H0: Marital status has no significant effect on organisational citizenship behaviour.
H1: Marital status has a significant effect on organisational citizenship behaviour.
Hypothesis 3
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H0: Organisational citizenship behaviour is not significantly positively correlated with
psychological capital.
H1: Organisational citizenship behaviour is significantly positively correlated with
psychological capital.
Hypothesis 4
H0: Organisational citizenship behaviour is not significantly positively correlated with
emotional intelligence.
H1: Organisational citizenship behaviour is significantly positively correlated with emotional
intelligence.
Hypothesis 5
H0: Psychological capital is not significantly positively correlated with emotional intelligence.
H1: Psychological capital is significantly positively correlated with emotional intelligence.
2. Research Methodology
2.1. Research design, sample and procedure
The study adopted a positivist explanatory cross-sectional (survey) research design.
The explanatory cross-sectional (survey) research was considered appropriate for the study
because the research used the positivist approach by means of quantitative data generation,
and hypotheses testing (Bhattacherjee, 2012). The chosen research design was also
considered appropriate in the study, because the study cut-across the private and public
sectors of the national economy. In other words, the field work was conducted in various
industrial sectors.
The stratify type of probability (Two-stage North Carolina Centre for Public Health
Preparedness’, 2013 sampling scheme) technique was adopted along with The Research
Advisors’ (2006) Sample Size Calculation Table, and used in calculating the appropriate
sample size of the study. According to the Federal Ministry of Women Affairs and Social
Development (2008), there were a total number of 40,567,978 male and female employees
across industries in Nigeria as at the year 2007. In applying the stratify sampling method as
recommended by the North Carolina Centre for Public Health Preparedness, 10% of
40,567,978 was calculated at the first stage, which reduced the number to 4,056,797.
Again, at the second stage, 10% of 4,056,797 was calculated. Consequently, the result
further reduced the number to 405,679. Nevertheless, at this point, the researchers subjected
the derived figure of 405,679 to the recommendation of the Research Advisors’ (2006), which
approves a sample size of 1,532 (at 95% level of confidence and 2.5% margin of error) out of
an approximate population of 500,000 for a national survey. Hence, the researchers were 95%
confident of the population sampled being a true representation of the study’s targeted
population. Thus, a total of 1,532 male and female graduate employees formed the sample
size of the study.
In addition, the convenience and purposive types of non-probability sampling
technique were employed in selecting participants for the study. Firstly, the convenience
sampling technique was applied in selecting three most suitable states (Oyo, Osun and Lagos
States) out of the thirty-six states in Nigeria, as the sites of the field work. The rationale for
selecting the three states is that each of them houses one or the other of the renowned public
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and private universities (University of Ibadan, Obafemi Awolowo University, and the Pan-
Atlantic University) where the study sample were offered part-time postgraduate admissions
of MBA programmes as working-class postgraduate students with a minimum of three-year
employment experience.
Another reason for adopting the convenience sampling technique was because the
field work became easier when the participants were met in groups at conducive places such
as in the lecture-rooms and relaxation centres within the university premises. Furthermore,
since the study was designed only for the graduate employees, the purposive sampling
technique was also introduced and applied, to ensure that participants in the study were
employed during the period of the field work, and that they were graduates of universities and
polytechnics.
The sample comprised of 916 (60%) male and 616 (40%) female graduate employees
from 19 (private and public) sectors of the Nigerian economy. Among the participants, 202
(13.2%) were graduate employees from the educational sector, 38 (2.5%) from the research
institutes, 51 (3.3%) from the transportation sector, 291 (19%) from the finance and insurance
sector, 83 (5.4%) from the fast moving and consumable goods (FMCG) Industry, 21 (1.4%)
from the commercial sector, 70 (4.6%) from the healthcare sector, 8 (0.5%) from the aviation
sector, 77 (5.0%) from the agricultural sector, 57 (3.7%) from the information. All
participants were Nigerians English speakers. Relatively, 492 (32.1%) of the participants were
single, 1023 (66.8%) were married, 8 (0.5%) were divorced while the remaining 9 (0.6%)
were widow/widower. Conclusively, 63.6% of the participants were senior staff while the
remaining 36.4% were junior staff.
