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Elderly People and the Environment
Human Behavior and Environment ADVANCES IN THEORY AND RESEARCH
Volume 1
Volume 2 Volume 3: Children and the Environment Volume 4: Environment and Culture Volume 5: Transportation and Behavior Volume6: Behavior and the
Natural Environment Volume 7: Elderly People and the
Environment
Elderly People and the Environment
EDITED BY
IRWIN ALTMAN University of Utah
Salt Lake City, Utah
M. POWELL LAWTON Philadelphia Geriatric Center Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
JOACHIM F. WOHLWILL Pennsylvania State University University Park, Pennsylvania
Springer Science+ Business Media, LLC
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Main entry under title:
Elderly people and the environment.
(Human behavior and environment: advances in theory and research; v. 7) Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Aged—United States—Dwellings. I. Altman, Irwin. II. Lawton, M . Powell (Mortimer Powell), 1923- . III. Wohlwill, Joachim F. IV. Series: Human behavior and environment; v. 7. BF353.H85 vol. 7 155.9s [363.5'9] 83-26700 [HD7287.92.U6]
ISBN 978-1-4899-2173-4 ISBN 978-1-4899-2171-0 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4899-2171-0
© Springer Science+Business Media New York 1984 Originally published by Plenum Press, New York in 1984
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1984
All rights reserved
No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming,
recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher
Articles Planned for Volume 8 HOME ENVIRONMENTS
Editors: Irwin Altman and Carol Werner
The Concept of Home KIM DOVEY
Housing and Identity in a Third World Society: Privacy, Class and Tradition in Sri Lanka JAMES S. DUNCAN
Comparative Housing Policies: Common Problems and Solutions ELIZABETH HUTTMAN
The Experiences and Uses of the Home PERLA KOROSEC-SERFATY
Comparative Analyses of Homes RODERICK J. LAWRENCE
Thinking About Home Environment: A Conceptual Framework AMOS RAPOPORT
The Role of Housing in the Experience of Dwelling SUSAN SAEGERT
The Ritual Establishment of Home DAVID SAlLE
The Meaning of Home to Mobile Americans SALL Y SHUMAKER
Home and Near Home Territories RALPH T AYLOR AND SIDNEY BROWER
The Affective Criterion in Homes: Satisfaction SUE WEIDEMAN AND JAMES ANDERSON
Temporal Aspects of Homes: A Transactional Analysis CAROL WERNER, DIANA OXLEY AND IRWIN ALTMAN
Contribu tors
IRWIN ALTMAN • College of Social and Behavioral Science, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah
ABRAHAM CARP • The Wright Institute, Berkeley, California
FRANCES M. CARP • The Wright Institute, Berkeley, California
J. KEVIN ECKERT • Department of Anthropology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio
MARTIN V. FALETTI· Stein Gerontological Institute, Miami Jewish Home and Hospital for the Aged, Miami, Florida
STEPHEN M. GOLANT • Department of Geography, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
MICHAEL E. HUNT • Institute for Social Research and College of Architecture and Urban Planning, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
M. POWELL LAWTON • Philadelphia Geriatric Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
SONNE LEMKE • Social Ecology Laboratory and the Geriatric Research, Education, and Clinical Center, Veterans Administration and Stanford University Medical Center, Palo Alto, California
ROBERT W. MARANS • Institute for Social Research and College of Architecture and Urban Planning, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
vii
viii Contributors
RUDOLF H. Moos • Social Ecology Laboratory and the Geriatric Research, Education, and Clinical Center, Veterans Administration and Stanford University Medical Center, Palo Alto, California
MARY ITIMAN MURREY • Department of Anthropology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio
SANDRA J. NEWMAN • Public Policy Program, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland
GRAHAM D. ROWLES • Department of Geology and Geography, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia
RAYMOND STRUYK • The Urban Institute, Washington, D.C.
KATHLEEN 1. VAKALO • Institute for Social Research and College of Architecture and Urban Planning, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
JOACHIM F. WOHLWILL • Division of Individual and Family Studies, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania
JAMES ZAIS • The Urban Institute, Washington, D.C.
Preface
The present volume in our series follows the format of the immediately preceding ones in dealing with a topical theme of considerable importance in the environment and behavior field. In view of current and projected demographic trends, it is a certainty that a broad-ranging set of issues concerned with the elderly and the physical environment will continue to be of focal pertinence-if not of increasing importance--in the remaining decades of this century.
The present volume also follows in the tradition of earlier volumes in the series in being eclectic with respect to content, theory, and methodology and in including contributions from a variety of disciplines, such as anthropology, economics, psychology, geography, and urban and regional planning. To have encompassed the whole array of disciplines and topics in this emerging field in a single volume would have been impossible. We trust that the sample of contributions that we have selected is provocative and that it will illustrate the range of problems and topics and point to promising areas of study and analysis.
We are pleased to have M. Powell Lawton as a guest co-editor for this volume. His broad-ranging expertise, perceptive judgment, and fine editorial talents have contributed enormously to the volume.
