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Elizabeth Costello- The "Lessons" Learnt

Elizabeth Costello- Eight Lessons is perhaps the most outstanding of the novels of

J.M.Coetzee. The novel is a veritable culmination of the experiences of his life.

Coetzee has culled these experiences and presented them in the novel in the form of

"lessons". These are lessons of life that he wishes to share with the readers. Having

stated this, it is necessary to assert that the kind of intertextuality that manifests itself in

the novel is markedly different from the one that is at work in the previous novels. It is

rather difficult to make an intertextual comparison between one or more novels of

J.M.Coetzee and Elizabeth Costello. The novel lends itself to complexity due to its

multidimensional nature. It makes references and allusions to various literary texts.

The novel operates at multiple levels that lead to the creation of a multifaceted

narrative. At the superficial level, it appears to be the story of Elizabeth Costello, the

novelist. At another level, it traces the life of the novelist J.M.Coetzee. Simultaneously,

the novel identifies the various stages in the origin and growth of the novel. It also

resembles an epic since there are a number of smaller stories that are narrated within

the larger narrative. The immensely dense narrative therefore is a typical example of

the workings of the various kinds of intertextual relationships.

Elizabeth Costello is the tale of an eminent novelist of the same name. She is sixty­

six years old. She is of Australian origin, but has spent twelve years in England and

France. She has a child from each of her two marriages. The novel opens with the

context of Elizabeth Costello travelling to Pennsylvania to receive the Stowe Award that

has been bestowed on her by Altona College. This event offers a glimpse of the kind of

relationship that she shares with her son John. Starting here, the narrative moves back

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and forth in time, revealing all the facets of her life. It also familiarizes us with the

concerns that she is passionate about, and how an expression of this is not always well

received. This helps us understand the rather complex persona that Elizabeth Costello

is. It also helps us analyse how and why the various people in her life as also the

various extraneous factors contribute to making her the kind of person that she emerges

out to be. .J.M.Coetzee employs Elizabeth Costello as a vehicle to project his own

preoccupations and prejudices. These will be discussed in detail in the course of this

chapter.

The preliminary point of the intertextual analysis is the idea of the "logical categories"

proposed by Julia Kristeva. Subsumed within the larger category of "logical categories"

is the concept of the "ideologeme". The logical categories being referred to here are the

extra-literary factors that govern a literary text. These are the fundamental elements

that control a literary text. They include the social, economic, cultural, political and

historical factors. There is a double bind to this theory. These aforementioned

categories are applicable to not merely the text in question but the first chapter of the

novel that discusses "Realism". As a late twentieth-century novelist, J.M.Coetzee

undertakes a certain kind of retrospection when he looks back at the origin of the

novelistic genre. With the advantage of temporality, he can successfully present an

objective perspective on this issue. Perhaps the most remarkable feature is the ability

to move beyond the immediate realms of the confines of realism and place the novel in

the wider framework of the humanities.

Coetzee has cleverly explored the various possible manifestations of the concept of

Realism. He has revealed how it can operate at multiple levels in a rational fashion.

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During the course of the narrative, J.M.Coetzee moves back and forth in time and also

between the "real" and fictional world. There are constant reminders to the reader that

the boundary between the real and the fictional is a porous one and one easily move

from one to the other. The novelist also comments about the art of storytelling. U[ ... ]

storytelling works by lulling the reader or listener into a dreamlike state in which the time

and space of the real world fade away, superseded by the time and space of the fiction."

(16) Interludes by the writer or narrator will disrupt the narrative. "Breaking into the

dream draws attention to the constructed ness of the story, and plays havoc with the

realist illusion." (16) This implies that fiction seeks to create the illusion of a reality, and

we must be able to clearly distinguish between the two.

Elizabeth Costello delivers a talk or rather her acceptance speech titled, "What is

Realism?" She uses the example of Franz Kafka's ape (of his story), to put across her

views. In trying to explicate her views about Realism, she moves beyond the literary

definition of Realism. She expresses doubts about the entity of the ape that addresses

the "learned society". She states that perhaps it could be a human being masquerading

as an ape. Costello employs the story to state that the notion of the "real" is a

questionable one. "There used to be a time, we believe, when we could say who we

were. Now we are just performers speaking our parts." (19)

Costello closes her talk by underlying the ever-transient nature of time. It is an

irrefutable fact that time is eternally in a state of flux. This is a reality that none can

deny. "[ ... ]. I am beyond time's envious grasp, we all know, if we are being realistic,

[ ... ]." (20) She adds further that it is H[ ... ] only a matter of time" before we are all

overtaken by the rush of time, and the generations to come will overtake us, even

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obliterating our memory. Thus, in the first chapter that dwells upon Realism,

J.M.Coetzee reinforces all the aspects associated with Realism, extending its

boundaries beyond the purview of literature and encompassing elements from "real" life

In natural succession follows the discussion about "The Novel in Africa", since

Realism is an integral element of the novelistic genre. The discussion of the status of

the novel in the African subcontinent is an assertion of his nationality. However,

perhaps the underlying fact that needs to be noticed is the subtle manner in which

Coetzee accepts the presence of the novel in Africa. This could also be perceived as

his reconciliation to the unassailable facts of his life. It appears as if he has succeeded

in sorting out the confusion pertaining to his nationality that seemed to plague the

protagonist of Disgrace, David Lurie. (Disgrace preceded Elizabeth Costello and it was

published in 1999.) Hence, he has chosen to dwell upon the novel in Africa rather than

its growth in any other country. Coetzee is very sure about his nationality and therefore

makes a case for Africa.

The next two chapters offer an insight into ''The Lives of Animals". These are again

followed by a debate about ''The Humanities in Africa". It is interesting to note that the

issue of the humanities with specific reference to Africa has been presented from the

perspective of Blanche, Elizabeth Costello's sister who had dedicated her life to the

cause of the underprivileged in Zululand. Blanche had been re-christened as Sister

Bridget, and was the administrator of a hospital. Blanche had received her initial

training as a classical scholar, but had later made the transition to a medical missionary.

The book that she had written about the service being rendered by Marianhill, (the

organization with which she was associated), was widely acclaimed. In recognition of

her yeoman service, a university had decided to honour her with a degree. It was for

this ceremony that Elizabeth Costello had been invited. In her lecture, Blanche had

traced the growth of the humanities and the repercussions that this had had on Africa.

Blanche extends the scope of her talk and has a detailed discussion with Costello

about the relevance of the humanities to Africa. She links this up to the colonization of

Africa and the spread of Christianity. When her sister takes her around the premises of

the hospital, Costello visits the chapel. There she is struck by the innumerable

crucifixes that have been carved by a person named Joseph. The most striking feature

about them is that they are all identical. They depict Jesus in anguish, the contours of

his body making this obvious. Elizabeth Costello is uncomfortable with the repetitive

nature of Joseph's work and questions Blanche about this. Blanche justifies her stand

by delivering a sermon about how Joseph did not do this out of any kind of compulsion,

but out of a genuine sense of piety. Elizabeth Costello's deeper concern was whether

under the guise of religion the natives were being exploited. Joseph had devoted

himself unflinchingly to the service of the church and at the end of it all, he was barely

able to earn a decent living for himself while young and now with his arthritic hands, he

was forced to survive on the pension being doled out by the church.

The crux of this chapter is the true implication of the "humanities" with specific

reference to Africa. Elizabeth Costello begins to debate whether it truly addresses the

welfare of the people. The hidden undercurrent is that perhaps this vocal supporter of

the church had inadvertently become a tool in the hands of the colonizers. Blanche had

selectively chosen to transform it into the form that was most acceptable to her mission

and had succeeded in earning the goodwill of the natives. Her service to the hospital

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had helped to obliterate the fact that she was not an African by birth, but had willingly

decided to dedicate herself to the service of the natives. Blanche was vociferous in her

argument that the natives had embraced Christianity willingly, since the suffering of

Jesus gave them a sense of empathy. Thus, in this chapter, J.M.Coetzee dwells upon

not merely the theoretical aspect of the humanities, but delves into its practical

applications. Humanities is discussed not superficially as a branch of study or from the

epistemelogical perspective, but how it is relevant for the common man. In doing so,

Coetzee has in fact moved this issue into the realm of what we have identified as

"logical categories". He has brought to light the practical import of the theory of

humanities, and whether or not it has played a significant role in shaping the lives of

humans.

In the same chapter, Elizabeth Costello writes a letter to her sister divulging details

of the relationship that she had shared with Mr. Phillips. She narrates to her sister

Blanche how on her mother's suggestion she had visited the ailing Mr. Phillips for the

first time. Gradually her visits became more frequent and she became his muse. She

began to cater to all his needs; physical, emotional and sexual. She sparked a new

lease of life for Mr. Phillips whose health was fast deteriorating. All this while Elizabeth

Costello never felt guilty about her relationship with Mr. Phillips. She was convinced

that she was in fact providing succour to a sick fellow human. Events took their own

course and Mr. Phillips succumbed to his illness. Recalling the last days that he had

spent with her, Costello questions her sister about how she can account for such

"episodes". Finally, Elizabeth Costello regrets the fact that time has taken its toll on the

relationship of the siplings. Her entreaty to her sister is, "Why can we not speak to each

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other straight and bare, as people ought who are on the brink of passing? [ ... ]; of the

world we grew up in, just you and I left." (155)

In revealing her relationship with Mr. Phillips to her sibling Blanche, Costello has

made an attempt to re-establish the relationship that was almost severed, due to the

constraints of time and distance. Neither of them had made any effort to revive it.

Costello longs for the warmth and comfort of a dear one. Perhaps she is upset that

Blanche has spent her life forging humanitarian bonds with virtual strangers, away in a

distant land, where she does not have anyone whom she can call her own. Blanche's

awards for service to mankind and her speeches about the humanities are rendered

when she is unable to maintain her relationship with the only member of her family. In

attempting to state this, Costello is trying to drive home the true implication of the

humanities. Perhaps she is also taking pride in the fact that she had succeeded in

making an old man happy during the last days of his life. The norms of society may

have been violated but Costello does not regret this. She has performed a duty towards

humanity and possibly this needs to take precedence over Blanche's "service".

Elizabeth Costello has collapsed the boundaries between the theory of humanities

and its significance in human life. To her or rather to J.M.Coetzee the true relevance of

the humanities takes shape when it is able to improve the lot of humans. This linkup of

the theoretical concepts to the palpable elements of life is the classification of the theory

into "logical categories". This is the contextualization of the theory and serves to

display the manner in which the larger social, economic, historical and political issues

necessarily impinge on it. Re-Iocating the theory of the humanities to the realm of the

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"logical categories" brings about its transformation from a passive concept to a

functional one that truly enriches the purpose of the humanities.

Taking this further, Coetzee tackles "The Problem of Evil". In this chapter, the

novelist addresses the issue of the holocaust. Costello's lecture on "Witness, Silence

and Censorship" is used as a pretext by Coetzee to express his views on this

contentious issue. Elizabeth Costello had chosen to discuss a novel authored by Paul

West that narrated the execution of those who had planned to assassinate Hitler. The

horrifying details were nothing short of abominable. Costello felt that these details were

"obscene", since it amounted to the infringement of the privacy of the individuals

concerned. Death and suffering being a very private matter, the details are not to be

divulged; she felt. Perhaps Coetzee is trying to convey the message that these

barbarous acts against humanity call for severe condemnation, and not glorification as

is done by Paul West. However, it needs to be underlined here that Paul West may not

have done so deliberately. Perhaps his intention in revisiting these horrendous crimes

was to remind the world that we must take urgent action against such despicable

crimes. Paul West is in true essence reinforcing the basic edicts of humanities.

However, Elizabeth Costello's perception views it as an act unacceptable to the

human sensibilities. If we were to apply the taxonomic considerations to this topic, we

will find that the central element is the novel of Paul West. Elizabeth Costello has

placed it in its larger context by describing how not only evil but also its description must

be disallowed. This is the classification into the "logical categories". "The Problem of

Evil" can be tackled by preventing it and more importantly, by obscuring it from human

memory by not recalling it. Elizabeth Costello makes a request to Paul West, which is

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actually a message for all writers. She states that, "[ ... J we must be wary of horrors

such as you describe in your book. We as writers. [ ... J For if what we write has the

power to make us better people than surely it has the power to make us worse." (171)

The final chapter, "At the Gate", is once again a return to the elemental "logical

categories" since the protagonist is compelled to make a convincing statement of belief

in order to pass through a gate. Her statement is put to trial by a panel of judges, but

eventually we realize that the judgment is never truly passed. Quite suddenly, the

narrative shifts to the seventeenth-century, to the life of Lady Elizabeth Chandos. She

makes a fervent plea to Francis Bacon to save her life and that of her husband, Lord

Philip. When the narrative makes a sudden shift to the past, the writer is making a

larger statement. He asserts the fact that the past will constantly impinge on the future.

We cannot divorce the past altogether from the present. This is in fact a reaffirmation of

the rootedness of the text within the larger overarching structure of society.

The concept of "logical categories" is closely aligned to the concept of

"ambivalence". Here this notion proposes an interlinking of the literary text and history.

It proposes to trace the manifestation of history in the literary text, and the specific

location of the text in the larger scheme of history. This novel is a virtual historical

chronicle of the novelistic genre. J.M.Coetzee traces the growth of the novel alongside

the various developments of the world. The most interesting feature of this record is

that it is adeptly interwoven into the narrative. There are several parallel strands that

are at work simultaneously in the narrative. The most obvious theme is the life of the

protagonist. Costello delivers a talk on "What is Realism?" when she is bestowed with

the Stowe Award. Her rather simple facade is itself representative of "moderate

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realism". "Supply the particulars, allow the significations to emerge of themselves. A

procedure pioneered by Daniel Defoe" (4) As is well known, this is the beginning of the

genre of the novel and Daniel Defoe was one of the novelists who heralded the onset of

this new genre on the literary horizon. The narrative soon follows this up with a

comment on the novels of Elizabeth Costello. This gives the semblance of a

comparison with the norms of realism.

Elizabeth Costello's son John offers a critical insight into her novels. He realizes that

her works are based on the lives of the people with whom she has interacted i.e. her

novels are not altogether fictional. Therefore, her works do measure up to the

standards of realism. Perhaps the most "realistic" feature about her works is that they

depict the human emotions in a stark manner. "About sex, about passion and jealousy

and envy, she writes with an insight that shakes him. It is positively indecent." (5)

Another attribute that John identifies is that, "[ ... J she is by 'no means a comforting

writer. She is even cruel, in a way that women can be but men seldom have the heart

for." (5)

By presenting these features of Costello's work perhaps, Coetzee is trying to assess

the extent to which novelists can adhere to the norms of realism. Yet another "reality"

that John has to face is the knowledge that Elizabeth Costello has been the recipient of

the award for the year 1995 since it has been declared the year of Australasia. This

helps him understand his mother's true position in the literary world. Costello also gets

an inkling of this when she hears about the members of the jury. She is unimpressed

with them and finds them "'Rather lightweight?'" (7) When John affirms this Elizabeth

Costello is disappointed and upset. It takes John's gentle persuasion to get her to

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accept this fact. In discussing this aspect, J.M.Coetzee is bringing into play the various

forms of the "real"; viz., real, reality, realistic and Realism.

The writer accounts for this by employing a premise of Realism that embodying of

ideas is inevitable since ideas cannot exist in isolation The expression of these ideas is

subjective, being governed by the individual and his/her typical circumstances.

