H A N D B O O KEMBEDDEDSYSTEMS 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLCPubl i shed BooksIndustrial Communication Technology HandbookEdited by Richard ZurawskiEmbedded Systems HandbookEdited by Richard ZurawskiFor t hc omi ng BooksElectronic Design Automation for Integrated Circuits HandbookLuciano Lavagno, Grant Martin, and Lou SchefferSer i es Edi t orRICHARD ZURAWSKII NDUST RI AL I NF ORMAT I ON T E CHNOL OGY SE RI E S 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLCH A N D B O O KE di t e d byR I C H A R D Z U R AWS K IEMBEDDEDSYSTEMSA CRC title, part of the Taylor & Francis imprint, a member of theTaylor & Francis Group, the academic division of T&F Informa plc.Boca Raton London New York 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLCTo my wife, Celine 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLCInternational Advisory BoardAlberto Sangiovanni-Vincentelli, University of California, Berkeley, U.S. (Chair)Giovanni De Micheli, Stanford University, U.S.Stephen A. Edwards, Columbia University, U.S.Aarti Gupta, NEC Laboratories, Princeton, U.S.Rajesh Gupta, University of California, San Diego, U.S.Axel Jantsch, Royal Institute of Technology, SwedenWido Kruijtzer, Philips Research, The NetherlandsLuciano Lavagno, Cadence Berkeley Laboratories, Berkeley, U.S., and Politecnico di Torino, ItalyRobert de Simone, INRIA, FranceGrant Martin, Tensilica, U.S.Pierre G. Paulin, ST Microelectronics, CanadaAntal Rajnk, Volcano AG, SwitzerlandFranoise Simonot-Lion, LORIA, FranceThomas Weigert, Motorola, U.S.Reinhard Wilhelm, University of Saarland, GermanyLothar Thiele, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Switzerland 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLCPrefaceIntroductionThe purpose of the Embedded Systems Handbook is to provide a reference useful to a broad range ofprofessionals and researchers from industry and academia involved in the evolution of concepts andtechnologies, as well as development and use of embedded systems and related technologies.The book provides a comprehensive overview of the eld of embedded systems and applications. Theemphasis is on advanced material to cover recent signicant research results and technology evolution anddevelopments. It is primarily aimed at experienced professionals from industry and academia, but willalso be useful to novices with some university background in embedded systems and related areas. Someof the topics presented in the book have received limited coverage in other publications either owing tothe fast evolution of the technologies involved, or material condentiality, or limited circulation in thecase of industry-driven developments.The book covers extensively the design and validation of real-time embedded systems, design andverication languages, operating systems and scheduling, timing and performance analysis, power awarecomputing, security in embedded systems, the design of application-specic instruction-set processors(ASIPs), system-on-chip(SoC) andnetwork-on-chip(NoC), testing of core-basedICs, network embeddedsystems and sensor networks, and embedded applications to include in-car embedded electronic systems,intelligent sensors, and embedded web servers for industrial automation.The book contains 46 contributions, written by leading experts from industry and academia directlyinvolved in the creation and evolution of the ideas and technologies treated in the book.Many of the contributions are from industry and industrial research establishments at the forefront ofthe developments shaping the eld of embedded systems: Cadence Systems and Cadence Berkeley Labs(USA), CoWare (USA), Microsoft (USA), Motorola (USA), NEC Laboratories (USA), Philips Research(The Netherlands), ST Microelectronics (Canada), Tensilica (USA), Volcano (Switzerland), etc.The contributions from academia and governmental research organizations are represented by someof the most renowned institutions such as Columbia University, Duke University, Georgia Institute ofTechnology, Princeton University, Stanford University, University of California at Berkeley/Riverside/San Diego/Santa Barbara, University of Texas at Austin/Dallas, Virginia Tech, Washington University from the United States; Delft University of Technology (Netherlands), IMAG (France), INRIA/IRISA(France), LORIA-INPL (France), Malardalen University (Sweden), Politecnico di Torino (Italy), RoyalInstitute of Technology KTH (Sweden), Swiss Federal Institute of Technology ETHZ (Switzerland),Technical University of Berlin (Germany), Twente University (The Netherlands), Universidad Politecnicade Madrid (Spain), University of Bologna (Italy), University of Nice Sophia Antipolis (France), Universityof Oslo (Norway), University of Pavia (Italy), University of Saarbrucken (Germany), University of Toronto(Canada), and many others.The material presented is in the formof tutorials, surveys, and technology overviews. The contributionsare grouped into sections for cohesive and comprehensive presentation of the treated areas. The reportson recent technology developments, deployments, and trends frequently cover material released to theprofession for the rst time.The book can be used as a reference (or prescribed text) for university (post)graduate courses: Section I(Embedded Systems) provides core material on embedded systems. Selected illustrations of actualapplications are presented in Section VI (Embedded Applications). Sections II and III (System-on-ChipDesign, and Testing of Embedded Core-Based Integrated Circuits) offer material on recent advances insystem-on-chip design and testing of core-based ICs. Sections IV and V (Networked Embedded Systems,and Sensor Networks) are suitable for a course on sensor networks. 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLCx PrefaceThe handbook is designed to cover a wide range of topics that comprise the eld of embedded sys-tems and applications. The material covered in this volume will be of interest to a wide spectrum ofprofessionals and researchers from industry and academia, as well as graduate students, from the elds ofelectrical and computer engineering, computer science and software engineering, as well as mechatronicengineering.It is an indispensable companion for those who seek to learn more about embedded systems andapplications, and those who want to stay up to date with recent technical developments in the eld. It isalso a comprehensive reference for university or professional development courses on embedded systems.OrganizationEmbedded systems is a vast eld encompassing numerous disciplines. Not every topic, however important,can be covered in a book of reasonable volume without supercial treatment. Choices need to be madewith respect to the topics covered, balance between research material and reports on novel industrialdevelopments and technologies, balance between so-calledcoretopics and newtrends, and other aspects.The time-to-market is another important factor in making those decisions, along with the availabilityof qualied authors to cover the topics.One of the main objectives of any handbook is to give a well-structured and cohesive description offundamentals of the area under treatment. It is hoped that the section Embedded Systems has achieved thisobjective. Every effort was made to make sure that each contribution in this section contains introductorymaterial to assist beginners with the navigation through more advanced issues. This section does notstrive to replicate or replace university level material, but, rather, tries to address more advanced issues,and recent research and technology developments.To make this book timely and relevant to a broad range of professionals and researchers, the bookincludes material reecting state-of-the-art trends to cover topics such as design of ASIPs, SoC com-munication architectures including NoC, design of heterogeneous SoC, as well as testing of core-basedintegrated circuits. This material reports on new approaches, methods, technologies, and actual sys-tems. The contributions come from the industry driving those developments, industry-afliated researchinstitutions, and academic establishments participating in major research initiatives.Application domains have had a considerable impact on the evolution of embedded systems, in termsof required methodologies and supporting tools, and resulting technologies. A good example is the accel-erated evolution of the SoC design to meet demands for computing power posed by DSP, network andmultimedia processors. SoCs are slowly making inroads into the area of industrial automation to imple-ment complex eld-area intelligent devices which integrate the intelligent sensor/actuator functionality byproviding on-chip signal conversion, data and signal processing, and communication functions. There isa growing tendency to network eld-area intelligent devices around industrial communication networks.Similar trends appear in the automotive electronic systems where the Electronic Control Units (ECUs)are networked by means of safety-critical communication protocols such as FlexRay, for instance, forthe purpose of controlling vehicle functions such as electronic engine control, anti-locking break system,active suspension, etc. The design of this kind of networked embedded system (this also includes hardreal-time industrial control systems) is a challenge in itself due to the distributed nature of processingelements, sharing a common communication medium and safety-critical requirements. With the auto-motive industry increasingly keen on adopting mechatronic solutions, it was felt that exploring, in detail,the design of in-vehicle electronic embedded systems would be of interest to the readers of this book.The applications part of the book also touches the area of industrial automation (networked controlsystems) where the issues are similar. In this case, the focus is on the design of web servers embedded inthe intelligent eld-area devices, and the security issues arising from internetworking.Sensor networks are another example of networked embedded systems, although, the embeddingfactor is not soevident as inother applications; particularly for wireless andself-organizing networks wherethe nodes may be embedded in the ecosystem, battleeld, or a chemical plant, for instance. The area of 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLCPreface xiwireless sensor networks has now evolved into a relative maturity. Owing to novelty, and growing import-ance, it has been included in the book to give a comprehensive overview of the area, and present newresearch results which are likely to have a tangible impact on further developments and technology.The specics of the design automation of integrated circuits have been deliberately omitted in this bookto keep the volume at a reasonable size and in view of the publication of another handbook which