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Elementary School Counselors’ Perceptions of Reality Play Counseling in
Students’ Relationship Building and Problem-Solving Skills
Eric S. Davis
Argosy University-Tampa
Mary Ann Clark
University of Florida
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Abstract
In this qualitative study, eight school counselors participated in a series of reality play
counseling trainings introducing techniques appropriate for counseling upper-grade
elementary school students to enhance positive relationship building and problem
solving skills. Participants were interviewed and their transcripts were analyzed using
grounded theory methods which yielded four core categories: positive aspects of
implementation, perceptions of the effectiveness of relationship building, perceptions of
the effectiveness of developing problem solving skills, and concerns regarding
implementation.
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Elementary School Counselors’ Perceptions of Reality Play Counseling in
Students’ Relationship Building and Problem-Solving Skills
According to The ASCA National Model: A Framework for School Counseling
Programs (American School Counselor Association [ASCA], 2005), school counselors
have the responsibility for promoting academic, career, and personal/social
development of all students. In particular, school counselors play a significant role in
preparing all students to acquire attitudes, skills, and knowledge necessary for
successful academic achievement (Campbell & Dahir, 1997; Roberts & Mills, 2009).
These school counselors must be vigilant in maintaining accountability by ensuring the
interventions are clearly defined, effective, and appropriate (Campbell & Dahir, 1997;
Myrick, 2003). Meeting these expectations can be staggering when taken into account
that approximately five million students between the ages of 6 and 16 come to school
regularly, but are unmotivated and disconnected from the school community including
teachers, counselors, administrators, peers, and schoolwork (Glasser, 1997b). Two of
the most effective and appropriate means for school counselors to work with students
on such issues, and to elicit growth-fostering relationships while maintaining
accountability is through the use of play counseling and Dr. William Glasser’s choice
theory and reality therapy (Carmichael, 2006; Glasser, 1997b; Nystul, 1995).
Reality therapy (Glasser, 1990) and play counseling (Landreth, 1993) both
address the promotion of positive relationships and accountability with developmentally
appropriate and effective means for school counselors. In particular, Glasser (2000)
posited that many students lack good relationships with warm, caring, responsible
adults. By combining reality therapy concepts with play counseling techniques, school
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counselors can attempt to help students address these problems with a novel and
potentially developmentally, culturally appropriate intervention The researchers used
Glasser’s choice theory and reality therapy approaches for the development of these
techniques combined with traditional play counseling interventions to investigate
elementary school counselors’ perceptions of the possible utility of this approach to
enhance students’ relationship building and problem-solving skills.
Choice Theory and Reality Therapy
The driving theoretical frameworks for this study were Glasser’s choice theory
and reality therapy. Choice theory relates to the theoretical aspects of Glasser’s ideas
while reality therapy encompasses the delivery system of counseling interventions
related to the theory (Wubbolding, 2000). Perhaps the most salient principle of choice
theory is that humans are driven by five basic genetic needs: survival, love and
belonging, freedom, fun, and power (Glasser, 2000). In order to meet these needs,
individuals must be aware of their quality world, a very specific, personal world at the
core of our lives which can include people, things, and beliefs that drive our need
satisfaction (Glasser, 1997a). The difficulty for individuals arises when the ideal quality
world pictures do not match reality and are coupled with an inability to adapt to that
difference (Glasser, 1998). For students, school often has an early place in their quality
world pictures, but begins to dissipate in the later elementary grades due to decreased
relationships with faculty and schoolwork (Basic, Ticak-Balaz, Uzelec, & Vorkapic-
Jugovac, 1997; Glasser, 1990).
Reality therapy principles utilized in a school counseling setting can help
counselors to build a relationship with the student by staying in the present, creating a
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safe and warm environment, avoiding coercion and punishment, expressing genuine
concern and empathy, and being positive and optimistic (Basic et al., 1997;
Wubbolding, Brickell, Imhof, Kim, Lojk, & Al-Rashidi, 2004). Once the relationship is
established, the reality therapy oriented school counselor introduces the concepts of
choice theory such as basic needs and quality world pictures to the student. Then,
measures are introduced to understand the concept of choosing all of our behaviors,
through the concept of total behavior composed of actions, thoughts, feelings, and
physiology. According to Glasser (1998), individuals have direct control over acting and
thinking; however, they have indirect control over feelings and physiology.
