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EIA for the Proposed 400 kV Transmission Line From Omatando to Oshivelo – Portion 2

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SPECIALIST STUDY: Birds

PREPARED BY: John Pallett

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) for

the Proposed 400 kV Transmission Line from

Ruacana to Oshivelo via Ongwediva –

Eastern portion

Environmental Impact Assessment for the Proposed 400 kV Transmission Line from Omatando Substation to Oshivelo Substation (Portion 2) Bird Impact Assessment Report

2014

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COPYRIGHT:

PROJECT NAME Proposed 400 kV Transmission Line from Omatando to Oshivelo

via Ongwediva (Portion 2)

STAGE OF REPORT Final Report

CLIENT

NamPower

SPECIALIST CONSULTANT John Pallett

DATE OF RELEASE 6 August 2014

CONTRIBUTORS TO THE REPORT John Pallett

CONTACT +264 81 240 2528

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DECLARATION

I hereby declare that I do:

(a) have knowledge of and experience in conducting specialist assessments, including

knowledge of the Environmental Management Act (Act 7 of 2007)and tge Regulations and

Guidelines that have relevance to the proposed activity;

(b) perform the work relating to the application in an objective manner, even if this results in views

and findings that are not favourable to the applicant;

(c) comply with the abovementioned Act, its Regulations, Guidelines and other applicable laws.

I also declare that there is, to my knowledge, no information in my possession that reasonably has or

may have the potential of influencing –

(i) any decision to be taken with respect to the application in terms of the Act and its

Regulations; or

(ii) the objectivity of this report, plan or document prepared in terms of the Act and its

Regulations.

John R Pallett

Bird specialist

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

This report addresses bird issues on the proposed power line from Omatando

Substation near Oshakati to Oshivelo. The proposed line comprises the eastern half

of the entire line which will start at Kunene Substation near Ruacana. The report

describes the entire line, but the impact assessment and suggested mitigations focus

on the eastern portion only. The western portion was assessed in a separate, earlier

phase of this project.

The original route of the proposed power line went close to Lake Oponono, which

was assessed during the scoping phase to place a significant risk on the small

population of blue cranes that occur in that area and around the eastern edge of

Etosha Pan. The route was then changed so that the line avoids Lake Oponono at a

distance of about 20 km, and runs parallel or close to the existing 132 kV line from

Omatando to Oshivelo. This routing is far less risky to birds but it is still recommended

to carry bird flight diverters to further reduce the risk of collision to large birds.

Out of a total diversity of about 200 bird species that exist in the project area, 29

species are ranked as Red Data species i.e. they are threatened because their

populations are small and/or declining. These birds comprise two critically

endangered crane species (blue and wattled) and the endangered grey crowned

crane, 11 species of raptors (vultures and eagles), 2 species of bustards, 8 species of

wetland birds such as flamingos, pelicans, storks and ducks, and a few other birds

found in savanna habitat.

Information on bird – power line conflicts in this area is very sketchy, and so is

knowledge on bird movements. This situation demands a precautionary approach

to the problems of impacts on birds. Three potential impacts are expected from the

proposed 400 kV power line. These are:

1. Collisions of birds against the wires;

2. Disturbance of breeding birds during construction;

3. Removal of nests of a few species that will build nests on the towers.

Collisions of large birds against power lines are a major problem, worldwide and in

this project. This impact is rated as High significance. To mitigate the impact of

collisions, it is recommended that bird flight diverters are installed on the power line

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during construction. From a financial perspective, it would be useful to identify

areas along the line – so-called ‘hotspots’ – where this problem is likely to be most

severe, so that only those sections would be marked. However there is virtually no

information on flight paths of cranes in this area, and movements of raptors and

bustards is determined by food availability (such as carcasses or insect abundance),

which cannot be predicted. Crane numbers are so critically low that adding any

risk to their occurrence in the area is unacceptable. These factors demand that the

whole area of vulnerability is marked with bird flight diverters. Consequently, the

eastern section where there is a relatively higher risk to cranes, totalling 120 km,

should be marked with spirals. The western section, where cranes, bustards and

large raptors are less likely due to the density of homesteads and human activity,

totalling 65 km, will not be marked. However, parts of this section which might

warrant BFDs for a short distance, such as where the line traverses open pans or a

clump of relatively tall trees, will be identified by the consultant during the

construction phase, and BFDs will be installed on those sections.

The design and interval of the spiral devices should conform with the procedures

followed by Eskom in South Africa, i.e. in contrasting colours (alternately black and

white), 5 metres apart, along the two earth wires.

The intention of this very expensive mitigation is to prevent any collisions of large

birds on the proposed power line. Unfortunately, complete prevention of all

collisions is unachievable, but with this measure in place, the significance of the

impact can be improved to Medium.

Disturbance to nesting birds and to other terrestrial wildlife is likely to occur but the

length of the route where there are species to be impacted is relatively short, only

about a third of the total length, and the population of wildlife and vulnerable birds

are both quite low. This is an impact of Low significance. Mitigation is difficult, and

should involve vigilance for any suspicious activities by on-site security staff or

‘environmental monitors’ employed by NamPower. The significance after mitigation

remains Low, because of the difficulties of effective mitigation.

A few bird species such as crows, kestrels and buffalo-weavers, none of them

threatened, will build their nests in the strutted framework of the V-shaped towers.

Routine maintenance of the power line will have to remove these nests, killing the

eggs and unfledged occupants. The affected species are widespread and their

populations will not be significantly impacted by these actions. This is an impact of

Low significance, and does not require any specific mitigation. Records of nest

clearing, noting numbers of nests, bird species and tower numbers and localities,

should be kept to inform any possible future effort to prevent or deter the birds from

nesting on towers.

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Electrocution of large birds is a common impact on power lines, but is not expected

to occur on this line as the design of the towers offers no place for birds to perch,

and the conductors are far enough apart to not allow the gap between any two

conductors to be breached.

This power line will offer little opportunity for dedicated monitoring to find out if the

suggested mitigations are effective, because any birds lying dead or dying on the

ground will be quickly scavenged by either people or dogs or natural predators.

Nevertheless, records should be kept of the condition of the installed spirals (so they

can be replaced when necessary), and of nest-building activities by birds and the

consequent nest-removing activities of staff.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ............................................................................................................. iv

TABLES AND FIGURES ............................................................................................................... x

APPENDICES ............................................................................................................................ xi

GLOSSARY ................................................................................................................................ xii

ABBREVIATIONS ...................................................................................................................... xiii

1 BACKGROUND .................................................................................................................. 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 1

1.2 SPECIALIST STUDY LEADER ....................................................................................... 1

1.3 TERMS OF REFERENCE .............................................................................................. 1

1.4 METHODOLOGY ....................................................................................................... 2

1.4.1 Information gathering ......................................................................................... 2

1.4.2 Field work .............................................................................................................. 3

1.4.3 Assessing the threatened status of species ..................................................... 3

1.4.4 Fine-tuning in discussion with NamPower ........................................................ 4

1.5 ASSUMPTIONS AND LIMITATIONS ............................................................................ 4

2 PROJECT DESCRIPTION .................................................................................................... 6

2.1 ROUTE AND POWER LINE STRUCTURES ................................................................... 6

2.2 STRUCTURAL FEATURES OF THE POWER LINE ......................................................... 2

3 LEGAL REQUIREMENTS POLICIES AND GUIDELINES ....................................................... 3

3.1 INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS OR GUIDELINES ................................................. 3

3.2 NATIONAL LEGISLATION POLICIES OR GUIDELINES .............................................. 3

4 THE RECEIVING ENVIRONMENT ....................................................................................... 4

4.1 BIRD HABITATS ........................................................................................................... 4

4.2 BIRDS WITH HIGH CONSERVATION STATUS ............................................................ 8

4.2.1 Critically endangered birds ............................................................................... 9

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4.2.2 Endangered birds .............................................................................................. 13

4.2.3 Vulnerable birds ................................................................................................. 15

4.2.4 Near Threatened birds ...................................................................................... 18

4.2.5 Sections of the proposed route and occurrence of specific birds ............ 21

4.2.6 Bird - power line conflicts reported to date ................................................... 23

4.3 PROTECTED AREAS AND THE ETOSHA RAMSAR SITE .......................................... 25

4.3.1 Regional and international importance of Etosha Pan ............................... 27

5 IMPACT ASSESSMENT (PORTION 2: OMATANDO – OSHIVELO SUBSTATIONS) .......... 28

5.1 BIRD COLLISIONS .................................................................................................... 28

5.1.1 Description of impact ....................................................................................... 28

5.1.2 Mitigation ............................................................................................................ 29

5.1.3 Monitoring ........................................................................................................... 33

5.1.4 Summary ............................................................................................................. 34

5.2 DISTURBANCE OF BIRDS, ESPECIALLY AT NESTS................................................... 34


5.2.2 Mitigation ............................................................................................................ 35

5.2.3 Monitoring ........................................................................................................... 36

5.2.4 Summary ............................................................................................................. 36

5.3 REMOVAL OF BIRD NESTS ON THE TOWERS ......................................................... 36


5.3.2 Mitigation ............................................................................................................ 38

5.3.3 Monitoring ........................................................................................................... 38

5.3.4 Summary ............................................................................................................. 38

5.4 IMPACT OF ELECTROCUTIONS .............................................................................. 39

6 IDENTIFICATION OF KEY IMPACTS ................................................................................. 42

6.1 COLLISIONS ............................................................................................................. 42

6.2 DISTURBANCE OF BREEDING BIRDS ...................................................................... 42

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6.3 REMOVAL OF BIRD NESTS FROM TOWERS ........................................................... 43

7 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................ 44

8 REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................... 46

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TABLES AND FIGURES

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APPENDICES

APPENDIX A Birds recorded from the proposed power line route

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GLOSSARY

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ABBREVIATIONS

BFD Bird flight diverter

DLBFD Double Loop Bird Flight Diverter

EIS Environmental Information Service (www.the-eis.com)

ha Hectare

IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature

kV Kilovolt

MET Ministry of Environment and Tourism

NP National Park

SS Substation

Acknowledgements

Many thanks to ‘Tante Knips’ (G.Keding) for generously offering her photos for

illustrations. Important inputs to the assessment were made by Ann and Mike Scott,

Wilferd Versfeld, Holger Kohlberg and Chris Brown. Constant Hoogstat and Luke

Strugnell from the Endangered Wildlife Trust in SA also provided valuable guidance.

1 BACKGROUND

1.1 INTRODUCTION

NamPower’s Transmission Master Plan outlines Namibia’s future transmission needs

up to 2050. It includes a high capacity power line from Ruacana to Oshivelo, via the

growth centre of Oshakati-Ongwediva-Ondangwa, to meet the growing demand

for electricity in the north of Namibia, and to strengthen the northern section of the

grid to ensure security of supply.

This report considers the impacts of the proposed power line on birds, and includes a

cursory assessment of the impacts on other biodiversity.

1.2 SPECIALIST STUDY LEADER

John Pallett

1.3 TERMS OF REFERENCE

The main objective of this study is to prepare an EIA and EMP for activities

associated with the construction, operation and decommissioning of the proposed

transmission lines. The consulting team should aim at avoiding environmental

impacts by carefully considering the route of the proposed line, and recommending

mitigation strategies for those impacts which cannot be avoided.

The following main tasks must be achieved. They must be conducted to meet the

requirements of the Regulations of the Environmental Management Act of 2007

(February 2012):

Identification of guidelines to ensure compliance with relevant Namibian

legislation and regional policies and protocols;

Conduct a scoping exercise during which consultation is done with Interested

and Affected Parties (I&APs) to ensure that their needs and concerns are

taken into account. Communal land occupants should be consulted

through their traditional leadership and all government agencies should be

informed of the planned activities.