Data were collected by means of paper-pencil inventories (structured validated
questionnaires), which were distributed to employees in the large lecture auditoriums during
their weekend (Saturdays) part-time professional postgraduate programmes, in the three
renowned public and private universities (University of Ibadan, Obafemi Awolowo
University and the Pan-Atlantic University), situated in Oyo, Osun and Lagos states of
Nigeria.
3. Conducting research and results
3.1. Ethical consideration
The participants’ voluntary participation in the study was sought through a letter of
consent, signed by each of the participants. The participants were informed about the
importance of the study as the findings from the study may positively influence the
government policy helping in improving their conditions of employment and service
respectively. Moreover, assurance was given to the participants in respect of confidentiality of
all information supplied.
Furthermore, the participants were instructed not to indicate any means of identification
such as name, identity number or organisational affiliation. With utmost sense of sincerity,
information concerning the study and its outcomes was accurately submitted to the
appropriate institutions. Thus, it was ensured that no instance of misleading actions were
demonstrated in the course of the study. The researchers also ensured that the study was
conducted in a conducive environment such that would not expose the participants to any
physical or psychological hazard. The Research Ethics Committee of University of Fort Hare
furthermore granted approval for ethical clearance of the study (Certificate reference number:
MJO071SADE01).
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3.2. Measuring instruments
The participants were administered a self-report questionnaire, which consisted of a
biographical and occupational data questionnaire plus three validated scale measuring
organisational citizenship behaviour, psychological capital and emotional intelligence. The
questionnaire was divided into four distinct sections, labeled section A, B, C and D.
3.2.1 Section A: Socio-demographic variables
The section tapped the biographical and occupational data of participants concerning the
following variables: marital status and job position. There were no particular scales used in
this section. The participants were only presented the biographical and occupational variables
mentioned above, and were asked to indicate their corresponding statuses.
3.2.2 Section B: Organisational citizenship behaviour
A 15-item modified version of Podsakoff et al. (1990) organisational citizenship behaviour
questionnaire by Argentero et al. (2008) was utilised to measure organisational citizenship
behaviour. The construct consisted of altruism, conscientiousness and civic virtue sub-scales,
with a 5-point Likert-type response format ranging from 1/(Strongly disagree) to 5/(Strongly
agree). Argentero et al. (2008) reported the following Cronbach Alpha coefficients for the
scale: altruism =0.81, conscientiousness =0.73, civic virtue =0.73 and 0.84 for the whole scale
of organisational citizenship behaviour. However, the outcome of the pilot factor analysis of
this study reduced the scale-item to 13, and yielded Cronbach Alpha coefficience of 0.88
(altruism), 0.81 (conscientiousness), 0.86 (civic virtue) and 0.93 for the whole scale of
organisational citizenship behaviour, while the main study’s factor analysis yielded a
Cronbach Alpha coefficience score of 0.82 for the whole scale of organisational citizenship
behaviour.
3.2.3 Section C: Psychological capital
A 24-item scale of psychological capital that was developed and validated by Luthansb et al.
(2007) was utilised to measure psychological capital. The construct consisted of self-efficacy,
hope-state, optimism-state and resilience-state sub-scales, with a 5-point Likert-type response
format ranging from 1/(Strongly disagree) to 5/(Strongly agree). The authors reported a
Cronbach Alpha coefficience score of 0.91 for the scale. However, the outcome of the pilot
factor analysis of this study reduced the scale-item to 21, and yielded Cronbach Alpha
coefficience scores of 0.88 (self-efficacy), 0.91 (hope), 0.85 (resilience), 0.67 (optimism) and
0.94 for the whole scale of psychological capitital, while the main study’s factor analysis
yielded a Cronbach Alpha coefficience score of 0.85 for the whole scale of psychological
capital.
