Joint Projects

groups. 2 '11~ projcctc L ; I I I invoI\,c clitcs ~ n c l prot-cc\ion.~I\, , I \ \\.ell , I \ t l ~ c h r o ~ ~ c i c o r ~ ~ r ~ ~ u r ~ i t y . l'l~c!. provide all opportunity fi)r pcrsorl,~l cncorllltcrc through whic.11 p s t o p ~ ~ c i r ~ c n t s c a r ~ form persond rcl;~tions ( I % I - o \ ~ I I . 1088; (:hadha, 1005; (;l~ctko\v-\.'anoo\~~ 1980; Kricslxxg, 1 OO8.1: I'ctrig~c\v, 1007. 1998; Volpc. 1008). 'l'hc more thcv lend to dccp crlg:lgcn1cnr. ur~clcr potitivc con- d i t i o ~ ~ s , the more cf tct ivc they arc likely to tw i r ~ overcon~ing 1).1\t Ilostility (1)e111ch, 107.3; l'ettigrew, 1007; S ~ ; I L I ~ , I OW). 111 d d i t i o n . the joint proj- ccts rn:~y create i~~tcr t lcpcndrncr . cornrnon goalt ; ~ n d outcome\ t l l ; ~ t h e f t I I I C I I I ~ I I ~ ~ ) C ~ S of 00th groups.

lo in t projcctr call titkc many forms. For c x ; ~ n ~ p l c , in tllc I:rcnch- ( ; e r m a ~ ~ reconciliation process, a project of town rwinnirlg h \ v c e n 1950 ;~r l i l I002 hrrlicd 125 partnerships Im\vccr~ I : r c r d ~ and ( ;cr~n; lr i towns. I5y 1989, this project had cxpandcd to i d u d e over 1,300 to\vr~s ; ~ n d went llcyontl towns to the cstablishrnet~t of twin rel;ltions bcr\vccn secondary schools and universities (Ackcrnlann. 1004).

Healing, Forgiveness and Reconciliation in the Real World: An "Intervention" in Rwanda

We will briefly describe a practical intervention to prornorc healing, for- giveness, and recor~cilintion in Rwanda in the nficrmnth of the gctiocide, together with an experimental evaluation of its effectiveness (Sraub. 2000a; Stauh & I'carl~n;ln. 2001. 2002; Staub et al., 2002).

f + e a l i r ~ ~ requires engagement with t rau~naric cspcricncc, with support and empathy from other people. It rcquircs reconnecting \vith other people, which can happen in part through such support ancl c m p t l i y (Herman, 1902: 1'c;lrlmnn & Sx~kvitne, 1905: Stnub, I ? c ) H ; ~ ) . I'coplc tillking about their cxpcric~~ces in s ~ n ; ~ l l groups and rrccivi~lg s u p p o ~ t LOII I c;lcl~ other can f i~rthcr healing and prepare tllc way for reconciliation, cspeci;llly when it is possi1)lc to have nien~bers of both groups ir~cludcd. This was one clement of the training used in Rwanda. I'cople talkcd about the killing of their loved ones and I ~ o w they rl~cmsclvcs survived. 'l'llcy talkcd ahout corning fro111 mixed fi~n~ilies, hitiirlE during tllc jicnocitlc because of' ;I . l i~ts i mother and Iwirlg seen as n ~ e ~ n b r r o f the pcrpctr;~tor group ;~ l ic r the genocide becautr oEa t l u t u fither. 'l'hc provided e n l p t l ~ ~ a n d support fi)r each other.

*l'he training also i n c l d c d psycI~ocducario11;11 elcrnents. hricf lectures follo\rcrl I>y cxtc~lsivc discussion. '1-he topics included t l ~ r effects of trauma on i~ltlivirlu;~ls. to help participants understand their own experience, and

1 u t 1 1 \ 10 11c.1li11~. 1 1 ; ~ l ~ o included learning about how genocide originates ( \ C C 31.11111, 1 OSO. 1000;1, as \\ell as this chapter) with exan~pies from other gc~~oci ( lc \ .111(1 I I I . I ( \ killings. I'articipnnts theniselvcs etfectivrly ;lpplied the ~ U I I C C I ) I I U I I ( i t tlic o r i ~ i ~ ~ s of ~ c n o c i d c to Rwanda.

'lill\i p ~ ~ i ~ i j ) . ~ n t s S C ' C I I I C ' ~ ~ to feel humanized: if genocide has also hap- 1 1 ~ 1 1 ~ ~ 1 .II o~hc,r I ~ I ; I C C ' S . ;11ic1 tragic and horrible as it is, if it is a n undcrstand- . I I ) I c 11~1111.111 ~ ~ r o c e \ s C ~ , III :III \vll;~t happened in Rwanda does not exclude . . 1 1 1 ~ 1 1 1 1ro111 tI1e I I U I ~ I ; I I I realm. 111 addition, consiclering the forces that op- er ;~rc in Ic.~tlirig I>erpctr;ltors to their actions seemed to create some shift in thc,ir .~tr i tudc to\vnrcl perpetrators. Participants also said that if they can

. .