Establish a data base so that a reasonable level of confidence can be

placed on the suitability of the route.

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Establish guidelines to minimise the negative environmental impacts of the

transmission line and the supporting infrastructure, for the construction,

operation and decommissioning phases.

The overall objectives of the specialist study are to:

Conduct a cursory ecological assessment for the study area.

Identify the distribution of bird habitats and flight paths in the vicinity of the

new transmission line and explain the value and relevance of this information

in the context of sensitivities related to birds, their habitats and potential bird

impacts. Attention should be given particularly to birds that are susceptible

to strikes and electrocutions. The study may draw on available GIS data,

existing databases (e.g. Environmental Information Service (EIS), professional

experience and field work to establish the information in relative detail. The

information should then be presented with maps, indicating areas/habitats of

concern and high sensitivity.

Identify relevant national and international protocols, legal and permit

requirements;

Assess the anticipated impacts of the project on birds, with particular

emphasis on the various phases of the project (i.e. construction, operation

and maintenance phases);

Provide a Bird Impact Monitoring and Management Plan. This should

highlight the following measures to avoid or reduce negative impacts:

o Proposed monitoring measures to be implemented by NamPower

during operation of the project;

o Exact locations where bird reflectors or other mitigation options

shouldbe put up, indicated on GIS maps;

o The study should cover all areas of concern. It should furthermore

highlight all habitats that could potentially be affected by the

construction and maintenance of the new transmission line.

1.4 METHODOLOGY

1.4.1 Information gathering

Prior to any fieldwork, background information relevant to the bird fauna was

gathered. This concentrated on a few sources, namely:

Namibia avifauna database, providing the species lists for the affected

quarter degree squares;

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The EIS bird collision database, which collates information on power line –

wildlife conflicts (www.the-eis.com );

Namibia’s Red Data list of birds (Simmons & Brown, in prep.).

1.4.2 Field work

During the Scoping and Route Assessment Phase in January 2014, the suggested

route was assessed with a helicopter flight to get an idea of the wetland habitats

and birds that would be affected. This led to a change in the route, on the basis

that what was first suggested posed a risk to Critically Endangered blue cranes in the

Lake Oponono area.

The entire route of the new alternative, from Kunene via Ongwediva to Oshivelo,

was driven to check finer details of habitats and birds, especially in the area of

oshanas south and west of Oshakati. The assessment by vehicle took place over

two days (14-15 March 2014), and focused on identifying sections where particular

habitats, concentrations of birds or likely flight paths would trigger the need for bird

flight diverters on the route.

1.4.3 Assessing the threatened status of species

The standard for assessing the threat a species faces, based on the probability of

extinction, is a Red Data list. Depending on the severity of a species’ decline and its

total population size, species are categorised as:

Critically endangered

Endangered

Vulnerable

Near-threatened.

A Red Data list for Namibian birds is in preparation (Simmons & Brown). This

describes the Namibian situation for the relevant birds, and has been used in this

assessment. Some Namibian birds are also globally threatened, in which case they

also appear on the global Red Data classification from Birdlife International (2004).

http://www.the-eis.com/

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1.4.4 Fine-tuning in discussion with NamPower

The proposed route and design was assessed using the above information and

activities. In discussions about the practicality and cost of bird flight diverters (BFDs),

NamPower objected to a first suggestion that the whole line should be fitted with

spirals and/or flashing devices and/or flappers. As a compromise, the length of the

line requiring BFDs was reduced, and a design of BFD that would be long-lasting and

relatively maintenance-free was agreed on.

1.5 ASSUMPTIONS AND LIMITATIONS

The field inspection by vehicle was confined to existing roads so did not follow the

exact proposed power line route. Prior to driving through the area, the brief aerial

survey by helicopter had been used to assess the habitats around the Oshakati –

Lake Oponono that the power line would traverse. These two field visits were

considered adequate to identify the various habitats, assess their condition, and

consider the likelihood of occurrence of certain birds.

Namibia’s avifauna database was used to draw up the list of birds likely to occur

along the proposed route, and was added to on the basis of personal observations

and experience in the areas and habitats. For example, oshana areas near the

proposed route between Okahao and Oshakati will be likely to attract any of the

wetland species found on the avifauna database for this general area. Also, open

plains in Etosha NP host kori and (rarely) Ludwig’s bustards, so the plains habitats

traversed in the south-eastern section of the proposed route could also be

frequented by these birds, even though they are not recorded from the relevant

quarter-degree squares on the avifauna database.

Monitoring of power lines for bird mortalities in Namibia has been very limited overall.

Ad hoc records, only since 2008, have been compiled into a database, and the

database contains very few records from north-central Namibia. This probably

reflects less monitoring and recording of bird mortalities, rather than less mortalities

per se.

Settlements are rapidly expanding in the area south of Oshakati, especially around

the Ekuma River and Lake Oponono. Thus some literature references which call this

area ‘remote’ and ‘uninhabited’ are no longer like that. This affects the likelihood of

finding certain birds in these areas, such as cranes.

Information on movements of birds to and from Etosha Pan is extremely sketchy, and

the lines drawn in Figure 12 showing ‘possible crane movements’ are based on very

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limited data. This reduces the confidence we can place on the assessment, and

emphasises the need for a precautionary approach.

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2 PROJECT DESCRIPTION

2.1 ROUTE AND POWER LINE STRUCTURES

The proposed route of the power line is shown in Figure 1 and described below.

Section 1: Single circuit TX line (Figure structure) approximately 184 km, from the

Kunene SS eastward to the Makalani SS located approximately 12 km due

south of Oshakati;

Section 2: Single circuit TX line (Figure structure) approximately 18 km long, from

Makalani SS north to Omatando SS located on the outskirts of Ongwediva;

Section 3: Single circuit TX line (Figure structure) approximately 68 km, from

Omatando SS eastward, running along the existing 132 kV TX line to the vicinity

of Okatope SS; and

Section 4: Single circuit TX line (Figure structure) approximately 106 km, on a

new alignment (deviating from 132 kV line), from the vicinity of Okatope SS to

Oshivelo SS.

THIS REPORT FOCUSES ON SECTIONS 3 AND 4 ONLY. SECTIONS 1 and 2 WERE

ASSESSED IN THE REPORT ON THE WESTERN PORTION.

There will also be a new substation at Makalani, and the existing substation at

Omatando will be expanded, as follows:

Makalani SS – approximately 500 m x 500 m (25 ha);

Omatando SS expansion – existing substation is to be extended in a north-

westerly direction, 230 m x 330 m (7.6 ha);

Figure 1: Proposed route of the power line, showing the sections described above.

2.2 STRUCTURAL FEATURES OF THE POWER LINE

The entire length of the proposed power line is approximately 380 km long. Sections

1, 3 and 4 (Kunene SS to Makalani SS, and Omatando to Okatope to Oshivelo SS) will

be supported on galvanised steel guyed V-structures (Figure ). Section 2 (Makalani

SS to Omatando SS, NOT INCLUDED IN THE EASTERN PORTION) will be held on self-

supporting galvanised steel monopoles Figure). The approximate height of these

structures will be 45 m.

The

servitudes will be 80m wide for sections 1, 3 and 4, which run through relatively

sparsely populated areas, and 50m for section 2, which runs through a densely

populated area. For the entire line only an estimated 12m width needs to be totally

cleared of vegetation and obstacles to create a service road, to provide access

(during construction and maintenance) to the line throughout its lifespan of 30 years.

The EIA team will however assess a corridor of 500m wide (250m on either side of the

proposed line).

Figure 2: Example of structure in sections 1, 3 and

4 of the route.

Figure 3: Example of structure in section 2.

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3 LEGAL REQUIREMENTS POLICIES AND GUIDELINES

3.1 INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS OR GUIDELINES

The UN Convention on Biodiversity has been ratified by Namibia, and commits the

country to protecting all species naturally occurring in its territory.

Namibia is a signatory to the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International

Importance, which holds the country to protect its nominated wetlands and

associated biodiversity. Etosha Pan and the Cuvelai wetlands north of the Pan are

listed as one of four of Namibia’s Ramsar sites.

Namibia will soon become a signatory to the Bonn Convention on Migratory

Species, which holds the country to protect the areas where migratory species

spend part of their life cycle. Namibia’s responsibility relevant to this proposed

power line extends to migrant birds such as lesser flamingo and black-winged

pratincole, which visit the Etosha and Cuvelai area from other parts of Africa and

Europe, respectively.

3.2 NATIONAL LEGISLATION POLICIES OR GUIDELINES

The Nature Conservation Ordinance (1975) establishes a framework for species and

area conservation, by controlling the hunting and protection of wild animals and

plants. Important habitats and species are offered protection under national parks

or reserves.

The Parks and Wildlife Management Bill (2009) will replace the Nature Conservation

Ordinance. It is not yet in force.

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4 THE RECEIVING ENVIRONMENT

4.1 BIRD HABITATS

The western part of the proposed route (Kunene SS to the bend-point at the

southern-most point of this leg) traverses mainly western Kalahari woodland and

mopane shrubland. This habitat is quite dense, with trees of medium height (up to

about 3-4m), dominated by mopane or in patchy mosaics with other trees, and with

occasional open grassy patches (Figures 4 and 5) The important characteristics for

birds are that the vegetation is quite dense with few open patches, and few large

trees that stand taller than the bushy layer. In the very far west there are a few

elongated koppies of higher relief than the surroundings.

Figure 4. Typical vegetation in Section 1 of the

route, showing western Kalahari woodland

vegetation. The low ridges at the far western end

of the route are visible on the horizon.

Figure 5. Open patch of grasses and shrubs in the

western Kalahari woodland vegetation of Section

1.

From the southern bend-point to Omatando SS the proposed route traverses

oshanas and fields, and the urban settlements centred around Oshakati and

Ongwediva (Figures 6, 7 and 8). The shallow channels and pans making up the

oshanas contain emergent vegetation during the wet season and constitute

important wetland habitat for birds such as ducks, various waders and egrets. Fields

are cultivated with mahango in the wet season and stand fallow at other times.

Vegetation on the ground between oshanas comprises occasional tall trees (e.g.

marula, jackal berry, bird plum, makalani palms), shrubby mopanes and sandy areas

with grass or stands of the weedy shrub bitterbos (Pechuel-Loeschea leubnitziae).

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South-east of Omatando SS the proposed route traverses mainly cultivated and

settled ground, as far as Oshalongo. The terrain is a mosaic of homesteads, fields

and open grazing areas, with scattered trees (Figure 9).

Figure 6. An oshana close to

Okahao, showing emergent

vegetation in the channel and

generally open habitat.

Figure 7. The oshana running

through Ongwediva where the

proposed power line will be

routed close to the existing line

visible on the left.

Figure 8. A typical oshana scene

during the wet season.

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The final 50 km of the proposed route, as the line approaches Oshivelo running north

and east of the existing 132 kV line, traverses Kalahari woodland with quite dense,

medium-height trees.

The proposed route traverses a few conservancies that lie north of Etosha National

Park, as shown in Figure 11. These are:

Uukolonkadhi Ruacana Conservancy

Uukwaludhi Conservancy

Sheya Shuushona Conservancy

Iipumbu ya Tshilongo Conservancy

King Nehale Conservancy

Conservancies are relevant to the bird fauna and biodiversity generally because

their core wildlife areas should preferably not be traversed by power lines. This is to

limit disturbance during construction, to prevent easy access along the servitude

Figure 9. Mahango field near

Omatando. The new power line will

run parallel and close to the

existing 132 kV line visible here.