3.2.4 Section D: Emotional intelligence
A 10-item modified version of Palmer and Stough’s (2001) emotional intelligence
questionnaire by Seyal et al. (2012). The construct consisted of emotional self-control,
emotional self-awareness, emotional expression and emotional awareness of others sub-
scales, with a 5-point Likert-type response format ranging from 1/(Strongly disagree) to
5/(Strongly agree). Seyal et al. (2012) reported a Cronbach Alpha coefficience score of 0.92
for the whole scale of emotional intelligence. However, the outcome of the pilot factor
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analysis of this study reduced the scale-item to 2, and yielded Cronbach Alpha coefficience
scores 0.57 for the scale of emotional intelligence, while the main study’s factor analysis
yielded a Cronbach Alpha coefficience score of 0.81 for the scale of emotional intelligence.
3.3. Statistical analysis of data
The data generated from 1,532 screened questionnaires were analysed based on the
hypotheses stated, using version 20 of the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS).
Hypothesis 1 was analysed, using T-test Statistics of Independent Groups. Hypothesis 2 was
analysed using Oneway Analysis of Variance (Oneway ANOVA), while the percentage,
mean, standard deviation and the frequency of the biographical and occupational data were
also determined by the descriptive statistics.
3.4. Application of T-test Statistics and Oneway Analysis of Variance
Before the inferential statistics the descriptive statistics was performed. From the
obtained results, the relevant results were singled out in the Table 1.
Table 1. A Summary Table of Descriptive Analysis Showing the Mean and Standard
Deviation of Organisational Citizenship Behaviour and its three Dimensions
Variable
N
X
SD
Organisational citizenship behaviour 1532 52.3890 6.94911
Altruism 1532 20.0020 3.25440
Conscientiousness 1532 11.8035 1.97103
Civic virtue 1532 20.5836 3.17756
Valid N (Listwise) 1532
Source: own data
The results in the Tables 1 above show the levels at which the participants generally
exhibits organisational citizenship behaviour and its component factors. For instance, the
results in the Table 1 above show that generally, participants expressed a moderate level of
organisational citizenship behaviour, X = 52.389, SD = 6.949, which also indicates that the
participants are to a reasonable extent, interested in helping their colleagues at work, at the
same time ensuring that their personal and organisational goals are achieved. This is evident
in the participants’ expressed levels of civic virtue, X = 20.584, SD = 3.178; altruism, X =
20.002, SD = 3.254; and conscientiousness, X = 11.804, SD = 1.971.
Hypothesis 1, which states the following:
H0: Job position has no significant effect on organisational citizenship behaviour.
H1: Job position has a significant effect on organisational citizenship behaviour. The
hypothesis was analysed using T-test Statistics of Independent Groups. The results of the
analysis are therefore presented in table 2 below.
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Table 2. A Summary Table of T-test Statistics of Independent Groups Showing the Mean
(x)Difference of Job Position (Senior and Junior) on Organisational Citizenship Behaviour
Job Position
N
(X)
SD
df
T
Sig. (2-tailed)
Organisational
Citizenship
Behaviour
Senior
974
52.84
6.86
1530
3.343
.001
Junior
558
51.60
7.04
Source: own data
The results in the table 2 above show that graduate employees in senior job positions
expressed a significant higher level of organisational citizenship behaviour than their
counterparts in junior job positions (t= 3.343, df (1530) p <.01). The results imply that job
position has a significant impact on organisational citizenship behaviour among graduate
employees in Nigeria. Based on these results hypothesis 1 H0, which states that job position
has no significant effect on organisational citizenship behaviour, was rejected. While
hypothesis 1 H1, which states that job position has a significant effect on organisational
citizenship behaviour, was accepted.
Hypothesis 2, which states the following:
H0: Marital status has no significant effect on organisational citizenship behaviour.
H1: Marital status has a significant effect on organisational citizenship behaviour. The
hypothesis was analysed using Oneway Analysis of Variance (Oneway ANOVA).
Table 3. A Summary Table of Oneway Analysis of Variance Showing the Mean (x)
differences among Single, Married, Divorce and Widow/widower Graduate Employees on
their Organisational Citizenship Behaviour
Source
N
(x)
SS
df
MS
F
Sig.
