ellipsis in cohesion

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1 Ellipsis in Ellipsis in English English Ahmed Qadoury Abed Ahmed Qadoury Abed PH D Candidate Baghdad University PH D Candidate Baghdad University College of Arts English Dept 2012/2013 College of Arts English Dept 2012/2013

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Ellipsis in EnglishEllipsis in English

Ahmed Qadoury Abed Ahmed Qadoury Abed PH D Candidate Baghdad UniversityPH D Candidate Baghdad University

College of Arts English Dept 2012/2013College of Arts English Dept 2012/2013

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Some preliminary considerations Some preliminary considerations

We find Ellipsis both in We find Ellipsis both in spokenspoken and and writtenwritten texts.texts.

EspeciallyEspecially in face-to-face conversation, we in face-to-face conversation, we often do not bother to encode information often do not bother to encode information that can be understood from the linguistic that can be understood from the linguistic or situational context.or situational context.

A: What’re you doingA: What’re you doing tonight?tonight?B:B: [E][E] Home Home..

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Let’s…Let’s…

Define Define ellipsisellipsis Ellipsis vs SubstitutionEllipsis vs Substitution Classification of the various Classification of the various

syntactic typessyntactic types

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What is What is ellipsisellipsis? 1? 1 SOMETHING UNDERSTOOD.SOMETHING UNDERSTOOD. ‘‘undertood’ in the special sense of ‘going without undertood’ in the special sense of ‘going without

saying’.saying’. We are referring to clauses and sentences ,etc. We are referring to clauses and sentences ,etc.

whose structure is such as to presuppose some whose structure is such as to presuppose some preceding item, which then serves as the source preceding item, which then serves as the source of the missing informationof the missing information

An elliptical item is one which leaves specific An elliptical item is one which leaves specific structural slots to be filled from elsewhere.structural slots to be filled from elsewhere.

There is a sense of incompleteness associated There is a sense of incompleteness associated with it. But it is useful to recognize that this is an with it. But it is useful to recognize that this is an over-simplification, and that the essential over-simplification, and that the essential characteristic of ellipsis is that something which characteristic of ellipsis is that something which is present in the selection of underlying is present in the selection of underlying ‘systemic’ options is omitted in the structure-‘systemic’ options is omitted in the structure-whether or not the resulting structure is in itself whether or not the resulting structure is in itself ‘incomplete’.‘incomplete’.

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What is What is ellipsisellipsis? 2? 2 Halliday& Hassan define Halliday& Hassan define ellipsisellipsis in relation to another in relation to another

important cohesive device, i.e. important cohesive device, i.e. substitutionsubstitution, since they , since they embody the same fundamental relation between parts embody the same fundamental relation between parts of the text.of the text.

Joan brought some carnations,and Cathrine (E) Joan brought some carnations,and Cathrine (E) some sweet peas. some sweet peas.

Ellipsis is normally an anaphoric relation.Ellipsis is normally an anaphoric relation. Occasionally the presupposition in an eliptical Occasionally the presupposition in an eliptical

structure may be it exophoric .structure may be it exophoric . If a housewife on seeing the milkman approach If a housewife on seeing the milkman approach

calls out calls out Two please!Two please! She is using exophoric ellipsis ;it is the context of She is using exophoric ellipsis ;it is the context of

situation that provides the information needed to situation that provides the information needed to interpret this.interpret this.

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ExamplesExamples

a. This is a fine hall you have here. I’m proud to be lecturing in it (R).

b. This is a fine hall you have here. I've never lectured in a finer one (S).

c. This is a ftne hall you have here. I've never lectured in a finer (E).