Figure 10. Mixed mopane

woodland and eastern Kalahari

woodland in the area south-east

of Okatope. Note the buffalo-

weaver nests in the framework of

the 132 kV towers.

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track during the operational phase, and to prevent any aesthetic deterioration in

the areas which might become valuable for tourism.

Figure 11. Map showing the route of the proposed power line. The central section traverses mostly settled and farmed

areas that are associated with the oshanas, and cultivated fields cover much of the landscape as far south-east as

Oshivelo. The map also shows the conservancies and Etosha National Park in the overall area.

Table 1: Feature related sensitivities

FEATURE DESCRIPTION SENSITIVITY POTENTIAL IMPACT

Western

Kalahari

woodlands

and mopane

shrublands

Medium density

woodland with open

grassy patches

Habitat for raptors, ground

hornbill, kori bustard

Potential mortalities of

these birds by collisions.

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Cuvelai

wetlands

and

surrounding

grasslands

Shallow ephemeral

pans and channels of

the oshanas, with

surrounding saline

grasslands around the

edges of Etosha Pan

and the Omadhiya

lakes.

The oshanas and grasslands

of the Cuvelai support many

birds, including a number of

Red Data species, by

providing the habitat and

conditions for their feeding,

shelter and breeding. Birds

such as cranes and flamingos

that might fly northwards are

likely to use flight paths that

follow oshanas.

Negative impact by

collisions on the numbers

and diversity of birds in

this habitat.

Cranes, saddle-blled

stork, flamingos and

pelican are Red Data

species that could be

impacted. Ludwig’s and

kori bustards may

occasionally visit the

open grasslands.

Grasslands Andoni Flats and

associated grasslands

around the

northeastern perimeter

of Etosha Pan. This

area is not traversed by

the proposed route,

but the line passes

about 10 km to the

north-east of the Flats.

These grasslands are foraging

areas for two species of

cranes, both Critically

Endangered. Also likely

habitat for bustards and other

grassland species.

This habitat is not

traversed by the

proposed route.

However it is likely to

attract birds such as

cranes and bustards,

thereby increasing the

potential for collisions in

the nearby parts of the

power line.

Eastern

Kalahari

woodlands

Medium density

woodland with open

grassy patches

Habitat for raptors, kori

bustard. This area will

probably also carry traffic of

wetland birds flying to and

from Etosha Pan.

Potential mortalities of

these birds by collisions.

4.2 BIRDS WITH HIGH CONSERVATION STATUS

Two hundred bird species have been recorded along the length of the proposed

power line route (Appendix A). This high number is a reflection of the diversity of

habitats that the line crosses or runs close to, including wetlands of the oshana

system that funnels from southern Angola towards the Etosha Pan.

The bird list includes 29 species that are conservation priorities by virtue of declining

populations or endemicity (Table 2). Notes on each of these species are provided

below, describing the threats they face and their significance to the present project.

Unless stated otherwise, information is drawn from Simmons & Brown (in prep.): ‘Birds

to watch in Namibia – Red, rare and threatened species’.

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Table 2: Red-listed and endemic birds found along the proposed power line route

Red Data listing Namibian endemics Main habitat

Blue Crane Critically Endangered Wetland

Wattled Crane Critically Endangered Wetland

Cape Vulture Critically Endangered Savanna

Grey Crowned Crane Endangered Wetland

Saddlebilled Stork Endangered Wetland

Rufousbellied Heron Endangered Wetland

Tawny Eagle Endangered Savanna

Martial Eagle Endangered Savanna

Bateleur Endangered Savanna

Ludwig’s Bustard Endangered Savanna

Violet Woodhoopoe Endangered Endemic Savanna

Southern Ground Hornbill Endangered Savanna

Yellowbilled Oxpecker Endangered Savanna

White Pelican Vulnerable Wetland

Greater Flamingo Vulnerable Wetland

Lesser Flamingo Vulnerable Wetland

Secretarybird Vulnerable Savanna

Lappetfaced Vulture Vulnerable Savanna

Whiteheaded Vulture Vulnerable Savanna

Kori Bustard Near Threatened Savanna

Blacknecked Grebe Near Threatened Wetland

Marabou Stork Near Threatened Wetland and savanna

Maccoa Duck Near Threatened Wetland

Whitebacked Vulture Near Threatened Savanna

Pallid Harrier Near Threatened Wetland

Peregrine Falcon Near Threatened Savanna

Western Redfooted Kestrel Near Threatened Savanna

Blackwinged Pratincole Near Threatened Wetland and savanna

Rueppell's Parrot Near Threatened Endemic Savanna

4.2.1 Critically endangered birds

4.2.1.1 Blue crane

The blue crane has the smallest range of all of the world's cranes, in three separated

sub-populations in South Africa and Namibia (Figure 12). The total population is

estimated at about 25,000 birds, but the Namibian component is tiny, at about 20

birds (Namibia Crane News, 2013). These birds are concentrated in the eastern parts

of Etosha National Park and in the grasslands centred on the Omadhiya lakes

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immediately north of the Park. They have been observed in a few other places in

the country, and movements of individuals are very poorly understood.

Figure 12. Distribution of blue cranes in northern Namibia. This map is based on data from when they were more

common in the 1990s (Allan 1997), with the highest density of birds centred on Etosha Pan and the Omadhiya lakes.

Orange hatched areas have recorded individuals in the past, and there may still be occasional movements between

these areas. It is possible that wattled cranes observed in south-eastern Angola, and a single blue crane found on the

Okavango River in 2012, may be birds that move to and from the Etosha Pan area.

Namibia’s blue cranes breed and rear their chicks within Etosha during the wet

season. During dry times of the year they dig up and eat the ‘uintjies’ that grow

amongst grass on the flats around Andoni and Lake Oponono, and north of King

Nehale gate. Dry season numbers are typically low in the Etosha-Oponono area,

but where they go to is not known. A blue crane recorded in Kavango in 2012 may

have been on the move to large wetlands in south-eastern Angola, the Bulozi

floodplain, where wattled cranes have been observed in large numbers (Namibia

Crane News 2013).

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The birds are in decline from habitat loss due to expanding human populations,

trapping and snaring, poisoning, and their high vulnerability to collisions with power

lines. Also, the small isolated population here is now prone to inbreeding. This

combination of factors could push the species to extinction in Namibia within a few

generations. The serious threats to this species elevate it to Critically Endangered,

while globally it is listed as Vulnerable as the South African population is larger but is

also in decline.

4.2.1.2 Wattled crane

Small numbers of wattled cranes occur at the ephemeral lakes at Oponono and

Oshituntu, north of Etosha, and in open wetland areas north of Etosha National Park

during wetter periods. The Namibian population is estimated at about 250 birds, and

these are concentrated in wetland and swamp areas of north-eastern Namibia. This

is a very slow-breeding bird which reaches sexual maturity after 8-9 years, so its

recovery from a population decline is very slow. Direct human disturbance and

degradation of wetland habitat are probably the main factors causing its decline,

and it is also vulnerable to collision with power lines.

It is listed as Critically Endangered in Namibia because of its very small population

size. It has the same listing in South Africa, and globally is considered Vulnerable

because of the relatively small global population size that is thought to be declining.

Sporadic recordings of these birds, in the face of dedicated searching by various

crane observers in Namibia, suggest that they move widely from place to place.

The Bulozi floodplains and areas of the Cuito in south-eastern Angola host possibly

hundreds of these birds (Namibia Crane News 2013), suggesting that there might be

Figure 13. Blue crane.

Photo: G.Keding

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movements from Etosha Pan in a NE direction. This is only conjecture, but raises a

concern that the proposed power line might intersect their flight paths, causing

crane mortalities.

4.2.1.3 Cape vulture

Like the other vulture species described below, Cape vultures forage over extensive

areas in and around Etosha National Park, and widely further afield. The number of

individuals in Namibia is extremely low, centred on the breeding colony at the

Waterberg, but individuals range widely over the subcontinent, as shown by the

tracking of one young individual over 5 years (Figure 14).

This species is ranked as Critically Endangered in Namibia. It is vulnerable to

poisoning, drowning in farm reservoirs, direct persecution, and power line collisions.

Figure 14. Movements of one Cape Vulture around southern Africa. Black dots represent daily fixes

on the bird over a 5-year period (Mendelsohn 2014, unpublished data).

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4.2.2 Endangered birds

4.2.2.1 Grey crowned crane

Grey crowned cranes inhabit dry grassland associated with wetlands, and in

Namibia they are confined to the grasslands north of Etosha in the Lake Oponono –

Lake Oshituntu area, and very rarely occur within Etosha itself. The Namibian

population is less than 50 birds. It is vulnerable to degradation of breeding and

feeding habitat, disturbance while breeding, poisoning and electrocutions and

collisions on power lines.

While the Namibian population of this species is very small it is not thought to be

declining and it represents less than 1% of the estimated 8,000 – 12,000 birds in

southern Africa. The global status of the entire species is Endangered as it has

suffered large-scale decreases in its strongholds in east Africa.

4.2.2.2 Saddle-billed stork

Saddle-billed storks are thinly spread in wetlands across Namibia, with their core

population in the Okavango Delta and the Zambezi-Kwando wetlands. The global

population is estimated at 10,000 birds, with Namibia holding about 200 birds. They

are found in fairly dry areas with aquatic habitat nearby, including woodlands with

pans and marshes, as well as on rivers and floodplains. They have been recorded in

the Lake Oponono area, Ekuma River and the eastern side of Etosha Pan.

This bird is classified as Endangered in Namibia because of its small population size.

Because of the difficulty in censussing this widespread species and its nomadic

Figure 15. Saddle-billed stork.

Photo: G.Keding

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movements around southern Africa's wetlands, it is not known if numbers are

declining. It is vulnerable to collisions against power lines (www.the-eis.com).

4.2.2.3 Rufous-bellied heron

This is a small, secretive heron whose core distribution is in central and southern

Africa. It is a possible vagrant to the project area as it does sometimes inhabit

temporarily flooded wetlands. It is threatened by degradation of wetland habitat,

i.e. increasing use of reedbeds and fish resources, as a result of increasing human

population density. The species is classified as Endangered in Namibia due to its

small population size (about 4% of the total population) and the increasing pressure

on its resources. Monitoring of the population is difficult because of the bird’s elusive

nature.

4.2.2.4 Eagles

There are four species of eagles classified as Endangered that are expected to

occur in the project area: martial eagle, tawny eagle and bateleur eagle.

Common to these three birds is their vulnerability to poisoning (intentionally set to kill

raptors or as a consequence of baiting against mammal predators), and a declining

availability of small wildlife prey. Drowning in farm reservoirs is also a frequent cause

of mortalities. All three species are vulnerable to collisions and electrocutions on

power lines (Birds and power lines assessment tool, www.the-eis.com).

Figure 16. Tawny eagle.

Photo: G.Keding



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4.2.2.5 Ludwig’s bustard

This is a nomadic bird of arid, open habitat and may occur in the project area as a

rare vagrant. It is classified as Endangered on account of its high mortality rate from

collisions against power lines. The quite densely vegetated nature of the western

part of the proposed route makes the habitat unattractive for Ludwig’s, while on the

eastern side, in the vicinity of Etosha Pan, its occurrence is a rare possibility (Pallett

pers. observations).

4.2.2.6 Yellow-billed oxpecker and violet woodhoopoe

Both these species are likely to occur in parts of the project area. The woodhoopoe

likes arid woodland habitat particularly along dry river beds, and requires dead

branches on large trees for foraging and breeding. Oxpeckers are closely

associated with grazing cattle and wild ungulates and also nest in holes in preferably

large riverine trees. Both species are expected at low frequency.

