Elliot W. Eisner

Although art educators have an abidingbelief in the benefits art activity hasfor children, the grounds for holding thisbelief are often less than clear.’ What is itthat art activities provide to children?Why do children make visual images?What is it that nature provides and whatis it that culture provides in the course ofa child’s development in art? But perhapsmore specifically, what is it that childrenlearn when they paint, draw, or makethree-dimensional images? Questionssuch as these serve as the focus of thispaper. In it I shall describe nine consequ-ences or potential consequences forchildren who are given the opportunity towork with teachers of art. All of theseconsequences represent an attempt toanswer the question: What do childrenlearn when they paint? Before trying toanswer this question, a word should besaid about why the question itself is im-portant.

Most art educators operate on the be-lief that drawing, painting, sculpting, andthe like are good for children, but I be-

lieve few of us have formulated satisfyinganswers to the question of just why weconsider it so good. Yet more and morepeople are asking for justifications forwhat we teach in the schools. Particularlyas educational accountability becomesincreasingly important to those who payfor the programs schools provide, theneed to justify what is taught-but par-ticularly in the arts-also becomes impor-tant. So from a pragmatic point of viewknowing why children create and whatthey learn from working in art is impor-tant. But it is even more important forproviding a kind of intellectual security forour work. We ought to be able to describethe value of what we do and place itwithin a framework for rationalizing thecontributions of our work to the educa-tional development of the students weteach. So let us start at the beginning. Letus ask what students learn when theypaint, or sculpt, or draw. In short, what dochildren learn when they make visual im-ages?

Perhaps the first thing that very young

Achildren learn is something that we oftentake for granted, namely they learn thatthey can, in fact, create images withmaterial and that the activity of makingsuch images can provide intrinsic formsof satisfaction. Knowledge that a per.so_n

canalter the world through-w2actionGmmr-au in the corte=ior to birth: suchknowledge grows from expenence. Themaking of a mark on paper or on wetsand or in moist clay is an alteration ofthe world, the forming of a new entity.When children are first given an oppor-tunitv to use materials, this is one of thefirst ihings they learn,’ namely thatltheiractions can have consequences.tfurth-ermore. the actions that brouaht aboutthose consequences can themselvesprovide a source of satisfaction,JTherealization that actions can lead to con-seauences is what De Charms calls‘aersonal causation.“2 Developing asense of perso?iGaGsation is not trivial;it represents a disposition towards theworld, one that says that “I can makethings occur. I amnoLsimp!y&tbemercY&tbeenyitonmer~.” The satisfaction tilatis received from action is whatEharlotttBuhler refers to as “function pleasure.The rhythmic movement of the arm andwrist, the stimulation of watching linesappear where none existed before arethemselves satisfying and self-justifying.They are intrinsic sources of satisfaction’.The importance of intrinsic sources ofsatisfaction is often drowned in schoolsthat beseige children with stars, grades1

6 Art Education, March 1978

pats,on th6 head, and other forms of ex-trinsic rewards used to motivate activityand to sustain “interest.“3 The tokeneconomy comes to replace activities thatmight have once been pursued for theirown sake. Like sex, eating, and otherbasic functions, young children learnfrom making images that satisfactions in-here in the process of action and thatthey can be a source of personal causa-tion, they can bring something into exis-tence.

Th_e_second thing that young childrenlea!c is that the imaaes they create canfunctienassyr&oJs. A symbol as dlstlnctfrom a sign or signal is something that isintended to stand for something else. Asign, for example, might be the wetnesson the pavement indicating that it had re-cently rained. A symbol, however, is atransformation of an idea into a publicimage that in some ways stands for it.\: Jung children learn that the images thatIhey are able to bring into existence canalso stand for other things. First, imagesare made and then named, and laternamed and then .made. In either casethere is what Langer calls a “symbolictransformation”4 occurring. The youngchild recognizes that visual con@3?ZZrrbe~Jansformed~nt~tIli!Xati~stablf?-form. To do this requires-that two proces-52s be employ@. One, a child must form-I &%I concept of the object he or sheperceives. Such concepts usually are theleast conceptually ambiguous the childcan form. Thus, the most telling view of achair, a horse, or a person is imagina-tively framed. Second, the child must in-vent a visual graphic image whose prop-erties are in some way related to the vis-ual concepts he wishes to symbolize.!\These public images are what Arnhe$infers to as “represe_ntational concepts.“53us we have a two-staae orocess bc-curring. First, the concept:ali’zation of animage that articulates some object. Sec-ond, the invention of a graphic formwhose elements in some way representthat image. This latter process is one ofsymbolization.