coversthese aspect in a comprehensive way: The Electronic Design Automation for Integrated Circuits Handbook,CRC Press, FL, 2005, Editors: Luciano Lavagno, Grant Martin, and Lou Scheffer.The aim of the Organization section is to provide highlights of the contents of the individual chaptersto assist readers with identifying material of interest, and to put topics discussed in a broader context.Where appropriate, a brief explanation of the topic under treatment is provided, particularly for chaptersdescribing novel trends, and with novices in mind. The book is organized into six sections: Embed-ded Systems, System-on-Chip Design, Testing of Embedded Core-Based Integrated Circuits, NetworkedEmbedded Systems, Sensor Networks, and Embedded Applications.I Embedded SystemsThis section provides a broad introduction to embedded systems. The presented material offers a com-bination of fundamental and advanced topics, as well as novel results and approaches, to cover the areafairly comprehensively. The presented topics include issues in real-time and embedded systems, designand validation, design and verication languages, operating systems, timing and performance analysis,power aware computing, and security.Real-Time and Embedded SystemsThis subsection provides a context for the material covered in the book. It gives an overview of real-timeand embedded systems and their networking to include issues, methods, trends, applications, etc.The focus of the chapter Embedded Systems: Toward Networking of Embedded Systems is on network-ing of embedded systems. It briey discusses the rationale for the emergence of these kinds of systems,their benets, types of systems, diversity of application domains and requirements arising from that, aswell as security issues. Subsequently, the chapter discusses the design methods for networked embeddedsystems, which fall into the general category of system-level design. The methods overviewed focus ontwo separate aspects, namely the network architecture design and the system-on-chip design. The designissues and practices are illustrated by examples from the automotive application domain. After that, thechapter introduces selected application domains for networked embedded systems, namely: industrialand building automation control, and automotive control applications. The focus of the discussion is onthe networking aspects. The chapter gives an overview of the networks used in industrial applications,including the industrial Ethernet and its standardization process; building automation control; and net-works for automotive control and other applications from the automotive domain but the emphasisis on networks for safety critical solutions. Finally, general aspects of wireless sensor/actuator networksare presented, and illustrated by an actual industrial implementation of the concept. At the end of thechapter, a few paragraphs are dedicated to the security issues for networked embedded systems.An authoritative introduction to real-time systems is provided in Real-Time in Embedded Systems. Thechapter covers extensively the areas of design and analysis, with some examples of analysis, as well astools; operating systems (an in-depth discussion of real-time embedded operating systems is presented inthe chapter Real-Time Embedded Operating Systems Standards and Perspectives); scheduling (the chapterReal-Time Embedded Operating Systems: The Scheduling and Resource Management Aspects presents anauthoritative descriptionand analysis of real-time scheduling); communications to include descriptions ofselected eldbus technologies and Ethernet for real-time communications; and component based design,as well as testing and debugging. This is essential reading for anyone interested in the area of real-timesystems. 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLCxii PrefaceDesign and Validation of Embedded SystemsThe subsection Design and Validation of Embedded Systems contains material presenting design methodo-logy for embeddedsystems andsupporting tools, as well as selectedsoftware andhardware implementationaspects. Models of Computation (MoC) which are essentially abstract representations of computingsystems are used throughout to facilitate design and validation stages of systems development andapproaches to validation as well as available methods and tools. The verication methods, togetherwith an overview of verication languages, are presented in subsection Design and Verication Lan-guages. In addition, the subsection presents novel research material including a framework used tointroduce different models of computation particularly suited to the design of heterogeneous multi-processor SoC, and a mathematical model of embedded systems based on the theory of agents andinteractions.A comprehensive introduction to the design methodology for embedded systems is presented in thechapter Design of Embedded Systems. It gives an overview of the design issues and stages. Then, thechapter presents, in quite some detail, the functional design, function/architecture and hardware/softwarecodesign, and hardware/software coverication and hardware simulation. Subsequently, the chapter dis-cusses selected software and hardware implementation issues. While discussing different design stages andapproaches, the chapter also introduces and evaluates supporting tools.An excellent introduction to the topic of models of computation, particularly for embedded systems, ispresented in the chapter Models of Embedded Computation. The chapter introduces the origin of MoC, andthe evolution from models of sequential and parallel computation to attempts to model heterogeneousarchitectures. In the process, the chapter discusses, in relative detail, selected nonfunctional propertiessuch as power consumption, component interaction in heterogeneous systems, and time. It also presents anew framework used to introduce four different models of computation, and shows how different timeabstractions can serve different purposes and needs. The framework is subsequently used to study thecoexistence of different computational models; specically the interfaces between two different MoCs andthe renement of one MoC into another. This part of the chapter is particularly relevant to the materialon the design of heterogeneous multiprocessor SoC presented in the section System-on-Chip Design.A comprehensive survey of selected models of computation is presented in the chapter ModelingFormalisms for Embedded System Design. The surveyed formalisms include Finite State Machines (FSM),Finite State Machines with Datapath (FSMD), Moore machine, Mealy machine, Codesign Finite StateMachines (CFSM), Program State Machines (PSM), Specication and Description Language (SDL),Message Sequence Charts (MSC), Statecharts, Petri nets, synchronous/reactive models, discrete eventsystem, Dataow Models, etc. The presentation of individual models is augmented by numerousexamples.The chapter System Validation briey discusses approaches to requirements capture, analysis andvalidation, and surveys available methods and tools to include: descriptive formal methods such asVDM, Z, B, RAISE (Rigorous Approach to Industrial Software Engineering), CASL (Common AlgebraicSpecication Language), SCR (Software Cost Reduction), and EVES; deductive veriers: HOL, Isabelle,PVS, Larch, Nqthm, and Nuprl; state exploration tools: SMV (Symbolic Model Verier), Spin, COSPAN(COordination SPecication Analysis), MEIJE, CADP, and Murphi. It also presents a mathematical modelof embedded systems based on the theory of agents and interactions. To underline a novelty of this form-alism, classical theories of concurrency are surveyed to include process algebras, temporal logic, timedautomata, (Gurevichs) ASM (Abstract State Machine), and rewriting logic. As an illustration, the chapterpresents a specication of a simple scheduler.Design and Verication LanguagesThis section gives a comprehensive overview of languages used to specify, model, verify, and programembedded systems. Some of those languages embody different models of computation discussed inthe previous section. A brief overview of Architecture Description Languages (ADL) is presented in 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLCPreface xiiiEmbedded Applications (Automotive Networks); the use of this class of languages, in the context ofdescribing in-car embedded electronic systems, is illustrated through the EAST-ADL language.An authoritative introduction to a broad range of languages used in embedded systems is presen-ted in the chapter Languages for Embedded Systems. The chapter surveys some of the most representativeand widely used languages. Software languages: assembly languages for complex instruction set computers(CISC), reduced instruction set computers (RISC), digital signal processors (DSPs) and very-long instruc-tion word processors (VLIWs), and for small (4- and 8-bit) microcontrollers; the C and C++Languages;Java; and real-time operating systems. Hardware languages: Verilog andVHDL. Dataowlanguages: KahnProcess Networks and Synchronous Dataow (SDF). Hybrid languages: Esterel, SDL, and SystemC. Eachgroup of languages is characterized for their specic application domains and illustrated with ample codeexamples.An in-depth introduction to synchronous languages is presented in The Synchronous Hypothesis andSynchronous Languages. Before introducing the synchronous languages, the chapter discusses the conceptof synchronous hypothesis: the basic notion, mathematical models, and implementation issues. Sub-sequently, it overviews the structural languages used for modeling and programming synchronousapplications. Imperative languages, Esterel and SyncCharts, provide constructs to deal with control-dominated programs. Declarative languages, Lustre and Signal, are particularly suited for applicationsbased on intensive data computation and dataow organization. Future trends are also covered.The chapter Introduction to UML and the Modeling of Embedded Systems gives an overview of theuse of UML (Unied Modeling Language) for modeling embedded systems. The chapter presents abrief overview of UML and discusses UML features suited to represent the characteristics of embeddedsystems. The UML constructs, the language use, and other issues are introduced through an exampleof an automatic teller machine. The chapter also briey discusses a standardized UML prole (a spe-cication language instantiated from the UML language family) suitable for modeling of embeddedsystems.A comprehensive survey and overview of verication languages is presented in the chapter VericationLanguages. It describes languages for verication of hardware, software, and embedded systems. The focusis on the support that a verication language provides for dynamic verication based on simulation,as well as static verication based on formal techniques. Before discussing the