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Types of EllipsisTypes of Ellipsis

1-Nominal Ellipsis1-Nominal Ellipsis Specific deicticsSpecific deictics Non-specific deicticsNon-specific deictics Post deicticsPost deictics NumerativesNumeratives EpithetsEpithets

2- verbal Ellipsis2- verbal Ellipsis Ellipsis within the verbal groupEllipsis within the verbal group Lexical EllipsisLexical Ellipsis Operator EllipsisOperator Ellipsis

3- Clausal Ellipsis3- Clausal Ellipsis Modal and propositionalModal and propositional No ellipsis of single elementsNo ellipsis of single elements Ellipsis in question-answer and other rejoinder sequencesEllipsis in question-answer and other rejoinder sequences Ellipsis in ‘reporting-reported’ sequencesEllipsis in ‘reporting-reported’ sequences

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Nominal Ellipsis 1Nominal Ellipsis 1

The Nominal Group isThe Nominal Group is (Premodifiers) + Head + (Postmodifiers)(Premodifiers) + Head + (Postmodifiers)

Those two fast electric Those two fast electric trainstrains with pantographswith pantographs premodifiers Head postmodifierspremodifiers Head postmodifiers

ModifiersModifiers1- Deictic (d) ------those------determiners1- Deictic (d) ------those------determiners2- Numerative (n)-----two---- numerals (or quantifier)2- Numerative (n)-----two---- numerals (or quantifier)3-Epithet (e)-----fast---adjectives3-Epithet (e)-----fast---adjectives4- Classifiers (c) ----electric– nouns4- Classifiers (c) ----electric– nouns5- Qualifier (q)---- with pantographs—(Rel Clause or5- Qualifier (q)---- with pantographs—(Rel Clause or pre phrase)pre phrase)- Adverbs ---so, every, tooAdverbs ---so, every, too- Head –(common noun, proper noun, pronoun)—ThingHead –(common noun, proper noun, pronoun)—Thing

- These are by no means exact.These are by no means exact.

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Nominal Ellipsis 2Nominal Ellipsis 2

Nominal ellipsis is when Head is omitted Nominal ellipsis is when Head is omitted and its function is taken on by one of these and its function is taken on by one of these modifiers. Therefore, it involves the modifiers. Therefore, it involves the upgrading of a word function not Head from upgrading of a word function not Head from the status of Modifier to the status of Head.the status of Modifier to the status of Head.

Which hat will you wear?Which hat will you wear? a- the best (E)a- the best (E) b- the best hat (no E)b- the best hat (no E) This is c- the best of the hats (E)This is c- the best of the hats (E) d- the best of the three (E)d- the best of the three (E) e- the best you have (E) e- the best you have (E)

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Nominal Ellipsis 3Nominal Ellipsis 3

An elliptical nominal group is cohesive; it points An elliptical nominal group is cohesive; it points anaphorically to another nominal group which is anaphorically to another nominal group which is presupposed by it. But how much of the presupposed presupposed by it. But how much of the presupposed group is in fact included within the presupposition?group is in fact included within the presupposition?

Here are my two red silk shirts.I can lend you Here are my two red silk shirts.I can lend you oneone if if you like.you like.

If Head is filled If Head is filled byby

This must be This must be presupposed:presupposed:

These may be These may be presupposed:presupposed:

DeicticDeictic ThingThing N,E,CN,E,C

NumerativeNumerative ThingThing E ,CE ,C

EpitherEpither ThingThing CC

ClassifierClassifier ThingThing --------

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Nominal Ellipsis: Deictics 4Nominal Ellipsis: Deictics 4

There are three types of Deictics:There are three types of Deictics: Specific deicticsSpecific deictics Non-specific deicticsNon-specific deictics Post-deicticsPost-deictics

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Nominal Ellipsis:Specific Nominal Ellipsis:Specific Deictics 5 Deictics 5 1- 1- PossessivesPossessives (Smith’s,my father’s, my,your,mine,hers,…) (Smith’s,my father’s, my,your,mine,hers,…)Just ask Janet how to polish the brassware. Hers sparkles.Just ask Janet how to polish the brassware. Hers sparkles.2- 2- DemonstrativesDemonstratives (this, that, these, those, which?) (this, that, these, those, which?)Take these pills three times daily. And you’d better have Take these pills three times daily. And you’d better have

some more of those too.some more of those too.3- 3- TheThe The word The word thethe does not operate elliptically since it designates does not operate elliptically since it designates

defininteness, but by somettimes requires another items defininteness, but by somettimes requires another items with it as:with it as:

The one that got away,The one that got away,The two,The two,The small (one),The small (one),

Where it could have occurred elliptically it is replaced by its Where it could have occurred elliptically it is replaced by its non-reduced cognate form non-reduced cognate form thatthat..