Once these concepts are explained to a student, the interventions based on
reality therapy principles can be introduced. The four fundamental questions of reality
therapy are as follows and can be viewed as a problem solving model: 1) What do you
want? (Wants), 2) What are you doing to get what you want? (Doing), 3) Is what you are
doing working? (Evaluation), and 4) What is another way to get what you want?
(Planning) (Passaro, Moon, Wiest, & Wong, 2004; Wubbolding, 2000). This technique is
known as the WDEP method and is a tool for teaching and learning reality therapy skills
while helping people gain a skillful, creative, and artful method for effective intervention
(Wubbolding, 2000; Wubbolding & Brickell, 2007). The WDEP concept particularly
applies to the school environment as it is important for students to be involved in the
development of plans through the use of decision making and problem solving skills to
meet their needs and wants.
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Play Counseling: A Multidisciplinary Approach
Play has long been considered an important tool for children to act out their lives
and rehearse its possibilities (Association for Play Therapy [APT], 2008). A variety of
professional fields, including education, pediatrics, counseling, and anthropology,
recognize the importance of play in healthy cognitive development, social and emotional
competence, physical coordination, interpersonal skills, and overall well-being of
children (Ember & Ember, 1993; Magnuson, 2003; Schor, 1995). Elementary school
counselors can refocus the use and importance of play by utilizing it in building positive
relationships with students, addressing school related issues, and aiding the student in
passing along the vicarious learning to classroom performance (Landreth, 1993).
Toys can have the specific purpose of enhancing and providing means of
communication for children (Landreth, 1991). The selection of toys should be very
intentional as they can aid in focusing certain aspects of communication, self-reflection,
and growth (Magnuson, 2003). For this study, the researcher utilized the following toys:
puppets, sand trays and miniatures, and drawing materials.
Play counseling, with over fifty years of research, has been long considered an
appropriate tool and ideal avenue for dealing with a wide range of emotional, social, and
academic difficulties for children from a variety of cultures through a number of
theoretical approaches (Bratton, Ray, Rhine, & Jones, 2005; Carmichael, 2006; Josefi &
Ryan, 2004). However, little research has been conducted on the use and practice of
play counseling by elementary school counselors (Ray, Armstrong, Warren, & Balkin,
2005). Furthermore, little research has been conducted on the school relationships of
elementary school students, despite the significance of such bonds in their academic
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achievement (Anderman & Kaplan, 2008; Glasser, 1990; Spencer, Jordan, & Sazama,
2004).
Reality Play Counseling
Throughout the years of research and evidence of the effectiveness of both play
counseling and reality therapy, there is no evidence that an attempt to combine the two
has ever been undertaken. Reality play counseling can be a potentially powerful tool for
elementary school counselors. Most children below the age of eleven lack a fully
developed capacity for abstract thought needed for verbal expression or understanding
of complex issues and feelings (Bratton et al., 2005; Piaget, 1950). Using creative
techniques to connect with clients across ages and development further enhances the
potential usefulness of reality play therapy (Kennedy, 2008).
Both counseling approaches have been considered to be well-suited for short
term counseling while helping students discover how to make choices regarding
behavior, take responsibility, and use the techniques throughout life to meet needs
(Landreth, 1991; Nystul, 1995). Once such needs are addressed or fulfilled, it is
postulated that students can become more enthusiastic about learning, thus leading to
improved academic performance (Glasser, 1986; Parish, 1992). Therefore, the primary
purpose of this study was to investigate elementary school counselors’ perceptions of
the usefulness of reality play counseling with elementary school students in relationship
building and problem-solving skills.
Method
A qualitative methodology was selected to examine the perceptions of reality play
counseling’s effectiveness with elementary school students by school counselors
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because it has the potential to yield rich, deep, and innovative perspectives through the
phenomenon of human experiences (Grbich, 2007). Grounded theory methods are
qualitative research approaches designed for the systematic generation of theory from
data (Glaser, 1978). In this study, grounded theory served as the research method to
produce (a) descriptions of school counselors’ perceptions of reality play counseling, (b)
explanations of how elementary school counselor perceive the implementation of reality
play counseling with elementary school students in relationship building and problem-
solving skills, and (c) a theory about the meaning made by the school counselors
regarding reality play counseling and elementary schools students.
Participants and Sampling
Participants included in this study were 8 volunteers drawn from the elementary
school counselor population (n = 26) of a north central Florida school system. They
were all volunteers who agreed to participate in all aspects of the study and were state
certified school counselors working in an elementary school setting. The generally
accepted number of participants is 5-8 in a qualitative research study involving long
interviews (Patten, 2007). Therefore, the utilization of 8 volunteers was an appropriate
total for this method of research.
