electrochemical pathways towards...
TRANSCRIPT
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Donald R. SadowayDepartment of Materials Science & Engineering
Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridge, MA 02139-4307
U.S.A.
Electrochemical Pathways
Towards Sustainability
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outline of this morning’s talk
the energy storage landscape
innovation in energy storage electrometallurgical approach for stationary storage applications
innovation in metals extraction electrochemical approach to zero-emissions smelting
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outline of this morning’s talk
the energy storage landscape
innovation in energy storage electrometallurgical approach for stationary storage applications
innovation in metals extraction electrochemical approach to zero-emissions smelting
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misconceptions about batteries
๏ not much has changed: not true!
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electrochemistry and energy storage: noble origins
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electrical energy storage (Wh/kg) (MJ/kg)
lead acid 35 0.13
NiCd 45 0.16
NaS 80 0.28
NiMH 90 0.32
Li ion 150 0.54
gasoline 12000 43
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misconceptions about batteries
๏ not much has changed: not true!
๏ no Moore’s Law (transistor count doubles every 2 years)
๏ all microelectronics are silicon-based
๏ all new batteries are based on entirely new chemistries radical innovation
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different approaches for different applications
๏don’t pay for attributes you don’t need
๏ cell phone needs to be idiot-proof
๏ car needs to be crashworthy
๏ how about service temperature? human contact?
๏ stationary batteries: more freedom in choice of chemistry but very low price point
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market price points
application price point
communications $1,000 / kWh
automobile traction $250 / kWh
laptop computer $2,000 - $3,000 / kWh
severity of service conditions price
stationary storage $100 / kWh
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storage is the key enabler๏ for deployment of renewables:
intermittency obstructs contribution to baseload
๏ for load leveling, load following, frequency regulation, off-peak capture: colossal battery
๏ for grid-level storage, battery vs combustion need to think differently
๏ today’s Li-ion batteries fail badly the whole is less than the sum of its parts: plinergy
๏ confine chemistry to earth-abundant elements to make it dirt-cheap, make it out of dirt
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outline of this morning’s talk
the energy storage landscape
innovation in energy storage electrometallurgical approach for stationary storage applications
innovation in metals extraction electrochemical approach to zero-emissions smelting
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๏ look at the economy of scale of modern electrometallurgy:
aluminium smelter
how to think about inventing a colossal yet cheap battery
bauxite, carbon, 13 kWh electricity, $5000/tonne capital cost
metal cost < 50¢/lb
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a modern aluminium smelter
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15 m × 3 m × 1 km × 0.8 A⋅cm−2
Charles Martin Hall, USAPaul L.T. Héroult, France
1886
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how to think about inventing a colossal yet cheap battery: pose the right question
…into thisconvert this…
aluminium potline
350,000 A, 4 V
start with a giant current sink
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15 produce liquid metals at both electrodes
why is an aluminium cell not a battery?
frozenbath
960°C960°C960°C960°C
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liquid metal battery
work started 5 years ago with internal funding from the Deshpande Center and the Chesonis Family Foundation
refractory lining
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refracto
on discharge
liquid metal
battery
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refracto
Mg(liquid) ! Mg2+ + 2 e-
on discharge
liquid metal
battery
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refracto
Mg(liquid) ! Mg2+ + 2 e-
Mg2+ + 2 e- ! Mg(liquid alloy)
on discharge
liquid metal
battery
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our sponsors
$4 million
$7 million
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laboratory-scale test cell
1 Ah“shotglass”
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electropositive anode
molten salt electrolyte
electronegative cathode
cell section after cycling 48 h at 700°C
1 Ah“shotglass”
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“hockey puck” “personal pizza”
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Cell Current density Cycles Cycles
analyzedColumbic efficiency
Energy efficiency Fade rate Capacity
density Utilization Electrode cost
Reason for decommission
11
mA / cm2 % % % / cycle Ah/cm2 % $ / kWh
250 100 10 99 67 0 0.6 77 90 Test complete
cycle testing of cell 11 (20 Ah)
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attributes of all-liquid battery
all-liquid construction eliminates any reliance on solid-state diffusion
long service life
all-liquid configuration is self-assembling expected to be scalable at low cost
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liquid-liquid interfaces are kinetically the fastest in all of electrochemistry
capable of handling high currents
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Liquid Metal Battery
???
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LMB status report
liquid metal battery works: almost 400 cells tested many chemistries: alloys and salts
capacity fade as low as 0.05% / cycle
accelerating scale-up to self-heating cell startup company Liquid Metal Battery Corp.