Now it is typically thought that themajor function of symbols is to serve as ameans of communication. While it is truet3at discursive language and pictographsdo serve purposes of communication,Langer argues, and,1 think correctly, thatsymbol-making is first used to form con-sciousness, to articulate thought before itis used as a means of communication.She quotes Edward Sapir, one of thecentury’s most able .psycho/linguists asfollows:

The primary function of language isgenerally said to be communica-tion . . . . The autistic speech of chil-dren seems to show that the purelycommunicative aspect of languagehas been exaggerated. It is best toadmit that language is primarily avocal actualization of the tendency tosee reality symbolical!y, that it is pre-cise/v this aualitv wh!ch renders it a fitinstrumer a -’ cSteit tha; o;;unication and that

it is in the actual give and take of socialintercourse that it has been compli-cated and refined into the form inwhich it is known today. E,What Sapir is saying here is that

symbol-making, a process requiringabstraction and transformation of onething into another, is a natural humancapacity upon which thought and con-sciousness itself depend. To put the casethis way implies that the roots of symbolformation are conceptual before they be-come public. To have ideas is, in asense, to engage in a forming process inwhich conceptions are abstracted orcreated: that is, they are formed realiza-tions. Given this view, the public manifes-tation of the image is a second ordersymbol, the first being the conceptualiza-tion itself.- Whether one embraces such a view or

a less radical relative, the fact that chil-dren use the images they create as sym-bols for the worid is clear. This activity isdue to their need to construct a knowableworld and later to convey what they know

a to others.From the recognition that images can

be made and that once made they canfunction as symbols, children learn some-thing else as well. m:they learn is that symb~blies can beuwymbolic Flay. Ch!l-‘dren learn that the images and SpbOlSthey create can be used to transportthem into a fantasy world, that they cancreate an imaginary world through theuse of their own images and throughthem become a part of other situations inwhich they can play other roles.- For young children the taking of newroles through imagination is an importantsource of learning.’ It allows them topractice in the context of play what they

,cannot actually do in “the real world.‘i~taffords them opportunities to empathetl-tally participate in the life of another.Given that egocentr ic ism is thepsychological condition of the youngchild, the opportunity to learn to em-pathize, to feel like, as well as to feel for,others is an important ingredient in be-coming a s.ocial.being.tihe symbols thatchildren create and i%anipulate affordthem opportunities to learn such skills.Empathy requires the ability to imagina-

tti0groject; art is a means f065lK?at-ing such an ability.LTheB7liing that children learn

from making images is that the processof image-making requires the making ofjudgments4 The forming of images, par-ticularly those that in some ways are in-tended to correspond to some aspect ofthe world, is a structure-seeking morethan a rule-abiding activity. To create-es. the child must invent atidjudge. Unlike those activities of which?$ZlfBg is a paradigm case, the youngcJi!d, like the adult artist, must juiilieadequacy and qual@oti&Kherownw&. Although he might have criteria formaking such judgments, he has nostandards, for none exist. A standard, as

Dewey pointed out so vividly in Art asExperience, is an arbitrary, fixed conven-tion.* In spelling, standards are clear: inthe English language there are two waysto spell a word, correctly or incorrectly. Inmaking symbolic images no suchstandards exist. Tw must iudqe.and in the process learn to exercisejudgment in situations where standa&cahs_ent. This is no minor ac-complishment, for it moves the locus ofevaluation from the external to the inter-nal. The child must learn to rely upon hisor her own senslbllities and percepconsin order to determme the adequacy oftlie~3ibolic images he or she creates.\ One of education’s longstanding aimshas been to enable children to think forthemselves, to become intellectually in-dependent, to develop autonomy ofjudgment so that they will not be manipu-lated by others.jYet, in how many fieldsare such opportunities afforded theyoung? And withqut opportunities whatchance is there for potentialities to ac-tualize and for learning to occur?