J.M.Coetzee asserts that, ideas "[ ... J are tied to the speakers by whom they are

enounced, and generated from the matrix of individual interests out of which their

speakers act in the world- for instance, the son's concern that his mother not be treated

as a Mickey Mouse post-colonial writer, [ ... J." (9)

The next issue that is addressed by the writer is that of the characterization of the

women in the novels. The topic was raised during the course of an interview that

Costello had given on the radio. The debate includes Anna Karenina, Tess of the

D'Urbervilles, the women in the novels of D.H Lawrence and Marion Bloom of the novel

Ulysses by James Joyce. Elizabeth Costello had re-worked Joyce's novel and

presented it as The House on Eccles Street. When Elizabeth Costello's opinion was

elicited, she agreed that her attempt at liberating the women from the shackles of

domesticity were rather limited. Perhaps Elizabeth Costello acknowledges the fact that

she has been unable to move beyond the narrow constraints that have been implicitly

imposed by the previous novelists down the ages. Elizabeth Costello shifts the focus

from the women to the male protagonists. She states that the characters of Heathcliff,

Rochester and Casaubon have been re-worked and distorted by the newer writers. She

calls upon writers to put an end to this unacceptable practice. "'But, seriously, we can't

go on parasitizing the classics for ever. [ ... ] We've got to start doing some inventing of

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our own.'" (14) The point that ought not to be missed here is that this statement is self­

reflexive, pointing to the novelist Coetzee himself.

The present study seeks to identify the intertextual relationships that are operational

between the novels of J.M.Coetzee. As discussed in the course of this research

undertaken here, Coetzee consistently employs themes and metaphors from his earlier

fictional works or from the "classics". A comparison can be drawn up between

Dusklands, or rather the novella The Narrative of Jacobus Coetzee, and the classic

King Solomon's Mines. The Master of Petersburg is based on Dostoevsky's work The

Devils. Foe re-works Robinson Crusoe, while Ufe and Times of Michael K is a take on

the character of Friday. In the Heart of the Country, describes the life of a lonely

spinster, Magda, in the countryside. Magda takes on a pragmatic dimension and makes

a re-appearance in a different form in Disgrace as Lucy. Lucy's father, David Lurie

whose life was ravaged due to his amorous nature, is the protagonist of Slow Man,

albeit with a different name and a new setting.

Taking the chronological order into consideration, Slow Man is preceded by

Elizabeth Costello. Elizabeth Costello, the protagonist of the novel by the same name,

is an important character in Slow Man. Therefore, when Costello states that writers

must become creative and not source their content from the older works, the allusion is

to the writer himself. This is an instance of Realism at work. There are two aspects to

this. The first is Coetzee's use of the themes and metaphors selected from the older

novelists in his fiction, and the repetition of the identical themes from his earlier novels

in his later works. The second is Coetzee's acknowledgement of this fact and his

willingness to view. it from a critical perspective which calls into question his own

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creativity. Unhesitatingly, he gracefully accepts the truth that he lacks the creativity that

is the prerequisite for fiction. This is a typical instance of realism being applied logically.

Its practical application in the immediate context has been analyzed by Coetzee is a

self-reflexive exercise. From the perspective of "ambivalence", Coetzee has undertaken

a comparison of the later-day writers with the earlier ones. The analysis that emerges is

that the newer writers thrive on the creativity of the earlier writers.

While analyzing the various dimensions of Realism, J.M.Coetzee attempts to lay

bare the core of all the issues, doing away with the outer facades. He presents the true

self of the renowned writer Elizabeth Costello, who is revered by her admirers. Her son

John escorts her while she is at Williamstown. When John finds that his mother is held

in high regard, he begins to wonder whether he has ever been able to figure out her true

persona. As a child, John and his sister were a witness to his mother's almost

schizophrenic behaviour. She used to remain hidden "[ ... J day after day in her bedsitter

in Hampstead, crying to herself, [ ... J." (30) John has unpleasant memories of how she

U[ .. J stormed around the house in Melbourne, hair flying in all directions, screaming at

her children, [ ... J." (30) Notwithstanding this, John finds that he harbours no hatred for

his mother. On the contrary, "He serves at her shrine, [ ... J. He may not share in the

frenzy, but he worships too." (31) Thus, the novelist reveals the persona of the

veritable deity. She has a darker side to herself- an unacceptable behaviour of a

mother who had not fulfilled her maternal duties. This is the ureal" attitude that

characterizes the much-respected writer.

The conversation between Elizabeth Costello and her son John leads to a debate

about "the claims of realism versus the claims of idealism". Costello is unappreciative of

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the obsessive behaviour of people like Franz Kafka. Every move of the ape is tracked.

"That ape is followed through to the end, to the bitter, unsayable end, whether or not

there are traces left on the page." (32) In doing so, the norms of propriety are violated

and Elizabeth Costello condemns this. Perhaps the twin notions of realism and idealism

are contradictory to each other. It is rather difficult to strike a balance between the two.

The next element of the theory of intertextuality that is relevant to this novel is the

idea proposed by Roland Barthes. He stated that, 'The intertextual in which every text

is held, it itself being the text-between of another text, is not to be confused with some

origin of the text: to try to find the 'sources, the 'influences' of a work, is to fall in with the

myth of filiation; the citations which go to make up a text are anonymous, untraceable,

and yet already read: they are quotations without inverted commas." (160) This implies

that the literary text and the intertext are indistinguishable from each other. It is an

exercise in futility to try to identify the basis of the text.

The observation that the citations are "quotations without inverted commas" is truly

applicable to Elizabeth Costello. Even a cursory reading of the novel will make the

reader sensitive to the various cross-references that are being made in the narrative.

The entire work is replete with allusions, paraphrases and/or discussions pertaining to

other works. These may include those from the corpus of J.IV1.Coetzee himself or to any

other work. The references are rather extensive and the reader is perplexed about the

continuity of the narrative. The reader is left wondering whether it is a collage or a

collective critique of earlier works. But it is imperative to appreciate the literary ingenuity

of Coetzee since he adeptly manages to hold the storyline of the narrative intact. He

has succeeded welJ in engaging the reader's attention and also compels him/her to

make an effort to trace the links that he has fostered. The narrative is a gripping one

and the teasing of the reader's intellect adds to the enjoyment of reading the novel.

The opening page of the novel gives us a hint of the depths of the narrative that the

reader will have to negotiate in order to fathom the meaning of the text. The narrative

makes a mention of how Elizabeth Costello earned her fame by virtue of the success of

her fourth novel, The House on Eccles Street, whose protagonist is Marion Bloom, the

wife of Leopold Bloom of Ulysses, authored by James Joyce. If Elizabeth Costello has

been acclaimed for perhaps having rivalled the genius of Joyce, we are left wondering

about her literary prowess. The mention of James Joyce and possibly Costello's

success is a gentle pointer to J.M.Coetzee himself since, as stated previously, all his

fiction is an extensive exercise in intertextuality. The novels bear recurrent themes and

metaphors and we are unable to figure out the chronology. The mention of Joyce is a

subtle reminder to the readers that probably, the text that is before us echoes Ulysses.

As the narrative unfolds, we find that indeed this is the case. I will attempt to identify

these various links in this rather complex text.

In describing his mother's countenance John likens her to Keats, "the great advocate

of blank receptiveness". (4) In this specific context, we need to be aware of the special

usage of "blank receptiveness", wherein the emphasis is on the literal meanings of the

words. It denotes the appearance of his mother and the impression that she conveys

due to her rather odd manner of dress. The white shoes that she pairs with her blue

costume remind him of Daisy Duck. Her face was expressionless- a mirror of her inner

self. She had never displayed maternal love. She was a being caught up within her

own self, oblivious to the people around her. He recalled his childhood when his mother

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used to lock herself into a room to pursue her writing "He used to think of himself as a

misfortunate child, lonely and unloved." (4) The children's continual cries and pleas did

not affect her and they grew up with this feeling of "forsakenness". Now, as an adult,

John was able to view the past and the present more objectively. As an elderly woman,

John found that his mother carried "the passive look that, if you saw it in a young girl,

you should call withdrawn. A face without personality, the kind that photographers have

to work hard on to lend distinction." (4) This could also perhaps be read as an allusion

to her identity as a writer.

At a deeper level, it can also be considered as an indicator to ,,1.M.Coetzee himself.

Elizabeth Costello utilizes the characters from the works of other novelists. On similar

lines, what is the identity of the writer Coetzee. Each time he re-works an earlier work,

perhaps he takes on the identity of this writer. When expressed metaphorically, we

could state that just as Elizabeth Costello's face had to be worked upon since the

contours of her expressions were not well defined; so also with the recurrence of the

themes, characters and the setting in his novels, the onus is upon the readers to define

his true identity. When Costello is questioned whether she is "challenging" James

Joyce, she negates this. She justifies herself shrewdly. "But certain books are so

prodigally inventive that there is plenty of material left over at the end, material that

almost invites you to take it over and use it to build something of your own." (13) Thus,

Elizabeth Costello or rather Coetzee pays tribute to the genius of James Joyce.

The second chapter of the novel, "The Novel in Africa", is a critical overview of the

origin and growth of the novel in Africa. The writer has culled the various historical,

cultural, sociological, political, economic and literary factors that have been critical to the

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growth of the novel in Africa. The chapter reads like a virtual compendium of the

novelistic genre in the African subcontinent. The setting for this chapter is a trip on a

cruise liner undertaken by Elizabeth Costello on the insistence of a person named "X".

During the course of the voyage, Costello is to offer a short course on "the

contemporary novel". In return for this, her travel expenses are borne by X, and she is

also paid a generous honorarium.

While on board the ship, she meets Emmanuel Egudu, a Nigerian writer, whom she

is acquainted with. It is Emmanuel Egudu who traces the journey of the novel in Africa,

as part of his assignment on the ship. Egudu highlights the three salient features about

the presence of the novel in Africa. The first aspect that Egudu dwells upon is that

writing is alien to African culture and not intrinsic to it. The second point that he puts

forth is that the activity of reading is not part of the African social fabric. When the

Africans see the Europeans reading while travelling, they find it rather odd, since unlike

in Africa, people do not talk to each other. It appears as if the message that is being put

across is that, "Leave me alone, I am reading, [ ... ]. What I am reading is more

interesting than you could possibly be." (40) Egudu uses this feature to articulate a

major cultural difference between Europe and Africa. "We do not like to cut ourselves

off from other people and retreat into private worlds. [ ... ] Africa is a continent where

people share." (40)

The third fact stated by Egudu has deeper implications. It pertains to the socio­

economic situation of Africa. He states, "[ ... ], in the great, beneficent global system

under which we live today, it has been allotted to Africa to be the home of poverty." (41)

When Egudu refers to the "great, beneficent global system", the sarcasm is directed at

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the people of the world. The apparent "global system" is in fact biased against Africa.

Egudu's ire is directed at the colonial powers to be, who control the world and have

"allotted" poverty to Africa. Egudu was indignant that the wealth and resources of Africa

have been appropriated by the colonial authorities and now it is the "home" for misery

and destitution. Africa has been exploited by the world; or rather it has been the

beneficiary of the largesse of the benevolent world (as stated sarcastically by Egudu).

The fall-out of this political development has had ramifications in various aspects of the

life of the Africans, stated Egudu. "But in the broad picture, storytelling provides a

livelihood neither for publishers nor for writers." (41) In a world where survival is a

critical issue, the publishing of books for pleasure reading is not a viable proposition

from the financial perspective, stated Egudu. Egudu is attempting to bring to the notice

of the passengers of the ship the striking contrast between the lives of the African

writers and those of the European continent. The publication of books and their reading

by the common people is one of the many "luxuries" the Africans cannot afford stated

Egudu.

Emmanuel Egudu takes the passengers of the ship through a journey of African

literature. He familiarizes them with African literature and then moves on to a

comprehensive analysis of the position of the African novel vis-a.-vis the "Western

novel". In this context, Egudu recalls the views of the Senegalese writer Cheikh

Hamidou Kane. When the latter is questioned about why he believed that certain

writers from Africa are truly African writers although they write in a non-African

language, and their readership predominantly consists of non-Africans, Cheikh

Hamidou Kane justifies his selection by stating that, '''what distinguishes them lies in life

experience, in sensitivities, in rhythm, in style.'" (44) Another fact that Cheikh Hamidou

Kane emphasizes is that the African novelists are "heirs to an oral tradition", while the

European writers are inheritors to a timeless tradition of writing. Consequently, it comes

to life only when life is infused into it when it is read aloud. Thereby, the important point

that Egudu makes is that the African novel is a "critique of the Western novel". This

means that although the literature of Africa has (perhaps grudgingly) embraced the

novelistic tradition, it has not lost its innate oral nature. Hence, it stands up to the

Western novel to repudiate it.

In order to reinforce his point, Egudu quotes Paul Zumthor. Zumthor is an advocate

of the oral tradition. Although Zumthor hails from Canada, his views support the oral

tradition and therefore they are used by Egudu to validate his stand. Paul Zumthor

articulates his unbridled condemnation of the colonial enterprise of Europe. He

describes in detail how from the seventeenth-century, Europe has wrought havoc all

over the world by annihilating "animals, plants, habitats, languages". The growth of

literature seems to best embody this since literature has flourished at the expense of the

languages of the world. Zumthor calls for a halt to this mindless extermination and

hopes that, "Perhaps great, unfortunate Africa, beggared by our political-industrial

imperialism," will eventually put an end to this destructive march. (45)

How do these different ideas tie up with the larger framework of intertextuality? The

answer lies in the fact that these feed into the ideology of Roland Barthes. At each step

we realize the truth about Barthes's observation. The text is an intertext. The content is

never truly original; it is a series of "quotations without inverted commas". The chapter

focuses on "The Novel in Africa", and we realize that Coetzee has brought together

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thoughts and ideas of various theoreticians. It reads like a virtual encyclopaedia, that

has successfully collapsed the boundaries of language, nationality, and the various

streams of knowledge. The successful integration of these is a true exercise in

intertextuality.

Egudu's remarks about the literature or writing in Africa present an objective holistic

picture of the position of writing and the writers in Africa. However, Elizabeth Costello's

response to Egudu's views outlines a more global concern. Egudu's vociferous

expositions are an expression of his deep-seated national pride. "Emmanuel [ ... ] may

have acquired the blessing of American papers, but he has not changed. Africanness:

a special identity, a special fare." (41) The larger issue that is being underlined is how

certain countries have progressed at the cost of the others, but the fa<;ade of the

"beneficent global system" remains.

As stated, this chapter is a virtual easy reference guide to the literature of Africa.

After highlighting the salient features of African literature, Emmanuel Egudu describes

the important trends and movements that have influenced the African way of life.

Explaining the reasons behind his presence on the ship, Egudu elucidated how it was

difficult to publish books in his native country and this had had an adverse impact on the

lives of the writers. The voices of the "dissident intellectuals" like him had been muffled

and he was compelled to eke out his living in an alien country. When Egudu makes a

mention of this, he is trying to focus our attention towards to the imbalance in the lives

of the inhabitants of the African continent and those of Europe and North America.

Egudu addresses the audience thus, "And here you are, wealthy folk, [ ... ], taking a

cruise on this splendid ship, on your way to the remoter corners of the globe, to check it

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out, perhaps to check it off your list." (42) While these affluent folk are making the most

of their luxurious life, the African, (Egudu) is there to earn his livelihood.

Continuing the journey through African literature, Emmanuel Egudu elaborates about

the literary achievements of the outstanding African novelists. When he describes the

works of Amos Tutuola, the most outstanding feature that comes to our mind is the

language of Amos Tutuola. As we can recall, his most popular work, The Palm Wine

Drinkard, successfully captures the essence of the true African life. The most

noteworthy feature is the language. As we read the novel, the soul of Africa emerges.