We regret to inform readers that, with this volume, Jack Wohlwill terminates his role as co-editor of Human Behavior and Environment. A set of newly emerging scholarly interests and involvements are proving increasingly difficult to reconcile with his obligations toward our series, making it inadvisable for him to continue as co-editor. From the beginning, our relationship as co-editors has been intellectually satisfying, personally productive, and extraordinarily congenial. We have learned a great deal from one another, as well as from the more than four dozen authors with whom and about whom we have communicated and collaborated in the seven volumes of this series. Therefore, we end this period of a dose working relationship with considerable regret but also
ix
x Preface
with a real sense of satisfaction in the fruits of our joint venture and of confidence in the prospects for the future of the series, which will continue under the primary editorship of Irwin Altman. It will follow the same goals and policies as heretofore, with guest co-editors invited to participate in individual volumes as circumstances and topics warrant.
Volume 8 of this series, Home Environments, is presently in preparation and will deal with the topic of home and residential environments.
IRWIN ALTMAN
JOACHIM F. WOHLWILL
Contents
CHAPTER 1
DIMENSIONS OF ENVIRONMENT - BEHAVIOR RESEARCH: ORIENTATIONS TO PLACE, DESIGN, PROCESS, AND POLICY
M. POWELL LAWTON IRWIN ALTMAN
JOACHIM F. WOHLWILL
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1 Orientation to Place. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3 Orientation to Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5 Orientation to Social and Psychological Processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6 Orientation to Environmental Policy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9 Organization of the Volume .................................. , 11 References ................................................... 13
CHAPTER 2
HOUSING OLDER AMERICA
SANDRA J. NEWMAN JAMES ZAIS
RAYMOND STRUYK
Introduction .................................................. 17 Housing Needs, Conditions, and Problems of the Elderly ....... " 18
Population Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 18 Household Status ......................................... 19 Income and Poverty Status ................................ 21
xi
xii Contents
Health Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 24 Residential Mobility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 24 Housing Costs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 26 Housing Conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 29 Neighborhood Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 32 Directions for Future Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 33
Government Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 34 Renter Programs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 36 Homeowner Programs ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 39
Future Prospects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 50 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 52
CHAPTER 3
RETIREMENT COMMUNITIES
ROBERT W. MARANS MICHAEL E. HUNT
KATHLEEN L. VAKALO
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 57 Retirement Community Research-A Review ................... . A Framework for Examining Person-Environment Relations ..... . Defining and Classifying Retirement Communities .............. .
Past Efforts-Definition .................................. . Past Efforts-Classification ................................ . Classifying Retirement Communities-A Broader Perspective
Five Types of Retirement Communities ........................ . Retirement New Towns .................................. . Retirement Villages ...................................... . Retirement Subdivisions .................................. . Retirement Residences ................................... . Continuing-Care Retirement Centers ....................... .
Overview ................................................... . The Future of Retirement Communities ........................ .
Prospects for New Retirement Communities ................ . Prospects for Fxisting Retirement Communities ............. .
Some Directions for Future Research ........................... . References .............................................. , ... .
58 60 61 62 63 64 66 67 71 74 76 79 83 86 87 89 90 91
Contents
CHAPTER 4
ALTERNATIVE MODES OF LIVING FOR THE ELDERLY: A CRITICAL REVIEW
J. KEVIN ECKERT MARY ITTMAN MURREY
xiii
Introduction and Macrosocial Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 What Is Alternative Housing? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Determinants of Housing Choice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Ecological Housing Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 The Individual. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 100 The Microsystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 100 The Exosystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 101 The Macrosystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 102
Alternative Housing Modes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 103 Alternatives within the Community Residence Category. . . .. 103 Alternatives within the Congregate Housing Category. . . . . .. 113 Alternatives within the Domiciliary and Personal Care Residential Category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 116
Specific Phenomena at the Macrolevel ......................... 119 Future Research and Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 122 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 123
CHAPTER 5
AGING IN RURAL ENVIRONMENTS
GRAHAM D. ROWLES
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 129 Characteristics of Rural Environments ......................... 130
The Problem of Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 130 Contrasts with Urban Environments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 131
Characteristics of Rural Elderly People. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 133 Objective Conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 133 Subjective Well-Being .................................... 134 Explaining the Paradox. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 134 Well-Being of the Small Town Elderly: A Case Study ........ 135
xiv Contents
Methodological Issues in Developing an Environmental Psychology of Rural Aging ................................... 137
The Need for an Exploratory Inductive Approach. . . . . . . . . .. 137 Ethnographic and Case Study Research. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 138
Elderly People in Rural Environments: Some Emergent Themes .. 139 The Colton Study ........................................ 140 Physical Participation in the Environment .................. 140 Cognitions of Space. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 143 Emotional Attachments to Place ........................... 146
The Sociocultural Milieu of Rural Aging. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 148 Where from Here? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 150 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 152
CHAPTER 6
SUPPORTIVE RESIDENTIAL SETTINGS FOR OLDER PEOPLE
RUDOLF H. MOOS SONNE LEMKE
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 159 Conceptual Perspectives ...................................... 161