~ l r ~ c l e r s ~ ; ~ ~ ~ d t11c roofs of genocide, they can take preventive action. Intcr\~critioris intcncted to promote reconciliation, such as dialogue and

conllict r-e\olurion in sn~al l groups. arc rarely evaluated, and when they are t11c c-v.111r.11io11 is prirll;~r.ily ;~~lccclot;d (Ross Pr Rothrnan, I S W ) ) . A formal e v ; ~ l ~ ~ ; ~ ~ i o ~ i 01' this intervention was donc, not with participants, but with people once 1.e111o~ee1. '1 '11~ p1rticip;ints in the training worked for local N( ;O.s r h t worked with g r ~ u p s in t11c c o ~ ~ i ~ i l u ~ ~ i t y , Some of them subse- . . cluctitl!. \vorkcd with newly created groups, for two hours twice a week for three w c ~ k s . i t l t ( p i l t i t / g the appru;~cIi ~ ~ s e d in the training with their tradi- [io11;11 .ij)pro;1cIi. Other fkilitators who did not receive the training worked \vith newly created groups ming their trtrditionnl approach. Participants in 1I1cw groups had measures o f trauma experiences, trauma symptoms, and a newly crc;ttcd I~IC;ISIII-c o f "other orientation" administered before the train- ing. imn~cdiatcly afterward and two months later. People in control groups received n o training hut had these measures administered to them about the s.1111c. tirnc. 7'hc groups had both H u t u and Tutsi members.

'l'llc r r ;~u~i ia symptoms of the participants in the integrated group de- creased horn the first to the third administration and in comparison to the other groups. Their orientation to members o f the other ethnic group be- came more positive both from the first to the last administration and in comparison to the participants in the traditional and control groups. T h e incrcxse in positive orientation consisted o f seeing the genocide as having had complex origins, expressing willingness to work with the other group f i ~ r i ~ l i p o r ~ ; ~ n t goals such as a pcaccfi~l future, and "conditional forgiveness," tile cxprersio~l ol'willit~gncss to forgive if members o f the other group ac- kr~owlcdgctl their actions and apologized (Staub, 20OOa; Staub & Pearlman, 2001; Stauh et al., 2002).

1 1 1 S I O J ~ ~ J I ~ I ~ : ~ . there are different niethods to promote the process o f psjd1o1ogic.d reconciliation, as well as the specific elements that contribute t o it. I:or exan~plc, healing can take place through testimonials, comrnem- or;ltion, ; ~ n d cere~~ion ics in large group settings, which promote engagement with cxpcrie~icc and can provide support. tIowever, testimonials and cerc- tiionics h;lve to he the right kind. Otherwise they may maintain wound- eclness. ;IS the C ~ I I I I I I C I I I ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ < ) I ~ S o f the battle that the Serbs lost to Turkey in the li)urtecntli century al~parently did (Lxatherman et al., 1999). For

L References

I<,'!\. 1 1 1 1 \ c 1 1 . I I . (10 '15). (rl.~r~rird~. ,rnt/ tllr po/rtics o / 'n~enro~:~ , Chapel Hill: University of

N < , ~ t h (:.1rol111,1 I'rccc. I l ~ r ~ l i ~ o c k . I < . K.. F i u:'I\vcclt. '1: hl. (13'97). I'hytical and cultural genocide of various

I I I I I ~ \ \ I I / . I ) . 1.. (100.3). (:onllict ; ~ n d the incentives to political accornrnoriation. In I). K C O ~ I I & hi. I I . I l;ilt/cl (l{clt.), Nor//rcrn Irehnd find the polirics of reconciii- ,rtrnn ( 1 3 1 ~ 1 7 3 1 88). Ul'ashington, I>C: Woodrow Wilson Center Press.

I lt~rircr. I . A, . Stringer, hl.. & Warson, R. I! (1991). Intergroup violence and inter- group : ~ ~ ~ r i l x ~ t i o ~ l s . Writislr jorrr-nnl of ,Social Psycl~o/oc~, 30, 251-266.

t lr~rli, I!, & Rutcctt. R. (1'993). (;cneral deterrence between enduring rivals: Testing rlircc competing models. Americnn Political Science Review, 87, 61-72.