languages, the chapterprovides some background on verication methods. This part introduces basics of simulation-basedverication, formal verication, and assertion-based verication. It also discusses selected logics thatform the basis of languages described in the chapter: propositional logic, rst-order predicate logic,temporal logics, andregular and-regular languages. The hardware vericationlanguages (HVLs) coveredinclude: e, OpenVera, Sugar/PSL, and ForSpec. The languages for software verication overviewed includeprogramming languages: C/C++, and Java; and modeling languages: UML, SDL, and Alloy. Languagesfor SoCs and embedded systems verication include system-level modeling languages: SystemC, SpecC,and SystemVerilog. The chapter also surveys domain-specic verication efforts, such as those based onEsterel and hybrid systems.Operating Systems and Quasi-Static SchedulingThis subsectionoffers a comprehensive introductiontoreal-time andembeddedoperating systems tocoverfundamentals and selected advanced issues. To complement this material with new developments, it givesan overview of the operating system interfaces specied by the POSIX 1003.1 international standard andrelated to real-time programming and introduces a class of operating systems based on virtual machines.The subsection also includes research material on quasi-static scheduling.The chapter Real-Time Embedded Operating Systems: Standards and Perspectives provides a compre-hensive introduction to the main features of real-time embedded operating systems. It overviews someof the main design and architectural issues of operating systems: system architectures, process andthread model, processor scheduling, interprocess synchronization and communication, and network sup-port. The chapter presents a comprehensive overview of the operating system interfaces specied by 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLCxiv Prefacethe POSIX 1003.1 international standard and related real-time programming. It also gives a shortdescription of selected open-source real-time operating systems to include eCos, Clinux, RT-Linux andRTAI, and RTEMS. The chapter also presents a fairly comprehensive introduction to a class of operatingsystems based on virtual machines.Task scheduling algorithms and resource management policies, put in the context of real-timesystems, are the main focus of the chapter Real-Time Embedded Operating Systems: The Schedul-ing and Resource Management Aspects. The chapter discusses in detail periodic task handling toinclude Timeline Scheduling (TS), Rate-Monotonic (RM) scheduling, Earliest Deadline First (EDF)algorithm, and approaches to handle tasks with deadlines less than periods scheme; and aperi-odic task handling. Protocols for accessing shared resources discussed include Priority Inherit-ance Protocol (PIP) and Priority Ceiling Protocol (PCP). Novel approaches, which provide ef-cient support for real-time multimedia systems, for handling transient overloads and executionoverruns in soft real-time systems working in dynamic environments are also mentioned in thechapter.The chapter Quasi-Static Scheduling of Concurrent Specications presents methods aimed at efcientsynthesis of uniprocessor software with an aim to improve speed of the scheduled design. The proposedapproach starts froma specication represented in terms of concurrent communicating processes, derivesan intermediate representation based on Petri nets or Boolean Dataow Graphs, and nally attemptsto obtain a sequential schedule to be implemented on a processor. The potential benets result fromreplacement of explicit communication among processes by data assignment and reduced amount ofcontext switches due to a reduction of the number of processes.Timing and Performance AnalysisMany embedded systems, particularly hard real-time systems, impose strict restrictions on the executiontime of tasks which are required to be completed within certain time bounds. For this class of systems,schedulability analysis requires the upper bounds for the execution times of all tasks to be known inorder to verify whether the system meets its timing requirements. The chapter Determining Bounds onExecution Times presents architecture of the aiT timing-analysis tool and an approach to timing analysisimplemented in the tool. In the process, the chapter discusses cache-behavior prediction, pipeline analysis,path analysis using integer linear programming, and other issues. The use of this approach is put in thecontext of upper bounds determination. Inaddition, the chapter gives a brief overviewof other approachesto timing analysis.The validation of nonfunctional requirements of selected implementation aspects such as deadlines,throughputs, buffer space, power consumption, etc., comes under performance analysis. The chapterPerformance Analysis of Distributed Embedded Systems discusses issues behind performance analysis and itsrole in the design process. It also surveys a few selected approaches to performance analysis for distributedembedded systems to include simulation-based methods, holistic scheduling analysis, and compositionalmethods. Subsequently, the chapter introduces the performance network approach, as stated by authors,inuenced by the worst-case analysis of communication networks. The presented approach allows one toobtain upper and lower bounds on quantities such as end-to-end delay and buffer space; it also coversall possible corner cases independent of their probability.Power Aware ComputingEmbedded nodes, or devices, are frequently battery powered. The growing power dissipation, withthe increase in density of integrated circuits and clock frequency, has a direct impact on the cost ofpackaging and cooling, as well as reliability and lifetime. These and other factors make the designfor low power consumption a high priority for embedded systems. The chapter Power Aware Embed-ded Computing presents a survey of design techniques and methodologies aimed at reducing static anddynamic power dissipation. The chapter discusses energy and power modeling to include instruction 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLCPreface xvlevel and function level power models, micro-architectural power models, memory and bus models, andbattery models. Subsequently, the chapter discusses system/application level optimizations which exploredifferent task implementations exhibiting different power/energy versus quality-of-service characterist-ics. Energy efcient processing subsystems: voltage and frequency scaling, dynamic resource scaling, andprocessor core selection, are also overviewed in the chapter. Finally, the chapter discusses energy efcientmemory subsystems: cache hierarchy tuning, novel horizontal and vertical cache partitioning schemes,dynamic scaling of memory elements, software controlled memories, scratch-pad memories, improvingaccess patterns to on-chip memory, special purpose memory subsystems for media streaming, and codecompression, and interconnect optimizations.Security in Embedded SystemsThere is a growing trendfor networking of embeddedsystems. Representative examples of suchsystems canbe found in automotive, train, and industrial automation domains. Many of those systems are requiredto be connected to other networks to include LAN, WAN, and the Internet. For instance, there is agrowing demand for remote access to process data at the factory oor. This, however, exposes systemsto potential security attacks, which may compromise their integrity and cause damage. The limitedresources of embedded systems pose considerable challenge for the implementation of effective securitypolicies which, in general, are resource demanding. An excellent introduction to the security issues inembedded systems is presented in the chapter Design Issues in Secure Embedded Systems. The chapteroutlines security requirements in computing systems, classies abilities of attackers, and discusses securityimplementation levels. Security constraints in the embedded systems designs discussed include energyconsiderations, processing power limitations, exibility and availability requirements, and cost of imple-mentation. Subsequently, the chapter presents the main issues in the design of secure embedded systems.It also covers, in detail, attacks and countermeasures of cryptographic algorithm implementations inembedded systems.II System-on-Chip DesignMulti-Processor Systems-on-Chip (MPSoC), which combine the advantages of parallel processing withthe high integration levels of SoCs, emerged as a viable solution to meet the demand for computationalpower required by applications such as network and media processors. The design of MPSoCs typicallyinvolves integration of heterogeneous hardware and software IP components. However, the support forreuse of hardware and software IP components is limited, thus potentially making the design processlabor-intensive, error-prone, and expensive. Selected component-based design methodologies for theintegration of heterogeneous hardware and software IP components are presented in this section togetherwith other issues such as design of ASIPs, communication architectures to include NoC, and platformbased design, to mention some. Those topics are presented in eight chapters introducing the SoC conceptand design issues; design of ASIPs; SoC communication architectures; principles and guidelines forthe NoC design; platform-based design principles; converter synthesis for incompatible protocols; acomponent-based design automation approach for multiprocessor SoC platforms; an interface-centricapproach to the design and programming of embedded multiprocessors; and an STMicroelectronicsdeveloped exploration multiprocessor SoC platform.A comprehensive introduction to the SoC concept, in general, and design issues is provided in thechapter System-on-Chip and Network-on-Chip Design. The chapter discusses basics of SoC; IP cores andvirtual components; introduces the concept of architectural platforms and surveys selected industryofferings; and provides a comprehensive overview of the SoC design process.A retargetable framework for ASIP design is presented in A Novel Methodology for the Design ofApplication-Specic Instruction-Set Processors. The framework, which is based on machine descriptionsin the LISA language, allows for automatic generation of software development tools including HLLC-compiler, assembler, linker, simulator, and graphical debugger frontend. In addition, synthesizable 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLCxvi Prefacehardware description language code can be derived for architecture implementation. The chapter alsogives an overview of various machine description languages in the context of their suitability for thedesign of ASIP; discusses the ASIPs design ow, and the LISA language.On-chip communication architectures are presented in the chapter State-of-the-Art