Elaborating the Environmental System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 164 Development of the MEAP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 165 Describing Supportive Residential Settings ................. 169
Exploring Environmental Domains and Their Impacts . . . . . . . . . .. 172 Person-Setting Selection and Allocation .................... 172 Opportunities for Environmental Choice and Control. .. __ ... 174 Environmental Change Accompanying Relocation. . . . . . . . . .. 177
Identifying Design and Program Preferences ................... 180 Preferences for Physical Design Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 181 Preferences for Program Features. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 182
Practical Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 184 Highlighting Design Choices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 185 Monitoring and Improving Residential Settings . . . . . . . . . . . .. 186 Educating Ger~ntological Practitioners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 187
Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 187 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 188
Contents
CHAPTER 7
HUMAN FACTORS RESEARCH AND FUNCTIONAL ENVIRONMENTS FOR THE AGED
MARTIN V. FAlETII
xv
Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 191 Functional Ability: A Person-Environment Problem. . . . . . . . . . . .. 192
Functional Ability in Activities of Daily Living. . . . . . . . . . . . .. 192 Daily Activities as Person-Environment Transactions ........ 193 Person-Environment Transactions and Functioning: Unresolved Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 194
Human Factors Research: A Person-Environment Paradigm ..... 197 Human Factors Research: Characteristic Problems and Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 197 Human Factors Research and Aging: Application Issues ..... 198 Human Factors Models of Person-Environment Transactions 201
Human Factors Analysis of Functional Ability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 204 Elder-Environment Transactions: Sampling Activities and Performance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 205 Human Factors Data in Field Settings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 209 Task Analysis of Daily Activities .......................... 211 Person Capabilities ....................................... 220 Environmental Demands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 227 Elder-Environment Transactions: Analyses and Results ..... 228
Human Factors Research in Aging: A Possible Agenda . . . . . . . . .. 231 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 234
CHAPTER 8
THE EFFECTS OF RESIDENTIAL AND ACTIVITY BEHAVIORS ON OLD PEOPLE' S ENVIRONMENTAL EXPERIENCES
STEPHEN M. GOlANT
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 239 Definition of Behavioral Relationships ......................... 240 Mechanisms by Which Behavioral Relationships Influence Environmental Experiences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 241
xvi Contents
Objectively Defined Environment ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 241 Direct and Tangible Environmental Contact Resulting from Individual's Behavioral Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 242 Cognitive and Motivational Strategies Associated with Individual's Behavioral Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 242
Precedents for Proposing Residential and Activity Behaviors as Antecedents of Environmental Experiences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 243 Alternative Conceptualizations of Individual Differences as Antecedents of Environmental Experiences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 245 Influence of Residential Behavior on Old People's Environmental Experiences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 246
Patterns of Residential Behavior in Old Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 247 Amount of Unchanging, Continuous Exposure . . . . . . . . . . . .. 247 Adjustment Problems of the Recent Elderly Mover. . . . . . . . .. 249 Strength of Community Social Bonds ...................... 251 Development of Psychological Attachment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 252 Degree of Familiarity with Environment's Contents . . . . . . . .. 254 Amount of Residential Satisfaction ........................ 255 Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 256
Influence of Activity Behavior on Old People's Environmental Experiences ................................................. 257
Patterns of Activity Behavior in Old Age. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 259 Activity Behavior's Influence on the Content of People's Environmental Experiences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 260 Activity Behavior's Influence on the Consequences of People's Environmental Experiences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 263 Experiential Impact of Cognitive and Motivational Strategies Associated with Old People's Activity Behavior ............. 267
Future Directions ............................................ 270 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 274
CHAPTER 9
A COMPLEMENTARy/CONGRUENCE MODEL OF WELL-BEING OR MENTAL HEALTH FOR THE COMMUNITY ELDERLY
FRANCES M. CARP ABRAHAM CARP
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 279 Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 280
Contents xvii
Relevant Contemporary Models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 285 The Ecological Model .................................... 285 Moos' Multiphasic Environmental Assessment Procedure (MEAP) ................................................. 285 Windley's and Scheidt's Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 286 Congruence Approaches ................................. 286
Further Model Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 288 Geographical Units ...................................... 289
Person Components (P) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 290 Part 1 of the Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 290 Part 2 of the Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 294
Objective Environmental Components (Eo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 299 Definition of "Objective" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 302 Objective E and the Support Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 303 Physical Eo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 304 Suprapersonal Eo ........................................ 305 Direct Measurement of Objective Environmental Quality .... 305 Eo Scales for the Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 308 Observer-Based Measures ................................ 310 Consonance and Dissonance of Suprapersonal Eo with P ..... 312
Congruence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 314 Mediating Variables .......................................... 317
Situational Resources and Deprivations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 317 Intrapsychic Variables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 319
Outcomes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 322 Domains and Subdomains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 322 Satisfaction with Living Unit and Local Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 323 Ultimate Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 323
Future Work ................................................ 326 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 328
INDEX ....................................................... 337