The research participants were assigned pseudonyms to protect their anonymity
in reporting the results. Efforts were made to include participants’ diversity related to
ethnicity/race, gender, elementary school counseling experience, and location of
elementary school. Table 1 summarizes the demographic information of the total
sample. Table 2 provides the demographic information of the school counselors’
students who participated in the individual reality play counseling sessions.
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Table 1
School Counselor Demographics
Counselor Gender Age Race/Ethnicity
Years of Elementary Experience
Lisa F 61 W 36
Mona F 27 W 2.5
Maggie F 52 W 7
Selma F 59 W 18
Marge F 58 W 28
Maude F 61 B 15
Patty F 30 W 3.3
Edna F 38 W 15
Table 2
School Counselors’ Student Demographics
Counselor Gender Age Race/Ethnicity Grade
Lisa M 10 B 5
Mona M 9 B 4
Maggie F 10 B 4
Selma M 11 B 5
Marge F 10 B 5
Maude M 10 B 4
Patty M 9 W 4
Edna M 10 W 5
Training and Implementation Procedures
Once the complete list of volunteers was compiled, a total of four hours of
training was conducted in reality play counseling techniques by the researcher at the
beginning of the 2009-2010 academic year. The first hour of training consisted of an
introduction and overview of choice theory and reality therapy principles. In the second
hour of training, the school counselors received an overview of play counseling
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including its purposes, rationale, and the developmentally appropriate language to use
in play counseling. The final two hours of training combined the use of play counseling
techniques with the choice theory and reality therapy principles.
Three techniques used in reality play counseling were introduced to the school
counselors: the quality world sand tray exercise (Allen & Berry, 1987; Gil, 1998;
Glasser, 1998), the use of puppet play to introduce the concept of total behavior (Gil,
1994; Glasser, 1998) and finally a WDEP drawing activity (Gil, 1998; Landreth, 1991;
Wubbolding, 2000). In the quality world stand tray exercise, students were instructed to
build their quality world, including people, things, and beliefs, using miniatures in the
sand tray. The purpose of this activity was to provide both the student and school
counselor a visual representation of the students’ world view, including important quality
world pictures. The second technique addressed the concept of total behavior through
puppet play. Four puppets were utilized to describe each of the four components of total
behavior (acting, thinking, feeling, and physiology). This activity was intended to aid the
student in understanding each of these aspects of behavior and how they can interact
and affect each other. Finally, the WDEP drawing activity was introduced, utilizing the
wants (W), doing (D), evaluation (E), and planning (P) components in a series of
drawings. This activity served the purpose of allowing the counselor and student to
visually represent the presenting problem and potential solutions.
Following the training sessions, the school counselors implemented the
techniques over the course of six weekly counseling sessions lasting 30 minutes each
with an individual elementary school student. Because reality play counseling focuses
on relationships, the school counselors were instructed to select students presenting
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relationship problems with school faculty, peers, or school work. The relationship
problems were to fall into one of the following categories: 1) difficulty following
classroom directions; 2) difficulty making friends; or 3) difficulty completing school work
assignments. Additionally, the school counselors selected students from upper
elementary (4-5th grade), English speaking only, mainstream classes due to the
language and cognitive developmental needs of understanding and applying logical
operations for this counseling approach (Glasser, 1990; Piaget, 1950).
Data Collection
The data collection method for this study was the use of participant interviews
conducted by the first researcher. School counselor participants were interviewed in a
semi-structured, in-depth interview format for approximately 30-45 minutes following the
completion of the six total counseling sessions. A semi-structured interview, rather than
a predetermined set of questions, allows for explanation, expansion, and exploration in
order to delve into "unexpected, unusual, or especially relevant material revealed by the
participant" (Patten, 2007, p. 153). Examples of the initial prompts included, "What were
your overall perceptions of this counseling process using reality play therapy
techniques?" and "How effective do you think these techniques were in gaining insight
into the student’s needs?"
Data Analysis
Grounded theory was developed by sociologist Barney Glaser and Anselin
Strauss (1967) and is based on the need for new theoretical explanations built on
previous knowledge to explain changes (Grbich, 2007). Grounded theory data analysis
utilizes the constant comparative method (Glaser & Strauss, 1967), which continually
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compares each new element of the data with all previous elements to establish and
refine categories (Patten, 2007; Strauss & Corbin, 1998). The researcher makes
continued theoretical comparisons between and within data through coding to delineate
various properties of the emerging concepts and categories to analyze their similarities
and differences (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Strauss & Corbin, 1998).