Single 492 51.67
480.17
3
160.06
3.33
.02
Married 1023 52.69
Divorce
8 53.88
Widow/widower
9 56.00
Source: own data
The results in the table 3 above show that there is a significant interaction effect of
single, married, divorce and widow/widower on organisational citizenship behaviour F (3,
1528)= 3.33; P<.05. The results suggest that marital status of graduate employees has a
significant impact on organisational citizenship behaviour. This is evident in the mean X
scores of participants across the four groups of marital status - single ( X = 51.67); married
( X = 52.69); divorced ( X = 53.88) and widow/widower ( X = 56.00). Each of the four
categories of marital status scored significantly high on the scale of organisational citizenship
behaviour. Based on these results hypothesis 2 H0, which states that marital status has no
significant effect on organisational citizenship behaviour, was rejected. While hypothesis 2
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H1, which states that marital status has a significant effect on organisational citizenship
behaviour, was accepted.
Hypotheses 3, 4 and 5 were analysed using Pearson Correlation Analysis. The results
of the analysis are therefore presented in the table 4 below.
Table 4. A Summary Table of Pearson Correlation Analysis Showing the Relationship among
Organisational Citizenship Behaviour, Psychological Capital and Emotional Intelligence
Variable Psycap EI OCB
Psychological capital (Psycap)
sig. (2-tailed)
n
1
1532
.493**
.000
1532
.588**
.000
1532
Emotional intelligence (EI)
sig. (2-tailed)
n
.493**
.000
1532
1
1532
.473**
.001
1532
Organisational citizenship behaviour (OCB)
sig. (2-tailed)
n
.588**
.000
1532
.473**
.001
1532
1
1532
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
Source: own data
The results in the table 4 above show that there is a significant positive relationship
between psychological capital and organisational citizenship behavour, r = 0.588, p<0.01.
This implies that psychological capital is significantly positively related to organisational
citizenship behaviour. Furthermore, the level of the observed relationship between
psychological capital and organisational citizenship behaviour is strong, considering the given
significance value, 0.000, which is significance at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). Based on the
results and interpretation above, hypothesis 3 H0 was rejected, while hypothesis 3 H1, which
states that organisational citizenship behaviour is significantly positively correlated with
psychological capital, was confirmed.
The results in the table 4 above also indicate that there is a significant positive
relationship between emotional intelligence and organisational citizenship behaviour, r =
0.473, p<0.01. It means that emotional intelligence is significantly positively related to
organisational citizenship behaviour. Besides, the level of the observed relationship between
emotional intelligence and organisational citizenship behaviour is moderate, considering the
given significance value, 0.001, which is significance at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). Based on the
results and interpretation above, hypothesis 4 H0 was rejected, while hypothesis 4 H1, which
states that organisational citizenship behaviour is significantly positively correlated with
emotional intelligence, was confirmed.
Furthermore, the results in the table 4 also depicts that there is a significant positive
relationship between psychological capital and emotional intelligence, r = 0.493, p<0.01. This
implies that psychological capital is significantly positively related to emotional intelligence.
In addition, the level of the observed relationship between psychological capital and
emotional intelligence is very strong, considering the given significance value, 0.000, which
is significance at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). Based on the results and interpretation above,
hypothesis 5 H0 was rejected, while hypothesis 5 H1, which states that psychological capital is
significantly positively correlated with emotional intelligence, was confirmed.
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Discussion
The results established the hypothesized effect of job position and marital status on
organisational citizenship behaviour among graduate employees in Nigeria. Specifically,
hypothesis 1, which states that job position has a significant effect on organisational
citizenship behaviour, was confirmed. In other words, participants’ employment ranks is a
significant determinant of his or her engagement in organisational citizenship behaviour.
Again, it was confirmed in the study that the higher the employment ranks of a graduate, the
more they are tenacious to engaging in helping behaviours towards co-employees and the
organisation at large. This explains that though, organisational citizenship behaviour is
commonly exhibited by graduate employees in Nigeria, yet it is more commonly exhibited by
graduate employees in the senior job positions than it is noticed among those junior or lower
job positions.