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Nominal Ellipsis:Non-Specific Nominal Ellipsis:Non-Specific Deictics 6Deictics 6Each , every, any, either , no, neither, a, some , all , Each , every, any, either , no, neither, a, some , all ,

andand both bothOf these, all occur as Head of an elliptical nominal Of these, all occur as Head of an elliptical nominal

except except everyevery, but , but aa, and , and nono have to be represented have to be represented by the forms by the forms oneone and and nonenone ,respectively. ,respectively.

a. I hope no bones are broken ?-None to speak o£ b. I won't be introduced to the pudding, please. May

I give you some? c. Have some milk.- I don't see any milk- There isn't

any. d. Write an essay on the Stuart kings. Two pages

about each will do. e. His sons went into business. Neither succeeded.

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Nominal Ellipsis:Post-Deictics Nominal Ellipsis:Post-Deictics 77 Post-deictics are not determiners but adjectives. Post-deictics are not determiners but adjectives.

These are some thirty to forty adjectives used These are some thirty to forty adjectives used commonly in deictic function: commonly in deictic function: other ,same ,different, identical, usual, regular, other ,same ,different, identical, usual, regular, certain, odd, famous, well-known, typical, certain, odd, famous, well-known, typical, obvious obvious ,etc. They combine with ,etc. They combine with thethe , ,aa or other or other determiner ,and may be followed by a numerative, determiner ,and may be followed by a numerative, unlike adjectives in their normal function as Epithet:unlike adjectives in their normal function as Epithet:

Deictic Epithet the identical three questions three identical questions the usual two comments two usual comments a different three people three different people the odd few ideas a few odd ideas the obvious fint place to stop the first obvious place to

stop

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Nominal Ellipsis:Numeratives Nominal Ellipsis:Numeratives 88 The Numerative element in the nominal group is

expressed by numerals or other quantifying words, which form three subcategories:

1-ordinals2- cardinals3- indefinite quantifiers

The ordinals are first, next, last, second, third, fourth, etc; they are often used elliptically. generally with the or a possessive as Deictic:

Have another chocolate.- No thanks; that was my third.

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Nominal Ellipsis:Numeratives Nominal Ellipsis:Numeratives 99Cardinal numerals are also frequent in

ellipsis, and may be preceded by any Deictic that is appropriate in number, eg; the three, these three, any three, all three, and also by post-deictic adjectives as in the usual three, the same three.

a. Have another-chocolate.- No thanks; I’ve had my three.

b. 'The other messenger's called Hatta. I must have two, you know. One to come, and one to go:

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Nominal Ellipsis:Numeratives Nominal Ellipsis:Numeratives 1010 The indefinite quantifiers are items such as much,

many, more, most ,few, several. a little • lets, a bit, hundreds, etc; they include numerous transient and more or less slang expressions especially used by children. Like other items with a numerative function, they are very frequently used in ellipsis; being indefinite. they are usually not accompanied by a Deictic, except where a is demanded as in alot, although the comparative forms more, fewer and less may be preceded by no or any. Some of them are specific to either count or mass nouns.

a. Can all cats climb trees.?-They all can; and most do.

b. 'You ought to have a wooden horse on wheels., that you ought !. – ‘ I’ll get one’: the Knight said thoughtfully to himself . ‘One or two - several.’