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©2011 LIQUID METAL BATTERY CORPORATION!proprietary & confidential
20110913 EPRI-LMBC slidedeck September 13, 2011 16
towards commercialization
! founded 2010
! series A: Bill Gates & TOTAL patient investors significant ability to support subsequent capital intensive investment
! focus on commercialization & scale-up
LIQUID METAL BATTERY CORPORATION
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outline of this morning’s talk
the energy storage landscape
innovation in energy storage electrometallurgical approach for stationary storage applications
innovation in metals extraction electrochemical approach to zero-emissions smelting
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problems with metals extraction
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steelmaking makes CO2 2 FeO + C = 2 Fe + CO2
(½ kg C / kg Fe) x 1.8 billion tonnes
sundry HAPs including Mn & Pb, polycyclic organics, benzene, & CS2
unfavorable by-products L
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why is metal production so dirty?
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many processes are over 100 years old
r attitude then of indifference towards the environment
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where do metals come from?
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occur naturally as compounds
beneficiated high-purity feed
reducing agents: H, C, M, e-
options for sustainability?
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where do metals come from?
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occur naturally as compounds
beneficiated high-purity feed
reducing agents: H, C, M, e-
options for sustainability?
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beyond the blast furnace
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most metals are found in nature as oxides
“like dissolves like”
e- is the best reducing agent
extreme form of molten salt electrolysis
molten oxide electrolysis:
where pure oxygen gas is the by-product
MMMMM
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๏ electrolytic route from ore to liquid metal viable at industrial scale: aluminium worldwide capacity exceeds 45 million tpy
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replace C with e-: reductant and fuel
๏ decompose Al2O3 dissolved in Na3AlF6 (T = 960°C) liquid Al (-) and CO2 (+) find an inert anode & molten oxide electrolyte
Charles Martin Hall, USAPaul L.T. Héroult, France
1886
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๏ temperature above 1538°C
๏ current flow generates heat by Joule effect
๏ carbon-free iron product in the liquid state
๏ oxygen by-product: environmentally beneficial commercial value
๏continuous process: periodic feeding of iron oxide periodic removal of liquid iron
(FeOx ) = Fe(l) + x2 O2 (g)
liquid iron
iron
NOT TO SCALE
molten oxide electrolysis (MOE)
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attributes of MOE (1)
๏ extraction is carbon-free no emission of CO2, SO2, NOx
๏ cell operates at 1600°C production of molten steel in a single reactor
๏ iron oxide fed directly into the cell fewer unit operations lower cost
๏ tonnage oxygen also produced marketable by-product
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cokeoven
sintering
blastfurnace
basic oxygen furnace
refining, casting, rolling, shaping
molten oxide electrolysis
refining, casting, rolling, shaping
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\
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T = 1600°C
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cathode collector:making liquid iron
anode lead:making oxygen
-
+
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electrolysis of Fe2O3 at 1570°C as seen through port in cell cap
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constant-current electrolysis at 1575°C
current density: ~1 A cm-2
iron
electrolyte
Mo crucible
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more electrolytic production of molten iron:
iron
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producing oxygen on an inert anode
anode after 2.5 h electrolysis at 1.5 A.cm-2, T = 1565°C
5 mm
metallic alloy core
frozen slag
oxide layer
point defect model (D.D. MacDonald)
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๏MOE industrial cell will be self-heated by the Joule effect
๏ energy efficiency and metal purity can be assessed only in an internally heated cell
Joule effect!(+)!
Reaction heat!(-)!
Natural convection!(-)!
Radiation!(-)!
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next step: internally heated cell
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notional design of self-heating cell
anodeø 40 cm
cathodeø 50 cm
slagø 4 cm
NOT TO SCALE
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other attributes of MOE ironmaking
๏ uses existing† supply chain for iron oxide feed
๏ produces metal of superior quality in liquid state (no carbon, sulfur, nitrogen, or hydrogen)
๏ lower threshold tonnage at lower capital cost
๏ zero carbon emissions from smelter
๏ potential to produce high-quality steels, e.g., stainless
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metal ball at bottom of cathode metal ball on floor of cell
production of nickel by MOE
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production of ferrochromium by MOE
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Fe-Ni-Cr alloy
towards electrolytic stainless steel
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production of liquid titanium by MOE
frozen electrolyte
titanium puddle
Mo crucible
cathode: Mo
anode: C
current density ∼1 A/cm2
T = 1725°C
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production of rare-earth metals by MOE?
stay tuned!
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electrochemistry and energy storage: noble origins bright future
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electrochemistry and energy storage: noble origins bright future
Ernest Rutherford