Each of the eight interviews with the school counselors was transcribed verbatim.
This step was followed by a detailed open coding process of each data set. During this
process, each individual line of the transcription was reviewed by the researcher to
identify meaning and themes presented by the school counselors. After coding each
data set for all participants, the initial codes were reviewed to look for emerging
relationships among codes and to note more frequent and significant codes. Constant
comparison of the codes involved comparing the coded meaning units with each other
resulting in increased codes. This process allows for increased connection among the
codes as well as providing clarity of the data. As this data was clarified, it was
reorganized and grouped into similar codes related to various aspects of the school
counselors’ perceptions of the reality play counseling process of implementation.
From the coding process, the emerging theory was developed. The theory was
related to the perceptions of the school counselors associated with the implementation
of reality play counseling. This theory was grounded in the data offered by the school
counselors from the individual interviews conducted by the researcher. During the entire
data collection process, the researcher utilized theoretical sampling to ensure the
direction of the process was appropriate. Because the school counselors’ interview
transcripts were reviewed multiple times for emergent themes by the researcher, as well
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as member checked by the participants for errors and new thoughts, it was deemed that
no new information was emerging. A group debriefing was also conducted with the
participants to present the findings and elicit any additional information. At this point, it
was determined that the data collection process had reached saturation and the data
analysis was complete.
Trustworthiness
Qualitative researchers are given the opportunity to experience data through the
lived experiences of the participants resulting in potentially rich information based in
natural environments (Hunt, 2011). However, there is a potential risk for skewing data
toward a desired outcome with the use of qualitative research (Eppler, 2008). In
particular, it is common to question the researcher’s subjectivity and its potential effects
on the data and theories produced (Bogdan & Biklin, 2007). Although the researcher’s
personal experiences with the topics of this study shaped the overall interest, a sincere
attempt was made to remain neutral and open to the perceptions of the participants.
Further, steps were taken to avoid bias as well as addressing trustworthiness of the
study. It is vital that such steps be taken to ensure the trustworthiness-also described as
credibility, validity, confirmability, and rigor- of the research (Hunt, 2011; Scarborough &
Luke, 2008).
In this research study, several steps were taken to increase the trustworthiness
of the data. Skewing of the data was addressed by using academic colleagues for peer
review of methods to ensure their appropriateness and efficiency. Additionally, member
checking by participants was utilized for accuracy of data sources (Eppler, 2008;
Scarborough & Luke, 2008). Member checking was conducted following the
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transcription of each of the eight individual interviews by providing participants with the
entire transcript for review for errors and additional insights. Although new information
was minimal, this process allowed each of the participants’ reactions, clarifications, and
additions to become part of the transcripts of the interviews and guide the coding
process. Allowing such procedures throughout the coding process can aid in avoiding
other limitations such as ignoring existing theories or poorly integrated theoretical
explanations (Grbich, 2007). Additionally, the use of an audit trail, a chronological
sequence of records which contain materials directly pertaining to and resulting from the
research procedures, was essential to maintaining the trustworthiness of this qualitative
research study. Further, constant and consistent note taking and memo writing were
utilized in an effort to enhance the trustworthiness of the qualitative research (Hunt,
2011; Scarborough & Luke, 2008).
Results
The data analysis revealed four major categories associated to the school
counselors’ perceptions of reality play counseling. These categories were related to the
school counselors’ perceptions of the positive aspects of implementation, effectiveness
of relationship building, effectiveness of developing problem-solving skills, and concerns
about implementation. Based on these findings, a grounded theory was developed to
hypothesize the relationships among the categories and their components. The theory
posits the interconnectivity between the implementation of reality play counseling and its
effectiveness in developing relationships and problem-solving skills for the elementary
school students.
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Positive Perspective of Reality Play Counseling Implementation
The participants of this study recognized and noted the importance for
elementary school students’ need for an outlet to express themselves through creative
means such as those offered in play. In particular, Lisa noted the creative avenue of
play allows students to access "items to represent everything/one that is important" and
"learn a lot about ourselves." In conjunction, the play materials ease the students’
anxiety and allow for exploration of topics that may be more difficult or forced in a
traditional talk session or as Maggie noted, "My sense was once the puppets were on
the hands, that revealing the thoughts, feelings, and nature of the conversation flowed
freely." The recognition of students’ need for play and creativity provided possible
support of elementary school counselors’ call for new ways, such as reality play
therapy, to encourage such creative activities when counseling students.