The most obvious reason for the disparity observed between the two groups of
graduate employees as regards their practices of corporate helping behaviours is the
difference in roles and expectations of their job positions. For instance, the senior job
positions are mostly supervisory and managerial positions, which required job incumbents or
position holders to see to the needs of subordinates and colleagues, and help in meeting their
needs beyond the expected. Doing this implies that the employee that renders helping hands
to the colleagues displays virtues of citizenship to the organisation, and he or she could be
termed a good ambassador of the corporate world setting.
The present findings are supported by the findings of Chiu et al. (2015) study,
examined the effect of employment status on service-oriented organisational citizenship
behaviour (OCB) of customer contact employees and the mediating roles of internal mobility
opportunity and job insecurity in the relationship between employment status and service-
oriented OCB. A sample of 270 employees and their supervisors was drawn from one retail
organisation and one bank in Taiwan. The results demonstrate that temporary employment
related negatively to service-oriented OCB. Moreover, both internal mobility opportunity and
job insecurity mediated the employment status-service-oriented OCB linkage. However,
several other related studies’ findings revealed contrary results.
For instance, Liu and Qu (2011) in their study explored the structural relationship
among perceived work support, organisational commitment, job satisfaction and
organisational citizenship behaviour in regard to part-time employees in the restaurant
industry. Using descriptive statistics and structural equation modeling, the findings proved
that part-time employees are willing to show positive behaviours and are satisfied with their
job when they perceive that they are receiving positive supervisor and organisational support.
Based on the findings, restaurant operators could consider paying more attention to and
showing more concern for part-time employees in order to enhance their positive work
behaviour and job satisfaction.
Moreover, in Cho and Johanson’s (2008) study of the moderating effect of work status
on the relationship between organisational and supervisor support, organisational
commitment, OCB and employee performance among 300 employees working in the
restaurant industry, the results revealed that there are stronger effects on employees’
commitment and organisational commitment on OCBs among part-time employees than full-
time workers.
Furthermore hypothesis 2, which state that marital status has a significant effect on
organisational citizenship behaviour was confirmed. In other words, a significant interaction
effect of single, married, divorce and widow/widower was observed on organisational
citizenship behaviour among graduate employees in Nigeria. This simply explains that marital
status as a graduate employee determines how much he or she engages in voluntary helping
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behaviour at the place of work. For instance, the scores of the study’s participants on
organisational citizenship behaviour scale show that widow/widower and divorced graduate
employees are engaged more in organisational citiznehsip behaviour than single and married.
The possible reason for this results could be because of the negative experience of marital
divorce and loss of spouse to death, which invariably create a vacuum in the social lives of the
affected graduate employees, therefore, necessitate needs for a wider social networking within
the work environment. This social behaviour among graduate employees, perhaps
consequently, facilitates a platform of reconnecting to potential marital partners, which in
some cases yields eventual remarriage.
Though, several studies have revealed that there is no significant relationship between
organisational citizenship behaviour and marital status. However, the present study’s findings
are supported by the findings of Iranzadeh and Asadi (2009), which showed that marital status
has a statistical significant relationship with organisational citizenship behaviour. Moreover,
Mahnaz et al. (2013) study on the relationship between OCB and demographic characteristics
(including sex, marital status, academic qualification, type of profession, salary and wages,
ethnicity, job position and duration of employment) in the selected Tehran’s hospitals showed
that all demographic characteristics except ethnicity, had significant effect on OCB.
In contrast to the above, Mohammed et al. (2013) stated in their study that married and
single employees showed the same level of OCB in their work place. Yaghoubi et al. (2010)
in their research revealed that marital status has no statistical relationship with OCB. Mazzi
(2011) study also indicated that there is no significant relationship between OCB and marital
status. Kamel et al. (2015) study on the relationship between some demographic variables
such as (gender, age, and marital status, educational level and work experience) and OCB
among employees in the National Company for Distribution of Electricity and Gas in Algeria,
found no significant relationship between these demographic variables and OCB.