Much has been learned of late aboutthe consequences of sensory deprivationon the perceptual development of ani-mals. There are critical periods in thecourse of a kitten’s development whenthe deprivation of certain stimuli, light forexample, creates an irreversible loss ofcapacity. Living organisms are born witha capacity to perform a variety of func-tions provided the stimulus conditionsare available for the neurons related tothose capabilities to be fired. Once thecritical period is past without appropriatestimulation of specific capabilities, thelikelihood of recovering those capabil-ities, even if the stimuli are present, issmall or non-existent.

What are those capabilities that theyoung possess that are never actualizedbecause the needed stimuli for their useare absent? Consider, for example, aprocess in the making of judgments cal-led “flexible purposing.” Children may in-itiate a project in art with one purposeand in the process shift purposes in orderto exploit an unexpected opportunity; anew image presents itself, an array ofcolors looks particularly arresting, onecolor has run into another color to createa new shape. To exploit such oppor-tunities purposes must be flexible andjudgment must be exercised. In learningfopaint&i!dre.nearn to judge and learnto be flexibly puTp:sive.S&h oppor-tu%%%&arning are virtually absent inthe learning of arithmetic, spelling, and toa large degree in early reading. j

I~JIh-tking-tkat children learn whenthey create images is that images can be--.relZiV%6oth%images to form a whole.Thetaskoflating one image to anotheris another thing that is often taken forgranted. Yet the perception of subtle rela-tionships within a complex visual config-uration does not occur naturally. I willnever forget my early days in a life draw-ing class when my teacher taught me thatwhere a figure was placed on a sheet of

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paper was no minor consideration. I wasso preoccupied with trying to create apersuasive rendering of the figure that Ineglected considering the relationship ofthe figure to the ground. Young childrenalso learn to “decentrate” their percep-tion of the images they create, to tsePiaget’s phrase.lhey_gradually learn toshift from local solutions to contextualsolutions in the wav thev order rela?ion-s!@=.-DJ a two-dime&Q&surface. Theability to decentrate perczon, toconsider relationships, not only isolatedentities, is one of the conditions of matur-ity. Those who are immature focus onone item at a time. Long-term goals orsecond order effects are not considered.In spatial patterns, as in temporal ones,the child must learn to consider relation-ships as well. Having the opportunity tocreate visual images provides the occa-sion for such learning to take place, andthe more sophisticated and complex thequalities in the picture, the more criticalthe teacher becomes in facilitating suchlearning. Thus, questions of balance, un-ity, color, and value become considera-tions through the guidance of the sensi-tive teacher of art. Human nature pro-vides the potential, but culture contrib-utesto its development.

Much of what goes on in schoolingmitigates against such holistic and con-textual thinking. Basal reading programsand programmed instruction often frac-tionate learning tasks so that the childseldom gets an opportunity to considerthe relationships among parts, let alonehave a hand in structuring such relation-ships himself. With increased tendenciesto break up learning into discrete unitsreinforced by extrinsic rewards, meaningis secured from extrinsic rewards ratherthan from the construction of a wholewhose relations themselves hold mean-ing for the child. When such instruction issalient in schools, art has a very specialand particularly important role to play asa kind of educational antidote.

A sivpthy oaint is that thev can develop skilg-----a

ill!.lsionan-es that are visu-wasive. Although the need tocreate symbolic images that articulateconsciousness appears to be a naturalaspect of the human condition, the skillswith which those images are renderedare learned. -Learning that skills can beused to transform ideas. images, an-d.

Je&n@ into a public form is not trivialsince consciousness is in part achievedthrough the public manifestation of whatotherwise is evanescent and inchoate.

\ The variety and sophistication of skills or\ techniques become vehicles for trans-’ forming those ideas, images, and feel-\.rngs. It is by virtue of skills that the mate-

Irials that the child uses become media forconceptualization and expression.