4.2.2.7 Southern ground hornbill

This large terrestrial hornbill has declined in abundance in north-central Namibia due

to the expansion of settlements and farming activities which leave very few large

undisturbed areas that it requires. The estimated Namibian population is about 1,000

birds, which equates to about 220-370 pairs as only one pair in a group of 3-5 birds

actually breeds. Also, they require both open grassland for foraging, and wooded

savanna with large trees for breeding, and this combination is becoming harder to

find in any one area in north-central Namibia due to expanding settlements, veld

fires and wood-cutting for fuel. The species is ranked as Endangered in Namibia

because of the small population size and its sharp decline over the last 20-30 years.

4.2.3 Vulnerable birds

4.2.3.1 Great white pelican

Great white pelicans are found across much of Namibia and across Africa into

Eurasia, with the southern African subspecies numbering about 3,000 in Namibia and

an equal number in SA. Large breeding events occurred at Lake Oponono and the

Ekuma River in the 1970s but have not been repeated since, probably due to natural

drying of ephemeral pans and lakes. Such mass breeding in this area is unlikely to

recur because of greater human presence now and the disturbance from people

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and dogs. The birds are also vulnerable to decreasing prey availability (fish) and

collisions against power lines.

4.2.3.2 Greater flamingo and lesser flamingo

Both species of flamingos breed in Etosha Pan, and the lesser flamingo also likes

more saline lakes such as in the Ekuma River. They breed in this area when it holds

water, and stay mainly at coastal pans for the rest of the year. Their movements are

mainly from the Etosha – Ekuma area to the southwest to the coast, and south-east

towards Nyae-Nyae pans and Sua Pan in Botswana. Further north than Etosha-

Ekuma, they are also known to occur in the Lake Olushandja – Ruacana area, but

this is infrequent and involves much smaller numbers than the thousands which

breed in the Etosha-Ekuma area. Thus flight movements into the project area are

likely to be infrequent and in small numbers, but there might be sporadic events

when large numbers of flamingos fly to and from Etosha Pan in extremely wet years.

Breeding events take place when rain provides adequate water in the Etosha Pan

but the recruitment of young birds into the population is relatively low, not at a high

enough level to sustain the southern African populations of both species. This justifies

the ranking of both species as Vulnerable. Flamingos are known to collide against

power lines, they are also easily disturbed while breeding (e.g. from overhead plane

flights) which reduces their breeding success, and are vulnerable to pesticides,

toxins and abstraction of water from breeding sites (e.g. at Sua Pan).

The population of flamingos at Etosha Pan in the years of maximum breeding in

Etosha Pan (early 1970s) was over one million (Berry 1972), which is higher than the

total normal southern African population. Etosha had attracted birds from very far

afield, most probably Lake Natron in Tanzania. This demonstrates an important

aspect, that breeding ‘booms’ take place very episodically, and are important

events in the long-term survival of the species. The population dwindles slowly over

decades following these events, and it requires these episodic boosts to maintain a

healthy level.

4.2.3.3 Secretary bird

The secretary bird is classified as Vulnerable and known to be a victim of power line

collisions in Namibia. This bird needs open plains for foraging and isolated tall trees

for breeding, conditions which exist in Etosha NP. Movements of this species are

poorly understood but its presence in the project area is possible, particularly in the

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area close to the open grasslands around the north-eastern perimeter of Etosha. It is

ranked as Vulnerable due to the small and declining population.

4.2.3.4 Lappet-faced vulture

Lappet-faced vultures occur at low density over most of Namibia, soaring high and

over long distances to locate ungulate carcasses, their main food item. One of their

cores of distribution is in Etosha National Park, but the birds do not breed there.

Poisons and drowning are the main threats to lappet-faced vultures in southern

Africa and Namibia, while persecution, disturbance at nesting sites, and collisions

and electrocution on power lines are also a threat.

4.2.3.5 Whiteheaded vulture

White headed vultures in Namibia are found within Etosha National Park and

eastwards to the Kavango and Zambezi Regions. Their numbers are estimated at

about 1,000 birds in Namibia, or 5 to 10% of the estimated global population. They

are ranked as Vulnerable based on declining numbers, as they are susceptible to

poisoning like all other vultures and many eagles in Namibia. The EIS power line –

bird assessment tool lists this species as vulnerable to collisions and electrocutions on

power lines.

Figure 16. Secretary bird.

Photo: G.Keding

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4.2.4 Near Threatened birds

4.2.4.1 Black-necked grebe

This small grebe breeds in inland saline pans and gathers in large numbers at coastal

pans when not breeding. Etosha Pan and the Omadiyha Lakes and Ekuma River

area are important breeding areas. Movements of the birds are most likely to be to

the southwest, south and east of Etosha.

4.2.4.2 Marabou stork

Marabou storks frequent wetlands such as inland dams and pans, and the species

has a relatively strong core of distribution in and around Etosha NP. It scavenges

from waste dumps and from carrion, and is expected as an occasional vagrant in

the project area.

4.2.4.3 Maccoa duck

Maccoa ducks occur occasionally at ephemeral pans such as Etosha, and move

nomadically between such water bodies inland and along the west coast. The

Namibian estimate of about 2,000 birds is probably about 25% of the total

population. It is a possible victim of collisions against power lines.

4.2.4.4 White backed vulture

White-backed vultures are widely distributed over the savanna areas of Africa.

Despite a relatively strong population in Namibia (roughly estimated at 10,000 birds),

they are classified as Near-Threatened because of continuing poisoning and a

Figure 17. Marabou stork.

Photo: G.Keding

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declining food base, as well as drownings, power line mortalities and killing for

traditional muti. They nest in tall trees, usually with many birds loosely congregated

in an area with such trees, such as lining a river course. No nests were seen in the

field inspection of the route.

4.2.4.5 Kori bustard

Kori bustards are large, mainly terrestrial birds which can fly strongly. The size of the

Namibian population is not known but they are thinly scattered over open and tree

savanna, with one core of the population in Etosha NP (Allan 1997, Hockey et al.

2005). They are not listed as Namibian Red Data birds but are globally considered

Near-Threatened due to the declining population, caused by power line mortalities,

hunting and habitat degradation (IUCN 2013). They are expected to occur in the

open grassland areas of the Andoni flats and surrounds, and in open patches on the

western leg of the route. Movements of koris could take place over any part of the

proposed route.

4.2.4.6 Pallid harrier

The pallid harrier probably occurs infrequently in the areas of grassland around pans

in the Etosha-Ekuma area. It is vulnerable to power line collisions (R.Simmons pers.

comm.) and degradation of wetland and grassland habitats.

Figure 18. Kori bustard.

Photo: G.Keding

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4.2.4.7 Peregrine falcon

The migratory subspecies of this bird is a possible rare visitor to the project area, while

the resident African subspecies is unlikely to occur here as it likes habitat with sheer

cliffs. The one that might occur here is widespread worldwide and is not threatened.

4.2.4.8 Black-winged pratincole

This bird is most likely to be found in the grasslands to the north-east of Etosha and in

cultivated fields in the north-central regions, where it visits for a few months in mid-

summer. Flocks move nomadically around southern Africa in search of suitable

insect swarms, especially termites and grasshoppers, before heading back to the

steppes in Eurasia for the northern summer. It is estimated that not more than 800

birds visit Namibia, out of a total global, declining, population of about 50,000. Loss

of breeding habitat and intensification of agriculture are the main causes of the

decline, and it is probably also vulnerable to power line collisions.

4.2.4.9 Rueppell’s parrot

Rueppell’s parrots may occur in the extreme north-west and south-east sections of

the project area, where there are trees for feeding and breeding. They are found

mainly in the escarpment areas of north-western Namibia, and extend into south-

western Angola, but the total Namibian population is less than 30,000 birds. The

main threat to this species is capturing of live birds for the parrot trade.

Table 2: Feature related sensitivities

FEATURE DESCRIPTION SENSITIVITY POTENTIAL IMPACT

Bird

collisions

Various species of

predominantly large birds

are prone to colliding

against power lines.

Collision mortalities are a

significant threat for many

Red Date species. In many

cases this cause of mortality

combines with other threats

such as dwindling habitat and

food resources, and greater

human disturbance.

The cumulative

impact of collisions

added on top of

other threats poses a

significant threat to

over 20 Red Data

birds in Namibia.

Electro-

cutions of

birds on

power lines

Large birds that perch, such

as eagles and vultures, can

get electrocuted on lines

when they open their wings

and breach two

It is mainly large raptors such

as martial eagles and white-

backed vultures that are

prone to electrocution in

As above, incidents of

electrocution may be

rare but in

combination with

other factors they

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conductors. The design of

towers for this line are less

prone to this problem but

electrocutions may still

occur in some rare

circumstances, when two or

more birds coincidentally

breach the gap between

conductors. Large nests on

towers can also cause this

problem.

Namibia. may threaten certain

Red Data eagles and

vultures.

Disturbance

of breeding

birds

Birds may be disturbed at

their nest sites either

intentionally or by accident.

Intentional disturbance, such

as collecting young parrots or

trapping birds for the muti

trade, makes certain species

such as parrots and vultures

vulnerable.

The birds may lose

that clutch of young,

resulting in less

recruitment into the

population. This can

be critical for birds

with small or declining

populations.

4.2.5 Sections of the proposed route and occurrence of specific birds

Different sections of the proposed power line route are likely to be frequented by

different birds. This dictates the level of risk associated with the different sections,

which in turn influences the level of mitigation required.

The various sections are shown in Figure 20, and Table 3 shows which birds are likely

to occur in which sections.

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Table 3

Section Habitat Vulnerable Red Data birds

Section a

(T – U – V)

Western Kalahari

woodland &

mopane

shrubland

Tawny eagle, martial eagle, bateleur, booted eagle,

Verreauxs’ eagle, secretary bird, Cape vulture,

lappet-faced vulture, white-headed vulture, white-

backed vulture, peregrine falcon, western red-footed

kestrel, black-winged pratincole, Ludwig’s bustard,

kori bustard, violet woodhoopoe, ground hornbill,

yellow-billed oxpecker, Rueppell’s parrot, Hartlaub’s

francolin

Section b

(V – W )

Cuvelai oshanas

and wetlands

Blue crane, wattled crane, grey crowned crane,

saddle-billed stork, rufous-bellied heron, marabou

stork, maccoa duck, pallid harrier, greater flamingo,

lesser flamingo

Section c

(W – X )

Heavily settled

and urban areas

Possibly marabou stork

Figure 20. Sections of the proposed route likely to be frequented by specific birds described in Table 3.

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with oshanas

Section d

(X – Y)

Medium-settled

areas with

scattered

homesteads,

fields and open

grazing land.

Occasional

oshanas

Tawny eagle, martial eagle, bateleur, Cape vulture,

lappet-faced vulture, white-headed vulture, white-

backed vulture, peregrine falcon, western red-footed


kori bustard, violet woodhoopoe, yellow-billed

oxpecker, maccoa duck

Section e

(Y – Z)

Medium- to

sparsely-settled

areas with

occasional

oshanas, grading

into eastern

Kalahari

woodland in the

south.

Blue crane, wattled crane, grey crowned crane,

saddle-billed stork, marabou stork, maccoa duck,

pallid harrier, greater flamingo, lesser flamingo.

Tawny eagle, martial eagle, bateleur, secretary bird,

Cape vulture, lappet-faced vulture, white-headed

vulture, white-backed vulture, western red-footed


kori bustard, violet woodhoopoe, yellow-billed

oxpecker, Rueppell’s parrot

4.2.6 Bird - power line conflicts reported to date

4.2.6.1 Collisions

The EIS power line bird assessment tool (www.the-eis.com) reports no collision

incidents in the area of the proposed power line (Figure 21). Power lines existing in

the area include many lengths of 33kV and 132kV lines running between Oshivelo

and Ruacana, and northwards from Oshakati to Oshikango, and a 66kV line running

between Oshivelo and Oshakati. However there has been no dedicated monitoring

of any power lines in the area north and west of Tsumeb. The closest records are of

a cormorant killed on an 11kV line in the Tsintsabis area, and doves and an

unidentified bird killed on a 220kV line between Tsumeb and Otavi.