This introduction of a new approach also stimulated the school counselors’
interest in working with additional students utilizing the approaches. Edna noted that
she planned on integrating more of the concepts with her students in individual sessions
as well as in small and large group settings. Marge, in particular, approved of the
expansion of the use of these techniques because of the relation the activities had to
some previously learned strategies in "giving I messages and discussing
empowerment" and the ability to link them together. Additionally, Mona related how
"effective" the sand tray and drawing activities could be in working with a class on such
issues as "making friends, getting into trouble in class, or not completing assignments."
The school counselors also noted their approval of these activities with a variety of
students and topics including anger, death, divorce, and friendship.
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Perhaps the most "effective" and "insightful" means of all of the activities that
provided perspective into the students’ world, was the sand tray activity, according to six
of the eight school counselor participants. Through this exercise, students were able to
portray a variety of needs in a safe environment. Some of the needs that surfaced
involved safety and trust as Marge’s student "caged" the animals that represented
danger to her on the opposite side of the tray away from the doll she chose to represent
herself. Selma’s student used similar play utilizing fences to block the predators from
accessing him. Patty’s student depicted a scenario with the tiger and lion looking into
his car and that they were the "bullies attacking." The need for connection and
belonging again surfaced as Maggie’s student "positioned herself in the middle of the
world and stacked items so she was the tallest….behind her were her support, favorite
teachers, support staff, and two friends, all facing the same direction." Edna’s student
was able to share his need for power as he played out a scene with military miniatures
in which he was the great leader of the battle.
Another choice theory concept that came to light in the reality play counseling
activities involved students’ ability to recognize aspects of total behavior. While using
the puppets, Selma’s student was able to express several of these concepts as he told
her, "when he gets really angry and tries to yell at someone, nothing really comes out
and how frustrated this makes him feel and also hurts his head." Mona shared her
observation about her student, "I feel like his madness got in the way of his actions so it
may be helpful to work with him next time on dealing with feelings and not letting it
control his behavior so he can get his need met." The students were also able to
provide vivid visualization of the effects of the total behavior components (i.e. feeling
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"crumpled up and small") thus allowing the school counselor to see the powerful way in
which these situations affected the students.
Perceptions of the Effectiveness of Relationship Building
The environment established by the counselors utilizing concepts of reality
therapy and play counseling, along with basic counseling skills, allowed for positive
relationship building. In Marge’s session with the quality world sand tray, she was able
to connect with her student in a discussion about the student’s father’s recent death.
Further, the atmosphere of nonjudgmental acceptance from choice theory and play
counseling allowed for complete "trust" in Selma’s relationship. Maggie was able to
"clarify and reflect" in her session to gain a clear picture of who and what was important
to her student. Lisa was able to "plant the seed of change" in her student and follow it
throughout the counseling sessions to see his progress.
The student anticipation for the sessions was observed early in the data analysis.
Edna stated, "He absolutely wanted to come. It helped to build a relationship quite a
bit." The other counselors all expressed some variation of this including "he liked
coming to see me," "she felt like she was getting more special attention," and "he was
more excited about getting to spend time with me and having this fun thing to do." The
previous statements provide a great example of the importance of the relationship in the
context of an accepting and fun, yet structured environment for both students and
school counselors.
In addition to anticipation for the interaction with the school counselor, a trend
toward eagerness for the use of the materials by the students surfaced in the data.
Maude’s student expressed this anticipation even beyond the toys to the actual sand as
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he "started playing in the sand before even touching the toys" indicating his desire for
the tactile experience of the sand. Virtually every other school counselor mentioned the
increased level of "excitement," "engagement," and "enjoyment" revolving around the
materials. Such emotions denote the desire of this age range to be involved in the play
process and see it as valuable.
Students were also able to portray the need for positive classroom relationships
through the play activities. Edna’s student eventually connected the need for friendship
issues with his classroom behaviors during the planning phase of the drawing activity in
that "if he listens to the teacher and the other students more, the kids would be more
likely to be his friend." This need for friendship was also exemplified in the sand tray by
Selma’s student in which:
He added and removed characters in it representing a friend who he would like to
make that was out of the sand, the predators that were around him making it
difficult for the friend to get in, or even make himself known and things he had
tried to get the friend closer.