SoC Communica-tion Architectures. The chapter offers an in-depth description and analysis of three most relevant, fromindustrial and research viewpoints, architectures to include ARM developed AMBA (Advanced Micro-Controller Bus Architecture) and new interconnect schemes, namely Multi-Layer AHB and AMBA AXI;IBM developed CoreConect; and STMicroelectronics developed STBus. In addition, the chapter surveysother architectures such as Wishbone, Sonics SiliconBackplane Micronetwork, Peripheral InterconnectBus (PI-Bus), Avalon, andCoreFrame. The chapter alsooffers analysis of selectedarchitectures andextendsthe discussion of on-chip interconnects to NoC.Basic principles and guidelines for the NoC design are introduced in Network-on-Chip Design forGigascale Systems-on-Chip. It discusses a rationale for the design paradigm shift of SoC communicationarchitectures from shared busses to NoCs; and briey surveys related work. Subsequently, the chapterpresents details of NoC building blocks to include switch, network interface, and switch-to-switch links.In discussing the design guidelines, the chapter uses a case study of a real NoCarchitecture (Xpipes) whichemploys some of the most advanced concepts in NoC design. It also discusses the issue of heterogeneousNoC design, and the effects of mapping the communication requirements of an application onto adomain-specic NoC.An authoritative discussion of the platform-based design (PBD) concept is provided in the chapterPlatform-Based Design for Embedded Systems. The chapter introduces PBD principles and outlines theinterplay between micro-architecture platforms andApplication ProgramInterface (API), or programmermodel, which is a unique abstract representation of the architecture platform via the software layer. Thechapter also introduces three applications of PBD: network platforms for communication protocol design,fault-tolerant platforms for the designof safety-critical applications, andanalog platforms for mixed-signalintegrated circuit design.An approach to synthesis of interface converters for incompatible protocols in a component-based design automation is presented in Interface Specication and Converter Synthesis. The chaptersurveys several approaches for synthesizing converters illustrated by simple examples. It also intro-duces more advanced frameworks based on abstract algebraic solutions that guarantee convertercorrectness.The chapter Hardware/Software Interface Design for SoC presents a component-based design automa-tion approach for MPSoC platforms. It briey surveys basic concepts of MPSoC design and discussessome related platform and component-based approaches. It provides a comprehensive overview ofhardware/software IP integration issues to include bus-based and core-based approaches, integrating soft-ware IP, communicationsynthesis (the concept is presentedindetail inInterface Specicationand ConverterSynthesis), andIPderivation. The focal point of the chapter is a newcomponent-baseddesignmethodologyand the design environment for the integration of heterogeneous hardware and software IP components.The presented methodology, which adopts the automatic communication synthesis approach and uses ahigh-level API, generates both hardware and software wrappers, as well as a dedicated operating systemforprogrammable components. The IP integration capabilities of the approach and accompanying softwaretools are illustrated by redesigning a part of a VDSL modem.The chapter Design and Programming of Embedded Multiprocessors: An Interface-Centric Approachpresents a design methodology for implementing media processing applications as MPSoCs centeredaround the Task Transaction Level (TTL) interface. The TTL interface can be used to buildexecutable specications; it also provides a platform interface for implementing applications ascommunicating hardware and software tasks on a platform infrastructure. The chapter introducesthe TTL interface in the context of the requirements, and discusses mapping technology whichsupports structured design and programming of embedded multiprocessor systems. The chapter alsopresents two case studies of implementations of TTL interface on different architectures: a multi-DSP 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLCPreface xviiarchitecture, using an MP3 decoder application to evaluate this implementation; and a smart-imagingmultiprocessor.The STMicroelectronics developed StepNPTMexible MPSoC platform and its key architectural com-ponents are described in A MultiProcessor SoC Platform and Tools for Communications Applications. Theplatform was developed with an aim to explore tool and architectural issues in a range of high-speedcommunications applications, particularly packet processing applications used in network infrastructureSoCs. Subsequently, the chapter reviews the MultiFlex modeling and analysis tools developed to supportthe StepNP platform. The MultiFlex environment supports two parallel programming models: a distrib-uted systemobject component (DSOC) message passing model and a symmetrical multiprocessing (SMP)model using shared memory. It maps these models onto the StepNP MPSoCplatform. The use of the plat-form and supporting environment are illustrated by two examples mapping IPv4 packet forwarding andtrafc management applications onto the StepNP platform. Detailed results are presented and discussedfor a range of architectural parameters.III Testing of Embedded Core-Based Integrated CircuitsThe ever-increasing circuit densities and operating frequencies, as well as the use of the SoC designs, haveresulted in enormous test data volume for todays embedded core-based integrated circuits. Accordingto the Semiconductor Industry Association, in the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors(ITRS), 2001 Edition, the density of ICs can reach 2 billion transistors per square cm, and 16 billiontransistors per chip are likely by 2014. Based on that, according to some estimates (A. Khoche and J.Rivoir, I/O bandwidth bottleneck for test: is it real? Test Resource Partitioning Workshop, 2002), the testdata volume for ICs in 2014 is likely to increase 150 times in reference to 1999. Some other problemsinclude the growing disparity between performance of the design and the automatic test equipment whichmakes at-speed testing, particularly of high-speed circuits, a challenge and results in increasing yield loss;high cost of manually developed functional tests; and growing cost of high-speed and high-pincounttesters. This section contains two chapters introducing new techniques addressing some of the issuesindicated above.The chapter Modular Testing and Built-In Self-Test of Embedded Cores in System-on-Chip IntegratedCircuits presents a survey of techniques that have been proposed in the literature for reducing test timeand test data volume. The techniques surveyed rely on modular testing of embedded cores and built-inself test (BIST). The material on modular testing of embedded cores in a system-on-a-chip describeswrapper design and optimization, test access mechanism(TAM) design and optimization, test scheduling,integrated TAMoptimization and test scheduling, and modular testing of mixed-signal SOCs. In addition,the chapter reviews a recent deterministic BIST approach in which a recongurable interconnectionnetwork (RIN) is placed between the outputs of the linear-feedback shift register (LFSR) and the inputsof the scan chains in circuit under test. The RIN, which consists only of multiplexer switches, replaces thephase shifter that is typically used in pseudo-random BIST to reduce correlation between the test data bitsthat are fed into the scan chains. The proposed approach does not require any circuit redesign and it hasminimal impact on circuit performance.Hardware-based self-testing techniques (BIST) have limitations due to performance, area, and designtime overhead, as well as problems causedby the applicationof nonfunctional patterns (whichmay result inhigher power consumptionduring testing, over-testing, yieldloss problems, etc.). The embeddedsoftware-based self-testing technique has a potential to alleviate the problems caused by using external testers, as wellas structural BIST problems. The embedded software-based self-testing utilizes on-chip programmableresources (such as embedded microprocessors and DSPs) for on-chip test generation, test delivery, signalacquisition, response analysis, and even diagnosis. The chapter Embedded Software-Based Self-Testing forSoC Design discusses processor self-test methods targeting stuck-at faults and delay faults; presents a briefdescription of a processor self-diagnosis method; presents methods for self-testing of buses and global 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLCxviii Prefaceinterconnects as well as other nonprogrammable IP cores on SoC; describes instruction-level design-for-testability (Df T) methods based on insertion of test instructions to increase the fault coverage and reducethe test application time and test program size; and outlines DSP-based self-test for analog/mixed-signalcomponents.IV Networked Embedded SystemsNetworked embedded systems (NES) are essentially spatially distributed embedded nodes (implementedon a board, or a single chip in future) interconnected by means of wireline or/and wireless communicationinfrastructure and protocols, interacting with the environment (via sensor/actuator elements) and eachother, and, possibly, a master node performing some control and coordination functions to coordinatecomputing and communication in order to achieve certain goal(s). An example of a network embeddedsystem may be an in-vehicle embedded network comprising a collection of ECUs networked by means ofsafety-critical communication protocols, such as FlexRay or TTP/C, for the purpose of controlling vehiclefunctions, such as electronic engine control, anti-locking brake system, active suspension, etc. (for detailsof automotive applications see the last section in the book).An excellent introduction to NES is presented in the chapter Design Issues in Networked Embedded Sys-tems. This chapter outlines some of the most representative characteristics of NES, and surveys potentialapplications. It also explains design issues for large-scale distributed NES such as environment interac-tion, life expectancy of nodes, communication protocol, recongurability, security, energy constraints,operating systems, etc. Design methodologies and tools are discussed as well.The topic of middleware for NES is addressed in Middleware Design and Implementation for NetworkedEmbedded Systems. This chapter discusses the role of middleware in NES and the challenges in design andimplementation, such as remote communication, location independence, reuse of the existing infrastruc-ture, providing real-time assurances, providing a robust DOCmiddleware, reducing middleware