4.2.6.2 Electrocutions

Birds that perch on power lines pose a risk of creating a short-circuit between

conductors, usually when they defecate in a long stream. During landing, take-off

or stretching, when the wings are extended, large birds can span some of the

distance between conductors, which might be enough to short-circuit the


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conductors. This is unlikely on large capacity lines and with the design of towers to

reduce this possibility. Nevertheless, it does still happen rarely, such as when there is

a cluster of birds and two or more coincidentally have their wings out-stretched in

the gap between conductors.

Birds reported perching on power lines in the general area of this proposed line

include black-chested and brown snake-eagles, on towers of the 132kV line NW of

Tsumeb (www.the-eis.com). Other birds that are known to cause electrocution

problems include various eagles and vultures, secretary bird, marabou stork, crows,

pale chanting goshawks, falcons and kestrels. Only the larger of these are expected

to be problematic along this proposed line.

4.2.6.3 Bird nests

Towers supporting power lines present nest-building sites that some birds favour as

they are high and out of reach of ground predators. Martial eagles frequently do

this in dry areas where tall trees are absent; other raptors are also known to do this,

and nests of red-billed buffalo weavers are very common on the existing 132kV line

between Tsumeb and Oshakati. The strutted framework of the V-shaped towers to

be erected on sections 1, 3 and 4 will attract buffalo weavers and possibly small

Figure 21. Quarter-degree squares showing relative numbers of bird species affected by, or affecting, power

lines, in the general area of the proposed route shown as a red line. Colour codes of squares: no shading – 0

species. White 1-4 species. Pale pink 5-9 species. Medium pink 10-14 species. Dark pink 15+ species. Coloured

spheres in SE corner show sites of recorded collisions or electrocutions.


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raptors for nesting. Their near-vertical shape, with a sharp apex, does not present a

suitable nesting surface for large birds that need a robust horizontal perch to land

and build on. The monopole structures to be erected on section 2 of the western

portion present possible nesting and landing sites where the horizontal arms of the

insulators meet the vertical pole.

4.3 PROTECTED AREAS AND THE ETOSHA RAMSAR SITE

Etosha Pan and its surrounds in the National Park is an official Wetland of

International Importance under the Ramsar Convention (Ramsar Site No. 745)

(http://ramsar.wetlands.org ). Although only the area inside the National Park is

demarcated (Figure 22), the description provided by Ramsar includes the Etosha

Pan, Lake Oponono and the Cuvelai drainage. This covers the area between 17º24’

and 19º15’S, and from 14º to 17º E. The citation is as follows:

“A system of ephemeral rivers, feeding pans and associated lake and delta.

Habitats include the pans, seasonally-flooded grasslands, palm tree savannah,

woodlands, and dry bush savannah. … The site supports populations of several rare

and endangered large mammals, and in good rainy seasons it serves as a breeding

ground for flamingos.”

http://ramsar.wetlands.org/

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Figure 22. Situation of the Ramsar Wetland of International Importance at Etosha Pan.

Etosha National Park is recognised as an Important Bird Area in Namibia and

globally (Simmons et al. 1999), on account of its high diversity of birds (over 340

species) and its role as a breeding site for lesser and greater flamingos. Etosha is one

of only two regular breeding sites of these species in southern Africa, the other being

Sua Pan in the Makgadikgadi Pans in Botswana. The pan and surrounding grassland

are habitat for some migrant birds from Europe and Asia (e.g. black-winged

pratincole, Caspian plover), and provide the only safe refuge in Namibia for blue

cranes. Saddle-billed stork, wattled crane, crowned crane and marabou stork are

also found in this habitat in the Park, while kori bustard and Ludwig’s bustard occur in

the grassland and open savanna. The area is recognised for its richness of raptors.

The fact that Etosha serves as a focus for so many birds also means that the birds will

also fly away from and towards this area, where they might conflict with the

proposed power line to the north and north-east.

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4.3.1 Regional and international importance of Etosha Pan

As described above, certain birds use the Etosha Pan and associated wetlands on a

seasonal or episodic basis, for breeding and feeding (Figure 23). Lesser flamingos

come in from east Africa when there has been the ideal amount of rainfall to sustain

a long breeding, feeding and fledging period. Pelicans move between Etosha,

Lake Oponono and the Kunene River for finding fish when they breed in Etosha.

Wattled cranes which breed around the Okavango Swamps move to the Etosha –

Oponono area at other times of the year. Other migrants such as black-winged

pratincole make annual migrations to Europe and Asia, combined with nomadic

movements in southern Africa depending on local conditions.

Figure 23. Wide-scale connectivity of Etosha Pan with other wetlands in Africa.

These examples show that birds move widely, and need to be allowed to do so

without restricting these movements by placing obstacles in their path.

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5 IMPACT ASSESSMENT (PORTION 2: OMATANDO – OSHIVELO

SUBSTATIONS)

5.1 BIRD COLLISIONS

5.1.1 Description of impact

The proposed power line will kill birds that collide into the conductors and earth

wires, threatening a range of wetland and savanna birds. The intensity of the threat

differs from species to species, depending on their present population and range,

and their vulnerability to collisions. Red Data species most likely to be affected are:

Tawny eagle, bateleur eagle;

Cape vulture, White-backed vulture, lappet-faced vulture, white-headed

vulture;

Secretary bird, marabou stork, saddle-billed stork;

Greater flamingo, lesser flamingo, great white pelican;

Blue crane, wattled crane;

Kori bustard, Ludwig’s bustard

5.1.1.1 Extent

The direct impact will be local, only affecting birds whose paths intersect the path of

the power line. Indirectly, the death of those birds will combine with the many other

pressures these species face, and contribute to a reduction in the population. For a

species such as a blue crane, one death could represent as much as 5% of the

population, and increase the genetic bottleneck that this species will face in

Namibia should their population pick up again. In this case, the geographic extent

of the impact is national.

5.1.1.2 Duration

The impact will last as long as the power line stands. Once installed, it is unlikely that

the lines will be taken down; if anything, the power line will be replaced in the future

with a higher capacity line. The impact is therefore definitely long term, possibly

extending to permanent.

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5.1.1.3 Probability

There is enough evidence from other power lines and in other areas of southern

Africa (Jenkins et al. 2010) and the world (e.g. Bevanger 1994) that large power lines

cause large bird collisions. The probability that collisions will occur is certain.

5.1.1.4 Intensity

The magnitude of this negative impact varies for different birds because some

species are more critically threatened than others. For the most threatened species,

the Critically Endangered cranes, the intensity of a power line mortality would be

Very High. For a more abundant species such as a secretary bird, a mortality would

be rated at a lower intensity, but it would still be ranked as high because the

population is small, in decline and threatened. This is the case with all of the Red

Data species.

It must be remembered that all of the Red Data species affected by the proposed

line are also threatened by other factors such as human disturbance, declining food

and habitat availability. The cumulative effect of the power line is thus high for all of

the Red Data birds.

5.1.1.5 Confidence

We know very little about bird movements, so cannot be sure of how many birds are

really put at risk. Interpretation of the movements of birds is also based on scattered

observations, since there is no evidence of actual flight paths taken. In this sense,

our confidence in the mortality risk is low. However, we know enough from other

comparable situations that collisions will occur, and the assessment of status of each

of the Red Data species is based on scientifically based population estimates and

ornithological expertise. We can therefore state with full confidence that collisions

will occur, and that this constitutes an added threat to the occurrence of the

specific birds mentioned. High.

5.1.1.6 Significance

The significance of this impact is rated as High, due to its potential to contribute to

the extinction of blue cranes in Namibia, and to add to the threat of at least 14

other Red Data birds.

5.1.2 Mitigation

Mitigation measures that are typically taken against bird collisions are devices that

increase the visibility of the wires. An outcome of an intensive study of bird collisions

in the Karoo in South Africa, where bustards and cranes were the main victims, was

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that all new power lines should be fitted with bird flight diverters (BFDs) (Shaw 2013).

This is all the more relevant for this 400 kV proposed line, as preliminary findings from

power line surveys in southern Namibia is that the highest capacity lines kill the

largest number of birds (Pallett unpublished data).

Justifications for any kind of bird devices on this proposed power line are:

1. We know that marking lines with bird flight diverters does help to reduce collisions

(Shaw 2013). There are enough Red Data birds in the general area of the route that

might be impacted by the line, so it is good policy to try to prevent those deaths.

2. The line is large and tall and high capacity, making it very difficult to install devices

after the line is switched on. If devices are ever going to be installed, it should be

done in the construction phase. The incremental cost of installing devices during

construction is much smaller than retrofitting. This argument is strengthened by the

fact that the proposed power line will stand for probably 50 years or more, during

which time the situation of the threatened birds is likely to deteriorate. NamPower

should not be adding to the threats against these birds, and should be attempting

to prevent collision deaths in a cost-effective manner.

3. Monitoring of the line for bird carcasses will be nearly impossible, because of the

high numbers of people and dogs which will carry carcasses away quickly, and the

route over bushy vegetation which makes finding carcasses difficult, or over water

where they might sink and decompose underwater and out of sight. Thus it is

preferable to mark the line thoroughly and know that collisions will be reduced, since

we will never know whether collisions have occurred or not. Rather prevent them

from occurring in the first place.

The questions then shift to:

4. Where will mitigation devices be most necessary?

5. What kind of devices are most likely to be effective?

6. What interval is recommended for spacing the devices, and along which wires?

4 and 5.

Despite the arguments listed above, NamPower expressed concern about the cost

of marking the whole line. From a financial perspective, it would be preferable to

identify areas along the line – so-called ‘hotspots’ – where collisions are more likely,

so that only those sections would need to be marked. However there is virtually no

information on flight paths of cranes in this area, and movements of raptors and

bustards is determined by food availability (such as carcasses or insect abundance),

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which cannot be predicted. Crane numbers are so critically low that adding any

risk to their occurrence in the area is unacceptable. These factors demand that the

whole area of vulnerability is marked with bird flight diverters.

In Figure 24, the section marked ‘d – 65 km’ carries a moderate risk of collisions with

Red Data birds such as saddle-billed stork, marabou stork and raptors, with a low

possibility of cranes due to the area being moderately settled by people, and the

fact that the power line corridor along part of its length is close to the B1 road which

carries much traffic. It was first recommended to NamPower that this section should

be marked with Double Loop Bird Flight Diverters (DLBFDs, Figure 23, also called

‘spirals’).

Subsequent revision of the recommendations, at NamPower’s request, has led to the

marking of this section being withdrawn from the recommendations. The long

distance to be marked, coupled with the relatively lower risk of collisions of

vulnerable wetland Red Data species, are the reasons that this section will now carry

no BFDs.

Figure 24. Sections of the proposed power line (red) where different levels of mitigation with bird flight diverters

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Most important, we cannot risk killing any blue cranes or wattled cranes on the

power line. Areas where there are possible crane movements are north-east of

Etosha Pan, where birds might fly on their path to the Okavango River and to

floodplains in south-eastern Angola. This section of the line, marked ‘e 120km’ in

Figure 24, should get full protection using DLBFDs i.e. spirals. In the absence of any

firm evidence of cranes flying at night, and recognising the difficulty of maintaining

devices which have lights, we do not recommend that the devices have lights.