Hypothesis 3, which states that organisational citizenship behaviour is significantly
positively correlated with psychological capital, was confirmed. In other words, a significant
positive relationship was found existing between psychological capital and organisational
citizenship behaviour. The result implies that psychological capital and organisational
citizenship behaviour are both positive human behavioural dispositions that move
concurrently along each other in the same direction. In other words, in relation to the Nigerian
graduate employees’ experience, the graduate employees who perpetually exhibit citizenship
behaviour at work even in the face of the peculiar tough work environment of Nigeria, are
those who have discovered, developed and are constantly demonstrating reasonable levels of
hope, optimism, resilience and self-efficacy when saddled with difficulties on official
responsibilities. This is to say that extra-role performance is rooted in the human
psychological states of hope, optimism, resilience and self-efficacy.
For instance, a highly hopeful graduate employee is constantly motivated by his or her
positive perception of the job or career, and willing to give his or her best on the official
assignments with the belief that he or she is building a brighter career future, even while
helping the colleagues and the organisation at large to meet the set goals and objectives. Such
a graduate employee will drive the work team with his vision, to perform beyond the
criterion. Likewise, the states of self-efficacy, optmisim and resilience drive a graduate
employee who is found to possess the aforementioned psychological states at higher levels,
and propel him or her to engage in citizenship behaviour in the workplace.In support of the
above, Shaheen et al. (2016) showed that psychological capital is a significant determinant of
organisational citizenship behaviour among the participants. Similarly, Pradhan et al. (2016)
research outcomes indicate that psychological capital is positively related to organisational
citizenship behaviour.
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Hypothesis 4, which states that organisational citizenship behaviour is significantly
positively correlated with emotional intelligence, was confirmed. The results show that there
is a significant positive relationship between emotional intelligence and organisational
citizenship behaviour. The result denotes that emotional intelligence and organisational
citizenship behaviour are both positive human behavioural qualities that move concurrently
along with each other in the same direction, just as is the case of the relationship between
psychological capital and emotional intelligence. In other words, the result suggests that
emotions count in helping behaviour. The results further implies that for a graduate employee
to have voluntarily determined to engage in a form of citizenship behaviour at work, such an
individual must have systematically analysed the pros and cons of engaging in such, resolved
in a conclusion that it is actually profitable to help colleagues who are deficient in one way or
the other to execute their assigned duties, perhaps as he or she knows that helping the
colleagues voluntarily will enable the organisation to meet its goals and objectives, which also
guarantees his job security and the continual existence of the organisation.
Consequently, such citizenship behaviour of a graduate employee is said to have
emanated from his or her ability to constructively reflect on organisational issues, and
intelligently resolve within his or her thoughts and feelings that failure to assist colleagues at
work is indirectly an attitude towards the collapse of the entire organisation, in which he or
she will also share the negative outcomes such as the extinction of the organisation.
Moreover, the phenomenon of emotional intelligence as it relates to graduate employees’
exhibition of organisational citizenship behaviour could likewise be explained from the
perspectives of team unity, team spirit and love, which enhance individuals’ reasoning and
feelings such that make employees to be more logical and empathetic in behaviour, attitude
and perception. Furthermore, emotional intelligence as it was significantly expressed in the
different dimensions by the graduate employees, reveals that emotional self-control,
emotional self-awareness, emotional expression and emotional awareness of others are among
the positive aspects of the graduate employees’ personality that enhances their engagement in
organisational citizenship behaviour.
For instance, the world of work is a social organisation that involves interpersonal
relationship among employees, and gives opportunities for emotional expressions. Hence the
measurement of performance of individuals in a team or an organisation should not be based
on the in-role performance alone, but also include the ability of employees to positively affect
one another in the process of attaining organisational objectives. Emotional awareness of
others among the four dimensions of emotional intelligence is very important for effective
group performance. Besides, it better explains the positive link between emotional
intelligence and organistional citizenship behaviour, just as the other three components also
play their roles in the helping graduate employees to voluntarily render helping hands to
colleagues at work during difficult times. The above is supported by the findings of Irshad
and Hashmi (2014) indicated that there is a significant positive relationship between
emotional intelligence and organisational citizenship behaviour. Equally, Shirsavar and Souri
(2015) found in their study that emotional intelligence is significantly positively related to
organisational citizenship behaviour.