) As children work with materials and” have the benefit of intelligent and sensi-

tive teaching in art, their power to con-ceptualize visual ideas and to use effec-

tive means for expressing them in-creases. Their range for expressive vis-ual articulation increases. Their “voc-abulary” of visual possibilities expands,and they become more confident be-cause they become more competent inart.Tmment of co- is

o-the maor sources o_tsel.&a&-faction for children. None of us likes todisplay our weaknesses, and none of uslikes to remain at the same level of abilityafter substantial experience in the field ofendeavor. The greatest spur to furtherwork and to the setting of higherstandards is the recognition that we havemade progress. There is something thatwe can do now that we couldn’t do be-fore. Unfortunately many children do netrecognize the genuine progress that theihave made in art. Seldom do they havethe opportunity to compare their currentwork with what they produced earlier,and while I do not want to imply that thequality of the product is the only relevantconsideration, it is one importantconsideration. Much of what childrenhave learned shows up in their work, andwhen it does it seems reasonable to letthem in on it. But to do that would requirea radical change in the way we evaluateand display children’s work. Instead ofmounting mini-Metropolitan exhibitions,we should show children’s work over atime, we would take colored slides, orkeep portfolios, we would talk to childrenabout a body of their work, and when wedisplayed the work for parents orteachers we would provide educationalinterpretations of what the children werelearning as evidenced in the work itself.”bhildren learn to become cornpeter!

when they paint. They learn skills thatexpand their power, and with that powerthey can say more both to themselvesand to the worltihe British philosopherR. G. CoIlin- pointed out that ex-pression is a @ocess through which

< ideas are formed and clarified.lO The wri-.c:Jer in a sense does not know what he has

to say until it is said. The process of form-ing ideas is also a process of clarify@one’s thoughts. To what extent does theprocess of expressing feeling through thecreation of visual images clarify the feel-ings that children have? To what extentdo children learn from the images theymake how they feel about aspects of theworld or their own experience? Paintings,drawings, sculptures are, after all, publicvehicles that provide feedback to thechild. In a sense, paintings project backto the child the child’s ideas. Yet there is.of course, an important interaction bet-ween the child’s ideas and his skills.Ideas can be well in advance of the skillsthe child is able to use. When this occurs,frustration is likely. The child has some-thing to express but does not have themeans to express it in material form.Conversely, skills may be well de-veloped, but the child (or adult artist) mayhave little or nothina t” mxpress. Thepoint here is tha’oren with sk interaction

8 Art Education, March 1978

between c.osnt and technjque. The, fcrrner without the latter lea3 nowhere,

and the latter without the former is empty.i Ideally the relationship is symbiotic.

,J sev~nthtiing&&children learn frommaking imaqes is that ideas and emo-tions that are not physic* present can

.be syEbAlized by theimages one cancLeae. When children first engage in themaking of images, the character of suchimages is wholly abstract. What they re-sDond to is the joy of using their senses,!+e movement of the hands, wrists, andarms, and the emerging patterns that ap-pear on paper. By the time children reachfour years of age, the shift to symbolicforms of representation has occurred,and of course the symbols that are drawnare symbols of physical objects which al-though imbued with feeling, neverthelessare related to concrete forms; people,trees, houses, and the like. It is only laterir. the course of human dev6Tomentand:. arnifi~th5.t the child learns tl%CiG@%-~-~ ~__ __--cjn be madeh&fare non-representa-tional ang~ictt~~dforcertain. ideas_o.r_fe.e!ings~~~t.-a~e literallynon-empirical. The realization that ideaslike “power” or “humor” or “crispness”can be represented in non-objectiveways is a late development in children’sart. Young children do not use abstractideas as subject matter for their efforts.?“hat they draw or paint is concrete, and1. nine or ten they are interested in thepersuasive rendering of concrete forms.Such rendering becomes for them an ar-tistic virtue.

But as they get older, as they moveinto formal operations, they have thecapacity to grasp the idea that ideas,even those that are temporal andabstract, can be trtinsformed into a vis-ual, non-objective analogue. Theyaradigm case of such at-l among matureC?ists is found in the work of Rothko,Kiine, Pollack, and Barnett Newman andthe like.