footprint,and support for simulation environments. The focal points of the chapter are the sections describing thedesign and implementation of nORB (a small footprint real-time object request broker tailored to spe-cic embedded sensor/actuator applications), and the rationale behind the adopted approach, namely toaddress the NES design and implementation challenges.V Sensor NetworksThe distributed (wireless) sensor networks are a relatively new and exciting proposition for collectingsensory data in a variety of environments. The design of this kind of network poses a particular challengedue to limited computational power and memory size, bandwidth restrictions, power consumptionrestriction if battery powered, communication requirements, and unattended mode of operation incase of inaccessible and/or hostile environments, to mention some. It provides a fairly comprehensivediscussion of the design issues related to, in particular, self-organizing wireless networks. It introducesfundamental concepts behind sensor networks, discusses architectures, energy-efcient Medium AccessControl (MAC), time synchronization, distributed localization, routing, distributed signal processing,security, and it surveys selected software solutions.A general introduction to the area of wireless sensor networks is provided in Introduction to WirelessSensor Networks. A comprehensive overview of the topic is provided in Issues and Solutions in WirelessSensor Networks, which introduces fundamental concepts, selected application areas, design challenges,and other relevant issues.The chapter Architectures for Wireless Sensor Networks provides an excellent introduction to variousaspects of the architecture of wireless sensor networks. It includes the description of a sensor nodearchitecture and its elements: sensor platform, processing unit, communication interface, and powersource. In addition, it presents a mathematical model of power consumption by a node, to account forenergy consumption by radio, processor, and sensor elements. The chapter also discusses architectures 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLCPreface xixof wireless sensor networks developed on the protocol stack approach and EYES project approach. In thecontext of the EYES project approach, which consists of only two key systemabstraction layers, namely thesensor and networking layer and the distributed services layer, the chapter discusses distributed servicesthat are required to support applications for wireless sensor networks and approaches adopted by variousprojects.Energy efciency is one of the main issues in developing MAC protocols for wirelesss sensor networks.This is largely due to unattended operation and battery-based power supply, and a need for collabora-tion as a result of limited capabilities of individual nodes. Energy-Efcient Medium Access Control offersa comprehensive overview of the issues involved in the design of MAC protocols. It contains a discus-sion of MAC requirements for wireless sensor networks such as hardware characteristics of the node,communication patterns, and others. It surveys 20 medium access protocols specially designed for sensornetworks and optimized for energy efciency. It also discusses qualitative merits of different organizations;contention-based, slotted, and TDMA-based protocols. In addition, the chapter provides a simulation-based comparison of the performance and energy efciency of four MAC protocols: Low Power Listening,S-MAC, T-MAC, and L-MAC.The knowledge of time at a sensor node may be essential for the correct operation of the system. TimeDivision Multiple Access (TDMA) scheme (adopted in TTP/C and FlexRay protocols, for instance seesection on automotive applications) requires the nodes to be synchronized. The time synchronizationissues in sensor networks are discussed in Overview of Time Synchronization Issues in Sensor Networks.The chapter introduces basics of time synchronization for sensor networks. It also describes designchallenges and requirements in developing time synchronization protocols such as the need to be robust,energy aware, able to operate correctly in absence of time servers (server-less), be light-weight, andto offer a tunable service. The chapter also overviews factors inuencing time synchronization such astemperature, phase noise, frequency noise, asymmetric delays, and clock glitches. Subsequently, differenttypes of timing techniques are discussed: Network Time Protocol (NTP), Timing-sync Protocol for SensorNetworks (TPSN), Reference-Broadcast Synchronization (RBS), and Time-Diffusion SynchronizationProtocol (TDP).The knowledge of the location of nodes is essential for the base station to process information fromsensors, and to arrive at valid and meaningful results. The localization issues in ad hoc wireless sensornetworks are discussed in Distributed Localization Algorithms. The focus of this presentation is on threedistributed localization algorithms for large-scale ad hoc sensor networks which meet the basic require-ments for self-organization, robustness, and energy efciency: ad hoc positioning by Niculescu and Nath,N-hop multilateration by Savvides et al., and robust positioning by Savarese et al. The selected algorithmsare evaluated by simulation.In order to forward information from a sensor node to the base station or another node for processing,the node requires routing information. The chapter Routing in Sensor Networks provides a comprehensivesurvey of routing protocols usedinsensor networks. The presentationis dividedintoat routing protocols:Sequential Assignment Routing (SAR), direct diffusion, minimum cost forwarding approach, IntegerLinear Program (ILP) based routing approach, Sensor Protocols for Information via Negotiation (SPIN),geographic routing protocols, parametric probabilistic routing protocol, and Min-MinMax; and cluster-based routing protocols: LowEnergy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy (LEACH), Threshold sensitive EnergyEfcient sensor Network protocol (TEEN), and two-level clustering algorithm.Due totheir limitedresources, sensor nodes frequently provide incomplete informationonthe objects oftheir observation. Thus the complete information has to be reconstructed from data obtained from manynodes, frequently providing redundant data. The distributed data fusion is one of the major challengesin sensor networks. The chapter Distributed Signal Processing in Sensor Networks introduces a novelmathematical model for distributed information fusion, which focuses on solving a benchmark signalprocessing problem (spectrum estimation) using sensor networks.With deployment of sensor networks in areas such as battleeld or factory oor, security becomesof paramount importance, and a challenge. The existing solutions are impractical due to limited cap-abilities (processing power, available memory, and available energy) of sensor nodes. The chapter 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLCxx PrefaceSensor Network Security gives an introduction to selected specic security challenges in wireless sensornetworks: denial of service and routing security, energy efcient condentiality and integrity, authentic-ated broadcast, alternative approaches to key management, and secure data aggregation. Subsequently,it discusses in detail some of the proposed approaches and solutions: SNEP and TESLA protocolsfor condentiality and integrity of data, the LEAP protocol, and probabilistic key management for keymanagement, to mention some.The chapter Software Development for Large-Scale Wireless Sensor Networks presents basic conceptsrelated to software development for wireless sensor networks, as well as selected software solutions.The solutions include: TinyOS, a component-based operating system, and related software packages;MAT, a byte-code interpreter; and TinyDB, a query processing system for extracting information froma network of TinyOS sensor nodes. SensorWare, a software framework for wireless sensor networks,provides querying, dissemination, and fusion of sensor data, as well as coordination of actuators. MiLAN(Middleware Linking Applications and Networks), a middleware concept, aims to exploit informationredundancy provided by sensor nodes. EnviroTrack, a TinyOS-based application, provides a convenientway to program sensor network applications that track activities in their physical environment. SeNeTs, amiddleware architecture for wireless sensor networks, is designed to support the pre-deployment phase.The chapter also discusses software solutions for simulation, emulation, and test of large-scale sensornetworks: TinyOS SIMulator (TOSSIM), a simulator based on the TinyOS framework; EmStar, a softwareenvironment for developing anddeploying applications for sensor networks consisting of 32-bit embeddedMicroserver platforms; and SeNeTs, a test and validation environment.VI Embedded ApplicationsThe last sectioninthe book, Embedded Applications, focuses onselected applications of embedded systems.It covers automotive eld, industrial automation, and intelligent sensors. The aim of this section is tointroduce examples of the actual embedded applications in fast-evolving areas which, for various reasons,have not received proper coverage in other publications, particularly in the automotive area.Automotive NetworksThe automotive industry is aggressively adopting mechatronic solutions to replace or duplicate existingmechanical/hydraulic systems. The embedded electronic systems together with dedicated communicationnetworks and protocols play pivotal roles in this transition. This subsection contains three chapters thatoffer a comprehensive overviewof the area by presenting topics, such as networks and protocols, operatingsystems and other middleware, scheduling, safety and fault tolerance, and actual development tools, usedby the automotive industry.This section begins with a contribution entitled Design and Validation Process of In-Vehicle EmbeddedElectronic Systems that provides a comprehensive introduction to the use of embedded systems in auto-mobiles, their design and validation methods, and tools. The chapter identies and describes a numberof specic application domains for in-vehicle embedded systems, such as power train, chassis, body,and telematics and HMI. It then outlines some of the main standards used in the automotive industryto ensure interoperability between components developed by different vendors; this includes networksand protocols, as well as operating systems. The surveyed networks and protocols include (for detailsof networks and protocols see The Industrial Communication Technology Handbook, CRC Press, 2005,Richard Zurawski, editor) Controller Area Network (CAN), Vehicle Area Network (VAN), J1850, TTP/C(Time-TriggeredProtocol), FlexRay, Local Interconnect Network (LIN), Media OrientedSystemTransport(MOST), and IDB-1394. This