The paradigm of Africa has been captured effectively by Tutuola. Amos Tutuola has

altered the English language to bring in the Africanness into it.

Egudu captures the quandary that plagues Amos Tutuola. Egudu describes how the

Nigerians disapproved of Tutuola because they were "embarrassed that they might be

lumped with him as natives who did not know how to write proper English." (47) On the

other hand the British editors were appreciative of his literary endeavour. They did not

find the language unacceptable. In fact, "what they refrained from correcting was what

seemed authentically Nigerian to them, that is to say, what to their ears sounded

picturesque, exotic, folkloric." (47) Tutuola is symbolic of the larger group of African

writers, whose very existence is dependent on the judgement passed on them by the

imperial powers. Egudu draws our attention to the predicament of the African writers.

Egudu is unhappy that the West classifies the writers into two categories. "The truth is,

to the West we Africans are all exotic, when we are not simply savage." (47)

Emmanuel Egudu is discontented that the writers are judged not on the basis of their

24U

qualities but on the whims and fancies of the imperialists. It is a warped perspective

that has the wrong factors as its basis.

The overarching message is to highlight the manner in which imperialism has come

to dominate the mindset of the colonized people. There is a constant anxiety on their

part to be accepted by the colonists. It is this anxiety that forces them to reject a gifted

writer like Amos Tutuola since he does not conform to the norms laid down by the

colonists. Elizabeth Costello analyses this phenomenon very effectively. She describes

how in other countries the writers and the readers share a common nationality. But in

the case of Africa, the discord comes in since the target audience is the West while the

writers are Africans. The constant anxiety to be accepted compels the African writers to

take on the role of "interpreters" of Africa.

By commenting on the status of the African novel, Emmanuel Egudu or rather

Coetzee has touched upon all the inter-related aspects of the novel in Africa. He has

presented a holistic perspective of this issue. He has elucidated the manner in which

these various extraneous factors have influenced the growth of the novel. The chapter

is in fact a veiled condemnation of the imperialistic system that has stifled the life as it

were of African society. The chapter is a comprehensive sociological comment. This is

a practical exercise in intertextuality. The chapter encapsulates texts pertaining to the

social, historical, economic and political aspects of the fabric of the life of Africa. Hence

the opinion of Roland Barthes that literary texts are inter-texts and in fact include

"quotations without inverted commas".

Coetzee's brilliance continues through the other chapters and he succeeds in

bringing together the various facets of life in the next chapter as well. On the lines of

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the previous chapter, in the next chapter, ''The Lives of Animals-The Philosophers and

the Animals", the writer deliberates on the crimes against humanity. In this chapter,

Coetzee offers an overview of the entire epistemology from the earliest times upto the

present. Although the chapter avowedly attempts to link up the lives of the animals and

philosophy, it is in fact a pretext to address the broader issue of how animals are

treated.

Costello had been invited to deliver the annual Gates Lecture at Appleton College,

and it was here that she expressed her views on this issue. The issue that was being

addressed here is how humanity has treated animals, and how the crimes against fellow

beings have eroded the humanitarian side and the savagery has increased. She

discusses the horrors of the concentration camps at Treblinka. The most telling remark

that Elizabeth Costello makes is that she likens the ruthless killings in the concentration

camps to the slaughtering of animals for their consumption. "[ ... ] Treblinka was so to

speak a metaphysical enterprise dedicated to nothing but death and annihilation while

the meat industry is ultimately devoted to life [ ... ]." (66)

Perhaps the most outstanding feature of Elizabeth Costello's talk is that she seeks to

integrate philosophy and sociology, or rather philosophy and the humanities. She

states that the power to reason is the chief characteristic that sets apart humans from

the other living beings. Elizabeth Costello uses the plea of this specialized ability to call

upon humanity to treat animals with dignity. Her earnest entreaty is to accord to the

animals the privileges that we humans enjoy. They must also enjoy "[ ... ] the right to life,

the right not to be subjected to pain or harm, the right to equal protection before the

law." (70) Elizabeth Costello points out candidly that the cause of the suffering inflicted

242

upon animals or even on other beings is the lack of the vital emotion of sympathy. This

makes human beings impervious to the suffering and agony of others. Elizabeth

Costello closes her lecture with a grim reminder of barbarism and how it continues

unabated because there is no deterrent to it. Our apathy has accentuated the

barbarism of these evil-doers because they are convinced '''[ ... } that we can do anything

and get away with it; that there is no punishment.'" (80)

The next chapter, "The Poets and the Animals", is similar to the last one. Elizabeth

Costello continues to deliberate on the pathetic lives of animals and the perspective of

the poets about this. The intertextual element that can be identified here is the manner

in which Elizabeth Costello reaffirms Thomas O'Hearne's stand that posits a direct

correlation between the animal rights movement and the human rights activism.

Thomas O'Hearne was a professor of philosophy at Appleton College. The most

powerful stand that Elizabeth Costello announces is that she will not associate herself

with all those whose seemingly avowed purpose is to glorify the reasoning capacity of

human beings, but who blatantly violate the fundamental rights of beings. It proves how

deeply she is committed to the issue and perhaps she is hopeful that this will awaken

the sensitivity of all those whose sensitivity has been coarsened.

The next chapter also illustrates Roland Barthes' notion that the literary text is almost

always an intertext. This implies that textuality and intertextuality go hand-in-hand. But

here the intertextual nature goes beyond the narrow definition of the literary text. The

intertextuality is operational between more than two branches of knowledge. How does

this work here? When Elizabeth Costello meets her sister Blanche, they deliberate

upon the relevance of the humanities in Africa. As part of her acceptance speech of the

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honorary degree conferred on her by the university, Blanche spoke at length about the

origin and relevance of the humanities. The fresh perspective that she brings in is how

the onset of the "humane studies" from the fifteenth century is intricately allied with the

"history of textual scholarship". When Blanche refers to "humane studies" she is

pointing to the "humanist" aspect of the subject. The attempt here is to delve into the

various aspects or manifestations of the humanities. The central point of focus is the

human being and his/her humanitarian behaviour. The point of discussion is the

humane characteristic of people and the role of the humanists.

Another complexity is introduced here when Blanche informs the audience that the

primary objective of textual scholarship was the resuscitation of the Bible. This meant

the revival of the Bible, its translation, which was intricately connected to the

interpretation of the text. The interpretation is facilitated only by a comprehensive

understanding of the "cultural and historical matrix from which the text had emerged".

(121) In stating so, the argument has moved into the realm of the socio-historical from

the literary and the religious.

To return to the starting point, it is the human being that is the point of focus. The

humane aspect of his/her personality will result in humanitarian acts. This was the

staliing point of the humanities that eventually got connected up to the "text", which in

turn was closely allied to the Bible and its interpretation through the standpoint of the

extra-literary features viz. the social and the historical. Blanche is able to deftly

interweave these divergent elements and consequently states, "That is how linguistic

studies, literary studies (as studies in interpretation), cultural studies, and historical

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studies- the studies that form the core of the so-called humanities- came to be bound up

together." (121)

Further, Blanche describes how, "We are fallen creatures." (128) She makes a subtle

allusion to the "cruelty" that we are capable of. In doing so, she is fostering a link

between the "Lives of Animals", and "The Humanities in Africa". But the latter chapter is

a misnomer since the chapter dwells upon the manner in which the humanities in

general have evolved. The discussion pertaining to Joseph, the artist who carved out

innumerable images of Christ and Elizabeth Costello's involvement with Mr. Phillips are

a veiled connection to the "Humanities in Africa". By choosing to deliberate upon these

two issues, Elizabeth Costello or rather J.M.Coetzee has attempted to depict the true

manifestation of the humanities.

Chapter 5 had laid emphasis on the 'Humanities in Africa". Although this appears to

be the purported aim of the chapter, we have found that the fundamental issue that the

novelist is trying to arrive at is probably humanity versus inhumanity, or to state it

broadly, judging humanity by applying the fundamental notions of good and evil. In tune

with this ideology, the next chapter is devoted to "The Problem of Evil". J.M.Coetzee

uses the pretext of Elizabeth Costello's lecture to express his views. Costello delivers a

talk on "Witness, Silence and Censorship". Elizabeth is able to figure out the reason

why she has been called upon to participate in this conference. She had caused a

controversy due to the talk that she had given the previous year at a college in the

United States. She was convinced that she was being forthright when she had

condemned the "enslavement of whole animal populations." (156) What further

accentuated the hurt that she had caused was her accusation that the meat-processing

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plants had set a wrong precedent for the death camps. The most important reason for

the people's ire was the fact that she had blamed mankind for its apathetic attitude that

had led to the continuous violence against the weak. "The massacre of the defenceless

is being repeated all around us, day after day, [ ... ], a slaughter no different in scale or

horror or moral import from what we call the holocaust; yet we choose not to see it."

(156)

The main idea that Coetzee is trying to arrive at is how "humanity" (referring to the

attribute and not to mankind) has been eroded since we have been plagued by evil.

Costello states that Satan had made his presence felt earlier also in the previous

century, the horrific inhuman deeds being an evidence to this effect. "In these

unfamiliar times Satan is still feeling his way, trying out new contrivances, making new

accommodations." (180) The incessant discussion about this issue is an expression of

his preoccupation with it. It is the predominant theme that is recurrent in all the chapters

of the novel. An expression of this is Elizabeth Costello's statement about the

omnipresence of Satan. This leads to the manifestation of a specific kind of

intertextuality between the chapters. We could also perhaps describe this as "topic­

driven intertextuality".

This particular type of intertextuality that is markedly noticeable in the chapters is

also seen in Chapter 8, "At the Gate". When she is led to the dormitory, the

claustrophobic atmosphere reminds her of "any of the camps of the Third Reich". The

condition for passing through the gate is that she must state her beliefs in a convincing

manner in order to obtain the permission of the jury to pass through the gate. When

Elizabeth Costello states that she lacks belief, the jury is unimpressed. Essentially the

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chapter seems to take stock of the writer's own beliefs or how truly he IS able to

empathize with the victims of inhumanity.

Elizabeth Costello justifies her stand by stating that she has compensated the

absence of belief by making a significant contribution to the humanity of the readers.

When she states so, she is interrogated by the jury and questioned about the acts of

barbarism, and her comments are elicited. When the judgement is withheld, Elizabeth

Costello realizes that perhaps what was required of her was a reaffirmation of her belief

in the "irrepressible human spirit". The true essence of the chapter is captured by the

question that arises in the mind of Elizabeth Costello. "Is that what we are, all of us;

petitioners awaiting our respective judgements, [ ... l." (208) This marks the logical

culmination of the chapters.

The above statement ties up the preceding chapters that carry the predominant

theme of the manifestation of evil. This displays the "topic-driven intertextuality" that

has been discussed previously. It is the prototype of the intertextual relationship

identified by Roland Barthes. Each text is necessarily an intertext and textuality and

intertextuality are inseparable from each other.

The next theoretician whose theories are valid in this context is Mikhail Bakhtin.

Bakhtin's concept of dialogism is truly relevant for Elizabeth Costello. The text is a

conglomeration of continuous interactive responses between the various elements of

the text and also of the text with extra-textual factors. "The topic-driven intertextuality"

discussed elaborately earlier can be cited as one example of this. The theory of

dialogism proposed by Mikhail Bakhtin lays stress on the ongoing dialogue between the

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writer and the characters (s)he creates, between the writer and the readers, as also the

one between the readers and the characters of the texts that they are reading. Each of

these will be tackled individually, in order to enable us to have an understanding of how

eventually they collaborate in the creation of the complex text that is Elizabeth Costello.

The single most obvious example of the interaction between the writer and the

characters he/she creates is the reappearance of Elizabeth Costello in the next novel

Slow I\/Ian. Additionally, the concerns voiced by Costello are obviously those that are

significant for J.M.Coetzee himself. If the theme of evil runs continuously through the

chapters, it is an expression of Coetzee's preoccupation with it. When analysed closely,

it is in fact an exercise in introspection wherein Coetzee holds up a mirror to the world

compelling us to re-think our attitude towards fellow beings. As a reminder to this he

makes a mention of all the incidents that have been a scourge on human society since

they have perpetrated atrocities on humans. By calling into question the (mis)deeds of

the readers, Coetzee has established a direct rapport with them. The association that

he has established with them is not a passive one but an interactive one. The

characters of the novels serve as intermediaries between the writer and the readers.

They are the medium through which the writer expresses his thoughts and ideas. If the

characters serve as the interface between the writer and the readers, then they bear a

direct relationship with the readers.

Another kind of intertextual relationship that deserves a mention is the similarity that

this novel shares with the other novels of Coetzee. When Emmanuel Egudu in a self­

referential note states that he is a "country boy from Africa", Elizabeth Costello is quick

to identify herself with him. She wished to say, "I am a country girl myself". (37) This is

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a subtle reminder of Magda from Coetzee's novel, In the Heart of the Country. Magda

was born on the farm and notwithstanding the fact that she was abandoned by

everybody she preferred to die on the farm rather than abandoning it for the city. This

stand of Elizabeth Costello echoes the character of Lucy of Disgrace. Lucy had

reconciled herself to her position in the African society. Despite her father's insistence

she did not move to her so-called motherland, Holland, but remained firmly rooted to her

farm in the countryside.

Yet another interesting complexity is noticeable in this text. Coetzee has been

reader of the works written by the earlier writers. But when he makes cross-references

to these, he has taken on the role of the writer. The text is replete with innumerable

such cross-references and allusions. While scrutinizing the character of Molly Bloom

from her novel, The House on Eccles Street, Elizabeth Costello recalls the characters of

Tess of the D'Urbervilles, Anna Karenina, "the Heathcliffs and Rochesters" and

Casaubon. As part of the discourse of Emmanuel Egudu there is a comprehensive

analysis of the corpus of Amos Tutuola. Further on in the text, Costello puts forth an

observation with reference to Utopian societies describing how such "totally regulated

societies" "either collapse or else turn militaristic'. (100) All these evidences testify to

the working of dialogism in the novel Elizabeth Costello.

A further dimension to this intertextuality is added on when Elizabeth Costello re­

works the novels of James Joyce. This is an instance of double displacement. As just

discussed, in the course of the text, Coetzee makes extensive use of the works of other

writers in order to put across his point. The next step in this intertextual process is

when Elizabeth Costello chooses characters from the novels of James Joyce and

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places them in new situation in her novels. This is a case of intertextuality within

intertextuality. Additionally, in the ongoing dialogic relationships between the writer(s),

the readers and the characters, an overlapping is inevitable. This complex web of

interlocking dialogic relationships is a typical example of heteroglossia.

The next important concept proposed by Mikhail Bakhtin is the contextualization of

the literary text. Considered in a general fashion, the context will refer to the larger

socio-political, economic and historical factors that determine the identity of the literary

text. However, Bakhtin moves beyond these factors and reconfigures the limits of the

context to include the genre as well. How does this provide a framework for intertextual

analysis? The answer would possibly lie in the fact that we need to determine whether

a literary text adheres to the norms of the genre? The issue is that when the text veers

away from these norms and bears similarities to other genres it is evidence of an

intertextuality of genre. How does Elizabeth Costello measure up to this? Does it

conform strictly to the guidelines that are prescribed for the novelistic genre? A

systematic analysis is required to check whether Elizabeth Costello is a novel in the true

sense of the term or whether it subscribes to the notion of intertextuality of genre?