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Nominal Ellipsis: Epithets 11Nominal Ellipsis: Epithets 11

The function of Epithet is typically fulfilled by an adjective.It is not The function of Epithet is typically fulfilled by an adjective.It is not common to find adjectives occurring as Head in ellipsis:common to find adjectives occurring as Head in ellipsis:

1- colour adjectives1- colour adjectivesGreen suits you very well.Green suits you very well.

2-2- oppositesoppositesI like strong tea. I suppose weak is better for you.I like strong tea. I suppose weak is better for you.

3-Attribute3-AttributeThe rich , the poor, the honestThe rich , the poor, the honest

4-comparative4-comparativeI’ll buy you some prettier.I’ll buy you some prettier.Mary is the cleverer.Mary is the cleverer.

5-5- superlativesuperlativeThey are fine actors. Jones always gets hold of the finest.They are fine actors. Jones always gets hold of the finest.

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Verbal Ellipsis 1Verbal Ellipsis 1

An elliptical verbal group presupposes one or more words An elliptical verbal group presupposes one or more words from a previous verbal group. Technically, it is defined as from a previous verbal group. Technically, it is defined as a verbal group whose structure does not fully express its a verbal group whose structure does not fully express its systemic features:systemic features:

1- 1- finiteness (finite or non-finite)finiteness (finite or non-finite) If finite :indicative or imperativeIf finite :indicative or imperative If indicative: modal or non-modalIf indicative: modal or non-modal2- polarity :positive or negative2- polarity :positive or negative3- voice :active or passive3- voice :active or passive4- tense: past or present or future4- tense: past or present or future

a-Have you been swimming? – Yes, I have.a-Have you been swimming? – Yes, I have.b- What have you been doing?- swimmingb- What have you been doing?- swimming

The elliptical The elliptical swimmingswimming has the features of finite, positive, has the features of finite, positive, active, present in past in present.active, present in past in present.

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Verbal Ellipsis: Lexical Ellipsis Verbal Ellipsis: Lexical Ellipsis 22 Lexical ellipsis is that type in which the lexical verb is Lexical ellipsis is that type in which the lexical verb is

missing from the verbal group. Thus, Any verbal group not missing from the verbal group. Thus, Any verbal group not containing a lexical verb is elliptical. Any verbal group containing a lexical verb is elliptical. Any verbal group consisting of a modal operator only can immediately be consisting of a modal operator only can immediately be recognized as elliptical:recognized as elliptical:

- Is John going to come?- He might. He was to, but he may - Is John going to come?- He might. He was to, but he may not, - He should, if he wants his name to be considered.not, - He should, if he wants his name to be considered.

The modals are always finite, and hence always occur in The modals are always finite, and hence always occur in first position in the verbal group.first position in the verbal group.

BeBe, , havehave, and , and dodo can be elliptical and substitutes (non- can be elliptical and substitutes (non-elliptical):elliptical):

-Did Jane know?-No, but Mary did (no E).-Did Jane know?-No, but Mary did (no E). - Did Jane know?- Yes ,she did (E).- Did Jane know?- Yes ,she did (E).

Here, the distinction between elliptical and non-elliptical Here, the distinction between elliptical and non-elliptical forms has to be recovered from the presupposed forms has to be recovered from the presupposed clause ,since clause ,since diddid is a lexical verb replaced by is a lexical verb replaced by knewknew in the in the first sentence ,while an operator in the latter.first sentence ,while an operator in the latter.

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Verbal Ellipsis: Operator Verbal Ellipsis: Operator Ellipsis 3Ellipsis 3 It involves only the omission of operators; the lexical It involves only the omission of operators; the lexical

verb always remains intact, and the subject is verb always remains intact, and the subject is always omitted from the clause; it must therefore be always omitted from the clause; it must therefore be presupposed:presupposed:

a. What have you been doing?a. What have you been doing? b. swimming.b. swimming. This constitutes the first type of operator ellipsis: This constitutes the first type of operator ellipsis:

sequences such as questions and answers, in which sequences such as questions and answers, in which the lexical verb either supplies the answer to ‘do the lexical verb either supplies the answer to ‘do what?’ as in the above example , or repudiates the what?’ as in the above example , or repudiates the verb in the question:verb in the question:

Has she been crying?- No, laughing . Has she been crying?- No, laughing .