material is followed by a brief introduction of OSEK/VDX (Offene Systemeund deren schnittstellen fr die Elektronik im Kraft-fahrzeug), a multitasking operating system thathas become a standard for automotive applications in Europe. The chapter introduces a new language,EAST-ADL, which offers support for an unambiguous description of in-vehicle embedded electronic 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLCPreface xxisystems at each level of their development. The discussion of the design and validation process and relatedissues is facilitated by a comprehensive case study drawn from actual PSA Peugeot-Citron application.This case study is essential reading for those interested in the development of this kind of embeddedsystem.The planned adoption of X-by-wire technologies in automotive applications pushed the automotiveindustry into the realm of safety critical systems. There is a substantial body of literature on safety criticalissues and fault tolerance, particularly when applied to components and systems. Less has been publishedon safety-relevant communication services and fault-tolerant communication systems as mandated inX-by-wire technologies in automotive applications. This is largely due to the novelty of fast-evolvingconcepts and solutions, which is pursued mostly by industrial consortia. Those two topics are presentedin detail in Fault-Tolerant Services for Safe In-Car Embedded Systems. The material on safety-relevantcommunication services discusses some of the main services and functionalities that the communicationsystem should provide to facilitate the design of fault-tolerant automotive applications. This includes ser-vices supporting reliable communication, such as robustness against electromagnetic interference (EMI),time-triggered transmission, global time, atomic broadcast, and avoidingbabbling-idiots.Also discussedare higher-level services that provide fault-tolerant mechanisms that belong conceptually to layers aboveMAC in the OSI reference model, namely group membership service, management of nodes redundancy,support for functioning mode, etc. The chapter also discusses fault tolerant communication protocols toinclude TTP/C, FlexRay, and variants of CAN (TTCAN, RedCAN, and CANcentrate).TheVolcanoconcept for designandimplementationof in-vehicle networks using the standardizedCANand LIN communication protocols is presented in the chapter Volcano Enabling Correctness by Design.This chapter provides an in-depth description of the Volcano approach and a suite of software tools,developed by Volcano Communications Technologies AG, which supports requirements capture, model-based design, automatic code generation, and system-level validation capabilities. This is an example ofan actual development environment widely used by the automotive industry.Industrial AutomationThe current trend for exible and distributed control and automation has accelerated the migration ofintelligence and control functions to the eld devices; particularly sensors and actuators. The increasedprocessing capabilities of those devices were instrumental in the emergence of a trend for networking ofeld devices around industrial data networks, thus making access to any device from any place in theplant, or even globally, technically feasible. The benets are numerous, including increased exibility,improved system performance, and ease of system installation, upgrade, and maintenance. Embed-ded web servers are increasingly used in industrial automation to provide HumanMachine Interface(HMI), which allows for web-based conguration, control and monitoring of devices and industrialprocesses.Anintroductiontothe designof embeddedwebservers is presentedinthe chapter EmbeddedWeb Serversin Distributed Control Systems. The focus of this chapter is on Field Device Web Servers (FDWS). Thechapter provides a comprehensive overview of the context in which the embedded web servers are usuallyimplemented, as well as the structure of an FDWS application with the presentation of its componentpackages and the mutual relationship between the content of the packages and the architecture of a typicalembedded site. All this is discussed in the context of an actual FDWS implementation and applicationdeployed at one of the Alstom (France) sites.Remote access to eld devices may lead to many security challenges. The embedded web servers aretypically run on processors with limited memory and processing power. These restrictions necessitatea deployment of lightweight security mechanisms. Vendor tailored versions of standard security protocolsuites such as Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) and IP Security Protocol (IPSec) may still not be suitable dueto excessive demand for resources. In applications restricted to the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP),Digest Access Authentication (DAA), which is a security extension to HTTP, offers an alternative andviable solution. Those issues are discussed in the chapter HTTP Digest Authentication for Embedded Web 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLCxxii PrefaceServers. This chapter overviews mechanisms and services, as well as potential applications of HTTP DigestAuthentication. It also surveys selected embedded web server implementations for their support for DAA.This includes Apache 2.0.42, Allegro RomPager 4.05, and GoAhead 2.1.2.Intelligent SensorsThe advances in the design of embedded systems, availability of tools, and falling fabrication costs allowedfor cost-effective migration of the intelligence and control functions to the eld devices, particularlysensors and actuators. Intelligent sensors combine computing, communication, and sensing functions.The trend for increased functional complexity of those devices necessitates the use of formal descriptivetechniques and supporting tools throughout the design and implementation process. The chapter Intelli-gent Sensors: Analysis and Design tackles some of those issues. It reviews some of the main characteristicsof the generic intelligent sensor formal model; subsequently, it discusses an implementation of the modelusing the CAP language, which was developed specically for the design of intelligent sensors. A briefintroduction to the language is also provided. The whole development process is illustrated by using anexample of a simple distance measuring system comprising an ultrasonic transmitter and two receivers.Locating TopicsTo assist readers with locating material, a complete table of contents is presented at the front of the book.Each chapter begins with its own table of contents. Two indexes are provided at the end of the book: theindex of authors contributing to the book, together with the titles of their contributions, and a detailedsubject index.Richard Zurawski 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLCAcknowledgmentsMy gratitude goes to Luciano Lavagno, Grant Martin, and Alberto Sangiovanni-Vincentelli who haveprovided advice and support while preparing this book. This book would never have had a chance totake off without their assistance. Andreas Willig helped with identifying some authors for the section onSensor Networks. Also, I would like to thank the members of the International Advisory Board for theirhelp with the organization of the book and selection of authors. I have received tremendous cooperationfrom all contributing authors. I would like to thank all of them for that. I would like to express gratitudeto my publisher Nora Konopka, and other Taylor and Francis staff involved in the book production,particularly Jessica Vakili, Elizabeth Spangenberger, and Gail Renard. My love goes to my wife whotolerated the countless hours I spent on preparing this book. 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLCAbout the EditorDr. Richard Zurawski is president of ISA Group, San Francisco and Santa Clara, CA, involved in providingsolutions to Fortune 1000 companies. Prior to that, he held various executive positions with San FranciscoBay area based companies. Dr. Zurawski is a cofounder of the Institute for Societal Automation, SantaClara, a research and consulting organization.Dr. Zurawski has close to thirty years of academic and industrial experience, including a regularprofessorial appointment at the Institute of Industrial Sciences, University of Tokyo, and a full-timeR&D advisor position with Kawasaki Electric Corp., Tokyo. He provided consulting services to KawasakiElectric, Ricoh, and Toshiba Corporations, Japan, and participated in 1990s in a number of JapaneseIntelligent Manufacturing Systems programs.Dr. Zurawski has served as editor at large for IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, and associateeditor for IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics; he also served as associate editor for Real-TimeSystems: The International Journal of Time-Critical Computing Systems, Kluwer Academic Publishers. Hewas a guest editor of four special sections in IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics and a guest editorof a special issue of the Proceedings of the IEEE dedicated to industrial communication systems. In 1998,he was invited by IEEE Spectrum to contribute material on Java technology to Technology 1999: Analysisand Forecast Issues. Dr. Zurawski is series editor for The Industrial Information Technology Series, Taylorand Francis Group, Boca Raton, FL.Dr. Zurawski has served as a vice president of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers(IEEE) Industrial Electronics Society (IES), and was on the steering committee of the ASME/IEEE Journalof Microelectromechanical Systems. In 1996, he received the Anthony J. Hornfeck Service Award from theIEEE Industrial Electronics Society.Dr. Zurawski has served as a general, program, and track chair for a number of IEEE conferences andworkshops, and has published extensively on various aspects of formal methods in the design of real-time,embedded, and industrial systems, MEMS, parallel and distributed programming and systems, as well ascontrol and robotics. He is the editor of The Industrial Information Technology Handbook (2004), and TheIndustrial Communication Technology Handbook (2005), both published by Taylor and Francis Group.Dr. Richard Zurawski received his M.Sc. in informatics and automation, University of Mining andMetallurgy, Krakow, Poland, and his Ph.D. incomputer science, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia. 