If we were to take into consideration the finer features of the novel we will find that

this novel does not have the typical elements of the plot and the story. Superficially, the

novel is the tale of Elizabeth Costello, the famed novelist. But it is in fact a virtual

encyclopedia of the humanities and the novelistic genre. More significantly, it traces the

relevance of these issues with specific reference to Africa. Perhaps the only semblance

it bears to the novelistic genre is the thin storyline that runs through the novel. The plot

per se is virtually lacking in the novel. The novel apparently traces the life of Elizabeth

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Costello. But as the title of the novel states clearly, its subject is the "Eight Lessons".

These are the lessons pertaining to life in general. They relate to the issues of evil and

good, and related to this is the topic of "The Lives of Animals". These are larger issues

that are being addressed by the writer, and he skillfully employs the protagonist to put

forth his perspective.

Coetzee does not deviate completely from the norms of the novel. Without allowing

the novel to appear completely like a critique of issues relevant to daily life, there is a

clever interpolation of the incidents from the life of the protagonist. These incidents are

presented in detail thereby providing ample evidence that this is a novel. The narrative

traces the life of Elizabeth Costello from her childhood to the end where she is asked to

make her statement of belief in order to secure her passage through the gate. In doing

so, the narrative adheres to chronology without veering away from it. Notwithstanding

this, when the narrative is focused on discussing the merits and the demerits of various

issues, it appears like a critical commentary. Therefore this presents a case of

intertextuality of genre. Elizabeth Costello appears to be a novel but in fact it is a

combination of genre offering a typical example of a unique kind of intertextuality­

intertextuality of genre.

Having discussed the manner in which intertextuality brings under its purview not

merely individual texts but other genres as well, critics have also assessed the manner

in which it is able to influence extra-literary spheres. The novel can successfully

chronicle the discourses of a divergent range of social groups who inhabit variable

temporal zones. The novel is not delimited by these constraints. Simultaneously, it can

also exercise its influence on these readers. Elizabeth Costello depicts the working of

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this ideology. Displaying a marked divergence from the literary field, the "Eight

Lessons" that the novel attempts to teach to the readers are those that have been

drawn from life in general. They do not necessarily pertain to literature. For instance in

the first chapter, Realism, Elizabeth Costello discusses the relevance of the concept of

Realism not merely in the context of literature but in a larger context. There are many

aspects that are being discussed here. One of these is Elizabeth Costello.'s insinuation

that Realism is a farce. She quotes the example of the ape used in the novel of Franz

Kafka. Elizabeth Costello is convinced that the ever transient nature of time renders

everything irrelevant. "[ ... ], I am beyond time's grasp, we all know, if we are being

realistic, that it is only a matter of time before the books which you honour,[ ... ], will

cease to be read and eventually cease to be remembered. And properly so." (20)

Continuing the discussion about how literature is inseparable from the other aspects

of society, the next chapter "The Novel in Africa", presents a holistic picture of how the

advent of the novel is intrinsically linked to the socio-political scenario of Africa. In this

chapter, the eminent African writer, Emmanuel Egudu is used as a vehicle to convey the

ideas of the writer. He underlines the centrality of orality to the literature of Africa.

Egudu stresses the fact that the African novel embodies the true spirit of the genre of

the novel since it arose in response to the Western novel, and it defies the conventions

of the novel. In doing so it conforms in essence to the true definition of the "novel". "On

the page it is inert, only half alive; it wakes up when the voice, from deep in the body,

breathes life into the words, speaks them aloud." (45) Egudu also traces the manner in

which imperialism has muffled the voice of Africa. He highlights the fact that the growth

of the written form of literature or more specifically the flourishing of the novel is closely

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aligned to the spread of imperialism. The true spirit of Africa has been crushed and it is

packaged as being exotic. As stated by Emmanuel Egudu, "The truth is, to the West we

Africans are all exotic, when we are not simply savage. That is our fate." (47)

Although Elizabeth Costello purportedly talks about literary concepts, she does

tackle issues that belong to the realm of the socio-historical. She denounces the

horrors of the Nazi camps and is categorical in her accusations. She condemns the

brutality vehemently and in a certain way blames non-vegetarianism for this callousness

against humanity. Elizabeth Costello is indignant because humans have been endowed

with the capacity to reason, yet they continues to inflict atrocities on his fellow-beings.

Costello also makes a case for vegetarianism by condemning the breeding and

slaughtering of animals for human consumption.

Yet another implication drawn from this issue about the ethical treatment of animals

and non-vegetarianism is the debate about "cleanness vs uncleanness". Norma,

Elizabeth Costello's daughter-in-law brings in a different perspective to this by linking it

up to the social hierarchy. She states that this differential food habit helps certain social

groups define themselves as being "elite, as elected". Voicing the opinion of such

people Norma states that such people declare that by virtue of '''[ ... ] that power of

abstinence we mark ourselves off as superior: as a superior caste within society, for

instance. Like the Brahmins.'" (87) Perhaps the most important evidence of the

interrelationship of literature and the social sciences is the fact that a novelist is

deliberating about social issues.

Further to the discussion about the intermingling of the various divergent aspects of

life, J.M.Coetzee traces the origin of the humanities and its ramifications. Elizabeth

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Costello's sister deliberates about this in the course of her lecture. The salient features

that she identifies are that the history of the "humane studies" is closely aligned to the

history of "textual scholarship", whose sole purpose was to support the evolution of the

Bible. Blanche laments about the fact that humanities has ceased to serve its avowed

purpose of safeguarding the interests of humanity. Inadvertently it has in fact worked

against the interests of mankind by supporting the interests of the imperialists. In

response to Blanche's views, Elizabeth Costello divulges the details about her

relationship with Mr. Phillips. In doing so, perhaps her attempt is to drive home the fact

that "humanities" is actually meant to further the interests of mankind and not prove to

be detrimental to it.

The chapters so far focus on the behaviour of humans with other fellow beings.

When analysed closely, they in fact appear to scrutinize the history of mankind from the

earliest times to the present. Chapters 6 and 8 mark the culmination of this endeavour.

Chapter 6 actually articulates this in a pointed manner and this is reflected in its title­

"The Problem of Evil". She denounces the crimes against humanity in very strong

terms.

The final chapter is in fact written in a retrospective tone. She is questioned about

her beliefs. This is in fact a veiled reference to the readers. All our convictions are

called into question. Perhaps the writer in fact desires an honest introspection and

retrospection on the part of the readers. The content of the chapters is rather intriguing.

As readers we are unable to fathom the true meaning of the lines on the page. The

passage refers to the scrutiny of the conscience. When she has to face a jury that

rigorously questions her beliefs, it is in fact trying to ascertain her conviction. The

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underlying fact to all the debates is the enduring nature of the human spirit. When she

is unable to secure her passage to the other side of the gate, she is able to figure out

the possible answer to the questions of the jury. "I believe in the irrepressible human

spirit: that is what she should have told her judges. [ ... ] I believe that all mankind is

one." (207) As a logical conclusion to this, the quotation that precedes the Postscript

captures the true essence of this specific kind of intertextuality being discussed here.

The taxonomies of society, history, economics are rendered insignificant. U[ ... ] there is

nothing in range of my rapturous eye that does not have life. It is as if everything, [ ... ],

means something." (226) This is an affirmation of the idea that the novel pervades all

relationships- H[ ... ] social, historical, personal, discursive, textual."

The novel is a genre that can successfully reconcile the workings of the people from

disparate social, economic, temporal, historical and political strata. When the novel is

able to do so, it has blurred the boundary between fact and fiction. This is a case of a

special kind of intertextuality, as proposed by Jacques Derrida. Applying the tenets of

this theory, we can state that Elizabeth Costello is an inter-disciplinary text. The

narrative cites examples from various disciplines to elucidate the ideas being stated.

For instance, in order to deliberate upon the reasoning power of man that distinguishes

him from other creatures, Elizabeth Costello mentions the case of the mathematician,

Srinivasa Ramanujan. Elizabeth Costello states that Ramanujan's brilliance would have

remained obscured but for the intervention of G. H. Hardy. The fact that the narrative is

trying to drive at is that power of reasoning is the object of focus, and t~lis needs to be

highlighted. U 'Might it not be that the phenomenon we are examining here is, [ ... ], the

specialism of a rather narrow self-regenerating intellectual tradition whose forte is

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reasoning, [ ... ], which for its own motives it tries to install at the centre of the universe?'"

(69) A further co-relation to this is that notwithstanding the centrality of this faculty,

humans continues to exploit their fellow creatures.

Reinforcing the necessity for a humane approach as a primary prerequisite for the

humanities, Elizabeth Costello's sister Blanche voices her support for Martin Luther

when he condemns Desiderius Erasmus for involving himself in matters that are

irrelevant from the perspective of the humanities. In support of this argument Blanche

adds further that for the anthropologist Lorenzo Valla, the "starting point was human

society". (130)

Another example that brings together literature and the other disciplines is Elizabeth

Costello's preoccupation with the atrocities committed by the Nazis. She is unable to

come to terms with the horrendous deeds and this is in fact symbolic of mankind at

large. The people of the world have indeed found these crimes unpardonable and all

efforts have been taken to ensure that this is not repeated. Another feature that

underscores the "human" aspect is the erotic desire. The narrative includes a "lesson"

on "Eros". It lays emphasis on the fact that the erotic desire is an intrinsic element of

humans, and the Gods also did not remain untouched by it. "We think of them as

omniscient, these gods, but the truth is they know very little, [ ... ]. They specialize in

humankind because of what we have and they lack; they study because they are

envious". (189) Thus, these various examples in the text drawn from diverse

disciplines are a testimony to an intertextuality that combines the realms of fact and

fiction.

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So far we have discussed the various manifestations and ramifications of

intertextuality. Certain theoreticians have analyzed the various forms of intertextuality.

Mikhail Bakhtin has distinguished between intertextuality and inter-textuality. The first

of these refers to an instance where a single literary text incorporates quotations from

other texts. It may also include allusions and cross-references to other texts. Inter­

textuality refers to a condition wherein one text is a re-working of another. The

"intertextuality" mentioned above is identifiable in Elizabeth Costello. Elizabeth

Costello's works are written in response to the works of James Joyce. In her novel, The

House on Eccles Street, Elizabeth Costello selects the character of Marion Bloom from

James Joyce's novel Ulysses and re·-works it. As Elizabeth Costello acknowledges it, "

'[ ... ] Molly is a prisoner of marriage, the kind of marriage that was on offer in Ireland in

1904. [ .. T' (13) Delineating the character of Marion Bloom in Costello's novel, an

interviewer tells Elizabeth Costello, "[ ... ], you have taken Molly out of the house- [ ... ]

where her husband and her lover and in a certain sense her author have confined her,

[ ... ], you have taken her and turned her loose on the streets of Dublin.'" (13)

Elsewhere, the narrative makes a reference to the works of Jonathan Swift. Elizabeth

Costello discusses the rationale of the works, Gulliver Travels and A Modest Proposal,

in order to analyze the manner in which man has applied the power of reasoning in his

behaviour towards animals. "'The standard of reason. Gulliver's Travels seems to me

to operate within the three-part Aristotelian division of gods, beasts and men. [ ... ]'"

(102) These and other such references testify to the fact that the definition of inter­

textuality is applicable to Elizabeth Costello.

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John Frow has propounded a theory of intertextuality that is language-centric. One

of the important tenets of his theory is that language as a system of representation

necessarily represents relationships of power. The narrative of Elizabeth Costello

denotes such multiple relationships of power. The complex interweaving of these

relationsllips forms one of the important bases of the novel. Towards the end of the

narrative, when she faces the jury, they question her about her writings. "'You present

yourself today not in your own person but as a special case, [ ... J, a writer who has

written not just entertainments but books exploring the complexities of human conduct.

In those books you make one judgement upon another, it must be so. [ ... r" (203)

Elizabeth Costello's reply is that her endeavour is to lend a voice to all those sections of

society that are prejudiced by society. '''[ ... ] I am open to all voices, not just the voices

of the murdered and the violated.'" (204) She expresses her willingness to speak on

their behalf, "'[ ... ] as long as they speak the truth.'" (204)

In the light of the above observation, one of the most fundamental debates pertains

to the gender divide. As discussed in the previous paragraph, in her novels, Elizabeth

Costello attempts to break the shackles imposed on women. In the chapter, "Realism",

perhaps Elizabeth Costello counters the claims of Realism and compares and contrasts

it with idealism. In the second chapter, "The Novel in Africa", the narrative sets up

Africa against the Europeans who have pushed it to the fringes of history. Quoting Paul

Zumthor, the most vocal spokesperson of orality, Emmanuel Egudu states, " '[ ... ],

Europe has spread across the world like a cancer,[ ... ]. until today it ravages life forms,

animals, plants, habitats, languages.'" (45) Egudu states further that this has been

done "by denying the voice". Emmanuel Egudu makes a strong case for are-centering

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of history by displacing the power centre. He makes a vociferous appeal for restoring

the rightful place of Africa. The larger issue that is being addressed is the redressal of

the grievances of the colonized people of the world. The imbalance that has been

brought in must be set right.

In the "lessons" of the novel, a central theme is the cruelty towards animals. The

narrative takes on a didactic tone, and the incidents that reflect man's inhumanity

towards his fellow beings are being questioned. It appears as if the writer is asking the

people of the world to account for these misdeeds. As articulated by Elizabeth Costello,

" 'Let me say it openly: we are surrounded by an enterprise of degradation, cruelty and

killing which rivals anything that the Third Reich was capable of, indeed dwarfs it, [ ... ].'"

(65) Although this particular statement is being made with specific reference to the

slaughtering of animals for food, "lessons" three and four of the novel focus on the

human vs the inhuman aspect of the human personality. The fundamental premise of

this debate is the special attribute that man is gifted with- the power to reason. The

narrative seems to interrogate humanity as a whole whether it can truly justify that it has

exercised this power effectively, or misused it.

The entire narrative revolves around the theme of the relationships of power. It is

centered around the relentless power struggle that continues unabated in all spheres of

life. It is inevitable and it has shaped the course of the history of mankind. Hence,

these are presented as "lessons". Thus, as identified by John Frow, Elizabeth Costello,

preaches "Eight Lessons" to the readers that analyze the relationships that denote

social power.

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John Frow's theory of intertextuality includes yet another proposition. It states that a

literary discourse is historically related to other discourses and this relationship is one of

"interdiscursive repetition". This particular proposition is an appropriate culmination to

the intertextual analysis of Elizabeth Costello. The concept of "intertextuality"

necessarily underscores the idea of repetition or duplication. J.M.Coetzee has

undertaken the task of an objective analysis of the history of mankind. He has culled

the outstanding ideas from various disciplines and arrived at the "Eight Lessons" that

have cast a remarkable influence on the world. These have been instrumental in

shaping the destiny of mankind. In order to illustrate this, the narrative draws upon

numerous theoreticians and their works. This leads to the creation of a complex work,

whose content is not delimited superficially to the words on the page. In each sentence,

the narrative reverberates with multiple connotations. The astounding manner in which

the narrative straddles interdisciplinary zones has been analyzed in detail. The

narrative includes philosophy as well. Elizabeth Costello states, " '[ ... ] I want to find a

way of speaking to fellow human beings that will be [ ... ], philosophical rather than

polemical, that will bring enlightenment rather than seeking to divide us into the

righteous and the sinners, [ ... ]. It is the language of Aristotle and Porphyry, of

Augustine and Aquinas, of Descartes and Bentham, of, in our day, Mary Midgley and

Tom Regan. [ ... ]'" (66)

Simultaneously, the narrative has eroded the boundaries of genre. It violates the

stipulations requi'red for a novel since a true "plot" is lacking in the novel. At various

stages, it is a historical text, a literary critique, an encyclopaedia and a work of

didacticism since it purports to teach "Eight Lessons". The novel is also a sociological

260

text since it attempts to highlight the plight of the marginalized sections of society. The

relentless power struggle between the powerful and the powerless has been discussed

previously. In this context the novel also establishes a correlationship between the

humanities and the human civilization down the ages. The narrative re-orients the focal

point of the humanities from abstract theories to the welfare of the human being. In this

context, the narrative introduces the instance of the anthropologists. Mention is made

of the anthropologist Lorenzo Valla. "'His starting point was human society. You say

the first humanists were not crypto-atheists. [ ... ] But they were crypto-relativists. [ ... ]

It was their task as scholars to understand that world and interpret it to their times. [ ... J'''

( 130)

The multi-dimensional nature of the novel is perhaps best depicted in the Postscript.