The "friend" outside of the sand represented a missing component of friendship in his
quality world. Such a comment accentuates this student’s understanding of the
classroom dynamics and need for connection that factor heavily in the daily peer
interactions of elementary school students.
Perceptions of the Effectiveness of Developing Problem-Solving Skills
In some of the sessions, students and counselors were able to develop a plan
linked to the total behavior concept. For example, Patty and her student worked out a
plan in which the total behavior aspects were addressed as the "action" puppet "walked
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away from the bully," and the "thoughts" puppet "wanted to tell a teacher." Edna also
worked with her student by "discussing him using nice words to ask for what he wants
from friends instead of saying things like ‘you are mean’." Selma and her student
worked on a plan that addressed changing his actions and thoughts to see "what the
new feelings and physiology might be" that could result in an overall behavior change in
the classroom. During the puppet activity, Lisa and her student "replayed the argument,
working each puppet appropriately, and were able to find a more positive choice and
outcome." By relating to the total behavior concept, both parties were able to break the
situation down into workable and understandable parts for future implementation of the
plan.
Students’ needs, such as making and maintaining friends to meet the need of
belonging, were also addressed in the development of plans. For example, Selma’s
student played out "taking the fence down" and "approaching one of the predators" in
an attempt to connect and potentially develop a friendship. By addressing the students’
needs in the context of developing plans, a stronger investment may be made by the
student resulting in a more beneficial and effective outcome.
In many of the plans, there was a component that addressed the classroom
setting. For example, Lisa’s session, the student developed a plan of "ignoring, moving
away from, and reporting the provocative behavior of others" to avoid his involvement in
problem behaviors and the resulting consequences. In a similar example, Maude’s
student worked out an option of "doing his reading and math assignments in school
which will get him a green star at the end of the day which equals a good day" resulting
in better interactions with his teacher and mother.
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Specific plans were also developed for interactions with peers in the school
setting. One such plan utilized by Marge and her student involved how "choosing a
different behavior might offer a different reaction" from the peer. This outcome was
accomplished with a puppet role play in which "several scenarios" were created with
"different responses" which elicited "different reactions" from the peer. Her student
ultimately reported the effectiveness of this strategy as she and the peer had "settled
their differences by talking about how she feels about his teasing." Patty and her
student also discussed the continuation of his plan to "use positive words" with peers in
an attempt to "help his friendships grow." By creating a specific plan for direct
interaction with peers, the students are provided positive options for solving the problem
while simultaneously developing new peer relationships.
Concerns Regarding the Implementation of Reality Play Counseling
The participating school counselors presented a set of concerns related to the
implementation of reality play counseling Perhaps the most pressing concern to emerge
from the reality play therapy implementation involved the cognitive developmental stage
of the upper grade elementary students. Despite the fact that this age range has the
potential to understand such concepts, there were still concerns raised by the
counselors in the context of the sessions. Several of the school counselors referred to
the students’ need to be of a certain cognitive developmental stage to fully grasp the
reality play counseling concepts and activities. For example, Lisa noted:
I don’t know that I would’ve taken exactly the same sessions with a much
younger child or a child who is not as capable cognitively as he is. Because he’s
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really bright and it made sense to him. He can talk about things with a good
vocabulary and good understanding.
Selma made a similar comment expressing her reservations about using reality play
counseling with a student who may not have the "same ability level" as her student.
Edna furthered this idea by stating that "some of the constructs are hard to get down to
an elementary kid level" and a need to put the counseling theory into "10 year old
words." These statements reflect both the counselors’ apprehension about students’
needed level of cognitive development and their self-expectations for students’ ability to
comprehend such concepts as reality play counseling.
The other prevalent theme involved time considerations. All of the school
counselors noted feeling an intense pressure to fulfill a variety of job duties during the
school day. Selma expressed this by stating, "The problem was time for me….all the
other stuff that comes between and the other things that have to be done during the
day." In most cases, these duties do not connect directly to provide services to students,
much less counseling them. Lisa noted, "sometimes as counselors, we don’t have as
much time to have the individual over a long time for counseling." Edna also expressed
her "frustration" due to the lack of "consistency" of seeing her students. These
statements exemplify not only the curriculum pressure, but also the extra duties and
misconceptions about the role of the school counselor that hinder them in providing
counseling services to the elementary school population.