Parts of section ‘d’ might warrant BFDs for a short distance, such as where the line

traverses oshanas or a clump of relatively tall trees. Such sections will be identified

by the consultant during the construction phase, and BFDs will be installed on those

sections.

6. Interval of bird devices. The Karoo experiment started by Shaw (2013) was based

on a 10m interval between devices on any one wire, with the devices staggered so

that an oncoming bird faced a spiral every 5 m. This is also the interval

recommended by Eskom (2009). This interval is recommended here too.

The spirals should be coloured either black or white, and the two colours should

alternate along the earth wires.

are suggested. Section d 65km – no BFDs. Section e 120km – spirals.

Figure 25. Catalogue graphic of the Double Loop Bird Flight Diverter

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5.1.2.1 Significance after mitigation

The intention of the very expensive mitigation is to prevent or at least significantly

reduce the incidence of collisions of Red Data birds on the proposed power line.

Longevity of the devices is not well known, as monitored trials have not been run for

long enough to know whether they will last for say 20 years, nor have trials been

conducted under Namibia’s harsh conditions of aridity and intense sunlight. Possible

deterioration of the devices includes:

Fading of the black colouration of spirals, and dust and grime collecting on

the white spirals, so that they lose contrast;

Perishing of the plastic, resulting in parts of the spirals breaking or whole spirals

snapping off altogether;

It is impossible to predict whether and how the devices will deteriorate, and how

their effectiveness will diminish with any gradual loss of functionality. The significance

of the impact will increase if such deterioration should occur.

Bird flight diverters rely on the birds seeing them, so that the birds can take evasive

action. But bustards, and possibly other birds, have limited forward vision when flying

(Martin & Shaw 2010), so that even lines that are made highly visible for humans are

not always detected by bustards. This reduces the effectiveness of the mitigation.

Aberrant weather conditions probably also reduce the effectiveness of bird flight

diverters. Strong winds, for instance, might make it difficult for large birds to steer

away from the lines, even if they see them.

Considering these factors, and the fact that about one third of the line is not going

to be marked, the significance of the mitigation in the long term is probably

Medium.

5.1.3 Monitoring

Monitoring for bird mortalities along this line is unlikely to yield any information

because carcasses will be cleared so quickly by people, dogs and natural

scavengers such as jackals. During standard maintenance operations, any bird

mortalities should be reported to the relevant NamPower staff member and to the

coordinators of the Environmental Information Service (www.the-eis.com) so that the

information is captured and available for future reference.

The condition of the devices should be recorded over time so that any deterioration

is noted. This information will be useful in refining the future design of the relevant


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devices, for maximum longevity. Also, it will alert NamPower staff of the need to

replace devices that lose their functionality.

5.1.4 Summary

The impact of potential collisions of large birds against the proposed power line is

rated as High significance. This is based on the fact that the area is frequented by

about 16 birds that are threatened and ranked as Red Data species, including three

Critically Endangered birds, the blue crane, wattled crane and Cape vulture.

To mitigate the impact of collisions, it is recommended that bird flight diverters are

installed during construction on about two-thirds of the total length of the line.

Section ‘e’ shown in Figure 24 should be fitted with spirals (Double Loop Bird Flight

Diverters), at 10 m intervals along each earth wire. Section ‘d’ should not be fitted

with BFDs, but this decision may be reconsidered for short sections (such as over

oshanas) where spirals will be installed for a short distance. Such sections will be

identified during a field visit by the bird specialist during the construction phase.

5.2 DISTURBANCE OF BIRDS, ESPECIALLY AT NESTS


Worker teams involved in construction and stringing the power line will stay in

construction camps along the route, and may hunt or set traps for wildlife (such as

steenbok, springbok, kudu) in the area, particularly in the eastern Kalahari woodland

close to Etosha NP. Raptors which nest in tall trees might be disturbed at their nests,

intentionally or by accident, causing breeding failure. This is not desirable for any

species, and may be a significant negative impact for Red Data species such as

tawny eagle (Endangered) and white-backed vulture (Near-Threatened).

5.2.1.1 Extent

Wildlife is likely to exist only in the far eastern sections of the proposed route, where

human settlements are sparser than in the areas close to Oshakati and Omuthiya.

Also, it is only in these quieter areas where large birds would possibly nest. Thus any

potential disturbance is confined to relatively short sections of the route, about 50

km at the eastern end.

This impact will be local, on the basis that only birds in close proximity to the

proposed route will be affected. However the impact will also extend to a wider

area because the death of individuals or disturbance at nesting sites has an impact

on the whole population. This is more significant for threatened species, whose

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populations are already low and/or declining. For the Red Data species which are

vulnerable to this impact, the impact is rated as national.

5.2.1.2 Duration

The impact will only last as long as the construction phase. Temporary.

5.2.1.3 Probability

It is likely that some level of illegal hunting will occur, and that there will be some

disturbance of nesting birds from the activities of vehicles and trucks during delivery

of materials and erection of the towers. Disturbance in these areas is a distinct

probability.

5.2.1.4 Intensity

The magnitude of this problem is probably relatively small, due to the fact that only

about one quarter of the total length of the route will be affected, and levels of

wildlife and nesting activities are probably quite low anyway. The intensity is

estimated to be low.


Low.

5.2.1.6 Confidence

Medium.

5.2.2 Mitigation

Prevention or reduction of this impact is difficult because it requires much vigilance

over the area where work teams are operating, and the staff within the relevant

authorities (viz. MET) is very limited. Active involvement of an ‘environmental

monitor’ hired by NamPower at the work sites could possibly help to keep levels of

intentional and accidental disturbance low. Any contravention of the law (e.g.

poaching) should be quickly and strictly dealt with so that it sends a deterrent

message to others.


The difficulties in reducing this impact mean that the significance will probably not

be reduced very much. It remains a low significance impact.

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5.2.3 Monitoring

Monitoring of this impact is also difficult because detection of disturbance requires

good prior knowledge of what wildlife and nesting birds are present in the area, and

active vigilance in the area for snares or signs of illegal hunting. Such signs are

usually difficult to find because perpetrators cover their tracks and keep their

activities hidden. Nevertheless, the environmental officer(s) and any security staff

should be briefed to be alert for suspicious activities.

5.2.4 Summary



about a quarter of the total length, and the population of wildlife and vulnerable

birds are both quite low. This is an impact of Low significance. Mitigation is difficult,

and should involve vigilance for any suspicious activities by any local security staff or

‘environmental monitors’ employed for the project or by NamPower. The

significance after mitigation remains low, because of the difficulties of effective

mitigation.

5.3 REMOVAL OF BIRD NESTS ON THE TOWERS


The strutted framework of the V-towers for the proposed power line will definitely be

used as a site for the large bulky communal nests of red-billed buffalo weavers (as in

Figure 26), and possibly also other small to medium-sized birds such as crows and

kestrels (pied crow, black crow, rock kestrel, greater kestrel). No Red Data species

are expected to build on the towers. This would not pose a problem to the birds if

the nests could stay. However they pose a risk to NamPower as if the nests catch fire

they can weaken the metal struts and cause a tower to collapse. Maintenance

therefore involves removing the nests. This causes the negative impact on birds.

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Removal of the communal nests will kill the eggs and unfledged birds inside the

individual nest chambers but fledged juveniles and adults will simply fly away from

the danger. Thus the impact causes a short, temporary breeding loss to each

colony. The total population of this species will be insignificantly impacted by such

losses, even when all the nests are removed, as the birds are widespread in southern

Africa and have robust populations.

5.3.1.1 Extent

This impact is confined to the proposed route, along all sections where the V-towers

are intended (i.e. all but the central section between Makalani and Omatando

Substations). The impact on the overall population of affected species will also be

insignificantly small. The extent is therefore local.

5.3.1.2 Duration

The impact will exist for as long as the power line stands and NamPower continues to

do their routine maintenance of nest-clearing. The duration is therefore long-term.

5.3.1.3 Probability

There is no reason to think that the birds which build nests on suitable towers in other

nearby areas will not do the same behaviour on the proposed new power line. The

impact is definite.

5.3.1.4 Intensity

The magnitude of the impact on the populations of the birds is very small. Even the

cumulative impact of nest removal for red-billed buffalo weavers, crows and

kestrels, would be small because all of these species have strong, healthy

populations in southern Africa. The intensity of the impact is low.

The

Figure 26. Red-billed buffalo weaver nests on a tower of the 132 kV power line near Okatope.

The strutted framework of the V-towers for the proposed new line will also attract these birds.

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This impact is not serious enough to require any change to the design or construction

of the proposed line. The significance is low.

5.3.1.6 Confidence

The continued survival of the populations of affected birds in other parts of Namibia

where this problem occurs, without showing signs of decline, shows that the impact is

indeed of low significance. The confidence level is high.

5.3.2 Mitigation

It is recommended that removal of nests during standard maintenance operations

continues, as usual.


The significance remains unchanged, as low.

5.3.3 Monitoring

Records should be kept by the relevant staff on how many nests are removed from

which towers, and of what kind of birds (if they can be identified). This data should

be forwarded to the relevant Environmental Officer in NamPower, as well as to the

coordinators of the Environmental Information Service so the information becomes

accessible to the public.

This information should be collected because it is possible in future that specific

actions will be recommended to deter or prevent birds from nesting on the towers.

Hard data will then be available to show if there are ‘hot spots’ of this problem and

where to concentrate any mitigation effort.

5.3.4 Summary

A few bird species, none of them threatened, will build their nests in the strutted

framework of the V-shaped towers. Routine maintenance of the power line will

presumably remove these nests, killing the eggs and unfledged occupants. The

affected species are widespread and their populations will not be significantly

impacted by these actions. This is an impact of low significance, and does not

require any specific mitigation. Records of nest clearing, noting numbers of nests,

bird species and tower numbers and localities, should be kept to inform any possible

future effort to prevent or deter the birds from nesting on towers.

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5.4 IMPACT OF ELECTROCUTIONS

Certain species of large perching birds, such as eagles, vultures and herons are

prone to electrocution on power line towers. The open V design of the towers , with

the conductors suspended from cables rather than being supported by solid arms,

reduces the likelihood of birds being electrocuted on the towers. This impact is

considered to be highly unlikely, and is not assessed further.

Table 3: Summary of bird impact assessment of the proposed project

POTENTIAL

IMPACT

STATUS/

NATURE

EXTENT DURATION INTENSITY PROBA-

BILITY

DEGREE

OF CONFI-

DENCE

SIGNIFICANCE

PRE-

MITIGATI

ON

MITIGATION/ ENHANCEMENT POST-

MITIGATION

CONSTRUCTION PHASE

Disturbance,

poaching of

birds

Negative Local -

national

Temporary Low Distinct

probability

Medium Low Difficult to prevent. There

should be close collab-

oration with MET officials in

the area. An

‘environmental monitor’

should be employed to

monitor and prevent illegal

activities.

Low.

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE PHASE

Collisions Negative Local -

national

Long-term -

permanent

High Certain High High Spiral bird flight devices to

be installed on the eastern

two-thirds of the line

(marked ‘e 120km’ in Fig

24), at 5m intervals.

As long as

the BFDs

remain

intact,

significance

of the

impact will

be improved

to Medium.

Electro- Negligible No mitigation measures

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POTENTIAL

IMPACT

STATUS/

NATURE

EXTENT DURATION INTENSITY PROBA-

BILITY

DEGREE

OF CONFI-

DENCE

SIGNIFICANCE

PRE-

MITIGATI

ON

MITIGATION/ ENHANCEMENT POST-

MITIGATION

cutions

Removal of

bird nests

from the

towers

Negative Local Long-term Low Definite High Low No mitigation measures.

Nests can continue to be

removed when and where

necessary.