In the final chapter, the protagonist is "At the Gate", where she is awaiting permission to

pass through it. The chapter here ends on a note of uncertainty. The Postscript is a

letter addressed to Francis Bacon, and written by Elizabeth, Lady Chandos. She

shares her distress with Francis Bacon. The cause of her misery is her husband, Philip.

"Flaming swords I say my Philip presses into me, swords that are not words; but they

are neither flaming swords nor are they words. It is like a contagion, saying one thing

always for another [ ... ]. [ ... ] Hence the words I write above: Always it is not what I say

but something else. We are not meant to live thus." (228) The letter is dated "11

September, AD 1603", and "Elizabeth cn makes a fervent appeal to Francis Bacon to

save her and her husband.

In the context of the novel this can be interpreted as a strategy to underscore the

insignificance of the barriers of time. From the last chapter to the Postscript, the

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narrative makes a sudden inexplicable shift from the contemporary period to the

sixteenth-century. The nomenclature and the relevance of the "beginning" and the

"end" with specific reference to the novel, and the temporality associated with it are

rendered useless by this move on the part of the novelist. All along, the narrative has

moved back and forth in time and in the Postscript there is a leap that takes the novel

back in time by a couple of centuries. Elizabeth Costello writes further in the letter, "[ ... ]

I write to you, who are known above all men to select your words and set them in place

and build your judgments as a mason builds a wall with bricks." (230) There is a

certain ambiguity that characterizes this statement. When Elizabeth C here praises the

writings and the "judgements" of Francis Bacon, J.M.Coetzee is in fact offering this work

to be viewed critically from the perspective of the works that have been produced so far.

Elizabeth Costello: Eight Lessons, often gains a judgemental tone and weighs the

merits and demerits of vital issues from the ancient times up to the contemporary

period. When the judgement of Francis Bacon is appreciated, and he is called upon to

help, it is a self-reflexive move. This is an expression of the willingness on the part of

the writer to acknowledge his shortcomings. The literary acumen of Francis Bacon has

been revived and the barriers of time have been eroded. The reader is left wondering

about the period when the text has been written. The date of the Postscript has

accentuated the upturning of the chronology of the novel. The Postscript could very

well function as the Prelude of the novel, since the novel covers the variolJs ages from

the earliest to the latest.

Having discussed extensively the various forms of intertextuality that are noticeable

in Elizabeth CostellQ, we can conclude that it conforms to the nomenclature of a "strong"

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form of intertextuality. Laurent Jenny had pioneered the concept of a strong and weak

kind of intertextuality, and the narrative of Elizabeth Costello is replete with innumerable

instances of allusions and cross-references to various literary and non-literary texts.

Elsewhere, the narrative incorporates quotations from other texts or paraphrases them.

This "strong" form of intertextuality can be classified as an "aleatory" form of

intertextuality. The latter term was introduced by Michael Riffaterre and it is distinct

from "obligatory" intertextuality. Since Elizabeth Costello echoes numerous texts and is

not a specific re-working of one literary text it's intertextuality is of the aleatory kind.

Elizabeth Costello: Eight Lessons, is a complex tale, with every sentence carrying

undercurrents of layers of meaning. The tale extends much beyond the words on the

page. It is a virtual epic, wherein every chapter is a tale in itself. It is a virtual

encyclopaedia of all those issues that have influenced literature. Therefore it follows

naturally that the phenomenon of intertextuality will playa vital role in this.

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Conclusion

The study of the fiction of J.M.Coetzee that has been undertaken here is guided by

the premise that the theory of intertextuality is at work in the writing of these novels.

The fundamental principle of intertextuality is that two or more literary texts bear

identical textual features. The term "intertextuality" per se is a rather modern term. The

very same theory has been at work from early times and has been assigned various

nomenclatures such as imitation, paraphrase, ambivalence, dialogism and other such

allied terms. Intertextuality is a cover term for all these. The fiction of Coetzee that has

been examined here displays features from these theories.

Some of J.M.Coetzee's novels resemble the other novels of his repertoire, while

others are similar to the novels of other writers. This similarity is not confined to one

novel but includes a sizeable number of them. To a major extent the novels echo each

other thematically. This overlapping brings under its purview other features as well.

These include the themes, the narrative technique, and the characterization. An

important feature that needs to be borne in mind is that an attempt has been made to

delineate the intertextual features of the works of Coetzee by comparing them with other

texts. Perhaps one could even sketch the salient features of the one intertext that is

persistently duplicating itself in Coetzee's works. But this task extends beyond the

scope of this study. The primary aim of the research undertaken here is to detail the

working of intertextuality in select works of Coetzee.

What has been the outcome of this enterprise? By comparing the texts that echo

each other, I have been able to trace the commonality in a lucid manner. This

comprehensive study has enabled me to delve into the reasons that have led

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J.M.Coetzee into repeating the same (inter)text in his fiction. This has assisted in a

better interpretation of the texts. The questions that arise in our minds as a

consequence of the repetition have been answered.

If we were to trace the chronology of Coetzee's fiction, it would read like a veritable

sociological chronicle. Every novel of his corpus is a stark reflection of the

contemporary times. When J.M.Coetzee does so, he performs the twin roles of a

novelist and a historian, by attempting to document the events of the world. In this

endeavour he does not spare anyone. His novels dwell upon the major events of the

world.

In his first novel Dusklands, the clever juxtaposition of two novellas that can be

dated to two different epochs is in fact an ingenious device of coalition. It is a textual

strategy that helps to reinforce the ideology of the novelist. They are apparently two

divergent texts but in fact they complement each other. By placing The Narrative of

Jacobus Coetzee after The Vietnam Project, Coetzee underscores the dismal fact that

progress is a farce and the world has remained unchanged from the eighteenth-century

up to the present. The combination of the two novellas has been done to present a

comparison of the two historical periods. Jacobus Coetzee being one of the pioneer

explorers his travels into the interiors of Africa, marked the beginning of the colonial

enterprise. This also laid the foundation of the racial discrimination which was to take

the form of apartheid later. The point that J.M.Coetzee is trying to state is that racial

segregation continues to be rampant in some from or the other. Coetzee the novelist is

deeply pained by the fact that we continue to harbour a regressive outlook. The title

of the novel is significant in the light of the fact that it symbolizes the loss of hope.

265

Coetzee the novelist has resigned himself to the fact that the last glimmer of hope has

faded away and the world constitutes of "Dusklands". Eugene Dawn does make sincere

attempts to resurrect the last embers of hope but unfortunately these have been

extinguished. By naming Dawn's boss as Coetzee, the novelist has projected his own

identity on the characters. Despite being the outsider in the second novella as also the

first, the Coetzee in both essays a significant role in subjugating the natives. (On the

basis of the names in the first novella, we can perhaps make a guess that the Coetzee

of the first novella is not a native American but an immigrant.)

The novels In the Heart of the Country and Disgrace focus on the sensitive issue of

how the whites now live in "disgrace" deep inside "the heart of the country". The

"daughters of the colonies" (as described by Magda) or the White women bear the brunt

of the ire of the Blacks. In simplified terms it is a role reversal- the oppressor has now

become the oppressed as typified by the two female protagonists Magda and Lucy

respectively. The erstwhile mistresses who once led an opulent life of luxury and

thrived on the service of the Blacks. The debased state of these women is symbolic of

the downfall of the Whites. The white women are now the "mistresses" of the Blacks in

the derogatory sense of the term. Disgrace also describes the fall from grace of

Professor David Lurie, with a spate of reckless affairs eventually encountering his

nemesis in his young student Melanie Isaacs. The irony of his life is that his arrogance

is shattered when he has to make do with a rather unattractive looking inconspicuous

Black woman, Bev Shaw. It is quite demeaning for him but he there is no room for

complaints.

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In Life and Times of Michael K and Foe, J.M.Coetzee has chosen to rework

Robinson Crusoe. Michael K, the central character of the first novel mentioned here,

takes after the Friday of Robinson Crusoe. By enacting an exhaustive description of the

life of Michael K, Coetzee underlines the fact that the stereotype represented by Friday

continues to rule even today. Michael K is a native of Cape Town and is caught in the

aftermath of the social turmoil that has gripped South Africa. His trials and tribulations

are symbolic of the sufferings of the underprivileged classes the world over.

This theme is reemphasized by J.M.Coetzee in Foe, where he brings Friday of

Robinson Crusoe into contemporary settings. Defoe's novel signifies history since it is

one of the primary canonical texts. When Coetzee began his creative journey, he may

have possibly encountered the "foe" or Defoe at every step. His struggle is symbolic of

the adversities that impede the work of all the writers of fiction, since they have to

relentlessly shake off the burden of history that has been imposed by Robinson Crusoe.

Coetzee articulates the need for the newer generations to write their own history and

not be guided by the canon. When Coetzee attempts a re-working of the archetypal

works like Robinson Crusoe, he is making a concerted effort to shatter stereotypes.

This effort is dict,ated by his typical position as a White person in a post-colonial set-up

who finds himself at the receiving end of the ire of the Blacks. This is notwithstanding

the fact that he himself is a native of the country. But the past seems to haunt this

society, and now he is facing the retribution for the misdeeds of his forefathers.

The narrative of is devoted to the scrutiny of the writings of Mr. Foe whose is in

fact Daniel Defoe himself. The female castaway Susan Barton questions the premises

that guide Defoe's writings. She interrogates him as it were and her opinions are a

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stringent critique of Defoe's works. In the writing of Foe, J.M.Coetzee states that there

is a need for the world to create new stereotypes. We need to move beyond the likes of

Robinson Crusoe states J.M.Coetzee. Hence Cruso does not have a major part in the

narrative- He passes away in the early part of the novel. The narrative focuses on

Friday and Defoe's writings.

In response to the above-said J.M.'s fiction marks a very powerful deviation from the

traditional notion of fiction and more specifically the novel. Coetzee's fiction defies all

categorizations of genre. We can observe translations and project reports as In

Dusklands, psychoanalysis and the numbering of paragraphs as in the narrative of In

the Heart of the Country; reworking of older texts; the "lessons" of Elizabeth Costello

and the journal entries as in Diary of a Bad Year. The ploy of the epistolary form gives

the feeling of a surreptitious peek into the most jealously guarded feelings of the

characters. But this heightens the irony of this narrative strategy since the underlying

assertion is that no amount of ruthlessness can truly suppress the workings of the heart

and the mind. Therefore the dichotomy is once again revealed.

The Master of Petersburg explores the tumultuous relationship of parents and their

step-children, and the widespread student unrest or the simmering disgruntlement in the

apparently idealistic communist set-up of Russia. Dostoevsky encounters Nechaev and

they begin to discuss Pavel's death. Nechaev squarely blames the police for it. "They

can't use the law against us, so they perpetrate these obscene murders." (102) He

also legalizes his actions by terming it as a "struggle". ''Those in the forefront of the

struggle continue to be hunted down and tortured and killed." (103) The plot of the

novel apparently focuses on the family relationships, but the deeper anti-social activities

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are also revealed in great particularity. Dostoevsky asks probing questions to Nechaev

about the sudden questionable death of other people, but the latter justifies it and we

cannot detect any remorse in his tone. "The people know who their enemies are, and

the people don't waste tears when their enemies die." (121) Nechaev's target is

complete annihilation of the mechanism of the state, which he believes will usher in an

era of peace and prosperity. "Our lists name only the spiders and the blood-suckers

who sit at the centres of the webs." (181) "The first work will be to raze the banks to

the ground, and the stock exchanges, and the government ministries, raze them so

thoroughly that they will never be rebuilt." (182)

In Waiting for the Barbarians, within the same narrative the novelist depicts both

sides of the tale. Or rather, by revealing horrific details of the torture of the iVlagistrate,

the pain and anguish experienced by the natives are t"lighlighted. In a rather concerted

manner Coetzee reasserts the poignant fact that the degree of pain is the same

irrespective of the race or the colour of the skin. The intricate details about the African

landscape and the meeting of the Company's men and the natives recalls the content of

The Narrative of Jacobus Coetzee. The latter account marks the victory for Jacobus

Coetzee but in Waiting for the Barbarians, Colonel Joll loses his honour and he beats a

hasty retreat. Coetzee reminds us that history does not repeat itself but history is being

rewritten by the newer powers.

In Elizabeth Costello, J.M.Coetzee questions the major presumptions that have

guided not merely the literary world but the world at large. The novel lacks a true plot.

The narrative revolves around the major issues that have preoccupied Coetzee. The

novel has eight chapters called "Eight Lessons". These are in fact the lessons of life

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that Coetzee has learnt. The narrative ties up the debates about Realism, the novel,

"the lives of animals" and the significance of Africa with reference to these. The

Australian novelist with her seeming haughtiness discusses Africa in detail. This is a

reassertion that the voice of Africa or rather the views of any other such oppressed

nation cannot be muffled for long. Irrespective of the liking of the powers to be, the

voices of the marginalized will be heard.

In analyzing the dynamics of the theory of intertextuality, I have chosen a few novels

from the corpus of the "fiction of Coetzee. Slow Man figures last ill the chronological

sequence of these novels that I have chosen to examine. In order to keep this research

updated I will analyze this novel to determine the pattern that has been followed in it by

the writer. Does it bear resemblances to the other novels or has it marked a deviation

from them? The analysis will also help us familiarize ourselves with the evolution (if

there is any) in the writer's creativity. It also helps to provide a continuity between the

prior novels and the one that is to follow, viz, Diary of a Bad Year.

Slow Man carries a rather enigmatic title. Echoing his previous novels, this fictional

work of Coetzee teases the intellect of the readers. The powerful adjective "slow" in the

title packs a lot of meaning into it. A consideration of the literal meaning of the word

would be a simplification of the various ramifications that it implies. It carries endless

strata that need to be carefully analyzed to reach the well-entrenched core of the novel.

This is a challenging journey that unravels the numerous meanings of the work.

Nevertheless it is an exhilarating experience since we are compelled to engage

ourselves deeply with the work. The hidden meanings gradually reveal themselves to

us; throwing open the novel of Coetzee which is an impressive, intricate web. The title

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also sets our mind working about whether the slowness also characterizes the

protagonists or secondary characters of his previous works. The onus is on the readers

to fathom the depth of such multiple connotations. This leads us onto the trail of

intertextuality and we attempt an interlinking of this work with the earlier ones

The protagonist of the novel is Paul Rayment, a sixty-year-old man who has met with

an accident while riding his bicycle on Magill Road. The accident leaves him with an

amputated leg. Paul Rayment is not willing to have a prosthesis fitted to the limb. The

forlorn Paul Rayment has an unexpected visitor- the novelist Elizabeth Costello. Here it

is necessary to bear in mind the fact that Elizabeth Costello is the central character of

J.M.Coetzee's previous novel Elizabeth Costello-Eight Lessons. In Slow Man she

figures as the same person- the acclaimed writer who is now on the purported mission

of writing the story of the life of Paul Rayment. She virtually intrudes into his life and

seems to take control of it, without his consent. She seems to possess the uncanny

ability of describing the pattern into which his life will fall into. Her knowledge about his

past unnerves him or rather irritates him. She seems to wield an inexplicable power on

him. Armed with a shrewd sense of the kind of person that Paul Rayment is, she

skilfully manipulates the various events and people of his life. Paul Rayment is deeply

perturbed and in the most impolite manner he consistently rebuts all her persistent

proposals of companionship.