Discussion
This qualitative study analyzed the perceptions of school counselors in using a
model of combining reality therapy principles with play counseling techniques to help 4th
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and 5th grade children with relationship building and problem solving skills. Despite the
novelty of this approach at the elementary school level, there is literature related to both
the reality therapy and play counseling components of reality play counseling that
support the consistency of the findings. The selective codes related to the major
elements are: positive perceptions and concerns of reality play therapy’s
implementation and perceptions of the effectiveness of relationship building and
problem solving skills. From the realm of play counseling with Axline (1947), Ray
(2007), Gill (1998), and Landreth (1991; 1993) to choice theory and reality therapy’s
development with Glasser (1986; 1990; 1998; 2005) and Wubbolding (1994; 1999;
2000), the outcomes and insights these researchers report with students are consistent
with the data from this study.
An important observation made from the data involved the target of building
relationships. In the field of counseling, there is no more vital component than the
relationship between counselor and client/student (Glasser, 1998; Landreth, 1993;
Wubbolding, 2000). In particular, choice theory, reality therapy, and play counseling all
recognize the importance of such interactions and connections in the counseling
process to ensure appropriate growth and change for the students (Axline, 1947; Erwin,
2003; Glasser, 1997a; Landreth, 1993). The observation of relationships with the
creative play materials served to enhance the relevance of the importance of
relationships with the counselor, self, and others from the choice theory perspective
(Glasser, 1986; 1998). This enhancement is a clear benefit of reality play counseling,
and can serve school counselors in future relationship development with students,
potentially resulting in more positive school relationships.
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Choice theory, reality therapy, and play counseling focus on the significance of
the students’ ability to develop problem solving skills as a way of dealing with school
and life related problems (Cochran, 1996; Wubbolding, 2000). The school counselors’
experiences validated this concept as they observed the use of reality play counseling
to aid students in creating appropriate and realistic plans in making positive changes in
their school behavior and relationships. Further, it was vital that these plans were
developed by the student with the help of the school counselor to increase the students’
ownership and ability to develop strategies as suggested in the literature (Carmichael,
2006; Glasser, 1986; Wubbolding, 1999). The fact that all school counselors observed
some aspects of the problem solving component beyond the individual sessions into the
classroom and school environment was significant for their meaning making experience.
Considering that students were able to expand the problem solving skills from the
sessions to the classroom setting and school environment serves as a fundamental
principal of any counseling approach.
Implications for School Counselors
In the field of school counseling, there are established methods and techniques
for working with students. However, research (Glasser, 1986, 2000; Landreth, 1993;
Ray, 2007; Wubbolding, 2000; Wubbolding & Brickell, 2007) suggests that there is a
demand for new, innovative ideas for working with today’s school children. The
elementary school counselors recognized their familiarity with, and approval of, the
choice theory/reality therapy approach; yet, they expressed a need for a more
appropriate intervention rather than traditional talk therapy. The combination with a
creative process such as play counseling provided that bridge for the school counselors
24
to teach the choice theory concepts to the students while developing appropriate
relationships, gaining valuable insights, providing an avenue for creativity, and aiding in
problem solving skills development (Wubbolding, 1998). Such favorable reactions and
meaning constructed by the school counselors indicate the potential usefulness of the
reality play therapy approach.
There is a great deal of pressure placed on school counselors for accountability
for their work due to increased standardized testing demands, federal funding
requirements, and providing research based counseling interventions in a timely
manner (Daggett, 2005; Dollarhide & Lemberger, 2006; Mason & Duba, 2009; Wittmer
& Clark, 2007). Using counseling approaches that effectively address elementary school
students’ academic and social-emotional needs, school counselors can provide
accountability measures that specify how their interventions relate to student outcomes.
Reality play counseling could be one such option for today’s elementary school
counselor. Showing specific outcomes of improved relationship and problem solving
skills can help elementary school counselors provide evidence of their effectiveness by
supporting positive student relationships which can in turn affect classroom and school
climate.
Perhaps the most vital relationship in the implementation of reality therapy and
play counseling begins with the counselor (Glasser, 1998; Landreth, 1991; Wubbolding,
2000). It is through this connection that students can feel accepted and understood
while learning new skills for meeting their needs in appropriate ways. Additionally, it is
important that the student play a primary role in the development of problem-solving
skills to ensure a solid commitment and connection to the potential plan resulting in a
25
higher probability of success in implementing and completing the plan (Wubbolding,
2000).