The other type in coordination:The other type in coordination: Some were laughing and others crying.Some were laughing and others crying.

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Verbal Ellipsis: Polarity 4 Verbal Ellipsis: Polarity 4 Polarity is normally expressed at the beginning of the verbal

group. A negative verbal group, if it is finite, hasn't or not attached to the first word, eg: didn't know. did not know. If it is non-finite, it has not, usually as the first word, eg: not having known. not to have known, although the not may sometimes follow the first verbal operator, eg: having not known, to have not known. Other negative adverbs such as never, hardly, hardly ever, may occur in place of not. The category of negative is not very sharply defined~ but it is revealed by the choice of tag.

In lexical ellipsis, whatever else is omitted the first operator is always present. This means that the polarity will always be expressed:

Were you laughing?—No, I wasn’t.

In operator ellipsis among the items omitted is always the one which carries polarity:

What are you doing?- Thinking

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Verbal Ellipsis: Finiteness and Verbal Ellipsis: Finiteness and Modality 5Modality 5 The Systems of FINITBNBSS and MODALITY are also closely

associated with first position in the verbal group. and this largely determines the possibilities of their presupposition by means of ellipsis.

A verbal group which is finite always expresses its finiteness in the first word. Either the group consists just of a finite form of the lexical verb, present or past (walk. walks , walked)~ or it begins with a finite verbal operator; the latter is either a tense operator.

In lexical ellipsis, the verb group is always explicitly either finite or non-finite:

a-What was the point of having invited all those people? In operator ellipsis, since the first word must be omitted,so

the verb group cannot express the choice between finite and non-finite:

What are they doing now?-Finishing their essays.

All that has been said with regard to finiteness applies equally to modality, since modality is a subcategory of modality.

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Verbal Ellipsis: Voice 6Verbal Ellipsis: Voice 6

In lexical ellipsis, the rule is quite In lexical ellipsis, the rule is quite clear ;the voice selection is always clear ;the voice selection is always presupposed:presupposed:

They haven’t finished the picture. If it They haven’t finished the picture. If it had been(E) ,I would have brought it.had been(E) ,I would have brought it.

In operator ellipsis, the subject is In operator ellipsis, the subject is always omitted; It must therefore be always omitted; It must therefore be carried over by presupposition:carried over by presupposition:

a. Were Australia leading England at a. Were Australia leading England at the time, then?the time, then?

b. No, England were winning.b. No, England were winning.

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Clausal Ellipsis 1Clausal Ellipsis 1

The clause has two-part structure consisting of The clause has two-part structure consisting of modal and proposition:modal and proposition:

The Duke was The Duke was going to plant a row of poplars in the parkgoing to plant a row of poplars in the park Modal PropositionalModal Propositional

In the park the Duke was going to plant a row of poplars .In the park the Duke was going to plant a row of poplars .

A row of poplars the Duke was going to plant in the park.A row of poplars the Duke was going to plant in the park.

The elements in circles are the modalThe elements in circles are the modal

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Clausal Ellipsis 2Clausal Ellipsis 2 Typically ,modal ellipsis occurs in responses to a Wh- questions Typically ,modal ellipsis occurs in responses to a Wh- questions

‘what (did, does, do):‘what (did, does, do): a. What were they doing?- Holding hands.a. What were they doing?- Holding hands.

The usual type of non-finite dependent clause is simply a clause with The usual type of non-finite dependent clause is simply a clause with modal ellipsismodal ellipsis

Typically, propositional ellipsis occurs in responses to statements Typically, propositional ellipsis occurs in responses to statements and yes/no questions, where the subject is presupposed by a and yes/no questions, where the subject is presupposed by a reference item:reference item:

a. The plane has landed.—Has it?a. The plane has landed.—Has it? b. Has the plane landed?—Yes, it has.b. Has the plane landed?—Yes, it has.