K.i!.c, h l . (1007). 'l'lic rolc o f the ' liuth Comn~issions in the search for justice, recon- cili.ition and de~iiocrat izat io~~: 'I'he Salvaciorean and Honduran cases. /ournnl of 1 (rrrn A n r r r r ~ n Strdies, 29, GC)3-7 15.

Kccn~.~novic. I ). ( I096). 7he nrms p s y c / ~ o / o ~ ofethnonatio?~a~zs?n. New York: Plenum. Kc1111.111. 11. ( 1 . (1073). Violc~ice w i t h o ~ ~ t moral restraint: Reflections on the dehu-

m.ini~;ition of victims and victimizers. Jorrrnnl of Socid Issues, 29(4), 25-61. Kclni;iri. I{. C : . (1'100). Applying a human needs perspective to the practice of conflict

rcrolution: 'l'lic 1sr;icli-l'alesti~iiat~ case. 111 J. Burton (Ed.), Cbnjict: Human rrrrds tlrror-v. Ne\v York: St. Martin's Press.

Kc ln l~n . I { C:. ( 1007). Social-P~yclioI~)gical dimensions of international conflict. In 1 . \KJ. %nrtrnan Pr 1 . L. Rnsrnmssen (Ed.), I'ememnking in international conpict: illrtlrort!~ and tn -h~rr~r~es (pp. 19 1-237). Washington, DC: United States Insti- turc of I'cace I'rers.

Kr1m.11i. 1 1 . (1. (IOC)O). ' lj .;insf;~rnii~ig the relationship between former enemies: A social- I)\\-cliological amlyric. In I<. 1.. Rothstein (Ed.), A j e r the peacc Resistance and ,nan~rli,rtrotr (pp. 103-205). Lloulder. CO: Lynne Kienner.

Kcn~per. '1: 0 ( l id.) . (11)90). l<rsenrrh agetidm in the sociology ofernotions. Alhany, NY: SUN)' I'rcts.

Drt)\vn, K h ~ c , h l . 'I:, & Iliorn;is, 11. (:. (Eds.). (1991). Woridsecrrrity: Trends andr/mlienges n t

r.r~rtro:~; r ~ r d New \'ark: St. Martin Press. K~iou. (:.. & (Juirk, I! (2000). 1'etzr.r bttiMiti,: in Nortl~rrn Irehnd, lsrnel and Sotrtl~

.4/;-il,1. lizrrrrrtron, o~~rrr~f;~r~tr~rtio~r /rnd reronriliation. I.oudon: Macniillan. Kopt r in . 1 . 5. (1')')7). ' l ' l ~ c Ix~liticc of national reconciliation: Memory and institu-

K r i t ? , N. 1 (IVc)(>). I h e ru le of ' IN i n the l w t ~ c o r i f l i ~ I p l 1 . 1 ~ 111 ( 3 1 ( IO< kcr, I . ( ).

1 [ a r i i p m , & I! A:III ( l.kls.). A l n t r q r t r g g / o / ~ / I./~,II~<, ,511ri1.r rq 01 I II~I//I~ t o/ (III~ I.P

~ p o t u r ~ to rtrtrnrtrfiorr,r/ (-otr//ict ( pp . 587- (~KI ) . \ Y ' : i ~ I ~ i ~ ~ g t o r i , I )( , [ l r i ~ t c ~ l St.itc5

I ~ i c t i t ~ r r c of' I'cacc I1rctr.

K r y r t a l , 1-1. (Ed. ) . ( l W ~ 8 ) . A i m i r ~ r p . y / ) i ~ - t r ~ r ~ t m i . N c \ v );irk: 11itcrri.1111m.iI I 1 r i i \ c r < i -

t i c t I'rctc.

l . c a t l ~ c r ~ ~ ~ a ~ ~ ~ I . , I k h l a r \ , \XI., (;aflncy, I! I ) . * & L1ayr \~~ icn , I< ( I ( ) ' ) ( ] ) . I~I,.~I~III,~ , v / r~ o/

trrrtlt, p ropoen l f i r r r d w ~ ~ . N'ashil igtori. I)(:: C.~ rneg i c I ~ ~ ~ o w I I ~ c ~ I ~ (11. 1titcrri~1-

t i ona l I'cacc.