Elizabeth Costello interferes in his relationship with his nurse Marijana. Marijana

touches a chord in Paul Rayment's heart when she takes diligent care of him. Unlike

the previous nurses whose service to him carried the pretence of genuine care,

Marijana's personality is a refreshing and welcome change since it is marked with

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sincerity. A truly passionate relationship had always evaded him and now Paul

Rayment felt a deep passion for Marijana. He offers to sponsor her son's education in a

boarding school notwithstanding the fact that it would cause a severe drain on his

resources. This is interpreted by Marijana's husband Jokic as a deliberate attempt to

mess up his marital life. Jokic reacts violently and physically abuses Marijana.

Elizabeth Costello squarely blames Paul Rayment for plunging Marijana's life into

disarray. She convinces him that his passion for Marijana would remain unrequited.

She drives home the undeniable truth that he is well past his prime where he can lure

women. Elizabeth Costello offers to take care of him until the end of his life. She offers

him companionship as it were. But Paul Rayment is unmoved. He is obstinate, and

determined to continue leading a solitary life, relying on the unpredictable nurses who

he hopes will lend respectability to his despicable life of an amputee.

J.M.Coetzee has re-introduced a character from his earlier novel in Slow Man. What

his is motive behind this? Is Slow Man an extension of Elizabeth Costello or is it a

sequel to it? In sketching the character of Paul Rayment, has the novelist attempted to

correct the inherent flaws that have marked the character of Elizabeth Costello? Does

Slow Man carry reminiscences of Coetzee's other novels as well? Relevant answers to

these questions can be obtained by applying the intertextual framework as designed by

various theoreticians.

Firstly, I will tackle the element of "universal truths". Paul Rayment is part of the

tradition of the lonesome and ponderous characters that inhabit the world of

J.M.Coetzee's novels. Magda, Michael K, Friday of Foe, David Lurie, Lucy and

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Elizabeth Costello replicate each other in their futile search for a "normal" domestic life

marked by togetherness, affection and loving protection.

Paul Rayment resigns himself to the fact that he could never be a part of the

mainstream of life since he had consciously chosen to remain single without entering

into any more relationships that would leave him despondent. This transforms him into

an individual who cherishes his freedom. "In the old days, the days before the accident,

he did not have what he would call a gloomy temperament." (25) The accident curtails

his freedom and now after this harrowing experience, he decidedly opts to remain

content with the amputated limb. He begins to endow the simple process of prosthesis

with complex connotations. The loss of the limb seemed a metaphorical one for him.

The prosthesis seems to embody the entire cycle of reconstruction and he seemed to

have lost the zest for this. It conjures up imagery of, "Thesis, antithesis, then

prosthesis." (62) Hence, he opposes it vehemently.

The amputated limb symbolized the emotional scars that he carried within himself.

The artificial limb revived all the pain and hurt that he had put behind him after

undergoing many emotional upheavals. It seemed to have stirred up the necessity in

him to undertake a reconstruction of all kinds- physiological, psychological, emotional,

moral, sexual, social, temporal and marital. This was a daunting task and he could not

muster up the courage to do so. Paul Rayment chooses to nurse his grief by shutting

away the world. "The universe had contracted to this flat and the block or two around,

and it will not expand again." (Coetzee 25)

What did this reconstruction on all fronts entail? It would necessarily imply the onset

of a new beginning. He would have to start his life allover again. At the very outset, the

reconstruction meant that having an artificial limb fitted, which would lead him into

carrying the fac;ade of naturalness. It meant that he would have to use an artificial limb

to get back to a so-called normal life. He would now have to gather all the strings of his

life, which had hitherto been in a state of disarray. Madeleine Martin, the woman who

conducted the rehabilitation class tried to convince him that by having the artificial limb

fitted, he would appear normal. "'I don't want to look natural,' he says. 'I prefer to feel

natural.'" (59) When Marijana appreciates his efforts to exercise his limbs as taught by

Madeleine Martin, he wonders, "How can it be, when I find it humiliating, all of it, the

whole business from beginning to end?" (61) Moreover, it would only serve the

purpose of deception not only to himself but the world. Hence Paul Rayment prefers to

remain in his natural state rather than painstakingly put up the pretence of having

natural limbs. The accident had devastated his heart and mind. He remains cloistered

in his home, feeling miserable about himself. "From being irascible he becomes sullen.

He wants to be left alone; he does not want to speak to anyone; he suffers fits of what

he thinks of as dry weeping." (25)

The loneliness coupled with the depression made him emotionally vulnerable. He

was unable to handle his relationships in a normal fashion. He ends up reacting and

relating unnaturally to the people in his life. He misconstrues Marijana's care and

professional duties towards him as love. As expression of this, he wanted to play

foster-father to Marijana's children. But when Marijana's son Drago stole a photograph

from his collection that was very dear to him, Rayment is exasperated. He flouts all

rules of social propriety and accompanied by Elizabeth Costello, pays a visit to

Marijana's home, unannounced, in order to recover the photograph. Marijana makes

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her displeasure very clear to them about having barged in suddenly. The resentment

that she had felt all along against Rayment's overtures seemed to have found the

opportunity to find its expression now. She is severely critical of Rayment's offer to

sponsor Drago's education. The normally reticent Rayment suddenly turns vocal and

even enters into an argument with l\t1arijana. She fiercely rebuts Rayment's charge

against Drago. She attributes Paul Rayment's unreasonable behaviour to his

loneliness. "'You a good man, Paul. But you get too lonely in your flat- you know what

I mean. [ ... ] So maybe you get negative too in your flat." (250) She further adds, "You

grab anything. Anything come, you grab." (250) Her insinuation is that Paul Rayment

has been so lonely all his life that he is susceptible to become emotionally dependent

on anyone who offers a loving word to him.

Marijana reprimands Paul Rayment about his decision to become Drago's godfather.

"Forget godfather too. Is no good idea, godfather is not realistic like. Because where

he lives, this godfather?" (251) Marijana even welcomes the idea of Elizabeth Costello

living with Paul Rayment. She suggests that Elizabeth Costello's presence will dispel

the gloom that has overshadowed his life. This encounter with the Jokics drove the final

wedge between him and Marijana. She had delineated her priorities and clearly

indicated that he did not figure in them. On his part, Paul Rayment was unable to

absolve Drago for the mistake that he had committed. This helped him override his

passion for Marijana and marked the unceremonious end to their relationship.

Elizabeth Costello offers to be his companion but Paul Rayment seems to harbour

only repulsion for her. She even goes to the extent of articulating the rather unhappy

future that lay ahead of him. She warns him that he would have to spend the remaining

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days all by himself, lonely and miserable. "'If you stay on in Adelaide, I foresee only

nurses, a gallery of nurses, some pretty, some not so pretty, none of whom will come

near to touching your heart as Marijana Jokic has done. If you come to Melbourne, on

the other hand, there will be me, faithful old Dobbin.' " (260) Elizabeth Costello had lived

her life and she longs for company now. She offers to look after Paul Rayment, the two

of them spendill9 the remaining days of their life helping each other out. . '''You could

teach me doggedness and I could teach you to live on nothing, or nearly nothing. They

would write articles about us in the newspapers. We would become a well-loved

Australian institution.'" (263) However, Paul Rayment remains unmoved. He appears

to be content with his isolated life, constantly caught up in the past, whiling his time

evoking memories.

The universal truth that we can establish from an analysis of the protagonists of

Coetzee's novels discussed here is that they are individuals who have been isolated by

the various circumstances of their lives. The mental and emotional upheavals that they

have endured have rendered them disgruntled and indignant. Caught in a situation

where they are unable to fight the injustice meted out to them, they have chosen to

suffer silently. They have failed to take up cudgels against the perpetrators of the

wrongs done to them. Their only method of protest is to shun all human company and

remain confined to their homes. If the characters of Coetzee's novels echo each other,

then it points towards a sustained effort of imitation on the part of the novelist. As we

move chronologically in his fiction, we can state that each of the novels seem to re­

present the features of the earlier ones. There is a persistent duplication of the

characteristics of the earlier novels in the later ones. This reflects Aristotle's theory that

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"dramatic creation" (if we take this as the literary work) is indeed an "intensification" and

"reduction" of texts that are familiar to the writer and the reader.

I would like to analyze Bakhtin's concept of heteroglossia. In the notion of

heteroglossia, the individual and the situation remaining the same, the response is

variable. Contemplation on this issue with reference to the novels of Coetzee will

provide newer insights. The protagonists of most of the novels seem identical to each

other. Or rather, I would state that perhaps it is the same individual who is put in the

same situation and each time his/her responses have been chronicled as a novel.

Magda, Michael K, David Lurie, Elizabeth Costello, Paul Rayment and John of Youth

share similar characteristics. Anyone of them can be considered as the prototype of

the others. The implications of this are that the chronological sequence of the novels

can be upturned. The comprehension of the readers remains unaltered irrespective of

the order in which the novels are read. Exception can be made with respect to

Elizabeth Costello and Slow Man. Reading the novels in the order of their appearance

aids the reader in a better understanding of the characters of Elizabeth Costello and

Paul Rayment.

The novel Slow Man displays the working of heteroglossia. The various features of

the novel in which it resembles the other novels of the same author are an evidence of

its dialogic nature. The morose and sullen Paul Rayment closeted in his home is an

echo of Magda, or Michael K, or John or perhaps David Lurie. The most marked

dialogic relationship is the one that is shared between Elizabeth Costello and Slow Man.

The narrative of the latter work is a veritable dialogic exchange between Elizabeth

Costello and Paul Rayment.

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Elizabeth Costello's entry into his life was a virtual trespass. Elizabeth Costello, who

came into Paul Rayment's life uninvited, is the protagonist of J.M.Coetzee's novel

bearing the same name. Elizabeth Costello is a writer and when Paul Rayment

questions her about her intentions behind visiting him, she answers that he is merely a

character in her work. The unexpected nature of her visit and the innate knowledge that

she has about his life leave him bewildered. Her reply is, "'You came, along with the

pallor and the stoop and the crutches and the flat that you hold on to so doggedly and

the photograph collection and all the rest.'" (82)

Gradually, Rayment discovers that this visitor is slowly and surely taking control of

his life. On her first visit, she gives an indication of the fact that she is well aware of his

amorous liaisons. She terms his passion for Marijana as an "inchoate attachment".

(82) This unwelcome guest and her candid remarks offend him. He makes his

displeasure very obvious but Elizabeth Costello is undeterred. Her defiant attitude finds

its expression in such statements: "You must put up with it. It is not for you to say."

(87) When Rayment tells her forthrightly that she must not interfere in his affairs, she

retorts, " 'It is not for you to tell me my business.'" (89) On her part, she gets involved

in every aspect of Rayment's life. She cautions him about the recklessness in his

relationship with Marijana.

Costello's entry into Paul Rayment's life is well timed. His life was in turmoil ever

since he had expressed his love for Marijana. At the very outset Costello is able to

successfully convey the message that she is well aware of all that is happening in

Rayment's life. She warns him that his "inchoate attachment" to Miroslav Jokic's wife

will have dangerous implications. (Prior to Elizabeth Costello's arrival, Rayment was

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ignorant about the name of Marijana's husband.) The problems between Marijana and

her husband had escalated to such an extent that she had moved out of her home and

was living with her sister-in-law, who was by no means sympathetic towards her.

Marijana's son Drago had left home unable to tolerate the harassment being meted out

to his mother by his father. Elizabeth Costello compels Paul Rayment to see reason.

She interrogates him pointedly, about where the relationship is heading for. She lays out

the facts before him and makes him realize that his unthinking passion has disturbed

many lives.

His errant behaviour has brought in untold misery in the relationship between

Miroslav Jokic and his spouse, as also between the parents and the children. It has

split the once happy family into two camps- Miroslav Jokic and his daughter Blanka on

one hand; and Marijana, Drago and Ljubica on the other. Referring to Miroslav Jokic,

Costello cautions Rayment, "You touch his pride, his manly honour. [ ... ] On the

contrary, you are trying to throw a spanner into the Jokic family works. You are trying to

get into Mrs. J's pants." (95) She attempts to make him aware of the truth that he can

no longer pursue women now since age had caught up with him. She recommends a

more logical way out. She arranges for a woman named Marianna to visit Rayment.

She advises him to seek the help of Mrs, Putts the social worker. Or better still,

suggested Costello, Rayment could advertise for someone of his choice, She was able

to judge in a true manner that he was misinterpreting Marijana's care for love. "Or

perhaps your quest for love disguises a quest for something quite different. [ .. ] We do

not need love, old people like us. What we need is care: [ ... ]. Care is not love. Care is

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a service that any nurse worth her salt can provide, as long as we don't ask her for

more." (154)

As if on a premonition, she asks him to brace himself for an unhappy end to his

affair with Marijana. It is Costello who first gives Rayment an inkling of the fact that

Drago has filched one of his photographs. Perhaps one could state that she incites

Rayment into confronting Marijana about the missing photograph. On her insistence, he

pays a visit to Marijana. It is there that his (false) hopes about Marijana are shattered.

The fact dawns upon him that he can never be part of the Jokic family. His intrusion

had spoilt their happiness and now they had come together to show him his place as it

were. This intruder was a physically challenged old man and they had joined hands to

design a "recumbent bicycle" for him. In a swift and single stroke, he is made to realize

where he belongs. All along Costello keeps dropping subtle hints that she is willing to

be his companion. But Rayment is not amenable to this proposal. A heart broken

Elizabeth Costello returns home.

If Slow Man is to be analyzed from the perspective of the notion of "ambivalence", it

necessitates a review of the extra-literary factors that have guided the production of the

novel. Slow Man is set in Australia, in contrast to the majority of the other novels of

Coetzee that are set in South Africa. Perhaps this is an evidence of the writer's

relocation to Australia. The pain and anguish caused due to this immigrant experience

have been projected onto the protagonist. It would not be incorrect to state that the

novel is autobiographical in nature. This conforms to the idea of Ann Jefferson of

autobiography being a manifestation of intertextuality. Coetzee the South African with

a Dutch ancestry moved to Australia, and this is reflected in his novels.

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His immigrant status governs his approach to life in general. In Slow Man, one of the

reasons why the protagonist takes a liking for Marijana is the fact that he empathizes

with her. During the course of the interview, Rayment finds himself nurturing a strange

liking for the kind of language Marijana speaks. Her language measures up to what he

calls "Australian English", with Slavic undertones. It is also marked with the slang that

Rayment believes she has acquired from her children. Can Rayment's liking for this

language be interpreted as his subconscious yearning for French? He abides by the

fact that, "I speak English like a foreigner because I am a foreigner". (231) In Marijana

he seems to have found another person in the same dilemma as himself. In the first

instance itself he has found in Marijana another individual who is saddled with a

language that never truly belongs to her. Like himself, he finds that for her too, English

is the language of the mind, not of the soul. All these commonalities help him relate

very easily to Marijana since as he aptly describes it, they are, "Two ex-Europeans."

(172)

The fact that Rayment has willfully chosen to take refuge in loneliness rather than

enjoy human company can be accounted for by taking into consideration his childhood.