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLCContributorsParhamAarabiDepartment of Electrical andComputer EngineeringUniversity of TorontoOntario, CanadaJos L. AyalaDpto. Ingenieria ElectronicaE.T.S.I. TelecomunicacionCiudad Universitaria s/nMadrid, SpainJoo Paulo BarrosUniversidade Nova de LisboaFaculdade de Cincias eTecnologiaDep. Eng. ElectrotcnicaCaparica, PortugalAli Alphan BayazitPrinceton UniversityPrinceton, New JerseyLuca BeniniDipartimento ElettronicaInformatica SistemisticaUniversity of BolognaBologna, ItalyEssaid BensoudaneAdvanced System TechnologySTMicroelectronicsOntario, CanadaIvan Cibrario BertolottiIEIIT National ResearchCouncilTurin, ItalyDavide BertozziDipartimento ElettronicaInformatica SistemisticaUniversity of BolognaBologna, ItalyJan BlumenthalInstitute of AppliedMicroelectronics andComputer ScienceDept. of ElectricalEngineering andInformationTechnologyUniversity of RostockRostock, GermanyGunnar BraunCoWare Inc.Aachen, GermanyGiorgio C. ButtazzoDip. di Informatica eSistemisticaUniversity of PaviaPavia, ItalyLuca P. CarloniEECS DepartmentUniversity of California atBerkeleyBerkeley, CaliforniaWander O. CesrioSLS GroupTIMA LaboratoryGrenoble, FranceKrishnendu ChakrabartyDepartment of Electrical andComputer EngineeringDuke UniversityDurham, North CarolinaS. ChatterjeaFaculty of Electrical Engineering,Mathematics, and ComputerScienceUniversity of TwenteEnschedeThe NetherlandsKwang-Ting (Tim) ChengDepartment of Electrical andComputer EngineeringUniversity of CaliforniaSanta Barbara, CaliforniaAnik CostaUniversidade Nova de Lisboa,Faculdade de Cincias eTecnologiaDep. Eng. ElectrotcnicaCaparica, PortugalMario CrevatinCorporate ResearchABB Switzerland LtdBaden-Dattwil, SwitzerlandFernando De BernardinisEECS DepartmentUniversity of California atBerkeleyBerkeley, California 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLCxxviii ContributorsErwin de KockPhilips ResearchEindhoven, The NetherlandsGiovanni De MicheliGates Computer ScienceStanford UniversityStanford, CaliforniaRobert de SimoneINRIASophia-Antipolis, FranceEric DekneuvelUniversity of Nice SophiaAntipolisBiot, FranceS. DulmanFaculty of Electrical Engineering,Mathematics, and ComputerScienceUniversity of TwenteEnschedeThe NetherlandsStephen A. EdwardsDepartment of Computer ScienceColumbia UniversityNew York, New YorkGerben EssinkPhilips ResearchEindhoven, The NetherlandsA. G. FragopoulosDepartment of Electrical andComputer EngineeringUniversity of PatrasPatras, GreeceShashidhar GandhamThe Department of ComputerScienceThe University of Texas at DallasRichardson, TexasChristopher GillDepartment of Computer Scienceand EngineeringWashington UniversitySt. Louis, MissouriFrank GolatowskiInstitute of AppliedMicroelectronics andComputer ScienceDept. of Electrical Engineeringand Information TechnologyUniversity of RostockRostock, GermanyLus GomesUniversidade Nova de LisboaFaculdade de Cincias eTecnologiaDep. Eng. ElectrotcnicaCaparica, PortugalAarti GuptaNEC Laboratories AmericaPrinceton, New JerseyRajesh GuptaDepartment of Computer Scienceand EngineeringUniversity of California atSan DiegoSan Diego, CaliforniaSumit GuptaTallwood Venture CapitalPalo Alto, CaliforniaMarc HaaseInstitute of AppliedMicroelectronics andComputer ScienceDept. of Electrical Engineeringand Information TechnologyUniversity of RostockRostock, GermanyGertjan HalkesFaculty of Electrical Engineering,Mathematics, and ComputerScienceDelft University of TechnologyDelft, The NetherlandsMatthias HandyInstitute of AppliedMicroelectronics andComputer ScienceDept. of Electrical Engineeringand InformationTechnologyUniversity of RostockRostock, GermanyHans HanssonDepartment of Computer Scienceand EngineeringMlardalen UniversityVsters, SwedenP. HavingaFaculty of Electrical Engineering,Mathematics, and ComputerScienceUniversity of TwenteEnschedeThe Netherlandsystein HaugenDepartment of InformaticsUniversity of OsloOslo, NorwayTomas HenrikssonPhilips ResearchEindhoven, The NetherlandsAndreas HoffmannCoWare Inc.Aachen, GermanyT. HoffmeijerFaculty of Electrical Engineering,Mathematics, and ComputerScienceUniversity of TwenteEnschedeThe NetherlandsJ. HurinkFaculty of Electrical Engineering,Mathematics, and ComputerScienceUniversity of TwenteEnschedeThe NetherlandsMargarida F. JacomeDepartment of Electrical andComputer EngineeringUniversity of Texas at AustinAustin, TexasOmid S. JahromiBioscrypt Inc.Markham, Ontario, Canada 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLCContributors xxixAxel JantschDepartment for Microelectronicsand Information TechnologyRoyal Institute of TechnologyKista, SwedenA. A. JerrayaSLS GroupTIMA LaboratoryGrenoble, FranceJ. V. KapitonovaGlushkov Institute of CyberneticsNational Academy of Science ofUkraineKiev, UkraineAlex KondratyevCadence Berkeley LabsBerkeley, CaliforniaWido KruijtzerPhilips ResearchEindhoven, The NetherlandsKoen LangendoenFaculty of Electrical Engineering,Mathematics, and ComputerScienceDelft University of TechnologyDelft, The NetherlandsMichel LangevinAdvanced System TechnologySTMicroelectronicsOntario, CanadaLuciano LavagnoCadence Berkeley LaboratoriesBerkeley, California; andDipartimento di ElettronicaPolitecnico di Torino, ItalyA. A. LetichevskyGlushkov Institute of CyberneticsNational Academy of Scienceof UkraineKiev, UkraineMarisa Lpez-VallejoDpto. Ingenieria ElectronicaE.T.S.I. TelecomunicacionCiudad Universitaria s/nMadrid, SpainDamien LyonnardAdvanced System TechnologySTMicroelectronicsOntario, CanadaYogesh MahajanPrinceton UniversityPrinceton, New JerseyGrant MartinTensilica Inc.Santa Clara, CaliforniaBirger Mller-PedersenDepartment of InformaticsUniversity of OsloOslo, NorwayRavi MusunuriThe Department of ComputerScienceThe University of Texas at DallasRichardson, TexasNicolas NavetInstitut National Polytechniquede LorraineNancy, FranceGabriela NicolescuEcole Polytechniquede MontrealMontreal, QuebecCanadaAchimNohlCoWare Inc.Aachen, GermanyMikael NolinDepartment of Computer Scienceand EngineeringMlardalen UniversityVsters, SwedenThomas NolteDepartment of Computer Scienceand EngineeringMlardalen UniversityVsters, SwedenClaudio PasseroneDipartimento di ElettronicaPolitecnico di TorinoTurin, ItalyRoberto PasseroneCadence Design Systems, Inc.Berkeley Cadence LabsBerkeley, CaliforniaHiren D. PatelElectrical and ComputerEngineeringVirginia TechBlacksburg, VirginiaMaulin D. PatelThe Department of ComputerScienceThe University of Texas at DallasRichardson, TexasPierre G. PaulinAdvanced System TechnologySTMicroelectronicsOntario, CanadaChuck PilkingtonAdvanced System TechnologySTMicroelectronicsOntario, CanadaClaudio PinelloEECS DepartmentUniversity of California atBerkeleyBerkeley, CaliforniaDumitru Potop-ButucaruIRISARennes, FranceAntal RajnkAdvanced Engineering LabsVolcano CommunicationsTechnologies AGTagerwilen, SwitzerlandAnand RamachandranDepartment of Electrical andComputer EngineeringUniversity of Texas at AustinAustin, TexasNiels ReijersFaculty of Electrical Engineering,Mathematics, and ComputerScienceDelft University of TechnologyDelft, The Netherlands 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLCxxx ContributorsAlberto L.Sangiovanni-VincentelliEECS DepartmentUniversity of California atBerkeleyBerkeley, CaliforniaUdit SaxenaMicrosoft CorporationSeattle, WashingtonGuenter SchaeferInstitute of TelecommunicationSystemsTechnische Universitt BerlinBerlin, GermanyD. N. SerpanosDepartment of Electrical andComputer EngineeringUniversity of PatrasPatras, GreeceMarco SgroiEECS DepartmentUniversity of California atBerkeleyBerkeley, CaliforniaSandeep K. ShuklaElectrical and ComputerEngineeringVirginia TechBlacksburg, VirginiaFranoise Simonot-LionInstitut National Polytechniquede LorraineNancy, FranceYeQiong SongUniversit Henri PoincarNancy, FranceWeilian SuBroadband and WirelessNetworking LaboratorySchool of Electrical and ComputerEngineeringGeorgia Institute of TechnologyAtlanta, GeorgiaVenkita SubramonianDepartment of Computer Scienceand EngineeringWashington UniversitySt. Louis, MissouriJacek SzymanskiALSTOM TransportCentre Meudon La FortMeudon La Fort, FranceJean-Pierre TalpinIRISARennes, FranceLothar ThieleDepartment InformationTechnology and ElectricalEngineeringComputer Engineering andNetworks LaboratorySwiss Federal Institute ofTechnologyZurich, SwitzerlandPieter van der WolfPhilips ResearchEindhoven, The NetherlandsV. A. VolkovGlushkov Institute ofCyberneticsNational Academy of Scienceof UkraineKiev, UkraineThomas P. von HoffABB Switzerland LtdCorporate ResearchBaden-Dattwil, SwitzerlandA. G. VoyiatzisDepartment of Electrical andComputer EngineeringUniversity of PatrasPatras, GreeceFlvio R. WagnerUFRGS Instituto deInformticaPorto Alegre, BrazilErnesto WandelerDepartment InformationTechnology and ElectricalEngineeringComputer Engineering andNetworks LaboratorySwiss Federal Institute ofTechnologyZurich, SwitzerlandYosinori WatanabeCadence Berkeley LabsBerkeley, CaliforniaThomas WeigertGlobal Software GroupMotorolaSchaumburg, IllinoisReinhard WilhelmUniversity of SaarlandSaarbruecken, GermanyRichard ZurawskiISA GroupSan Francisco, California 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLCContentsSECTION I Embedded SystemsReal-Time and Embedded Systems1 Embedded Systems: Toward Networking of Embedded SystemsLuciano Lavagno and Richard Zurawski . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-12 Real-Time in Embedded Systems Hans Hansson, Mikael Nolin, andThomas Nolte . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1Design and Validation of Embedded Systems3 Design of Embedded Systems Luciano Lavagno andClaudio Passerone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14 Models of Embedded Computation Axel Jantsch . . . . . . . . . 4-15 Modeling Formalisms for Embedded System Design Lus Gomes, JooPaulo Barros, and Anik Costa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-16 System Validation J.V. Kapitonova, A.A. Letichevsky, V.A. Volkov,and Thomas Weigert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1Design and Verication Languages7 Languages for Embedded Systems Stephen A. Edwards . . . . . . 7-18 The Synchronous Hypothesis and Synchronous LanguagesDumitru Potop-Butucaru, Robert de Simone, and Jean-Pierre Talpin . 8-19 Introduction to UML and the Modeling of Embedded Systemsystein Haugen, Birger Mller-Pedersen, and Thomas Weigert . . . 9-110 Verication Languages Aarti Gupta, Ali Alphan Bayazit, andYogesh Mahajan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1Operating Systems and Quasi-Static Scheduling11 Real-Time Embedded Operating Systems: Standards and PerspectivesIvan Cibrario Bertolotti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLCxxxii Contents12 Real-Time Operating Systems: The Scheduling and ResourceManagement Aspects Giorgio C. Buttazzo . . . . . . . . . . . 12-113 Quasi-Static Scheduling of Concurrent SpecicationsAlex Kondratyev, Luciano Lavagno, Claudio Passerone, andYosinori Watanabe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-1Timing and Performance Analysis14 Determining Bounds on Execution Times Reinhard Wilhelm . . . 