Clausal ellipsis may be found unaccompanied by ellipsis in the verbal Clausal ellipsis may be found unaccompanied by ellipsis in the verbal group when operator ellipsis may be avoided in simple past and group when operator ellipsis may be avoided in simple past and present simple; and substitution may be used in most instances of present simple; and substitution may be used in most instances of lexical ellipsis:lexical ellipsis:

What did he do? Ran away.What did he do? Ran away.What do they do? Run away.What do they do? Run away.What does he do? Runs away.What does he do? Runs away.

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Clausal Ellipsis: No ellipsis of Clausal Ellipsis: No ellipsis of single elements 3single elements 3 It is not possible in English to say:It is not possible in English to say: Has she taken her medicine?-She Has she taken her medicine?-She

has taken.has taken. Either we must reply with a full ,non-Either we must reply with a full ,non-

elliptical clause, or we must omit elliptical clause, or we must omit both ‘her medicine’ and the lexical both ‘her medicine’ and the lexical verb ‘take’, or ‘do’ as substitution:verb ‘take’, or ‘do’ as substitution:

She has taken her medicine. OrShe has taken her medicine. Or She has. OrShe has. Or She has done (S).She has done (S).

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Clausal Ellipsis:Question-Clausal Ellipsis:Question-Answer 4Answer 4 The ‘question-answer’ sequence is a standard The ‘question-answer’ sequence is a standard

pattern in language, and the cohesive relation pattern in language, and the cohesive relation between them has its own characteristic between them has its own characteristic grammatical properties.grammatical properties.

An observation by a speaker may be followed by an An observation by a speaker may be followed by an observation by another speaker that is related to it observation by another speaker that is related to it in a cohesive tie. This is called in a cohesive tie. This is called rejoinderrejoinder..

A rejoinder can be A rejoinder can be direct responsedirect response or or indirect indirect response.response.

A direct response as in yes/no question and wh-A direct response as in yes/no question and wh-questions.questions.

Has John arrived? –Yes , he has.Has John arrived? –Yes , he has. When did John arrive?- Yesterday.When did John arrive?- Yesterday.

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Clausal Ellipsis:Question-Clausal Ellipsis:Question-Answer 5Answer 5An indirect response can be:An indirect response can be:1- one which comments on the question 1- one which comments on the question

((commentarycommentary):):How did they break in? –I’ll show you how.How did they break in? –I’ll show you how.Is it Tuesday today? – I don’t know.Is it Tuesday today? – I don’t know.

2- one which denies its relevance (2- one which denies its relevance (disclaimerdisclaimer):):Why didn’t you tell John? – I did.Why didn’t you tell John? – I did.When did they cancel the booking?- Did they.When did they cancel the booking?- Did they.

3-one which gives supplementary information implying 3-one which gives supplementary information implying but not actually expressing an answer but not actually expressing an answer ((supplementarysupplementary):):

Did you tell John?- He wasn’t there.Did you tell John?- He wasn’t there.Are you coming back today?- This evening.Are you coming back today?- This evening.

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Clausal Ellipsis:reporting-Clausal Ellipsis:reporting-reported sequences 6reported sequences 6 This is another context for clausal This is another context for clausal

ellipsis, that of reported speech. This ellipsis, that of reported speech. This type found in the context is closely type found in the context is closely related to some of the instances that related to some of the instances that we have already met, particularly the we have already met, particularly the ‘commentary’ type of indirect ‘commentary’ type of indirect speech, and the elliptical wh-speech, and the elliptical wh-question as rejoinder.question as rejoinder.

a.(that) he was coming.a.(that) he was coming. John didn’t tell(E) me b.if/whether he was coming (or John didn’t tell(E) me b.if/whether he was coming (or

not). not). c. why he was coming.c. why he was coming.

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