The achievement of such a realizationis not, I think, common among children ateither the elementary or secondarylevels. Unfortunately the data that areavailable for elementary school childrenindicate that subject matter rather thanstyle is the major focus to which children8!end when looking at paintings.” Yetcniidren and certainly adolescents can behelped to learn to see the strictly visualqualities of form and can come to realizethe ways in which nonobjective imagescan stand for qualities of experience thatare not embodied in a concrete object.

One of the most sophisticated aspects_. - . ._ _ --of what children can learn when makingvisu-iilis, IS the tact that there areidea~~~imag6$23d reelmgs that can onfy-b? exp[~ssed’fi%ough visual form. I his isthe eightIitfiiii~~X8i~ldren learn. Whatwe have in this form of learning is theimplicit, if not always explicit recognitionof the epistemological contributions ofart. The forms one uses to conceptualizeand express are not neutral with respect

. to the content that one can know and un-

derstand. How one expresses what oneknows, as well as the medium onechooses to use, influences profoundlythe content of expression. Put more sim-ply, eventually children and adolescentslearn that the visual arts, or music, orpoetry are not inferior substitutes for sci-entific and propositional knowledge. Theexpressive content of the visual arts can-not be duplicated in music: the expres-sive content of music cannot be dupli-cated in poetry; and poetry is no substi-tute for science. There is a significant re-lationship between the mode of concep-tualization one employs, the forms of dis-closure one chooses to use, and thecharacter of understanding and experi-ence one secures. It is one thing to con-ceptualize in an auditory mode, anotherin a visual mode, and still another in adiscursive mode. Visual modes are morespatial than temporal, while auditory anddiscursive modes are temporal. The na-ture of these modes defines the pa-rameters of conceptual possibility. Forexample, consider how easy it is to con-ceptualize and express suspense inmusic and how difficult it is in visual art.Suspense is a temporal phenomenon,visual art is not.12

The fact that the medium affects themessage is an invitation to people to re-flect upon the nature of non-discursiveforms of understanding; indeed, experi-ence in the arts provides the materialneeded for such reflection. One who hasnot experienced the unique contributionsof the arts to human understanding is inno position to understand the variety ofways in which humans come to know. Inthis sense work in the arts provides abasis for philosophic inquiry into ques-tions of what knowledge is, how it is sec-ured, and how the utilities of its severalspecies can be compared and con-trasted. Such forms of learning are, ofcourse, a far cry from the very youngchild’s realization that he or she has theability to bring images into existence, yetthe whole range of what can be learnedfrom making images should be’exploredand not only those germane to pre-schoolers.- Finally (for the purposes of this paper),the ninth thing that children learn whenthey paint is that the world itself canbe regarded as a source of aesthetic ex-,perience and as a pool. of expressive‘form.

This aspect of learning in art repre-sents the development of a special rela-tionship to the world, the cultivation ofwhat might be called an aesthetic at-titude. To create images that have ex-pressive power and aesthetic quality onemust forego exclusive attention to an ob-ject’s literal meaning or to its instrumentaluse. One must attend to the form of thething in order to perceive and explore therelationships among the qualities it pre-sents. But perhaps even more, one mustperceive the ex rep ,-we!fOnTIS, no just their formal relatlonshlDs,_ t

but$KGli2y convey in feeling. The abil-

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ity to do this is to bode-_degree_rlat.uC.Amrnhelm put it, “Expression is theprimary content of vision.“13 Yet throughacculturation the child’s ability to per-ceive such qualities is diminished. As hegets older, discursive language takesover, and the instrumental use of formssupersedes their exploratory use.

Insofar as work in the visual arts fos-ters attention to qualities per se, it has thepotential to develop what is absolutelycritical for using the world as a source ofaesthetic experience. That absolutenecessity is the inclination and ability torelate to the world with an aesthetic at-titude, a type of disinterested but not un-interested perception. Unless the indi-vidual can forsake the strictly literal orstrictly utilitarian, the formal and expres-sive characteristics of objects, events,and situations remain unseen and unex-perienced. What differentiates the aes-thetically well developed individual fromhis or her opposite is that such an attitudehas developed, first in relation to specificforms: ceramics, orchids, ten-speedbicycles, sculpture, and later as ageneralized conceptual set towards awide variety of forms. Eventually, thescope includes the world itself. Life be-comes “an object” to be regarded with anaesthetic attitude. To say this is not toimply that individuals must constantly re-gard life as they would a Matisse. It is tosay that the use of an aesthetic attitudetoward a wide variety of forms in theworld becomes an option that a personcan employ when he or she so chooses.