Ultimately, such approaches as reality play counseling can give shape and
structure to the elementary school counselors’ list of effective interventions that can be
provided to their students, thus enhancing the entire school environment ranging from
relationships to academics. Once the school counselors gain a definitive understanding
of reality play counseling, a logical step may be to introduce the techniques to teachers
and parents so they can also use the activities when working with the elementary
students. It would be the school counselors’ responsibility to introduce and educate the
teachers and parents on the reality play counseling techniques by providing appropriate
literature, training, and opportunities to practice the activities. By expanding this
approach to other adult stakeholders, more students can be reached and these
techniques may be used in small group as well as classroom settings through large
group guidance or teacher implementation.
Limitations
Although the findings of this study provides some insights to perceptions of the
effectiveness of reality play counseling, it cannot be generalized to the entire population
of elementary school counselors at this point in the research. The purposeful sampling
in the study sought to include all eligible elementary school counselors in the selected
area. However, this population reflects the typical elementary school counselor makeup
of White, middle class females with seven of the eight participants matching this
demographic. Even though this study did represent the majority of elementary school
26
counselors based on demographics, it may not have covered as much diversity as
originally envisioned.
In comparison to the school counselor population, this student sample was
somewhat more balanced and diverse with regard to distribution of gender, age, race,
and grade. Both the school counselor participants and the student participants were
representative of the school district where the study was conducted. Elementary school
counselors in this study, as well as in the school counselor population across the nation,
are less diverse as a group than are the students with whom they work. An implication
is that with the increased diversity of student populations to include language and
culture, different ways of communicating, such as the reality play counseling used in this
study, may be very helpful for school counselors in working with diverse groups of
students.
Directions for Future Research
Because of the novelty of the reality play counseling approach, there is a need
for additional future research. To continue the development of the proposed grounded
theory, future researchers may wish to include a more heterogeneous mix of ethnic
groups for both the school counselor and elementary student populations. It would be
interesting to see if ethnicity and gender differences could have an effect on the school
counselors’ perceptions of reality play counseling’s implementation, relationship
building, and problem solving skills. Additionally, focusing on more specific subgroups of
elementary school student populations, including special education students, non-
English speaking students, and specific behavior related issues, could provide a more
thorough picture of reality play counseling’s effectiveness.
27
Another potential area of future research could address more specific areas of
academic and social-emotional outcomes. It may be beneficial to research the effects of
reality play counseling on academic areas such as student grades, attendance, and test
performance. Additionally, social-emotional concerns related to behavior (i.e. discipline
referrals, self-concept) could be addressed in future research. Analyzing data in each of
these areas could provide valuable information regarding the potential use of reality play
counseling techniques in developing interventions for school counselors.
Conclusion
This study was undertaken to gain elementary school counselors’ perceptions of
reality play counseling’s effectiveness in helping students in building relationships and
developing problem solving skills. This current research study findings tentatively
suggest that the meanings made by the elementary school counselor participants
attribute favorable perceptions of reality play counseling’s effectiveness in student
relationship building and problem solving skills development. The conclusions
developed from this study’s findings offer additional information concerning the process
by which elementary school counselors perceive, experience, and implement reality
play counseling concepts and techniques with upper elementary grade students. Not
only do elementary school counselors and students potentially benefit from a broader
understanding of the reality play counseling approach, but so could the entire school
environment. Through this understanding, relationships and problem solving could
increase resulting in a more positive and productive elementary school environment.
Reality play counseling has the potential of opening new doors for school counselors to
28
build such relationships though a familiar and effective means for children. Or as one
student noted, "When you play together, you learn more."
29
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Biographical Statements
Eric S. Davis is an assistant professor in counselor education at Argosy
University in Tampa, Florida. Dr. Davis has worked in a variety of school settings for
over 10 years, including 4 as a school counselor. His school counseling related interests
include implementation of play therapy techniques in school settings, school and
community relationships, and school-based reality therapy. Eric has received multiple
trainings in reality therapy and choice theory and is currently pursuing certification in
play therapy.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Eric S. Davis,
Department of Psychology and Behavioral Studies, Argosy University, Tampa, 1403 N.
Howard Ave., Tampa, FL 33607. E-mail: [email protected]
Mary Ann Clark is an associate professor and School Counseling Coordinator in
the Department of Counselor Education at the University of Florida. She has extensive
professional experience as a school counselor and school administrator. Her research
interests are in the following areas: male underachievement in public education,
counselors as educational leaders, factors in the success of poor and minority students,
international collaboration, and school/university partnerships. Dr. Clark has worked as
a school counselor and administrator with the Department of Defense Dependent
Schools on military bases in England where she held a variety of positions over a 13
year period.