Lastly, hypothesis 5, which states that psychological capital is significantly positively
correlated with emotional intelligence, was confirmed. The result implies that psychological
capital and emotional intelligence are positively related. This result is in line with the
expectation that employees with higher levels of psychological capital will correspondingly
demonstrate a level of emotional intelligence. The present finding corroborates the findings of
Boerrigter (2017) which confirmed that emotional intelligence is significantly positively
related to psychological capital. Meanwhile, Sadoughi and Zarjini (2017) found that there is a
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significant inverse relationship between components of emotional intelligence and
psychological capital.
Conclusion
This study makes the following conclusions:
1. There is a significant effect of job position on organisational citizenship behaviour.
2. Graduate employees in the senior job positions exhibit significantly a higher level of
organisational citizenship behaviour than their counterparts in the junior job positions.
3. There is a significant effect of marital status on organisational citizenship behaviour.
4. The widow/widower and divorced graduate employees engage more in organisational
citiznehsip behaviour than single and married.
5. Graduate employees in Nigeria exhibit more of civic virtue and altruism forms of
organisational citizenship behaviour than conscientiousness.
6. There is a significant positive relationship between psychological capital and
organisational citizenship behaviour.
7. Emotional intelligence is significantly positively related to organisational citizenship
behaviour.
8. Emotional intelligence and psychological capital are significantly related.
9. Psychological capital, emotional intelligence and organisational citizenship behaviour
are significantly positively interrelated.
Limitations of the Study and Suggestions for Future Research
The first noticeable shortcoming of this research relates to bias in the approach of data
collection. The research only adopted the quantitative method, which limited the opinions of
research respondents to the response options provided to statements in the questionnaire. This
study therefore, suggests that future studies should consider adopting more than one method
of data collection.
The second acknowledged limitation is that the study focused only the graduate
employees in Nigeria, and neglected the other categories of employees who are not graduates.
Because of the above mentioned limitations, it is therefore, suggested that future research
should employ the mixed method approach of data collection, and widen the scope of
participation to involve all the categories of employees regardless of their educational
qualifications.
Recommendation
In view of the above discussion and conclusions, the researchers make the following
practical recommendations:
that the human resource management practitioners should encourage participation in
extra-role performance among employees by exposing all graduate employees to
various other departmental functions and responsibilities that are beyond their core
areas of specialisations. By so doing, the graduate employees’ social relations skills
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are developed in preparation for the higher career responsibilities, as part of the
organisational succession plans.
that during the induction programmes for the newly engaged graduate employees, the
supervisors, managers, and the heads of the various departments in the organisations
should be given the opportunity to also address the newly employed graduates about
the socio-environmental nature of the work organisation, whose survival greatly relies
on the socio-benevolent behaviour, attitudes, beliefs and perceptions of the staff
members. Hence, the new entrants must be indoctrinated with the ideas of team spirit,
one goal, one family, and one love, despite some inherent diversity in the individual
members of the organisation.
that the government and policy makers should ensure that it is mandatory for every
graduate citizen of a nation to be initially engaged by the public and private
organisations in a year voluntary service. During the first three or four weeks of the
one year mandatory voluntary service to the nation, every graduate must be trained to
acquire some positive aggressive attitudinal behaviour that will awaken their sense of
positivism and citizenship towards readiness to assume the role of agents of the
national developments in their various areas of professional endeavours, where they
will be deployed to serve for the remaining months of the one year period of the
voluntary service to the nation.
that the human resource managers, supervisors and practitioners should uphold and
develop the concepts of emotional intelligence and psychological capital in the psyche
of employees through trainings, workshops, seminars and conference exposure so as
to increase employee commitment and organisational performance.
Acknowledgements
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have
inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.
Authors’ contributions
The first author was a PhD researcher who designed, developed and implemented the research
blueprint while the second and third authors are research colleagues who assisted and
contributed in the areas of data collection and analysis.
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