Ever since he could recall, Rayment had always found himself alienated from the larger

group, be it his family, his friends, or his compatriots. He was born in France but moved

to Australia. Along with his mother, he and his sister were brought to Australia in their

early childhood by their stepfather who was a Dutchman. His sister was nine and he

was six at the time of immigration. The relocation virtually uprooted him. All his

contacts with his native country were severed. The stepfather himself was unsure

about which faith he owed allegiance to. As Paul Rayment was to recall later, he

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worshipped Queen Wilhelmina with the same fervour as he worshipped Virgin Mary.

Rayment's stepfather was unwilling to wipe out the last traces of his native country. 111

Australia he made desperate attempts to tune into Radio Hilversum. "At the same time

he was desperate for the country of his new allegiance to live up to the idea of it he had

formed from afar. In the face of a dubious wife and two unhappy stepchildren, Australia

had to be the sunny land of opportunity." (66) The stepfather was caught in a bind- he

did not want to abandon his faith in his motherland, and at the same time he also

wanted to lead a new life in a new country. He was unable to reconcile the two

contradictory passions.

Perhaps this was the factor that was responsible for the constant dilemma in which

Rayment found himself. He was never at home in the new environs. Although the

umbilical cord that bound him to his native country France was snapped, yet the longing

lingered on. What kept him going in this alien land was the compulsive presence of his

mother. After his mother passed away, he quit the university and returned to France.

He stayed with his grandmother and attempted to re-establish the severed ties. But he

was unsuccessful. Things had moved on far ahead. He found himself way behind. His

cousins could never really relate to him. In their opinion, he was an Englishman and not

a Frenchman. To his utter dismay, they even referred to him as "1'Anglais". He was

rather upset with this categorization since he had always considered himself a

thoroughbred Frenchman. All along he took pride in his French ancestry and now he

was being disowned by his family. What added insult to the injury was the fact that he

had never visited England nor had any relatives there; and also the realization that his

French cousins, equated the Englishmen with the Australians. It was beyond their

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comprehension that England and Australia were two different nations. A heartbroken

Rayment had no option left but to return to Australia.

Elizabeth Costello probed Rayment's heart and enquired of him whether he felt at

home in Australia. He replied that the idea of home or rather, hearth and home was a

"very English concept." (192) Rayment is very clear about the distinction between the

English and the French. "Among the French, as you know, there is no home. Among

the French to be at home is to be among ourselves, amongst our kind. I am not at

home in France. Transparently not. I am not the we of anyone." (193) This a clear

evidence of the fact that Rayment could not identify him self as belonging to one

country. His allegiances were fragmented.

Circumstances got the better of him and Rayment ended up having up the expatriate

experience three times. But this took its toll on his psyche and it left him with a

pervasive feeling of rootlessness. He had made an earnest effort to ensure that his

motherland France took him into its fold, but unfortunately his attempts remained futile.

Much to his displeasure, he was compelled to embrace a nation with which he could

never truly identify himself. The recurrent immigration had never left any scope for him

to settle down in a place and extend his bearings there. Hence when Costello

mentioned that eventually he returned to his "home" i.e. Australia, Rayment disagreed

with her. He had a query for her. "Home ... What does it mean?" (197) Clarifying his

stand on the issue he states categorically, "I have a domicile, a residence. This is my

residence. This flat. This city. This country. Home is too mystical for me." (197) This

implies that his soul was not in this country; it was only his body that was living out its

time in Australia. His heart lay elsewhere- in France.

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The sense of rootlessness is deeply entrenched in the lives of the characters of

Coetzee's novels. This exhibits the inherent ambivalent nature of their existence. They

may be categorized as belonging to a particular nation but in the larger context of life

they may never truly belong to anyone particular group. Michael K was compelled to

move out of Cape Town in order to satisfy his mother's dying wish of breathing her last

in the countryside where she had spent her childhood. This marked the turning point in

Michael K's life and his life slid into oblivion. David Lurie of Disgrace had even

attempted to trace his roots back to Holland but failed in his endeavour. His mindset

that never permitted him to accept South Africa as his motherland, only served to

complicate the issues of his life. His daughter's decision to marry a native further

accentuated his discomfort.

In Youth, the protagonist deliberately moved to England since he was guided by the

conviction that his dream of becoming a poet could be realized there. In England, all his

efforts were devoted towards earning enough to make both ends meet. He found his

creativity waning and virtually lost in this rigmarole. "Everything he has done since he

has stepped ashore at Southampton has been a killing of time while he waits for his

destiny to arrive." [ ... ] For nearly two years he waited and suffered in London, and

destiny stayed away." (160) John is in awe of the country and its people where he has

chosen to seek his destiny. "Here he is, an undistinguished graduate from a second­

class university in the colonies, being permitted to address by first name, .... men who,

once they get talking, leave him dizzied in their awake." (157) But eventually, the

despondence does creep in. The nostalgia for the warmth of his native land and his

family is palpable. The regret is obvious but he has come too far to retract now. He is

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well aware that like his friend Ganapathy who will meet a sad and forlorn end, he too will

fade away into oblivion.

With reference to Slow Man, the notion of "ambivalence" comes into effect when we

identify the "ideologeme" in which the novel operates. Slow Man like the other novels

discussed here, articulates the larger concerns of communities that have been

compelled to relocate. Members of such communities may be sincere in their efforts to

integrate themselves into the fabric of the new nation, but their souls long for the

country of their origin. In the new country the landscape, the language, the people and

their customs and traditions all seem alien to the immigrants. Coetzee makes effective

use of the medium of the novels to voice the universal concerns of humankind. Taking

this further, one can state that Coetzee is presenting the darker side of colonialism. It

has robbed the natives of their inherent privileges; while at the same time uprooted the

colonizer from his/her own land. This has led to a disharmony between the two groups.

This is very pronounced in Disgrace, while shades of the acrimony are visible in the

relationship that Rayment shares with the Jokics.

Critics have laid emphasis on the contextualization of a literary text as one of the

primary means by which intertextuality becomes operational. Roland Barthes has

presented a new perspective wherein he has probed the possibility of the co-existence

of various languages in the literary text. This has been discussed as a form of

intertextuality. If a particular character uses a particular language as the medium of

communication, the message can be truly captured in the language in which it has been

originally stated. By restoring to translation, the essence will be lost. The authenticity

can be retained by the original language. By integrating another language in to the body

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of the text, the writer is not merely adding variety to the mosaic of the text but also

expanding its boundaries to include other languages as well. In Slow Man, J.M.Coetzee

makes effective use of this intertextuality of languages (as I would term it).

The protagonist Rayment hails from France but was compelled to move to Australia.

But at heart he was a Frenchman. He was never at ease in the foster land. Rayment's

indifference extended not only to the nation but to the language as well. French is his

mother tongue- both in the literal and metaphorical sense of the word. He was born in

France and had spent his early childhood there. His mother was therefore

understandably well versed in the native tongue. As Rayment was to reveal later to

Elizabeth Costello, his mother could never really master the English language. It

proved too difficult for her.

Although Rayment was rather comfortable in communicating in English, words from

the French inadvertently crept into English. He always employed words from the

French lexicon to express his deepest emotions. While fondly recalling the time he

spent with his friend Roger in France, Rayment states that he was the best friend he

ever had, "the best copain". (196) Elsewhere, he states that his cousins back in France

were very clear about what "metier" they would follow later in life. French seemed to

flow in his blood as it were. He recounts every word uttered by his mother and

stepfather while they were in France. His mother reprimanded him thus for his

misbehaviour, " 'Allez, les enfants, soyez sages!' " (240)

In a mocking tone he describes his stepfather's misadventures to Elizabeth Costello.

His stepfather was the only person in Ballarat who owned a Renault van. Although he

seemed proud of this possession, his quaint manner of driving was the target of the

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outrage of the other travellers. He always drove very slowly oblivious to the endless

hooting of the other cars. His stereotypical response to this display of irritation by the

fellow drivers was, " 'lis sontfous. lis gaspillent de I'essence!'" (240) Thus, Rayment's

fondest memories were associated with France and the French language. The English

language never truly belonged to him. Costello is quick to identify he rather unnatural

manner in which Rayment converses in English. "As you speak I swear I can hear

words being selected, one after the other, from the word-box you carry around with you,

and slotted into place. That is not how a true native speaks, one who is born into the

language." (230, 231) On his part Rayment justifies his stand. "I speak English like a

foreigner because I am a foreigner. I am a foreigner by nature and have been a

foreigner all my life." (231)

Intertextuality is not a simple comparison of literary texts. It lends itself to a great

deal of complexity. It operates at two levels in a literary text. At the primary level, it

involves references and/or allusions to other texts. It may also incorporate quotations

from other literary texts. At the secondary stage, it provides for the display and

functioning of various historical discourses. The text per se of Slow Man, becomes

meaningful when read in the light of Elizabeth Costello. Beyond this, the thematic

allusion to the earlier novels has been listed previously. Perhaps the most intriguing

case of intertextuality that the novel presents is the presence of the protagonist of the

older novel- Elizabeth Costello.

After having discussed Elizabeth Costello's part in Paul Rayment's life, the question

that follows is, why does the novelist use the strategic device of employing a character

from his earlier work. A recapitulation from the previous chapter on Elizabeth Costello

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will help us understand that Costello was a lonely person. She never found solace in

her marital life and had a fragmented existence. If Rayment spent his time cloistered in

his flat, endlessly ruminating about the past, so did Costello. Similar to Rayment, hers

was a journey into her psyche. Like Rayment she always delved into the past, longing

for it since her present only offered her sorrow and loneliness. It would not be incorrect

to state that Rayment bears a striking resemblance to Costello. She is the female

counterpart of Rayment.

Both are lonely individuals with a problematic childhood, having being brought up by

their respective mothers. There is no mention of Costello's father as is the case of

Rayment. Costello's mother exercised her influence on her life. Costello had married

twice but both the marriages ended up in failures. Marital bliss had proved elusive for

both Costello and Rayment. Costello had two children, but they remained deprived of

maternal affection all their lives. Her children suffered her temper tantrums from an

early age. Her son John recalled how she would vent out her frustration on her children

and the hapless children had to bear it all. From the age of seven, John shielded his

little sister from his mother's irritable temper and provided the much needed paternal

love to her. Years later, John had to act as her chaperone when she travelled to

Pennsylvania to receive the Stowe Award. Retrospectively commenting on his

relationship with his mother, John rationalizes that he is like an ardent devotee offering

his services at her shrine.

Paul Rayment never opens his heart to anyone. He never expresses his thoughts

and emotions to anyone. The people who came into contact with him always found him

to be impersonal and insensitive. When Elizabeth Costello entered his life she tried to

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correct him on these matters. She urged him to become more expressive. "'The

rhythm of life. You have it in you to be a fuller person, Paul, larger and more expansive,

but you won't allow it. [ ... ] Your thoughts and your feelings. Follow them through and

you will grow with them.'" (158)

Why does she attempt to correct him when in fact as expressed in Elizabeth Costello

she had spent all her life in loneliness? Perhaps this is another facet of her personality

that had not been revealed in Elizabeth Costello. Or, in presenting the more vocal and

humane Elizabeth Costello, who attempts to correct the shortcomings of Rayment,

Coetzee has made an effort to create a character who is gifted with a rational

perspective and can guide others into leading a holistic and contented life. Elizabeth

Costello of Slow Man seems to be the answer to lives of Michael K, David Lurie, Paul

Rayment and John of Youth. Costello offers to become Paul Rayment's companion.

She pleads with him to allow her to stay with him or move to Melbourne where she lives.

There she promises to take care of him. She implores him to share his last days with

her so that they could together give a respectable end to each others lives.

In putting forth this proposition, perhaps J.M.Coetzee is insinuating at the fact that if

Magda, Michael K, David Lurie, Paul Rayment and John of Youth had made a sincere

effort to find true companionship, their lives would have been comfortable and

contented. They would not have ended up as aberrant individuals but would have

integrated themselves into the mainstream of life, without nursing any grouse against an

individual or society at large. Companionship would have bestowed them with the

ability to face and brave the harsh realities of life with fortitude.

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The intertextual relationship shared between Slow Man and Elizabeth Costello is a

powerful one. The former novel seems to hold pertinent answers to the queries that

arise in the minds of the readers while reading the latter. The enigma that is Elizabeth

Costello reveals shades of her personality in her interaction with Paul Rayment. If the

plot of the novel is enacted by Paul Rayment, Elizabeth Costello seems to play the part

of the critic. In a certain sense she can also be termed as the "scriptor" of the life of

Rayment. In an unabashed manner Costello went about her role as the enforcer of the

moral norms of society. Impervious to Rayment's antagonistic behaviour she stringently

implemented these norms and unhesitatingly brought him back to this path when he

veered away from it. This can be identified as a case of strong intertextuality as

outlined by Laurent Jenny.

A distinction has been made between intertextuality and inter-textuality. Based on

this classification Slow Man can be included in the former category. It cannot be

grouped under the nomenclature of inter-textuality since it is not a re-working of another

work. The allusions to the earlier novels of J.M.Coetzee are discernible in the narrative

of Slow Man. Therefore it conforms to the definition of intertextuality.

Paul Rayment seems to consistently inhabit the past. He seems to be forever

nostalgic. This tendency can be explained by employing psychoanalytical techniques.

One needs to identify the factors that led to the alteration of the outlook of Rayment.

The loss and despair caused by his parents remained deeply etched in his mind and

heart and left him a very bitter person for life. Primarily, he is always indeterminate

about his nationality. He is forever in a dilemma whether he was a French national or

an Australian. His maternal relatives in France never accepted him as one of their kind,

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while he felt alienated in Australia. What he desired he could never obtain, while what

was undesired came his way. The sense of rootlessness permeated his being and his

memories were the only possessions he treasured. Consequently, it does not come as

a surprise when he seems to be obsessed with the past. Since he was deprived of the

supportive network of his friends and family, he withdrew from society. But the longing

for true affection remained insatiable and a few words of care and concern were

perceived as true love by Rayment. He rushed headlong into the relationship with

Marijana without sparing a thought to the consequences.

Rayment's choice of a career was dictated by his mother. She wanted her children

to take up jobs that would keep them "safe". Rayment's deep-seated feeling of

homelessness can be traced to his mother. Her second husband had snapped all her

ties with her family and she wanted a secure future for her children. Narrating this

sequence of events to Costello, Rayment recalls his mother's plans for her children.

Her aspiration was that, "[ ... ] we find some safe niche for ourselves in this foreign land

where the man she had followed, God knows why, was retreating more and more into

himself, where we had no family to fall back on, where she floundered in the language

and could not get a grip on local ways of doing things." (195) This accounts for her

insecurity and why she earnestly desired respectable jobs for her offspring.

Rayment did not disregard his mother's concerns and hence took up science that

seemed a safe bet. His mother's death left him very lonely with nobody to fall back

upon. He quit his job and returned to his maternal grandmother in France. It was there

that he took up a job in a photography lab. This marks the beginning of his abiding

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interest in photography. He had some rare photographs that he treasured and intended

to donate them to a museum.

Rayment is deeply disconcerted when Drago steals one such photograph. In this

state he even overlooks his adoration for Marijana. The indignation finds its expression

in the form of helpless tears. Directing his ire at the Jokics, he terms them as "gypsies".

Nothing seems to matter to him and he is willing to do anything to get back his prized

possession. He even braces himself for a confrontation with Miroslav and Marijana.

Marijana makes her displeasure very clear to them about having barged in suddenly.