Low

DECOMMISIONING PHASE

6 IDENTIFICATION OF KEY IMPACTS

Three potential impacts on birds are expected from the proposed 400 kV power line.

These are:

1. Collisions of birds against the wires;

2. Disturbance of breeding birds during construction;

3. Removal of nests of a few species that like to build nests on the towers.

6.1 COLLISIONS

Large bird collisions against power lines are a major problem, worldwide and in this

project. This impact is rated as High significance, since the area is frequented by

about 16 birds that are vulnerable to this impact and are threatened and ranked as

Red Data species, including three Critically Endangered birds, the blue crane,

wattled crane and Cape vulture.

To mitigate the impact of collisions, it is recommended that the eastern section of

about 120 km, where there is a likely higher risk to cranes, should be marked with

spirals (Double Loop Bird Flight Diverters), alternately black and white, at 10 m

intervals along each earth wire, with a 5 m offset so that they are equally spaced 5

m apart. Sections where cranes are less likely to be found, and where the risk of

collisions by any birds is lower because of the presence of the main road adjacent

to the power line, need not be marked with BFDs.

The intention of this very expensive mitigation is to reduce the risk of collisions of large

birds on the proposed power line. The significance of the impact could be reduced

to Medium.

6.2 DISTURBANCE OF BREEDING BIRDS



about a quarter of the total length, and the population of wildlife and vulnerable

birds are both quite low. This is an impact of low significance. Mitigation is difficult,

and should involve vigilance for any suspicious activities by on-site security staff or

‘environmental monitors’ employed by NamPower. The significance after mitigation

remains low, because of the difficulties of effective mitigation.

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6.3 REMOVAL OF BIRD NESTS FROM TOWERS

A few bird species, none of them threatened, will build their nests in the strutted

framework of the V-shaped towers. Routine maintenance of the power line will

presumably remove these nests, killing the eggs and unfledged occupants. The

affected species are widespread and their populations will not be significantly

impacted by these actions. This is an impact of low significance, and does not

require any specific mitigation. Records of nest clearing, noting numbers of nests,

bird species and tower numbers and localities, should be kept to inform any possible

future effort to prevent or deter the birds from nesting on towers.

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7 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The proposed power line is routed close to Etosha National Park which is rated as

one of Namibia’s Important Bird Areas and the pan area is recognised by the

Ramsar Convention as a Wetland of International Importance. The total bird

diversity in the project area comprises over 200 species, of which 28 species are

classified as Red Data birds because their populations are small and/or declining.

With the present routing, the high conservation priority of the bird fauna demands

that the power line should be fitted with mitigation measures to reduce any

negative impacts on their populations. The most critical species in this regard are

blue cranes and wattled cranes. Blue cranes in particular frequent the north-eastern

periphery of Etosha Pan and move seasonally to the Lake Oponono area, and also

make wider movements away from the Pan. Particular paths for these flights are not

known, but they are likely to follow water courses where possible, since these are

their preferred habitat, and both blue and wattled cranes have been seen in areas

to the north-east of Etosha, in Kavango Region and in wetlands in south-eastern

Angola.

The most important impact on birds is collisions of large birds against the wires. This is

a recognised problem elsewhere in the world and mitigation with bird flight diverters

is a recognised (but relatively poorly researched) solution. The recommendation

here is that in areas where there is any likelihood of cranes flying – namely the

eastern section from Okatope to Oshivelo - the power line should be marked with

spiral devices, using the designs and intervals of spacing that are prescribed by

Eskom.

The western section of the power line also carries a risk of collisions for other Red

Data birds such as large raptors, flamingos and storks. After discussion with

NamPower it was agreed that this section would not be marked because of the

relatively higher density of settlements, and the proximity of the main road, which will

make occurrence of the vulnerable birds less likely.

Electrocution of birds is a common impact on power lines but we consider this to be

highly unlikely because the design of the towers allows no opportunity for

electrocutions to occur.

Breeding birds are likely to be disturbed by the activities of the construction crews,

and a possible impact is intentional hunting or poaching. This will be difficult to

reduce or to monitor, but vigilance by MET authorities and by security staff and

appointed ‘environmental monitors’, will help to mitigate this impact.

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A few bird species like to build their nests in the strutted framework of towers,

especially red-billed buffalo weavers, crows and kestrels. Such nests get removed

during standard maintenance work on the lines. This impact is rated as low and no

solution is offered for mitigation.

This power line will offer little opportunity for dedicated monitoring to find out if the

suggested mitigations are effective, because any birds lying dead or dying on the

ground will be quickly scavenged by either people or dogs or natural predators.

Nevertheless, records should be kept of the condition of the installed spirals, and of

nest-building activities by birds and the consequent nest-removing activities of staff.

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8 REFERENCES

Allen DG (1997) Kori bustard Ardeotis kori. In: The atlas of southern

African birds. Vol 1: Non-passerines. Harrison JA, Allan DG, Underhill LG,

Herremans M, Tree AJ, Parker V & Brown CJ (eds), pp346-347. Birdlife South

Africa, Johannesburg.

Allen DG (1997) Blue crane Anthropoides paradiseus. In: The atlas of southern

African birds. Vol 1: Non-passerines. Harrison JA, Allan DG, Underhill LG,

Herremans M, Tree AJ, Parker V & Brown CJ (eds), pp314-315. Birdlife South

Africa, Johannesburg.

Berry HH. 1972. Flamingo breeding on the Etosha Pan, South West Africa, during1971.

Madoqua Ser 1 (5): 5-21.

Bevanger K. 1994. Bird interactions with utility structures: collisions and electrocution,

causes and mitigating measures. Ibis 136: 412-425.

Birdlife International (2004) Red Data species classification.

http://www.birdlife.org/datazone

Birdlife International (2014). Bllue crane Anthropoides paradiseus Species fact sheet.

http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/speciesfactsheet.php?id=2792 . Accessed

May 2014.

Brown CJ & Simmons RE (in prep.) Birds to watch in Namibia: Red, rare and endemic

species. Sections of the manuscript available from the authors.

Hockey PAR, Dean WRJ, Ryan PG (eds) 2005. Roberts – Birds of southern Africa, VII edition.

Trustees of the John Voelcker Bird Book Fund, Cape Town

Jenkins AR, Smallie JJ & Diamond M. (2010) Avian collisions with power lines: a global

review of causes and mitigation with a South African perspective. Bird

Conservation International 20: 263-278.

Namibia Crane News (2013) Dry season 2013 crane numbers. Update on global

distribution of blue cranes. More records of wattled cranes in adjoining

countries. Newsletter No. 51 of the Namibia Crane Working Group. Available at

http://www.nnf.org.na/ CRANES/index.htm (

Ramsar 2014. Ramsar Site Database, Namibia – 1NA004. Etosha Pan, Lake Oponono and

the Cuvelai Drainage. Available at http://ramsar.wetlands.org/Database

/SearchforRamsarsites/tabid/765/Default.aspx (accessed Feb 2014).

Shaw JM (2013) Power line collisions in the Karoo: Conserving Ludwig’s Bustard.

Unpublished Ph.D thesis, University of Cape Town.

Simmons RE, Barnes KN, Jarvis AM and Robertson A, 1999. Important bird areas in

Namibia. Research Discussion Paper, Directorate of Environmental Affairs,

Ministry of Environment and Tourism.

http://www.birdlife.org/datazone

http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/speciesfactsheet.php?id=2792

http://www.nnf.org.na/%20CRANES/index.htm

http://ramsar.wetlands.org/Database%20/SearchforRamsarsites/tabid/765/Default.aspx

http://ramsar.wetlands.org/Database%20/SearchforRamsarsites/tabid/765/Default.aspx

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APPENDIX A: Birds recorded from the proposed power line route

NAMIBIA AVIFAUNA DATABASE RECORDS

BIRDS LISTED FOR QUARTER DEGREE SQUARES 1714CA, 1714CB, 1714CD, 1714DC, 1714DD, 1814BB, 1815AA, 1815AB, 1715CD, 1715DC, 1715DD, 1715DA, 1715DB, 1715DD, 1716CC, 1816AA, 1816AB, 1816BA, 1816BC, 1816BD, 1817AC, 1817CA

Red Data listing Namibian endemics

Ostrich Struthio camelus

Blacknecked Grebe Podiceps nigricollis Near Threatened

Dabchick Tachybaptus ruficollis

White Pelican Pelecanus onocrotalus Vulnerable

Reed Cormorant Phalacrocorax africanus

Grey Heron Ardea cinerea

Blackheaded Heron Ardea melanocephala

Great White Egret Egretta alba

Little Egret Egretta garzetta

Yellowbilled Egret Egretta intermedia

Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis

Squacco Heron Ardeola ralloides

Greenbacked Heron Butorides striatus

Rufousbellied Heron Butorides rufiventris Endangered

Dwarf Bittern Ixobrychus sturmii

White Stork Ciconia ciconia

Abdim's Stork Ciconia abdimii

Woollynecked Stork Ciconia episcopus

Openbilled Stork Anastomus lamelligerus

Saddlebilled Stork Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis Endangered

Marabou Stork Leptoptilos crumeniferus Near Threatened

Glossy Ibis Plegadis falcinellus

African Spoonbill Platalea alba

Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber Vulnerable

Lesser Flamingo Phoenicopterus minor Vulnerable

Whitefaced Duck Dendrocygna viduata

Fulvous Duck Dendrocygna bicolor

Egyptian Goose Alopochen aegyptiacus

Cape Teal Anas capensis

Redbilled Teal Anas erythrorhyncha

Southern Pochard Netta erythrophthalma

Knobbilled Duck Sarkidiornis melanotos

Maccoa Duck Oxyura maccoa Near Threatened

Secretarybird Sagittarius serpentarius Vulnerable

Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus Regionally Extinct

Whitebacked Vulture Gyps africanus Endangered

Lappetfaced Vulture Torgos tracheliotus Vulnerable

Whiteheaded Vulture Trigonoceps occipitalis Vulnerable

Black Kite Milvus migrans

Blackshouldered Kite Elanus caeruleus

Verreauxs' Eagle Aquila verreauxii Near Threatened

Tawny Eagle Aquila rapax Endangered

Steppe Eagle Aquila nipalensis

Lesser Spotted Eagle Aquila pomarina

Wahlberg's Eagle Aquila wahlbergi

Booted Eagle Hieraaetus pennatus Endangered

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African Hawk Eagle Hieraaetus spilogaster