14-115 Performance Analysis of Distributed Embedded SystemsLothar Thiele and Ernesto Wandeler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1Power Aware Computing16 Power Aware Embedded Computing Margarida F. Jacome andAnand Ramachandran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-1Security in Embedded Systems17 Design Issues in Secure Embedded Systems A.G. Voyiatzis,A.G. Fragopoulos, and D.N. Serpanos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-1SECTION II System-on-Chip Design18 System-on-Chip and Network-on-Chip Design Grant Martin . . . 18-119 A Novel Methodology for the Design of Application-SpecicInstruction-Set Processors Andreas Hoffmann, Achim Nohl, andGunnar Braun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-120 State-of-the-Art SoC Communication Architectures Jos L. Ayala,Marisa Lpez-Vallejo, Davide Bertozzi, and Luca Benini . . . . . . 20-121 Network-on-Chip Design for Gigascale Systems-on-ChipDavide Bertozzi, Luca Benini, and Giovanni De Micheli . . . . . . 21-122 Platform-Based Design for Embedded Systems Luca P. Carloni,Fernando De Bernardinis, Claudio Pinello,Alberto L. Sangiovanni-Vincentelli, and Marco Sgroi . . . . . . . 22-123 Interface Specication and Converter Synthesis Roberto Passerone . 23-124 Hardware/Software Interface Design for SoC Wander O. Cesrio,Flvio R. Wagner, and A.A. Jerraya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-125 Design and Programming of Embedded Multiprocessors: AnInterface-Centric Approach Pieter van der Wolf, Erwin de Kock,Tomas Henriksson, Wido Kruijtzer, and Gerben Essink . . . . . . 25-1 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLCContents xxxiii26 A Multiprocessor SoC Platform and Tools for CommunicationsApplications Pierre G. Paulin, Chuck Pilkington, Michel Langevin,Essaid Bensoudane, Damien Lyonnard, and Gabriela Nicolescu . . . 26-1SECTION III Testing of Embedded Core-Based IntegratedCircuits27 Modular Testing and Built-In Self-Test of Embedded Cores inSystem-on-Chip Integrated Circuits Krishnendu Chakrabarty . . . 27-128 Embedded Software-Based Self-Testing for SoC DesignKwang-Ting (Tim) Cheng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-1SECTION IV Networked Embedded Systems29 Design Issues for Networked Embedded Systems Sumit Gupta,Hiren D. Patel, Sandeep K. Shukla, and Rajesh Gupta . . . . . . . 29-130 Middleware Design and Implementation for Networked EmbeddedSystems Venkita Subramonian and Christopher Gill . . . . . . . 30-1SECTION V Sensor Networks31 Introduction to Wireless Sensor Networks S. Dulman, S. Chatterjea,and P. Havinga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-132 Issues and Solutions in Wireless Sensor Networks Ravi Musunuri,Shashidhar Gandham, and Maulin D. Patel . . . . . . . . . . . 32-133 Architectures for Wireless Sensor Networks S. Dulman,S. Chatterjea, T. Hoffmeijer, P. Havinga, and J. Hurink . . . . . . 33-134 Energy-Efcient Medium Access Control Koen Langendoen andGertjan Halkes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-135 Overview of Time Synchronization Issues in Sensor NetworksWeilian Su . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-136 Distributed Localization Algorithms Koen Langendoen andNiels Reijers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-137 Routing in Sensor Networks Shashidhar Gandham, Ravi Musunuri,and Udit Saxena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-138 Distributed Signal Processing in Sensor Networks Omid S. Jahromiand Parham Aarabi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-1 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLCxxxiv Contents39 Sensor Network Security Guenter Schaefer . . . . . . . . . . . 39-140 Software Development for Large-Scale Wireless Sensor NetworksJan Blumenthal, Frank Golatowski, Marc Haase, andMatthias Handy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-1SECTION VI Embedded ApplicationsAutomotive Networks41 Design and Validation Process of In-Vehicle Embedded ElectronicSystems Franoise Simonot-Lion and YeQiong Song . . . . . . . 41-142 Fault-Tolerant Services for Safe In-Car Embedded SystemsNicolas Navet and Franoise Simonot-Lion . . . . . . . . . . . . 42-143 Volcano Enabling Correctness by Design Antal Rajnk . . . . . 43-1Industrial Automation44 Embedded Web Servers in Distributed Control SystemsJacek Szymanski . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44-145 HTTP Digest Authentication for Embedded Web ServersMario Crevatin and Thomas P. von Hoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45-1Intelligent Sensors46 Intelligent Sensors: Analysis and Design Eric Dekneuvel . . . . . 46-1 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLCIEmbedded Systems 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLCReal-Time andEmbedded Systems1 Embedded Systems: Toward Networking of Embedded SystemsLuciano Lavagno and Richard Zurawski2 Real-Time in Embedded SystemsHans Hansson, Mikael Nolin, and Thomas Nolte 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC1Embedded Systems:Toward Networkingof Embedded SystemsLuciano LavagnoCadence Berkeley Laboratories andPolitecnico di TorinoRichard ZurawskiISA Group1.1 Networking of Embedded Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-11.2 Design Methods for Networked EmbeddedSystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-31.3 Networks Embedded Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5Networked Embedded Systems in Industrial Automation Networked Embedded Systems in Building Automation Automotive Networked Embedded Systems Sensor Networks1.4 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-14References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-141.1 Networking of Embedded SystemsThe last two decades have witnessed a remarkable evolution of embedded systems from being assembledfrom discrete components on printed circuit boards, although, they still are, to systems being assembledfrom Intellectual Property (IP) components dropped onto silicon of the system on a chip. Systems ona chip offer a potential for embedding complex functionalities, and to meet demanding performancerequirements of applications such as DSPs, network, and multimedia processors. Another phase in thisevolution, already in progress, is the emergence of distributed embedded systems; frequently termed asnetworked embedded systems, where the word networked signies the importance of the networkinginfrastructure and communication protocol. Anetworked embedded systemis a collection of spatially andfunctionally distributed embedded nodes interconnected by means of wireline or wireless communicationinfrastructure and protocols, interacting with the environment (via a sensor/actuator elements) and eachother, and, possibly, a master node performing some control and coordination functions, to coordinatecomputing and communication in order to achieve certain goal(s). The networked embedded systemsappear in a variety of application domains such as, automotive, train, aircraft, ofce building, andindustrial primarily for monitoring and control, environment monitoring, and, in future, control,as well.There have been various reasons for the emergence of networked embedded systems, inuenced largelyby their application domains. The benet of using distributed systems and an evolutionary need to replacepoint-to-point wiring connections in these systems by a single bus are some of the most important ones.1-1 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC1-2 Embedded Systems HandbookThe advances in design of embedded systems, tools availability, and falling fabrication costs ofsemiconductor devices and systems, have allowed for infusion of intelligence into eld devices such assensors and actuators. The controllers used with these devices provide typically on-chip signal conversion,data processing, and communication functions. The increased functionality, processing, and communic-ation capabilities of controllers have been largely instrumental in the emergence of a widespread trend fornetworking of eld devices around specialized networks, frequently referred to as eld area networks.The eld area networks, or eldbuses [1] (eldbus is, in general, a digital, two-way, multi-drop commu-nication link) as commonly referred to, are, in general, networks connecting eld devices such as sensorsand actuators with eld controllers (for instance, Programmable Logic Controllers [PLCs] in industrialautomation, or Electronic Control Units [ECUs] in automotive applications), as well as manmachineinterfaces, for instance, dashboard displays in cars.In general, the benets of using those specialized networks are numerous, including increased exibilityattained through combination of embedded hardware and software, improved system performance, andease of systeminstallation, upgrade, andmaintenance. Specically, inautomotive andaircraft applications,for instance, they allowfor a replacement of mechanical, hydraulic, andpneumatic systems by mechatronicsystems, where mechanical or hydraulic components are typically conned to the end-effectors; just tomention their two different application areas.Unlike Local Area Networks (LANs), due to the nature of communication requirements imposed byapplications, eld area networks, by contrast, tend to have low data rates, small size of data packets, andtypically require real-time capabilities which mandate determinism of data transfer. However, data ratesabove 10 Mbit/sec, typical of LANs, have already become a commonplace in eld area networks.The specialized networks tend to support various communication media such as twisted pair cables,ber optic channels, power line communication, radio frequency channels, infrared connections, etc.Based on the physical media employed by the networks, they can be, in general, divided into three maingroups, namely: wireline-based networks using media such as twisted pair cables, ber optic channels(in hazardous environments like chemical and petrochemical plants), and power lines (in buildingautomation); wireless networks supporting radio frequency channels, and infrared connections; andhybrid networks composed of wireline and wireless networks.Although the use of wireline-based eld area networks is dominant, the wireless technology offers arange of incentives in a number of application areas. In industrial automation, for instance, wireless device(sensor/actuator) networks can provide a support for mobile operation required in case of mobile robots,monitoring, and control of equipment in hazardous and difcult to access environments, etc. In a wirelesssensor/actuator network, stations may interact with each other on a peer-to-peer basis, and with a basestation. The base station may have its transceiver attached to a cable of a (wireline) eld area network,giving rise to a hybrid wirelesswireline system [2]. A separate category is the wireless sensor networks,mainly envisaged to be used for monitoring purposes, which is discussed in detail in the book.The variety of application domains impose different functional and nonfunctional requirements ontothe operation of networked embed