I x r n c r , bl, ( 1980 ) . 7hr /)r/irf ' in II j ~ t r~wr/d: A j i i t r d ,~~~ r r~ r t , r / d ~ / r t c i ~ t t ~ . N c n l b r k : 1%-

(;cnocide, hlntc Killit~g, and Intractable Conflict 747

L1.1(1~11. 5 I(. ) . 'lllc cc.~rrl~ for meaning. In W. J . Arnold. Kr hl. M. Page (Eds.), i\'J~t,~ik~t 011npm1ut11 011 ~notiv,ztion 1070 (pp. 1.37-186). 1.incoln: University of N ( ~ I I . I \ ~ , I l'rc\\,

JI . IINTII. I ( . ( 1 ' ) ' ) ( I ) . I/ir mias mrt/~n nnd rorinl r~iokncr: /s there n role f i r the medin in ~ ~ C I ~ ~ I I I I I I S dm/ ~nodrr, l t t~y et/tnic, n~ t ionn/ , nnd ,u/@ous conflict? Unpublished m,1nll\crllit. ('enter for War. Peace, and News hledia, llepartment of Journal- 1,111 ,111c1 hl.l\\ ( ' ( I I I I I I I ~ I I I ~ C : I ~ ~ ~ I I , New York University, NCW York.

J l . ~ n ~ ~ l l c ~ r r l , K. (1052). ldrolo~yv nnd rrtopi/r. New York: Harcourt, Brace. X l . l r k i ~ < . t i . It.. ei Kitay.~rna. S. (1994). l l l e cultural shaping of ernorion: A concep-

111.11 fi.~mc\vork. In S. Kitayanla & H . R. Markus (Eds.), Gnotion nnd culture: I.~~rp~rrr-,rl sttmirs ifrntrtrml inflrrenre (pp. 339-35 1). Washington, I X : Arneri- c.111 I'r~~tliologiral Atrocintion.

hl.~rro\v. I ) . ( I 'W)). Seeking peace amid memories of war: Learning form the peace prorn i i n Northern Ircland. In R. L. Rothstein (Ed.), A j e r the pence: Resistnnce rrnd rrrnnrrlintiott (pp. 1 1 1- 1 38). Boulder, C O : Lynne Rienner.

hlc( ::~rtIcy. (:. (in prcsr). Making sense to terrorism after 911 1 . In K. Moser (Ed.), .Slw~c-king I ~ O I F I I ( . P 11: I'iolent disnste~, war and terrorism nfferting our youth. ( :l~arlrs (1. 'l.hon1a.t.

hlc( ' J I I ~ ~ . (:. I<.. eL Scgd. M . 1). (1989). Ierrorist individuals and terrorist groups: ' I Iir nor~nnl psychology of extreme behavior. In J. Groebel & J. F. Coldstein (I:d\.), lirtnrirm Sevillc, Spain: I'uhlicaciones de la Universidad tle Sevilla.

hlcl\on. I < . ( I OC)2). Ner~olrrtion nnd p o r i d e : ON the origins o f the Armenian genocide ,~trd t/ir I/o/oc-nrr.~. (hicago: University of Chicago Press.

h l i lg r~ni . S. (107.1). Ohrd~ettce to nrrt/)ority: An experin~entnl view. New York: Harper .ind I h v .

hlinow, h l . (1008). Nrtrcwn vtngennce n t ~ d f o r ~ v e t ~ e s s . Boston: Beacon Press. hl~rchcll. (:. I<. ( 108 1 ). 7he stntrture ?f internntionnl conjict. London: Macmillan. hlontvillc. J . V. (1093). The healing function in political conflict resolution. In

1). J . I). Sandole & H , van der Merve (Eds.), Conflct resolution theory and prmtt(-P: I n t r ~ n t i o n nnd npplicntion (pp. 112-127). Manchester, England: Man- cl~cstcr University Press.

hlor. 1). I).. Kr Maoz, 7,. (1999) Learning and the evolution of enduring rivalries: A rtratcgic approach. Conflict Mnnngement nnd I'rnce Science, 17, 1-48

h lur .~ka~ni , .I: (109.2). I'e,zce edrrcntion in Britnin and japan. Kyoto, Japan: Office of Sociology of liducation, Kyoto University of Education.

hlurr.15 h l . K.. Pr Greer, J . V. (1999). The changing governance of rural development: St;~rc-community inter~ction in Northern Ireland. Policy Studies, 20, 37-50.

Ncy. I . S.. Kr Iynn-Jones, S. M. (1988). International security studies: A report of a confcrcnce on the state of the field. lnternntionnf Serurity, 12, 5-27.

Norwl, A. J . (1098). hlctnory, identity and the (irn)possibility of reconciliation: The work of the Truth and Ikoncil iat ion Commission in South Africa. Constelkz- rintts. 5. 250-265.

Norv.~l. A. 1 . (1009). ' liuth and reconciliation: The birth of the present and the re- working of l~istory. /orir~rnl ofAfi.irnn Studies, 25, 499-513.

0 p o t . n ~ . 5. (I<tl.). ( IWO). h.ioral exclusion and injustice. Jorrrrrnl of Socinl Issues, 46 ( 1 ) .

( )rtlctllook. I! ( :. ( I ')MI). ( h n e tl~roty nnd politicnl theory Cambridge: Cambridge Llnivcrtity I ' r c x .