Martial Eagle Polemaetus bellicosus Endangered

Brown Snake Eagle Circaetus cinereus

Blackbreasted Snake Eagle Circaetus pectoralis

Bateleur Terathopius ecaudatus Endangered

Steppe Buzzard Buteo buteo

Ovambo Sparrowhawk Accipiter ovampensis

Little Sparrowhawk Accipiter minullus

Little Banded Goshawk Accipiter badius

Gabar Goshawk Micronisus gabar

Pale Chanting Goshawk Melierax canorus

Dark Chanting Goshawk Melierax metabates

Pallid Harrier Circus macrourus Near Threatened

Osprey Pandion haliaetus

Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus Near Threatened

Lanner Falcon Falco biarmicus

Hobby Falcon Falco subbuteo

Rednecked Falcon Falco chicquera

Western Redfooted Kestrel Falco vespertinus Near Threatened

Amur Falcon Falco amurensis

Rock Kestrel Falco tinnunculus

Greater Kestrel Falco rupicoloides

Grey Kestrel Falco ardosiaceus

Crested Francolin Francolinus sephaena

Orange River Francolin Francolinus levaillantoides

Redbilled Francolin Francolinus adspersus

Hartlaub's Francolin Francolinus hartlaubi Endemic

Swainson's Francolin Francolinus swainsonii

Common Quail Coturnix coturnix

Helmeted Guineafowl Numida meleagris

Blue Crane Anthropoides paradiseus Critically Endangered

Grey Crowned Crane Balearica regulorum Endangered

Wattled Crane Bugeranus carunculatus Endangered

Black Crake Amaurornis flavirostris

Baillon's Crake Porzana pusilla

Purple Gallinule Porphyrio porphyrio

Moorhen Gallinula chloropus

Lesser Moorhen Gallinula angulata

Redknobbed Coot Fulica cristata

Kori Bustard Ardeotis kori Endangered

Redcrested Korhaan Eupodotis ruficrista

Whitequilled Korhaan Eupodotis afraoides

African Jacana Actophilornis africanus

Painted Snipe Rostratula benghalensis

Whitefronted Plover Charadrius marginatus

Chestnutbanded Plover Charadrius pallidus

Kittlitz's Plover Charadrius pecuarius

Threebanded Plover Charadrius tricollaris

Caspian Plover Charadrius asiaticus

Crowned Plover Vanellus coronatus

Blacksmith Plover Vanellus armatus

Wattled Plover Vanellus senegallus

Common Sandpiper Actitis hypoleucos

Wood Sandpiper Tringa glareola

Marsh Sandpiper Tringa stagnatilis

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Greenshank Tringa nebularia

Curlew Sandpiper Calidris ferruginea

Little Stint Calidris minuta

Sanderling Calidris alba

Ruff Philomachus pugnax

Avocet Recurvirostra avosetta

Blackwinged Stilt Himantopus himantopus

Spotted Dikkop Burhinus capensis

Water Dikkop Burhinus vermiculatus

Burchell's Courser Cursorius rufus

Temminck's Courser Cursorius temminckii

Doublebanded Courser Rhinoptilus africanus

Bronzewinged Courser Rhinoptilus chalcopterus

Blackwinged Pratincole Glareola nordmanni Near Threatened

Greyheaded Gull Larus cirrocephalus

Whiskered Tern Chlidonias hybridus

Whitewinged Tern Chlidonias leucopterus

Namaqua Sandgrouse Pterocles namaqua

Burchell's Sandgrouse Pterocles burchelli

Doublebanded Sandgrouse Pterocles bicinctus

Feral Pigeon Columba livia

Redeyed Dove Streptopelia semitorquata

Mourning Dove Streptopelia decipiens

Cape Turtle Dove Streptopelia capicola

Laughing Dove Streptopelia senegalensis

Namaqua Dove Oena capensis

Greenspotted Dove Turtur chalcospilos

Green Pigeon Treron calva

Meyer's Parrot Poicephalus meyeri

Rueppell's Parrot Poicephalus rueppellii Near Threatened Endemic

Rosyfaced Lovebird Agapornis roseicollis

Grey Lourie Corythaixoides concolor

European Cuckoo Cuculus canorus

African Cuckoo Cuculus gularis

Black Cuckoo Cuculus clamosus

Great Spotted Cuckoo Clamator glandarius

Jacobin Cuckoo Clamator jacobinus

Klaas's Cuckoo Chrysococcyx klaas

Diederik Cuckoo Chrysococcyx caprius

Black Coucal Centropus bengalensis

Barn Owl Tyto alba

Marsh Owl Asio capensis

Scops Owl Otus senegalensis

Whitefaced Owl Otus leucotis

Pearlspotted Owl Glaucidium perlatum

Spotted Eagle Owl Bubo africanus

Giant Eagle Owl Bubo lacteus

Fierynecked Nightjar Caprimulgus pectoralis

Rufouscheeked Nightjar Caprimulgus rufigena

Mozambique Nightjar Caprimulgus fossii

European Swift Apus apus

Bradfield's Swift Apus bradfieldi

Whiterumped Swift Apus caffer

Little Swift Apus affinis

Palm Swift Cypsiurus parvus

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Whitebacked Mousebird Colius colius

Redfaced Mousebird Urocolius indicus

Pied Kingfisher Ceryle rudis

Woodland Kingfisher Halcyon senegalensis

Brownhooded Kingfisher Halcyon albiventris

Greyhooded Kingfisher Halcyon leucocephala

European Bee-Eater Merops apiaster

Bluecheeked Bee-Eater Merops persicus

Little Bee-Eater Merops pusillus

Swallowtailed Bee-Eater Merops hirundineus

European Roller Coracias garrulus

Lilacbreasted Roller Coracias caudata

Purple Roller Coracias naevia

Hoopoe Upupa epops

Redbilled Woodhoopoe Phoeniculus purpureus

Violet Woodhoopoe Phoeniculus damarensis Endangered Endemic

Scimitarbilled Woodhoopoe Rhinopomastus cyanomelas

Grey Hornbill Tockus nasutus

Redbilled Hornbill Tockus erythrorhynchus

Southern Yellowbilled Hornbill Tockus leucomelas

Bradfield's Hornbill Tockus bradfieldi

Ground Hornbill Bucorvus leadbeateri Endangered

Blackcollared Barbet Lybius torquatus

Pied Barbet Tricholaema leucomelas

Lesser Honeyguide Indicator minor

Bennett's Woodpecker Campethera bennettii

Goldentailed Woodpecker Campethera abingoni

Cardinal Woodpecker Dendropicos fuscescens

Bearded Woodpecker Thripias namaquus

Monotonous Lark Mirafra passerina

Rufousnaped Lark Mirafra africana

Clapper Lark Mirafra apiata

Flappet Lark Mirafra rufocinnamomea

Fawncoloured Lark Mirafra africanoides

Sabota Lark Calendulauda sabota

Dusky Lark Pinarocorys nigricans

Spikeheeled Lark Chersomanes albofasciata

Redcapped Lark Calandrella cinerea

Pinkbilled Lark Spizocorys conirostris

Chestnutbacked Finchlark Eremopterix leucotis

Greybacked Finchlark Eremopterix verticalis

European Swallow Hirundo rustica

Whitethroated Swallow Hirundo albigularis

Wiretailed Swallow Hirundo smithii

Redbreasted Swallow Hirundo semirufa

Mosque Swallow Hirundo senegalensis

Greater Striped Swallow Hirundo cucullata

Lesser Striped Swallow Hirundo abyssinica

Rock Martin Hirundo fuligula

Brownthroated Martin Riparia paludicola

Banded Martin Riparia cincta

Forktailed Drongo Dicrurus adsimilis

European Golden Oriole Oriolus oriolus

African Golden Oriole Oriolus auratus

Blackheaded Oriole Oriolus larvatus

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Black Crow Corvus capensis

Pied Crow Corvus albus

Ashy Tit Parus cinerascens

Carp's Black Tit Parus carpi

Cape Penduline Tit Anthoscopus minutus

Grey Penduline Tit Anthoscopus caroli

Blackfaced Babbler Turdoides melanops

Pied Babbler Turdoides bicolor

Barecheeked Babbler Turdoides gymnogenys

Redeyed Bulbul Pycnonotus nigricans

Blackeyed Bulbul Pycnonotus barbatus

Groundscraper Thrush Turdus litsitsirupa

Shorttoed Rock Thrush Monticola brevipes

Capped Wheatear Oenanthe pileata

Familiar Chat Cercomela familiaris

Anteating Chat Myrmecocichla formicivora

Whitebrowed Robin Erythropygia leucophrys

Kalahari Robin Erythropygia paena

Garden Warbler Sylvia borin

Whitethroat Sylvia communis

Titbabbler Parisoma subcaeruleum

Icterine Warbler Hippolais icterina

African Marsh Warbler Acrocephalus baeticatus

European Sedge Warbler Acrocephalus schoenobaenus

Cape Reed Warbler Acrocephalus gracilirostris

Willow Warbler Phylloscopus trochilus

Yellowbreasted Apalis Apalis flavida

Longbilled Crombec Sylvietta rufescens

Yellowbellied Eremomela Eremomela icteropygialis

Grey-backed Bleating Warbler Camaroptera brevicaudata

Barred Warbler Calamonastes fasciolatus

Fantailed Cisticola Cisticola juncidis

Desert Cisticola Cisticola aridula

Tinkling Cisticola Cisticola rufilata

Rattling Cisticola Cisticola chiniana

Blackbacked Cisticola Cisticola galactotes

Tawnyflanked Prinia Prinia subflava

Blackchested Prinia Prinia flavicans

Spotted Flycatcher Muscicapa striata

Marico Flycatcher Melaenornis mariquensis

Chat Flycatcher Melaenornis infuscatus

Chinspot Batis Batis molitor

Pririt Batis Batis pririt

Cape Wagtail Motacilla capensis

Richard's Pipit Anthus cinnamomeus

Longbilled Pipit Anthus similis

Plainbacked Pipit Anthus leucophrys

Lesser Grey Shrike Lanius minor

Fiscal Shrike Lanius collaris

Redbacked Shrike Lanius collurio

Longtailed Shrike Corvinella melanoleuca

Crimsonbreasted Shrike Laniarius atrococcineus

Puffback Dryoscopus cubla

Brubru Nilaus afer

Threestreaked Tchagra Tchagra australis

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Blackcrowned Tchagra Tchagra senegala

Whitetailed Shrike Lanioturdus torquatus

White Helmetshrike Prionops plumatus

Redbilled Helmet Shrike Prionops retzii

Whitecrowned Shrike Eurocephalus anguitimens

Wattled Starling Creatophora cinerea

Plumcoloured Starling Cinnyricinclus leucogaster

Burchell's Starling Lamprotornis australis

Longtailed Starling Lamprotornis mevesii

Glossy Starling Lamprotornis nitens

Greater Blue-Eared Starling Lamprotornis chalybaeus

Palewinged Starling Onychognathus nabouroup

Yellowbilled Oxpecker Buphagus africanus Endangered

Marico Sunbird Nectarinia mariquensis

Whitebellied Sunbird Nectarinia talatala

Dusky Sunbird Cinnyris fuscus

Scarletchested Sunbird Nectarinia senegalensis

Black Sunbird Nectarinia amethystina

Redbilled Buffalo Weaver Bubalornis niger

Whitebrowed Sparrowweaver Plocepasser mahali

Sociable Weaver Philetairus socius

House Sparrow Passer domesticus

Great Sparrow Passer motitensis

Cape Sparrow Passer melanurus

Greyheaded Sparrow Passer diffusus

Scalyfeathered Finch Sporopipes squamifrons

Chestnut Weaver Ploceus rubiginosus

Masked Weaver Ploceus velatus

Lesser Masked Weaver Ploceus intermedius

Golden Weaver Ploceus xanthops

Redheaded Weaver Anaplectes rubriceps

Redbilled Quelea Quelea quelea

Red Bishop Euplectes orix

Golden Bishop Euplectes afer

Melba Finch Pytilia melba

Redbilled Firefinch Lagonosticta senegala

Blue Waxbill Uraeginthus angolensis

Violeteared Waxbill Uraeginthus granatinus

Common Waxbill Estrilda astrild

Blackcheeked Waxbill Estrilda erythronotos

Quail Finch Ortygospiza atricollis

Cutthroat Finch Amadina fasciata

Redheaded Finch Amadina erythrocephala

Shafttailed Whydah Vidua regia

Paradise Whydah Vidua paradisaea

Violet Widowfinch Vidua wilsoni

Steelblue Widowfinch Vidua chalybeata

Blackthroated Canary Serinus atrogularis

Yellow Canary Serinus flaviventris

Goldenbreasted Bunting Emberiza flaviventris

Rock Bunting Emberiza tahapisi

Larklike Bunting Emberiza impetuani

eia for the proposed 400 kv transmission line...vi eia for the proposed 400 kv transmission line...

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