Thus in one sense what children even-tually learn when they paint is a way oflooking at life-is a particular stance, akind of perspective that frees them fromthe unrelenting demands of practicality.They learn how to savor the quality ofexperience that flows from the qualitiesthey encounter. Such experience, in turn,become the sources for artistic expres-sion. Work in the arts, in sum, provideschildren with the opportunity to developthe sensibilities that make aestheticawareness of the world possible. Andsuch awareness provides the content notonly for aesthetic experience, but for artitself.

I would like to conclude by asking whatall of this has to do with the relationshipbetween what is natural and what iscultural in human development. Simplythis. Some aspects of artistic thinking areinherent in the human condition, such asthe need to confer form upon ideas andfeelings in order to have them. The needto explore and be stimulated by images ofour own making. The need to use oursenses so that they actualize rather thanatrophy. No culture has been found thatdoes not use language or create images.

But what is not natural is the refine-ment of the images we make beyond thenecessities of survival. What is notnatural is the cultivation of the sen-sibilities beyond what is needed to get onin the world. What is not natural is the

can be used to form conception and toarticulate expression. For these forms oflearning to occur, tuition is necessary.Teachers of art have a necessary role toplay in bringing culture to nature. An un-assisted course of maturation simply wiltnot develop the potential that childrenpossess. This assistance is what we callteaching, and to provide it I can think ,fno group of people more competent thanthose who are devoting their professionallives to its behalf. The people to whom lam referring are those we call teachers ofart.

Elliot W. Eisner is professor of educationand art at Stanford University, Stanford,California, and president of the NationalArt Education Association.

REFERENCES

l This paper was originally preparedfor presentation at the Canadian Societyfor Education Through Art, Calgary, Al-berta, Canada, October 1977.

2 Richard de Charms, Personal Causa-tion: The International Affective Deter-minants o f Behavior , New York:Academic Press, 1968.

3 Mark Lepper and David Greene,“Turning Play into Work: Effects of AdultSurveillance and Extrinsic Rewards onChildren’s Intrinsic Motivation,” Journalof Personality and Sound Psychology,Vol. 31, No. 3, pp. 479486, 1975.

4 Susanne Langer, “Intuition andTransformation in the Arts,” Problems ofAft, New York: Charles Scribners Sons,1957, pp. 90-l 07.

5 Rudolf Arnheim, “Growth,” At? an-iVisual Perception, Berkeley: Universi-:!of California Press, 1954.

6 Susanne Langer, Philosophy in aNew Key, New York: The New AmericanLibrary, 1951, pp. 99.

7 This is not to imply that children bet-ween two and five make a distinction be-tween what is imaginative and what is“real”. However, children beyond fivegenerally do make such distinctions an3will practice through play what they car.not do in actuality.

a John Dewey, Art as Experience, NewYork: Minton, Balch & Co., 1934.

8 For an elaboration of this use of eval-uation in art see Elliot W. Eisner, “To-ward a More Adequate Conception 01Evaluation in the Arts,” Art Education,Vol. 27, No. 2, February, 1974.

lo R. G. Collingwood, Principles of Art,London: Clarendon Press, 1938.

l1 See Howard Gardner and JudithGardner, “Developmental Trends il:Sensitivity to Form and Subject Matter inPaintings,” Studies in Art Education, Vol.14, No. 2, pp. 52-56,1973.

l2 This observation was made byRudolf Arnheim in a lecture at StanforcUniversity’s Art Education Lecture seriesin 1976.

l3 Rudolf Arnheim, “Expression,” Artand Wsua/ Perception, Berkeley: Univer-

extension of the repertoire of skills that * sity of California Press, 1954.

10 Art Education. March 1978