The resentment that she had felt all along against Rayment's overtures seemed to have

found the opportunity to find its expression now. She is severely critical of his offer to

sponsor Drago's education. She fiercely rebuts the charge leveled against Drago. She

attributes Rayment's unreasonable behaviour to his loneliness. "'You a good man,

Paul. But you get too lonely in your flat- you know what I mean. [ ... ] So maybe you get

negative too in your flat." (250) Her insinuation is that he has been so lonely all his life

that he is susceptible to become emotionally dependent on anyone who offers a loving

word to him.

Marijana reprimands Rayment about his decision to become Drago's godfather.

"Forget godfather too. Is no good idea, godfather is not realistic like. Because where

he lives, this godfather?" (251) Marijana even welcomes the idea of Elizabeth Costello

living with him. She suggests that Costello's presence will dispel the gloom that has

overshadowed his life. This encounter with the Jokics drove the final wedge between

him and Marijana. He was besotted by her but she had outlined her priorities and

clearly indicated that he did not figure in them. On his part, Rayment was unable to

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absolve Drago for the mistake that he had committed. This helped him override his

passion for Marijana and marked the unceremonious end to their relationship.

Rayment was a private person. He always preferred to keep to himself, shunning

the outside world. When Paul Rayment ignores all her overtures, Elizabeth Costello

warns him that he would have to spend the remaining days all by himself, lonely and

miserable. "'If you stay on in Adelaide, I foresee only nurses, a gallery of nurses, some

pretty, some not so pretty, none of whom will come near to touching your heart as

Marijana Jokic has done. If you come to Melbourne, on the other hand, there will be

me, faithful old Dobbin.''' (260) However, Rayment remains unmoved.

The character of Paul Rayment is a multi-layered one carrying traces of the

personalities of the characters of other novels of J.M.Coetzee. He is very truly the "slow

man" that takes the various names of Michael K, Friday and David Lurie. The slowness

represents the deficiencies in these characters, that makes them rather unsuitable for

the cunning, ruthless world. Failing to negotiate their way successfully through this

world, their lives are a relentless journey in the search for true love that has eluded

them all their lives. In Slow Man, Coetzee seems to acknowledge the fact that he is

indeed a "slow man" due to the constraints that age has imposed upon him. The events

of the world continue to remain inexplicable as ever. "Slow Man" is perhaps a metaphor

for the world. A world whose movement towards a life of peace and contentment for all

is debilitated by its disinclination to seeking solutions to its self-inflicted concerns.

J.M.Coetzee reiterates the fact it is not a radical change that can alter the course of

human history but simple alterations in the attitude towards feliow- beings. This

becomes relevant to the debates about vegetarianism, imperialism, apartheid, the

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aftermath of this racial discrimination, terrorism, apathy of the state towards various

sections of society. The novel marks the coming together of the intertextual techniques

that have been previously employed.

Diary of a Bad Year is the culmination of his entreaties for sensitivity to human

issues. Most of his previous novels do carry a record of the events that have been the

cause of suffering. In this latest novel, Coetzee seems to state yet again that this has

been once again a "bad" year as the previous ones. If the earlier novels have been a

subtle rendering of the ideas of the novelist, this has been a terse expression. Coetzee

presents the facts in all their starkness without any effort at making it sound pleasing.

The present research has broken new ground with respect to the fiction of Coetzee.

It has been successful in not merely identifying the commonalities that guide his fiction

but also explicate them in addition to probing into the causative factors thereby

predicting the possible results. On the periphery his 'fiction may seem to incorporate a

lot of diversity. But a close reading will gradually unveil the identical features

camouflaged beneath it.

Consequent to this intertextual study, I find that Coetzee's preoccupation in most of

his novels is the overwhelming aspiration to overthrow all the undesirable elements of

society. These include the need to correct the imbalances at all levels of society.

Coetzee makes a call for the upliftment of the indigenous people who have been

exploited in their own land by alien authorities. These include the Vietnamese, the

Bushmen and the Hottentots, and the Aborigines of Australia, to name a few.

The outcome of the detailed analysis of Coetzee's fiction is that, on his part he

carries the burden of guilt for the untold misery and exploitation that has been

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unleashed on the colonized people by the colonizers. This guilt and the innate

sensitivity that he bears towards the Blacks find their expression in his works. Perhaps

in his opinion a single text cannot voice the feelings of the Blacks who have been stifled

for a long time indeed. Hence his works carry the same themes as a grim reminder to

the world that now we need to focus our attention on this downtrodden lot. The best

possible means to do so is by reworking the earlier famous texts.

Michael K and Friday represent the case of the physically challenged and the apathy

of society towards them. The indifference gnaws at the very being of these individuals.

Michael puts up a brave fight up to a certain point before he fails. But despite Susan

Barton's sincere efforts, Friday is beyond redemption as it were. By describing the

loving care and concern shown by the Magistrate towards the Peasant girl, the novelist

wishes to exemplify the attitude that needs to be shown towards the disabled. Coetzee

also makes a case for the aged and the infirm. By depicting their plight he states that

they deserve a respectable life and not neglect and callousness. To drive home his

point the novelist sketches the characters of Anna K, the Magistrate, Elizabeth Costello

and Paul Rayment.

Coetzee also speaks on behalf of the lot of women in general. Hence the characters

of Magda, Michael K's mother Anna, Susan Barton, Anna Sergeyevna Kolenkina and

her daughter Matryona of Master of Petersburg, the tribal girl of Waiting for the

Barbarians, Lucy, Elizabeth Costello and Marijana Jokic of Slow Man. The Finnish girl

in Master of Petersburg, who willingly sacrifices her life for the cause of Nechaev, and

Mariana of Slow Man typify the struggle for an identity of the women from the less

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affluent nations. Marijana hails from Croatia and for her life is a virtual battle having to

encounter odds at every front. .

Absolute power rests with the Coetzee of The Vietnam Project, Nechaev, David

Lurie and Paul Rayment. They are blinded by this and destroy the lives of the people

they control with complete recklessness. l\Jechaev propagated his ideology with

ruthlessness and did not hesitate to use violence to achieve his end. Each of the

characters listed above shows various degrees of aggression.

Another rather peculiar case that J.M.Coetzee chooses to highlight in his novels is

what I would term as "reverse apartheid". It can be described as a situation where the

Whites are the victims of their own laws of racial segregation. This is best illustrated

with reference to Magda, the Magistrate and Colonel Joll of Waiting for the Barbarians;

and David Lurie with his daughter Lucy. These characters serve to ring the alarm bell

for the world. It is as if J.M.Coetzee is giving a clarion call that we need to wake up

before the situation goes out of hand.

If there is one theme that ties up all the novels, it could perhaps be described as the

eternal quest for an identity. Every character does not rest content with his/her state of

life. Each of them is actively engaged in a tussle, grappling with all the various

constituents of life in order to figure out what he/she is and what is the ultimate mission

of his/her life. Even the seemingly docile Michael K is satisfied when he realizes that he

is a gardener. J.M. does not create incomplete characters who merely wander in and

out of his novels. Even the minor characters are "well-rounded" (to use a

nomenclature), lending a completeness to the tales. It is to be noted that all of them are

firm in their convictions and stand by them. For instance, Hendrik of In the Heart of the

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Country and Petrus of Disgrace are able to handle their respective White mistresses to

their advantage and lead their lives on their own terms. Similarly Matryona, Anna

Kolenkina's child in Master of Petersburg is very clear in her admiration for Nechaev.

J.M.Coetzee's novels echoing each other thematically, the narrative techniques he

employs are varied. Perhaps the most common strategy he utilizes is the continual re­

working of the texts. The texts duplicate each other perpetually. This serves as a ploy

of reinforcement. It introduces the sense of urgency. It is an expression of his

underlying preoccupation and concern. This does not grant him the freedom to explore

newer themes and techniques.

Despite this constrain J. M. 's fiction continues to be hard-hitting and brilliant. His

fiction is not comforting. It does not have a feel-good factor to it. This is because he

presents the truth in all its morbidity. This is done intentionally in order to ensure its

effectiveness. Perhaps an effort to mask the unpleasantness would have diluted the

effect and moved it away from reality to the world of make-believe. Coetzee does not

seek to create/depict Utopia. He expresses his deep anguish. The world is his

audience. His voice is the voice of the peoples of the world at large. What is significant

about this stark representation is that the novelist does not offer any solutions. His role

is merely to portray the problems. In this task J.M. does not ever digress, albeit there

may be an alteration in the intensity of the violence described. It may oscillate between

the subtle descriptions of the helplessness of the aged Paul Rayment to the depressing

vividness of the horrors of the Nazi concentration camps. On a similar note the

advocacy for change may alternate between the subtle, discrete manner or it may be

indiscriminate. The former may be seen in the Magistrate's gentle remonstration to

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Colonel Joll to heed to the pleas of the "barbarians". In contrast to this is Nechaev's

directive to Pavel to eliminate all such people who were detrimental to his cause. The

former could perchance be implicated in the mysterious death of Pavel since he was

perceived as a threat to the organization spearheaded by Nechaev. The same violence

is used by Nechaev against Dostoevsky when he arrives to probe the death of his step­

son Pavel. Nechaev is filled with detestation against those whom he considers the

wrong-doers.

Having analyzed his fiction we are filled with anxiety about the possible reasons that

have led Coetzee to display a steadfast adamancy in shying away from the more

pleasant presentation of facts. The cause that can be cited for this is the hostility that

...I.M. has faced in his own life. He does make appearances in his novels; as the boss

Coetzee in Dusklands, as David Lurie of Disgrace, Paul Rayment in Slow Man and as

Senor C in Diary of a Bad Year. Coetzee was in America while the Vietnam war was

waging and if the boss Coetzee aligns himself with the American interests, then it is an

indicator of ...I.M.Coetzee's as yet unclear allegiances. When J.M. describes the plight of

the bereaved Dostoevsky he is projecting his own sorrow at the sudden inexplicable

loss of his young son in the prime of his youth. He was associated as a Professor with

the University of Cape Town as is David Lurie; and Paul Rayment is Coetzee himself

who has taken on Australian citizenship. Senor C of Diary of a Bad Year is once again

Coetzee himself. This leads us to conclude that Coetzee's fiction is not altogether

imaginary. To a major extent it is based on the facts of his life. This also explains the

repetition of the themes.

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Coetzee's latest novel, Diary of a Bad Year sets a new benchmark vis-a-vis his

previous novels. It discusses the intellectual involvement of a distinguished Australian

writer. He has undertaken to contribute his views on issues that ail the present world.

He is part of a panel of six writers who have decided to express their observations on

debatable topics of their choice. These are to be culled together to form the book

Strong Opinions. The "diary" is divided into two parts. The first half is "Strong

Opinions"; while the second half is the "Second Diary". The former records his life from

1ih September 2005 to 31 st May 2006. The writer seeks the assistance of a young

woman Anya whom he meets in the laundry-room of his apartment. She is also a

resident of the same apartment. She lives there along with her boyfriend Alan. Anya

has left her previous employment and is on the lookout for a new one. This is the time

when the writer takes her on to help him type his manuscript. Anya refers to him as

Senor C.

The structure of the novel itself is rather intriguing. Initially each page is split into two

parts. The first part carries his writing or rather the material that he is to send for the

book. The second part offers insights into his emotions with respect to Anya. Later

each page is divided into three parts. The newly introduced third part carries Anya's

ideas and feelings.

It is the first part of every page that holds our interest, presenting a collage of

J.M.Coetzee's beliefs on myriad topics that seem to make him disconcerted. The novel

seems to mark the nadir of his despair at the irrevocable damage that has been done to

SOCiety by the senseless violence of a handful. Recalling his earlier novels, this present

work is also contemporarily relevant, wherein Coetzee comments about those issues

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that have been a cause for concern for the world at large. Coetzee is flummoxed by the

ideology that goads the suicide bombers into laying down their lives ever so readily. He

tries to find out the role they played in the war that America waged C1gainst Vietnam and

in the Palestinian-Israeli civil war. Coetzee also states that AI Qaida has been

disbanded and it is the U.S. government that is trying to keep it alive falsely for its own

evil designs. He recalls the humiliation to which the Iraqi prisoners were subjected to in

the Guantanamo Bay prisoner camp.

Coetzee also brings into his ambit litigious matters like paedophilia, the slaying of

animals and bird flu. But probably the chief area that gets the maximum attention from

the novelist is that of the function of the state. With relevance to this he touches upon

lawlessness and democracy. Coetzee's pen utilizes a very wide canvas and it spreads

across the globe. With consummate ease he details the life of Tony Blair, makes a brief

mention about Harold Pinter before moving onto cricket and his reasons for having

taken a liking for Australia.

The primary endeavour of this research being the detailing of intertexuality in

Coetzee's fiction, Diary of a Bad Year also stands apart for its intertextual features.

There is a sense of deja vu as we read the novel. The present novel clearly articulates

all that Coetzee has been stating in rather understated tones. His shame and guilt for

being a white South African and the distress he has experienced at seeing the Blacks

are stated here. He is apologetic, stating that the generations of white South Africans

"will go bowed under the shame of the crimes that were committed in their name.

Those among them who endeavour to salvage personal pride by pointedly refusing to

bow before the judgement of the world suffer from a burning resentment, a bristling

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anger at being condemned without adequate hearing, that in psychic terms may turn out

to be an equally heavy burden." (44)

Vietnam echoes through his fiction and it continues here too. Similarly the ill-will

earned by America finds an expression here. It is an America "that has proclaimed itself

beyond the reach of the law of nations." As for those who have suffered at the hands of

this superpower, "Their plea thus becomes in effect a curse; let the memory of the

wrong that has been done to us not fade away, let punishment be visited on the

wrongdoer in generations to come." (48) There are resonances of Elizabeth Costello

when Coetzee narrates details of the of the visit of an eminent woman novelist who

attends a lecture by a renowned Professor X and how she gets to know the shocking

fact that he has been treated very shabbily.

Coetzee deliberates at length about the sense of alienation he experiences with the

English language. Despite the fact that it is the language he is most familiar with, he is

not completely at home with it. As he hears himself use English there arises "a

disquieting sense that the one I hear is not the one I call myself. Rather, it is as though

some other person, [ ... ] were being imitated, followed, even mimicked." (195) A similar

sentiment was voiced in Slow Man. J.M.Coetzee's heart has always gone out for the

Jews and this empathy is reiterated here as it was done in Elizabeth Costello. On the

same lines Anya's steadfast concern for Senor C brings to mind Elizabeth Costello's

constant desire to take care of Paul Rayment. Anya requests a neighbour Mrs.

Saunders to telephone her if there was to be an emergency with respect to Senor C. "It

is not as if I can do much for him- I am not a nurse- but I don't like to think of him all

alone, facing, you know, the end." (222) Eugene Dawn, Magda, David Lurie, Elizabeth

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Costello and Paul Rayment- all these characters are found bidding their time, waiting for

death to put an end to their rather dissatisfied lives. Abiding by this tradition, Senor C is

also well aware that death may soon come calling. Hence, he re-reads The Brothers

Karamazov and is unable to hold back his tears when he reads how Ivan returns the

ticket of entry to the universe. The novel closes on the note when Anya will give him a

"proper kiss, just to remind him of what he is leaving behind. Good night, Senor C, I will

whisper in his ear: sweet dreams, and flights of angels, and all the rest." (227)

Thus, this intertextual study has its bearings in the larger socio-political world. This

is a testimony to the fact that literature cannot be divorced from reality. To state this

differently, literature is not altogether fictional. It is inspired from reality and opens our

eyes to those rather unpleasant facts that we would like to keep hidden. J.M.Coetzee

shakes us out of our complacence and compels us as it were to face the grim reality.